Rise of Magadha

UNIT 16 THE MAURYAN ‘EMPIRE’*

Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Sources for the Study of Mauryan Period
16.3 The Mauryan Dynasty: Origins and Expansion
16.3.1 Chandragupta Maurya
16.3.2 Bindusara
16.3.3 Ashoka
16.4 The Making of an ‘Empire’
16.5 Economy
16.5.1 Trade and Commerce
16.6 Arthashastra and the Saptanga Theory
16.7 Administration
16.7.1 Central Administration
16.7.2 District and Village Level Administration
16.8 Society
16.9 Summary
16.10 Key Words
16.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
16.12 Suggested Readings

16.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn about:
• the beginnings of the first pan-India polity, the Mauryas, and how they
administered their vast realm;
• understand how different types of resources were required for sustaining an
empire;
• understand the nature of urban economy;
• learn about the society, economy and political set up of the Mauryas.

16.1 INTRODUCTION
At the time of Alexander’s invasion of India, Magadha under the Nanda rule had
emerged as the most formidable power. The ascendancy of Magadha reached its
peak under the successors of Nandas, i.e., the Mauryas. The Mauryan empire
marks a watershed juncture in Indian history. For the first time in the history of
India, a large portion of the subcontinent, extending up to the far north-west, was
under a single paramount power.

This Unit will introduce you to the Mauryan empire and its importance in history.
The main focus in this Unit will be on the political, economic, and administrative
* Preeti Gulati, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. 275
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 aspects of the Mauryan period. In the next unit, we will focus more closely on
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Ashoka and his unique tryst with the policy of Dhamma.

16.2 SOURCES FOR THE STUDY OF MAURYAN

PERIOD
This period has a greater number and more diverse type of primary sources as
compared to the earlier periods; more importantly many of these sources are
contemporary with the period under review. Let us look at a few of them in
greater detail.

The most important literary source is Megasthenes’ Indica. Megasthenes was a

Seleukidian envoy who visited the Mauryan capital Pataliputra during the reign
of Chandragupta Maurya. His account, Indica, encapsulates his impressions of
India, particularly northern India, under Chandragupta Maurya. However, the
original work is lost. What is available instead are quotations, excerpts, summaries
and quotes by later writers.

The other equally popular source is Kautilya’s Arthashastra. Traditionally

Arthashastra is ascribed to Kautilya, also known as Vishnugupta or Chanakya,
who is believed to have been Chandragupta’s chief minister. He helped him
overthrow the Nandas. Arthashastra is a theoretical treatise, prescribing modes
of statecraft, and not describing an actual state. A statistical study of Arthashastra
reveals that some chapters could be dated to the first two centuries of the Common
Era. However, many scholars consider it to be contemporaneous with the Mauryas.
It reflects a complex administrative structure which was not achieved any time
before the Mauryas.

The texts like the Divyavadana and the Ashokavadana as well as Sri Lankan
Buddhist chronicles such as the Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa and the king-
lists in Puranas, again of a later period, refer to Mauryas.

The most significant source for the Mauryan period is undoubtedly the inscriptions
of Ashoka. Ashoka’s inscriptions mark the beginning of Indian epigraphy. What
sets Ashoka’s edicts apart is that they are issued in first person, thereby revealing
the voice and ideas of the king himself. The edicts are written in the Prakrit
language and Brahmi script, and occasionally in the Kharoshti script (in the north-
western parts of the subcontinent). There are a few inscriptions in Greek and
Aramaic as well. A bilingual Greek-Aramaic inscription was found at Shar-i-
Kuna near Kandahar in south-east Afghanistan and one in Taxila. Ashoka himself
had designated these edicts as Dhammalipi (Edicts of Piety) and they are of the
following types (Map 16.1):

1) Fourteen Rock Edicts or Major Rock Edicts (REs)

2) Two ‘Separate’ Rock Edicts or ‘Kalinga’ Rock Edicts
3) Two Minor Rock Edicts (MREs)
4) Seven Pillar Edicts or Major Pillar Edicts (PEs)
5) Minor Pillar Edict (MPE)
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6) Rock Edict from Bairat (Rajasthan) The Mauryan ‘Empire’

7) Two Minor Pillar Inscriptions

8) Inscriptions engraved on the Barabar hills close to Gaya, Bihar.

The Major Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts occur at different places, with minor
variations. The Minor Rock Edicts are considered among the earliest inscriptions,
followed by the Major Rock Edicts. The Pillar Edicts are still later.

Fig.16.1: Hoard of Mauryan Punch Marked Coins. Credit: CNG Coins.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch-marked_coins#/media/
File:Hoard_of_mostly_Mauryan_coins.jpg)

Other material sources for the study of the Maurya period include coins (Figure
16.1) and archaeological remains. Coins of this period are without legends. Punch-
marked coins, mostly of silver, were issued during the Mauryan period. The
punch marked coins of the Mauryas contain uniform symbols. Most probably,
they were issued by the central authority. Known as karshapana coins, they do
not specify the issuing authority; they do carry certain symbols that have been
associated with Mauryan kings. These symbols include crescent-on-arches, tree-
in-railing, and peacock-on-arches.

Archaeological remains from Bulandibagh (Figure 16.2) and Kumrahar (Figure

16.3) are associated with the Mauryan capital Pataliputra. Other important sites
are Taxila, Mathura, and Bhita. What is a common feature of the finds is the
great diversity of artefacts, and heightened urban elements. Thus, a comprehensive
and meaningful understanding of the Mauryas rests on a combined analysis of
the various sources.

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India: 6th Century BCE to 200
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Map 16.1: Location of Ashokan Inscriptions. Source: EHI-02, Block 5.

278
 The Mauryan ‘Empire’

Fig.16.2: Mauryan Remains of Wooden Palisade at Bulandibagh Site of Pataliputra.

