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Lesson Emergence of State

and Empire
4
Learning Objectives
To enable the students to acquire knowledge on
the emergence of the first two important empires of India
the significance of the invasions of Persians and Greeks
the socio-political changes from 6th century to 3rd century BCE.
the Pre-Mauryan administration and socio-economic conditions
the Dharmic state of Ashoka through his edicts
Introduction such as the Ganga and its many tributaries,

From the sixth century to the third century were among the favourable ecological
BCE, North India passed through major conditions which promoted the rise of a
political and social changes. Buddhism and large state in this particular region. Rivers
Jainism emerged as prominent religions also acted as major waterways for trade and
having a large number of followers. Referred travel. Bimbisara, who was a contemporary
to as sramanic religions (from the word of Buddha, started the process of empire
sramana in Sanskrit, meaning a teacher), building. It was strengthened by his son
these two religious systems were antithetical Ajatashatru and then by the Nandas. The
to the mainstream Vedic religion. As a empire reached its glory and peaked with
consequence of new beliefs and ideas the advent of the Mauryan Empire founded
propounded by Jainism and Buddhism, by Chandragupta Maurya. The first three
the social order largely centred on Vedic Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta,
rituals underwent a significant change, as Bindusara and Ashoka, were the best
people of many religious faiths were part known. After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire
of the emerging society. On the political went into decline.
front, minor states and federations of clans
were merged through conquests to create Sources
an empire during this period, resulting in a The names of Chandragupta and his two
large state, ruled by a chakravartin or ekarat successors in the Mauryan period are well
(emperor or one supreme king). The rise of known now. But reconstructing their lives
a centralised empire in the Gangetic plains and careers was a laborious and difficult
of present-day Bihar and eastern Uttar process for the earlier historians. There are
Pradesh changed the social, economic and hardly any comprehensive contemporary
administrative fabric of the region. accounts or literary works which refer
The flat plains and the availability of to the Mauryan emperors though they
plentiful water from the perennial rivers, are mentioned in various Buddhist and
58
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Jain texts as well as in some Hindu works clear that this was a king who had ruled
like the brahmanas. The Mahavamsa, the over a vast empire. But who was this king?
comprehensive historical chronicle in Pali Puranic and Buddhist texts referred to
from Sri Lanka, is an important additional a chakravartin named Ashoka. As more
source. The scattered information from edicts were deciphered, the decisive
these sources has been corroborated by identification that devananampiya
accounts of Greek historians who left piyadassi was Ashoka was made in 1915.
their accounts about India following One more edict when deciphered, which
Alexander’s campaign in north-western referred to him as devanampiya Ashoka,
part of the country. made reconstruction of Mauryan history
Archaeology and epigraphy are the possible.
tools that provide rich information for the Let us now turn to two later
historian to understand earlier periods sources. The first is the rock inscription
of history. Archaeology is particularly of Junagadh, near Girnar in Gujarat.
important because excavations reveal This was carved during the reign
the nature of urban morphology, that of Rudradaman, the local ruler and
is, layout of the city and construction of dates back to 130–150 CE. It refers to
buildings. They also provide concrete Pushyagupta, the provincial governor
information about the material culture (rashtriya) of Emperor Chandragupta.
of people in the past, such as the metals This is of importance for two reasons:
that were known, materials and tools they (i) it indicates the extent of the Mauryan
used, and the technology they employed. Empire, which had expanded as far west
The archaeological finds in the Gangetic as Gujarat and (ii) it shows that more
regions give us solid proof about the than four centuries after his death, the
nature of the urban centres established in name of Chandragupta was still well
the region in course of time. Epigraphical known and remembered in many parts
evidence is scanty for the period. The of the country. A second source is a
most widely known are the edicts of literary work. The play Mudrarakshasa
Ashoka, which have been discovered in by Visakhadatta was written during the
many parts of the country. In fact, the Gupta period, sometime after the 4th
reconstruction of the Mauryan period century CE. It narrates Chandragupta’s
to a great extent became possible only accession to the throne of the Magadha
after the Brahmi script of the inscriptions Empire and the exploits of his chief
at Sanchi was deciphered by James advisor Chanakya or Kautilya by listing
Prinsep in 1837. Information about other the strategies he used to counter an
edicts in other parts of the country also invasion against Chandragupta. This play
became available at that time. It must be is often cited as a corroborative source
remembered that these were the oldest since it supports the information gathered
historical artefacts found in India in the from other contemporary sources about
nineteenth century, until archaeological Chandragupta. It is important to note
excavations unearthed the Indus valley from both these sources that the fame of
towns of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in Chandragupta had survived long after he
the twentieth century. All the edicts began was gone and became imbibed in popular
with a reference to a great king, “Thus lore and memory. They thus attest to the
spoke devanampiya (beloved of the gods) significance of oral traditions, which
piyadassi (of pleasing looks)”, and the are now accepted as an additional valid
geographical spread of the edicts make it source of history.
Emergenc
e of State and Empire 59
4.1 Rise of Magadha under Kosala was then annexed to Magadha.

the Haryanka Dynasty Ajatashatru also fought and won the battle
against the Lichchhavis. He defeated the
Among the 16 mahajanapadas, Kasi Lichchhavis and the Mallas. Ajatashatru
was initially powerful. However, Kosala is also believed to have met Buddha in his
became dominant later. A power struggle lifetime. By the time Ajatashatru died in 461
broke out between Magadha, Kosala, BCE Magadha had become undisputedly
Vrijji and Avanti. Eventually Magadha the strongest power.
emerged as the dominant mahajanapada
and established the first Indian empire. The Haryanka dynasty was
The first known ruler of Magadha was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty.
Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty. He Shishunaga, a viceroy of Benaras, deposed
extended the territory of Magadhan the last Haryanka king and ascended the
Empire by matrimonial alliances and throne. The Shishunagas ruled for fifty
conquests. By marrying off his sister to years before the throne was usurped by
Prasenajit, ruler of Kosala, he received Mahapadma Nanda.
Kasi as dowry. He also married the
princesses of Lichchhavis and Madra.
He maintained friendly relations with 4.2 Nandas: The First
Avanti but annexed Anga by military Empire Builders of India
might. Thus, Magadha became a
powerful and prominent power. During About a hundred years after Ajatashatru’s
his reign, Bimbisara patronised various demise, the Nandas became the emperors
religious sects and their leaders. He had