Archaelogical photo at Pataliputra by ASIEC 1912-13. Source: Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mauryan_remains_of_wooden_palissade_at_
Bulandi_Bagh_site_of_Pataliputra_ASIEC_1912-13.jpg)

Fig.16.3: Mauryan Ruins of Pillared Hall at Kumrahar of Pataliputra. Credit: 1912-13

Archaeological Excavation by ASIEC at Pataliputra. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https:/
/commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mauryan_ruins_of_pillared_hall_at_Kumrahar_site_
of_Pataliputra_ASIEC_1912-13.jpg) 279
India: 6th Century BCE to 200
BCE 16.3 THE MAURYAN DYNASTY: ORIGINS AND
EXPANSION
The foundation of the Mauryan empire was laid by Chandragupta Maurya, who
overthrew the Nanda dynasty in 321/324 BCE. According to Puranas, the
Mauryan rule lasted for 137 years, i.e., the Mauryas probably ruled till 187/185
BCE. Even if one takes these dates as approximate, one can conclude that the
Mauryan period lasted from around the late fourth century BCE to the first quarter
of the second century BCE.

16.3.1 Chandragupta Maurya

Details about Chandragupta’s ancestry and caste status differ from text to text.
The Mudrarakshasa describes him as being of low social origin. Dhundiraja, a
commentator on the Vishnu Purana, states that Chandragupta was a Nanda scion,
son of the Nanda king Sarvarthasiddhi with Mura, the daughter of a hunter. It is
suggested that as the son of Mura, Chandragupta became known as Maurya,
which went on to become the dynastic epithet. The 12th century text Parishishta-
parvan written by Jaina author, Hemachandra, identifies Chandragupta as the
grandson of the chief of peacock-tamers’ clan (mayura-poshakas). Similarly,
Greek accounts of Justin and Plutarch categorically state that Sandrocottus (i.e.,
Chandragupta) did not enjoy any royal descent. On the other hand, the Buddhist
texts such as the Digha Nikaya, Mahavamsa, and Divyavadana trace the Mauryan
ancestry to a khattiya (Pali for kshatriya) clan called the Moriyas, who ruled at
Pipphalivana. This stress on his noble birth was to legitimize his ascension to the
throne.

Fig.16.4: Bhadrabahu Cave, where Chandragupta Maurya is said to have died at

Sravanabelgola, Karnataka. Credit: Amol Thikane. Source: Wikimedia Commons.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bhadrabahu_ Goopha_on_Chandragiri.JPG

What we do know from Greek accounts is that soon after Alexander’s dispersal
from India, Sandrocottus established a new dynasty and conquered a vast area.
Greek sources also mention a treaty signed between Seleucus Nikator and
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Chandragupta Maurya. According to the terms of this treaty, Seleucus ceded to The Mauryan ‘Empire’
Chandragupta the territories of Arachosia (the Kandahar area of south-east
Afghanistan), Gedrosia (south Baluchistan), and Paropomisadai (area between
Afghanistan and the Indian subcontinent). Chandragupta is said to have
reciprocated by gifting 500 war elephants to Seleucus. Alongside the treaty, the
general rights of intermarriage between the Greeks and the Indians was also
acknowledged. Chandragupta not only established control over the north-west
but also the Ganga plains, western India and the Deccan. Kerala, Tamil Nadu
and parts of north-east India were out of this ambit.

Graeco-Roman sources also speak highly of the trans-Vidhyan military exploits

of Sandracottus. Plutarch mentions that Sandracottus over-ran and subdued the
whole of ‘India’ with an army of 600,000 men. However, it remains unclear
what these writers exactly mean by ‘India’.

Chandragupta’s reign is supposed to have lasted nearly 24 years.

16.3.2 Bindusara
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, who ruled between 297 and
273 BCE. The Mahabhashya refers to Chandragupta’s successor as Amitraghata,
which literary means ‘a slayer of enemies’. On the other hand, Greek accounts
such as those of Athenaios and Strabo knew him as Amitrokhates or Alitrokhates.
These names were probably royal epithets, which further indicate his military
prowess. To Bindusara’s credit, he succeeded in keeping the vast empire he had
inherited, intact. The Divyavadana speaks of a revolt in Taxila during Bindusara’s
region. According to Divyavadana the subjects of Taxila were dissatisfied with
rogue administrators (dushtamatyas; amatyas meaning ministers).

Silver Coin (Karsapana) of the period of Bindusara. Credit: Jean-Michel Moullec.

Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:I42_
1karshapana_ Maurya_Bindusara_MACW4165_1ar_(8486583162).jpg)

Under Bindusara’s reign, diplomatic relations with Greek rulers of West Asia
continued. Bindusara is described as having requested the Syrian king,
Antiochus I, to send him fine wine, figs and a sophist (philosopher). To this,
Antiochus replied that while he would definitely send across the wine and figs,
Greek laws do not permit the sale and purchase of sophists.

16.3.3 Ashoka
For a long time till 1837, not much was known about Ashoka. In that year James
Princep deciphered a Brahmi inscription referring to a king called Devanampiya
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India: 6th Century BCE to 200 Piyadasi (Beloved of the Gods). Further, study of Mahavamsa made it clear that
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this epithet referred to Ashoka Maurya.

Ashoka succeeded his father Bindusara upon his death in 273 BCE. The
Asokavadana says that when he was born, his mother Subhadrangi exclaimed ‘I
am now without sorrow’ and that is how he came to be named Ashoka (the one
who is without sorrow). During his father’s reign, he was appointed as the Viceroy
of Taxila and also Ujjain. It is believed that he was not the crown prince (yuvaraja).
He was engaged in a struggle with his brothers for the throne.

Ashoka, like Bindusara before him, inherited a large part of the subcontinent as
empire. The only significant area not under his suzerainty was Kalinga (modern
day Odisha). It was in 260 BCE that Kalinga was finally brought under Mauryan
control as a result of a fierce campaign led by Ashoka. Strategically Kalinga was
important. It was rich in forest resources and also lay on the Mauryan trade route
with the peninsula through the east coast. However, the campaign itself was very
destructive, with thousands killed, and many more captured as prisoners. The
large-scale destruction is said to have filled king Ashoka with remorse. In Rock
Edict XIII, Ashoka, however, states that such death and destruction is inevitable
when an unconquered area is conquered. He wished that his successors would
avoid any more bloodshed. Despite being remorseful, Ashoka issued a warning
to the troublesome forest people, reminding them that even in his repentance, he
still had the power to punish. It is also noteworthy that Ashoka refrained from
engraving his remorse at any location in Kalinga, where the Rock Edict XIII was
in fact replaced by the Separate Edicts. The Separate Edicts contain instructions
to his officers and emphasize the value of good administration.

Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali, Bihar. Credit: Bpilgrim. Source: Wikimedia Commons. (https:/
/commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ashoka_pillar_at_Vaishali,_Bihar,_India.jpg)

The victory in Kalinga war marked the official replacement of the war-drum
(bherighosha) with the sound of Dhamma (dhammaghosha). The remorse over
282 the Kalinga war sparked his interest in Buddhism and started his journey of
conversion. It was not however an overnight conversion, as Ashoka’s sympathy The Mauryan ‘Empire’
towards Buddhism had been brewing. He himself states in Minor Rock Edict I
that he has been a lay devotee for two and a half years, indicating that he turned
towards the Buddha’s teaching only gradually and not suddenly.

The extent of Ashoka’s empire can be traced through the spread of his inscriptions.
From their distribution we know that the Mauryan Empire extended up to
Kandahar in Afghanistan in the north-west. In the eastern frontier it extended to
Odisha. According to Rock Edict XIII, the rest of the subcontinent was under
Mauryan rule barring the extreme south, which was ruled by Cholas and Pandyas;
and according to Rock Edict II by the Keralaputas and Satiyaputras. People of
diverse origins and diverse cultures lived in his empire. For example, in the
northwest are mentioned the Kambojas and Yavanas. They are mentioned along
with other people like the Bhojas, Pitinikas, Andhras and Pulindas who can be
located in parts of western India and the Deccan.

The Mauryan empire declined rapidly after Ashoka. The Puranas mention the
names of later Mauryan rulers and make it clear that the duration of their reigns
was relatively very short. The empire soon became weak and fragmented and is
said to have suffered an invasion by the Bactrian Greeks. The Mauryan dynasty
came to an end with the last kind Brihadratha being killed by his own military
commander Pushyamitra, who then established the Shunga dynasty in c.187 BCE.

16.4 THE MAKING OF AN ‘EMPIRE’

Traditional viewpoints saw the Mauryan empire as a centralized bureaucratic
empire. Such empires are characterized by powerful kings who through military
exploits bring peace and cohesiveness to the kingdom. They are marked by the
presence of allies, enemies, matrimonial relations, diplomatic alliances.
Centralized bureaucratic empires are exploitative in nature with corresponding
element of inequality among social classes. Romila Thapar’s earlier contention
that the Mauryan empire was a uniform and centralized administered entity was
modified by her in a later study. According to her, at the hub was the metropolitan
state of Magadha, broadly an area of the distribution of the pillar edicts. This
was the area of maximum centralized administration. Then there were the core
areas, which were of strategic importance and agrarian and commercial potential.
This second category was less under central control and was under the control of
governors and senior officials. Gandhara, Raichur Doab, Southern Karnataka,
Kalinga and Saurashtra were such core areas. The third category was those areas
which were located at the peripheries. The economy of such regions was not
restructured by the Mauryan State. Only the resources were tapped.
The Mauryan realm covered diverse ethnic groups, including the non-indigenous
yavanas, as well as different linguist groups. This is corroborated from the fact
that Ashoka’s edicts are found in at least three languages, Prakrit, Greek and
Aramaic. Ashoka’s edicts also corroborate the presence of multiple religious
beliefs and practices, including Buddhism, Jainism, Vedic and Brahmanical
practices, Ajikivism and smaller cults.
The key difference between a kingdom and an empire is present in the fact that a
kingdom draws maximum profit from existing resources. An empire on the other
hand, makes considerable effort in restructuring resources to get maximum
revenue. The financial needs of administering an empire are considerable. In the
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India: 6th Century BCE to 200 Mauryan empire, this restructuring took place through the extension of agriculture,
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and introduction of wide-reaching commercial exchange (Thapar, 2002).
Moreover, the governance of such a vast realm was aided through multiple foci
of administration. Thus, regional variations and diversities were accommodated
by the Mauryan rulers into their polity. While an empire accommodates and
integrates these diversities on the one hand, at the same time, it also favours
homogeneity as a binding force. Thus, imperial systems make attempts to draw
together the ends of empire, to encourage foremost the movement of peoples
and goods (Thapar, 2002). This includes the use of script, punch-marked coins
in exchange transactions and the projection of a new ideology that sets new
precepts. In the case of Mauryan empire, the State attempted cultural homogeneity
through the introduction of the policy of Dhamma.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) What are the main sources for the reconstruction of the history of Mauryas?
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2) Comment briefly on the notion of Mauryan ‘Empire’.
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16.5 ECONOMY
Since the time of sixth century BCE, there had been a continuous expansion of
agriculture along with the rise in urban centers. The Greek writer Arrian talks
about the immense number of towns. Technologically the Mauryan economy
and state were on a sound footing. The Arthashastra mentions use of different
kinds of iron. Iron was a crucially important metal for agriculture. Similarly, the
social dimensions of production also had a strong basis. Arthashastra mentions
that new lands should be brought under the plough and for this purpose the shudras
were to be settled on these areas. The needs of labour for labour intensive tasks
such as paddy cultivation were to be met with prisoners of war. It is believed that
the 1,50,000 people who were deported after the Kalinga war were used in this
fashion. The shudra settlers were given fiscal concessions along with seed and
cattle to settle new lands. Such lands formed part of the sita lands or crown
lands. Thus, two factors — control over iron and manpower — laid the foundations
of a strong economy during the Mauryan period.
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16.5.1 Trade and Commerce The Mauryan ‘Empire’

The Magadha State was concerned about two things:

a) Expansion of trade and commerce
b) Establishment of new towns and markets.
The expansion of commerce and trade enabled the Mauryas to augment their
resources and revenue. The Jatakas refer to caravan traders carrying large volumes
of goods to distant places. The Mauryan State was able to provide security and
peace and hence trade routes and trade became more secure. Major trade routes
to West Asia and Central Asia passed through the north-west India. Major centers
like Rajagriha in Magadha and Kaushambi near present-day Prayagaraj were
located on main trade routes that were along the river Ganges and the Himalayan
foothills. Pataliputra was located in a strategic location through which trade routes
and river routes in all the four directions could be accessed. The northern route
linked cities like Kapilavastu, Shravasthi, Vaishali with Kalsi, Hazara and
eventually Peshawar. Megasthenes talks of a land route that connected the
north-west with Pataliputra. The same land route in the south linked central India
and in the south east, Kalinga. Then there was an eastern route. It turned
southwards to finally reach Andhra and Karnataka. The other part of the eastern
route continued down to the Ganges delta to Tamralipti which acted as an exit
point to the south and south-east. From Kaushambi, moving westwards, was
another route which led to Ujjain. This continued either further west to the coast
of Gujarat or west south across the Narmada and was regarded as Daksinapatha
(southern route). The overland route to regions of the west went via Taxila near
Islamabad.

River transport had improved once the forests around the valleys had been cleared
under state initiative. Other factors like the establishment of friendly relations
with the Greeks under the Mauryan kings like Bindusara and Ashoka improved
trade relations.

The artisans during the Mauryan period were organized along guild lines. The
well-known guilds were those of metallurgists, carpenters, potters, leatherworkers,
painters, textile workers etc. The Mauryan State also was very careful in making
the organization of trade efficient. Though it did not directly interfere with guilds,
it did take control of production and distribution in some cases. The State did
this by directly employing some of the artisans like armourers, shipbuilders,
stone builders etc. They were exempt from payment of taxes because they rendered
compulsory labour services to the State. Other artisans like spinners, weavers,
miners etc. who worked for the State were taxed.

Urbanism spread to other areas of western and central India, the Deccan and
south India. Gahapatis became prosperous and rural settlements proliferated.
Towns came to be inhabited by merchants, traders and officials. According to
Kautilya’s Arthashastra, the State founded towns through the process of
durganivesa or durgavidhana. These towns were peopled by priests, nobles,
soldiers, merchants, artisans and others. Another important aspect of the urban
economy during this period was the widespread use of metallic money for
transactions in cash. Use of coinage had become prevalent in the 6th century
BCE, but now due to development of commerce, coins became a common
occurrence. The salaries of the officials were paid in cash.
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India: 6th Century BCE to 200
BCE 16.6 ARTHASHASTRA AND THE SAPTANGA
THEORY
The Arthashastra is the first South Asian text which offers a theory of the State
as being composed of seven constituent elements. Kautilya puts forward the
concept of saptanga rajya to understand the State – a system of seven inter-
related and interlacing constituent limbs or elements (angas or prakritis). This
concept of the saptanga-rajya was accepted and found in much later texts
including the Dharmashastras, the Puranas and the Mahabharata, with a few
modifications.

These seven elements were, in the order below:

1) svami (the king)
2) amatya (ministers)
3) janapada (the territory and its people, i.e., subjects)
4) durga (a fortified capital)
5) kosha (the treasury)
6) danda (justice or force)
7) mitra (ally)
Dividing the State into seven basic constituents allowed one to assess the
individual strength or weakness of each constituent. Each of the seven constituent
elements is defined by a group of ideal qualities. The elements are not equal.

Svami
Monarchy is considered the norm by the Arthashastra and all its teaching is
addressed to the king. For Kautilya, the fate of the king was closely tied to that of
his subject population. If the king was energetic, then his subjects too would be
energetic. Conversely if he was lazy, his subjects too would be lazy and eat into
the kingdom’s wealth. Thus, Kautilya advocated for a constantly alert, diligent
and sensible king.

Ashoka’s inscriptions give us a sense of kingship that was quite close to what
Kautilya prescribed. We know from his Minor Rock Edicts that Ashoka adopted
a very unassuming title, the raja of Magadha, as opposed the very grand titles of
later times like maharaja, or maharajadhiraja. However, the preferred epithet
in the inscriptions is ‘Devanamapiya’ or the ‘beloved of the gods’, suggesting
attempts to proclaim a divine connection. Ashoka also laid the foundations of a
new kind of ‘paternalistic kingship’ by stating ‘All men are my children’ in Rock
Edicts I and II. He elaborated further on his ideals of kingship by committing to
ensure the welfare of all beings and his subjects in this world and the next.

Amatya
The term ‘amatya’ was an umbrella term that included all the high-ranking
officials, counsellors and executive heads of department. The Arthashastra
mentions two kinds of consultative bodies. The first was a small consultative
body of mantrins (ministers) called the mantra-parishad. The other was a larger
body of all the executive heads of the department, called the mantri-parishad.
286
An important functionary in Kautilya’s administration was the purohita (royal The Mauryan ‘Empire’
priest). The Arthashastra states that the purohita should belong to a reputed
family and should be thoroughly trained in the Vedas, the interpretation of divine
signs and omens, as well as the science of politics. We can also assess the
purohita’s importance by looking at the figures of salaries given by Kautilya.
According to Kautilya, the highest officials were paid extremely well, with the
chief minister, the purhoita, and the army commander receiving 48,000 panas
and the treasurer and the chief collector 24,000 panas. Even if Kautilya’s estimates
are only approximate, we can assume that the higher officials in the administration
were extraordinarily well-paid, and their salaries would have constituted a large
chunk of the total revenue collected.

Janapada
This referred to a recognized territory as the realm of the empire. The Janapada
was a major source of income for the king and the text demonstrates the various
investments, rewards, and punitive strategies used by the State to maximize its
tax income based on agricultural production. Additionally, attention to trade routes,
port cities, demonstrates the extent that economic interests dominated the king’s
sense of his own greater territory.

Durga
Crucial to the defense of the realm, fortified cities protect important border regions,
serve as sanctuaries during times of attack, and house the major economic and
administrative centers of the state. The ideal state of the Arthashastra possesses
a number of fortresses, differing in geographical setting and purpose. The largest
of the fortresses is the capital city, which operates as an administrative, economic,
and military hub for the kingdom. Kautilya says that it should be constructed
with mud ramparts and parapets built of brick and stone, the fort would be well-
stocked with supplies of grain and necessities in case of a siege. Interestingly,
the Greek accounts describe Pataliputra, the Magadhan capital, on a similar grand
scale.

Kautilya also suggested stationing troops along the approaches to the fort. He
refers to a standing army with four main divisions – infantry, cavalry, chariots,
and elephants. From Ashoka’s edicts we know that after the Kalinga war, Ashoka
made efforts at pacifism and committed himself to dhamma-vijaya (victory
through dharma), rather than war. Yet, significantly, he did not disband the army.

Danda
Danda can be understood as a reference to force or justice. The Arthashastra
lays out the judicial system in detail with references to dharmasthas (judges)
and pradeshtris (officers responsible for suppression of criminals). Punishments
for offences and crimes ranged from fines to mutilation of limbs, or even capital
punishment. For Kautilya, the nature of punishment depended not only upon the
nature and gravity of the crime, but also on the varna of the offender. For the
same crime, Kautilya set aside lighter punishments for higher varnas. For example,
if a kshatriya had sexual relations with a brahmin woman, he was to pay the
highest fine. For the same offence, a vaishya could have his entire property
confiscated. The worst punishment was reserved for a shudra.

In Ashoka’s inscriptions the judicial responsibilities lay with the city mahamatas.
The edicts urge the mahamatas to be impartial and ensure that people are not 287
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 imprisoned or punished without sufficient evidence. Pillar Edict IV contains
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Ashoka’s claim that he had introduced samata in judicial procedure. According
to some interpretations this meant that he had established a uniform rule of law,
abolishing varna distinctions in punishments.

Mitra
This element refers to ‘friends’ of the realm, or political allies. At the centre of
Kautilya’s polity is the vijigishu – the would-be conqueror. The inter-state policy
is about the several players around the vijigishu – the ari (enemy), madhyama
(the middle king), and the udasina (the indifferent or neutral king). Kautilya
further listed various policies and strategies that the king could adopt according
to the circumstances, ranging from peace treaty (sandhi) if the enemy was stronger,
to vigraha (hostility) if the enemy was weaker. Other options included military
expeditions or teaming up with the enemy’s enemy and attacking together.

Ashoka sent missions to the Hellenistic kingdoms in the north-west, with the
purpose of enhancing trade with them. Of these the most prominent was the
Mauryan relationship with the Seleucids, right from the treaty signed under
Chandragupta. Diplomatic exchanges continued with subsequent rulers. Ashoka
also mentions other contemporaries with whom he exchanged missions. His
inscriptions mention the Greek king Amtiyoga, as well as the lands of the kings
Tulamaya, Anetika, Make and Alikyashudala. These have been identified by
historians, respectively, as Antiochus II of Syria (260-246 BCE), Ptolemy II
Philadelphus of Egypt (285-247 BCE), Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia (276-
239 BCE), Magas of Cyrene, and Alexander of Epirus. Ashoka also dispatched
special ministers on dhamma missions to frontier regions and neighbouring
realms, to spread the word of Dhamma and the teachings of the Buddha.

16.7 ADMINISTRATION
Mauryan empire was a vast territorial entity. Various levels of administration
were required to govern it well. The Arthashastra, Greek accounts and Ashokan
inscriptions give us a good idea about the administrative system. The
administrative structure involved a division of the empire into provinces, each
under the direct governance of a prince (kumara) or a member of the royal family.
The inscriptions suggest four such provinces – a southern one with its centre at
Survarnagiri, a northern province with capital at Taxila, a western one with its
capital at Ujjayini, and an eastern one with its capital at Tosali. Ashokan
inscriptions also referred to these governors as kumara, suggesting a continuation
of the tradition of appointing royal princes to these important posts.

Senior officers called pradeshikas were tasked with touring the empire every
five years and perform an audit as well as keep a check on the provincial
administration. In addition, there were judicial officers, rajukas, in both urban
and rural areas, whose judicial functions often combined with assessment of
revenue. A well-organized administration was needed for a variety of tasks such
as surplus production, extraction of surplus, its distribution or expenditure, strong
army to conquer areas, tax collection from traders and agriculturalists etc.

Let us look at the details of Mauryan administration below.

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16.7.1 Central Administration The Mauryan ‘Empire’

The central administration can be classified under the following categories:

a) The king
b) The council of ministers
c) City administration
d) Army
e) Espionage network
f) Law and justice
g) Public welfare
Let’s discuss each of these categories separately.
a) The King: The king has been given primacy even in the normative texts.
The Arthashastra considers the king as the central focus of administration.
He had the power to appoint or remove the ministers (amatyas); defend the
treasury and the people; look after the welfare of the people; punish criminals;
influence the people (praja) through his morality. According to the
Arthashastra, the king’s decision could override shastric injunctions if found
to be differing from the latter.

The texts prescribe certain qualities that a king should possess. These are:
birth in a high family; capability to control kings and officials; sharp intellect;
truthfulness; and upholder of Dharma. He should be a skillful warrior, should
perfect all domains of economic life, and writing (lipi). Besides this, the
texts specify certain preconditions that the king should fulfill. For example,
he should pay equal attention to all matters; remain vigilant and active for
taking action or corrective measures; he should always discharge his duties;
be accessible to his advisors and officials. Both from Megasthenes and
Ashokan edicts it becomes evident that these injunctions were followed by
the Magadhan kings.

Ashoka’s role as an ideal king was augmented by his paternalistic attitude

towards his subjects. He was deeply concerned about the welfare of his
people but at the same time he was an absolute monarch. He adopted the
title of Devanampiya (beloved of the Gods) which according to Romila
Thapar underlined his close connection with the Divine power even to the
degree of excluding the intermediaries, the priests. This indicates that the
king was exercising his authority in religious matters as well.

b) Council of Ministers: The Arthashastra and even Ashokan edicts mention

a mantri parishad (council of ministers). It is mentioned in the Arthashastra
that the state cannot function without the assistance of ministers. Rock Edict
III says that the Parishad was expected to ensure that the new administrative
measures were being carried out well by the different categories of the
council. Similarly, Rock Edict VI mentions that the ministers can discuss
the king’s policy during his absence; suggest amendments; decide upon any
important matter which the king had left to them. Yet the Council had to
report its opinion to the king immediately. The primary role of the Council
was advisory in nature. The king’s decision was final in all respects.
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India: 6th Century BCE to 200 There was an emphasis on majority opinion in the Council (Bhuvyist). In
BCE
cases where the majority verdict was not agreeable, then the king’s decision
prevailed. The qualifications which the prospective ministers should fulfill
have been clearly specified; these were: they should not be lured by wealth;
should not succumb to pressure; he should be a sarvopadashudha (purest of
all). There was also an inner council of ministers (mantrins) who were
consulted on issues which needed immediate attention.

c) City Administration: There are a number of references to city administration

with regard to Palibothra (Pataliputra) by Megasthenes. In this account, the
city council was divided into six sub-councils or committees and each
committee had five members. These were:
First Committee: It looked after industry and crafts. It inspected such centers
and looked after fixing of wages etc.
Second Committee: It looked after the foreigners. Its functions included
arranging for their food, stay, comfort, and security.
Third committee: Registration of births and deaths
Fourth Committee: Looked after trade and commerce. It inspected weights
and measures, markets etc.
Fifth Committee: Inspected manufactured goods, made provisions for their
sale and steps taken to distinguish between new and second-hand goods
Sixth Committee: It collected taxes on the goods sold, the rate being 1/10th.

Though the Arthashastra does not mention any such committees, the
functions specified above have been mentioned. For example, the functions
of the fourth committee were performed by the Panyadhyaksha; the
collection of taxes (sixth committee) was the responsibility of Sulkahyaksha
and the registration of births and deaths was the work of Gopa. The head of
the urban administration was called Nagarika. He was assisted by two
subordinate officials-Gopa and Sthanika. Other officials are also mentioned
such as Bandhanagaradhyaksha (looked after the jail); Rakshi (i.e. the police;
looked after the security of the people); Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika (officials
who looked after goods that were manufactured in the centers).

The city administration was elaborate and well planned. Penalties and
punishments were prescribed for various offences. No one was above the
law. Ever law enforcers like the police were to be penalized for any wrong
doings. Similarly, the citizens were punished if found guilty of transgressing
rules.

d) The Army: The Kalinga war, retreat of Seleucus, descriptive accounts of

the army in Arthashastra all indicate that the Mauryas had a large army. It
included infantry, cavalry, elephants, chariots, transport and admiral of fleet.
Both the Greek and Indian literary sources refer to the fact that
Chandragupta’s army that was raised against the Nanda kings also included
mercenary soldiers. According to Pliny’s account, Chandragupta’s army
consisted of 9000 elephants, 3000 cavalry and 6000 infantry. Plutarch’s
account refers to 6000 elephants, 80000 horses, 20000 foot soldiers, and
8000 war chariots.
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 Kautilya too refers to a standing army with four main divisions – infantry, The Mauryan ‘Empire’
cavalry, chariots, and elephants. Each of these divisions was placed under
commanding officers respectively known as patyadhyaksha, ashvadhyaksha,
rathadhyaksha, and hastyadhakshya. Megasthenes describes a similar
arrangement of six committees of five members each, in charge of navy,
supervision of equipment and transport, infantry, cavalry, chariots and
elephants. Besides, there was a provision for medical service to the army.

There were also officials like the Ayudhagaradhyaksha who looked after
the production and maintenance of a variety of armaments. The Arthashastra
also refers to the recruitment policy, war plans and fortifications. The officers
and soldiers were paid in cash. The salaries of army officers ranged between
4000 panas-48000 panas.

e) Espionage: Arthashastra mentions a well-knit system of espionage. The

spies were supposed to keep an eye on the ministers, government officials,
collect impressions regarding the feelings of the citizens and know the secrets
of foreign kings. They reported directly to the kings on urgent matters. They
not only went under disguise but also contacted barbers, cooks etc. to collect
information. The Arthashastra described a very elaborate setup with regard
to these spies, enlisting two types: stationary (samstha) and roving
(sanchara), which then were further sub-divided into nine types. The head
of the secret service in the Arthashastra was the samahartta, who was
primarily tasked with the collection of revenue. Yet another task was the
protection of the king. In fact, the king’s bodyguard was known to consist
of women archers who also accompanied him on hunts. Additionally, women
too were employed by the State as spies.

f) Justice and Punishment: An orderly legal system was in place to ensure

social order, smooth functioning of the administrative system and flow of
revenue to the State. The Arthashastra lists a number of punishments for
various offences. These ranged from violation of marriage laws, divorce,
murder, theft, adulteration, wrong weights etc. There were various kinds of
courts to settle disputes and read out punishments to the offenders.

The Arthashastra lays out the judicial system in detail with references to
dharmasthas (judges) and pradeshtris (officers responsible for suppression
of criminals). Punishments for offences and crimes ranged from fines to
mutilation of limbs, or even capital punishment.

The king was the supreme arbiter of justice and upholder of dharma. Though
the crimes were few, cases were decided by a ‘body of arbitrators’ with a
system of appeal to the king. In Ashoka’s inscriptions the judicial
responsibilities lay with the city mahamatas. The edicts urge the mahamatas
to be impartial and ensure that people are not imprisoned or punished without
sufficient evidence. Rock Edict I in particular states that every five years,
the king would dispatch a gentle officer, neither fierce nor harsh, on a tour
of inspection to ensure that this was being done.

g) Public Welfare: Ashoka as evident from his many edicts was devoted to
the welfare of his subjects. A number of public welfare works were
undertaken during the reign of the Mauryas. For instance, irrigation was
considered of paramount importance by the State. Megasthenes has
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India: 6th Century BCE to 200 mentioned officials who supervised irrigation. The modes of irrigation and
BCE
types of water resources were afforded protection, and anyone found causing
damage was punished. The State encouraged people to repair dams at their
own initiative and in return were granted revenue remissions. According to
the Junagadh Rudradaman’s inscription (2nd century CE), Sudarshana lake
was constructed during the time of Chandragupta. The State also laid down
and repaired roads. Medical treatment and medicines were made available
to the needy. We have references to medicine men of various kinds and
ordinary physicians (Chikitsakah), midwives (garbhavyadhi) etc. Ashoka
exhorted that the orphans, old women should be looked after. The citizens
were given protection against natural calamities like famines, floods etc.
Thus, the State invested a certain portion of its revenue in the general welfare
of its subjects.

16.7.2 District and Village Level Administration

According to the Arthashastra, the smallest unit of administration was the village.
A few villages were grouped as one district, and a collection of districts formed
a province. Each district was to have an accountant to maintain records of
boundaries, registered land and deeds as well as kept a census of population and
a record of the livestock. There was also a tax collector for every district,
responsible for various types of revenue. At the village level, the most important
functionary was the village headman, who was accountable to the district
accountant and tax collector.

At the district level, the officials listed were Pradeshika, Rajuka and Yukta.
Pradeshika was the overall in-charge of the district. The Yukta was a junior officer
giving secretarial kind of assistance to the other two. The officials fulfilled the
following duties: survey and assessment of land; tours and inspections; revenue
collection; and maintaining law and order.

At times the king was in direct touch with these officers. The 4th pillar Edict
mentions that Ashoka granted ‘independent authority’ to the Rajukas to carry
out certain responsibilities related to public welfare. Besides this, there were
checks and balances on the powers of each category of officials.

The local people appointed as officials in the village were called as gramika.
Then, there was Gopa and Sthanika — two types of officers, acting as
intermediaries between the district and village level administrative units. They
were entrusted with the following duties: demarcating village boundaries;
maintaining records of land; recording income and expenditure of people;
recording taxes, revenues and fines. Despite the presence of such officials, the
villages enjoyed certain degree of autonomy in administering their affairs.

The administrative system largely revolved around the efficient collection of

taxes. We know from Ashoka’s inscription at Lumbini that land revenue was of
two kinds — bali and bhaga. The assessment of the tax varied from region to
region, from being on1/6th to a quarter of the produce of the land. 1/4th of the
produce was paid in tax by the peasants. They also paid a tribute. Land tax (bhaga)
was the main source of revenue. It was levied at 1/6th of the produce. It could
have been higher in the Mauryan times. The Lumbini edict of Ashoka says that
during his visit to the birthplace of the Buddha, he exempted the village from the
payment of bali and reduced the payment of bhaga to 1/8th. Sharecropping was
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another way by which the State collected agricultural resources. Sharecroppers The Mauryan ‘Empire’
were provided with seeds, oxen etc. and received arable land for cultivation.
Such peasants gave half of the produce to the State. Other kinds of taxes were
also prevalent. The peasants paid a tax called pindakara. It was paid by
husbandsmen, which was assessed on a group of villages. This was customary in
nature. The villages also provided provisions to the army passing through their
respective territories. Then, there was a tax called hiranya. Its nature is not clear.
It was paid in cash. Some taxes could have been voluntary. For example, pranaya
was a tax which literally means gift of affection. Panini mentions it first but
Kautilya elaborates upon it. It amounted to 1/3rd or 1/4th of the produce according
to the nature of soil. Over time it may have become obligatory.

Megasthenes also assumed that all land belonged to the king, and the cultivators
tilled the land on the condition that they paid in kind one fourth of the produce as
tax. Yet other Greek accounts seem to suggest that the cultivator received one
fourth of the produce for tilling the land of the king. We have references to crown
land called sita which was held by the ruler and designated as his own land
(svabhumi). These crown lands were cultivated under the supervision of State,
by sharecroppers or tenant cultivators who paid a tax, or even by wage labour.
In the Arthashastra, a Sitadhyaksa or superintendent of agriculture is mentioned
who probably supervised the cultivation of sita lands.

The rest of the land in the Mauryan state, known as Janapada territories was
most probably under private cultivators. The Jatakas mention gahapatis and
grambhojakas who are said to have employed hired labourers, indicating that
they were the land-owning gentry. The State’s role in the provision of irrigation
was crucial for a strong agricultural set up. The Arthashastra mentions a water
cess which amounted to a fifth, a fourth or a third of the produce. In such areas
cess was levied only on irrigated lands indicating that the state regulated irrigation
facilities wherever rainfall was scarce. As said before, collection of land revenue
through taxes was an important affair of the state. The highest officer in charge
of this was the samaharta. The sannidhata was the chief custodian of the State
treasury. Since the revenue was collected in kind also, providing storage facilities
for grains was the responsibility of the State.

Labour was provided by the dasa-karmakaras – slaves and hired labour.

According to Arthashastra the various categories of labour included wage labour,
bonded labour, and slave labour.

16.8 SOCIETY
Megasthenes and later Greek authors describe Indian society at the time of
Mauryas as being divided into seven distinct groups – philosophers, cultivators,
hunters and herdsmen, artisans and traders, overseers (spies) and the king’s
counselors. The Greek authors describe these groups as the seven ‘genos’.
Megasthenes notes that these occupations were hereditary in nature and inter-
marriage between groups was not allowed – two features crucial to the functioning
of the caste system. Let us look and compare Megasthenes’ categories with other
primary sources.
Megasthenes describes the ‘philosophoi’ (sophists and philosophers) as being
held in very high esteem in India. Strabo divided them further into two groups,
the brachmanes (Brahmanas) and garmanes (shramanas). They were considered 293
India: 6th Century BCE to 200 as public benefactors, making prophecies and were exempted from paying taxes.
BCE
We know from other texts that brahmanas and sramanas were used as general
descriptive terms in later periods. The sramanas for example referred to a range
of ascetic groups and sects – Buddhist, Jaina, Ajivika, etc.

About the second category, Megasthenes writes that cultivators were the most
numerous of all groups. Clearly, the bulk of the population was engaged in
agriculture. In fact, the Greek writers were struck by the large scale of agrarian
operations. All accounts speak of the profusion and diversity of crops, achieved
due to the profitable combination of highly fertile soil, presence of rivers and
plentiful rainfall.

The third category mentioned by Megasthenes is that of hunters and herdsmen.

According to Megasthenes these people lived outside agrarian settlements.
Hunters and gatherers cleared the country of unwanted beasts and birds. According
to Arthashastra, forests could not be privately cleared, and clearance was
supervised by the State. The State was involved in collecting and taxing forest
produce. Non-agrarian activities such as herding of animals were practiced even
within villages. Kautilya even listed animals amongst items that were assessed
and taxed.

Megasthenes’ fourth group also relates to non-agrarian activities – artisans and

traders. Some Greek authors suggest that all artisans (technitai) were employed
by State and exempted from paying taxes. According to Strabo, apart from
independent artisans, the armourers and shipbuilders were employed by State
and paid a wage. Most of the artisans either worked individually or as members
of associations. These associations – shreni or puga – gradually became powerful
and were extremely influential as patrons of religious sects and visual arts.
Megasthenes was wrong in stating that Indians did not borrow or lend money on
interest, since money-lending was known and practiced from early times.

The fifth group noted by the Greeks was the soldiers, the second largest group in
terms of numbers. The Mauryas had a standing army; the size and estimates vary
across sources. According to Pliny, the army comprised 700 elephants, 1,000
horses and 80,000 infantry. Further one can conclude from the vast size that
recruitment to the army was not limited to the kshatriyas, the traditional warrior
group. Maintaining such a large army would have been a burden on resources
and may have encouraged frequent and high taxation.

Closely associated with the army was the sixth group, the overseers (spies or
inspectors). According to Greek accounts they were the most trusted persons in
the realm and never lied. However, Kautilya recommended a spy’s report should
be corroborated by three other sources to be deemed acceptable.

The last group that Megasthenes mentions is the king’s counsellors. This group
was the smallest in number. They included the highest administrative functionaries
of the realm, including army generals, revenue heads, etc. The nearest equivalent
of this group in the Indian sources is the amatyas or mantris.

Megasthenes however seems to think that there was no concept of slavery in

India. On the other hand, we know from other sources of situations that led to
enslavement – a person could be a slave either by birth, by voluntary selling
themselves, by being captured in war, or as a result of judicial punishment. We
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also know of a tax termed vishti that was paid in labour to the State. Kautilya The Mauryan ‘Empire’
also described different kinds of slaves.
Megasthenes’ Indica: A Case Study
Megasthenes was originally a representative of Seleucus Nikator at the court
of Sibyrtios, the governor of Arachosia (present day Kandahar region in
Afghanistan). After the treaty between Chandragupta and Seleucus was settled,
Megasthenes was sent as Seleucus’ envoy to Chandragupta’s court. Based on
his travels and experiences in India, he wrote a book called the Indica. This
work is lost. What survives of it is in the form of ‘quotations’ from later
writers (Diodorous, Strabo, Arrian and Pliny) concerned with the Hellenistic
world. Megasthenes’ Indica described the country, whatever little he saw of
it, its size and shape, rivers, soil, climate, plants, animals, agricultural produce,
administration, society, and folktales. The animals in the subcontinent
particularly captivated the Greek writers and their audiences, and they describe
in detail the exotic animals such as elephants, monkeys and activities such as
horse training and elephant training. They also noted the similarities with
their own lands, especially in terms of legends and mythologies.
Whether Megathenes is a reliable historian is a debatable question? There
are a number of absurd statements that we find attributed to Megasthenes.
For example, there was no slavery in India, or that Indians never lied, and
theft was rare, or that farmers were never touched in war, or that Indians did
not borrow or lend money. When juxtaposed with other indigenous sources
of the subcontinent, we know for a fact that these statements bear no truth.
Thus, information on the Mauryas from Greek sources comes to us through a
double filter – the first was Megasthenes interpretation of what he saw or
heard, and the second was of the later Graeco-Roman writers and their
interpretations of Megasthenes. As a historian reading these texts, one needs
to be aware of the perceptions of the authors and of those who later on
paraphrased the original. The study of texts from the ancient period remains
a complicated process and requires the removal of such filters. Thapar believes
that Megasthenes’ account was influenced by the fact that he was familiar
with the Seleucid satrapy and hence Indica may have carried both Hellenistic
and Seleucid imprint.
Source: Romila Thapar, 1993.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Write a note on the Saptanga theory of State as mentioned in the Arthashastra.
2) Describe in 100 words the administrative structure under the Mauryas
3) Mark which of the following statements are right ( ) or Wrong (×)
a) Shudras were employed for large scale agricultural operations. ( )
b) All villages in Mauryan India were under direct state control. ( )
c) According to Arthashastra the Council of Ministers’ verdict was final
before the king. ( )
d) The adoption of a paternal attitude towards his subjects was a new
development in relation to king’s attitude in Indian polity. ( )

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India: 6th Century BCE to 200 e) There is no description of city administration in the account of
BCE
Megasthenes. ( )
f) The king was central to the seven components of the State in Kautilya’s
scheme. ( )
g) The Mauryan State spent a huge amount on the maintenance of the
army. ( )
h) The Mauryas had no system of espionage. ( )
i) During this period there were certain rules and regulations for the
functioning of courts. ( )
j) The king had no right to grant revenue remissions. ( )

16.9 SUMMARY
The Maurya period saw the establishment of the first empire in the history of
Indian subcontinent. Such a large empire required new strategies of governance.
The complex system of administration set up under the Mauryas became the
foundational basis of succeeding polities. Ashoka is known equally, if not more,
for renouncing all military ambition and turning to his spiritual side. He decided
to promote the cause of dhamma, inspired from his personal faith in the Buddha’s
teaching for the laity.

The social and economic processes of agrarian expansion and urbanization of

the preceding centuries continued under Maurya rule, and there was a further
growth in cities, trade, and the money economy. However, after Ashoka, the
empire saw a swift and rapid decline. The next Unit will take a closer look at this
‘zenith’ and the subsequent decline.

16.10 KEY WORDS

Ajivika : A heterodox sect of the time of the Buddha
Cess : Tax
Chakravartin/ : Universal monarch
chakravartigal/chakkavatti
Classical Sources : Refers to the Greek sources for example the Indica
of Megasthenes
Diffusion : Spread from the center of origin
Eclectic : Borrowing freely from diverse ideas and
philosophies
Espionage : Spy system
Fiscal : Economic and financial measures
Kahapana/karshapana/ : Widely used coin series, often silver
pana
Sita Lands : Lands owned/controlled directly by the King

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 The Mauryan ‘Empire’
16.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 16.2
2) See Section 16.4
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Section 16.6.
2) See Section 16.7 and its Sub-sections
3) a) , b) x, c) x, d) , e) x, f) , g) , h) x, i) , j) x

16.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Romila Thapar (1993). The Mauryas Revisited. Sakharam Ganesh Deuskar
Lectures on Indian History, 1984. Calcutta: KP Bagchi and Company.
Romila Thapar (1997). Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. Revised Edition.
Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Romila Thapar (2003). The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to
AD 1300. London: Penguin Books.
Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the
Stone Age to the 12th Century. Delhi: Pearson Longman.

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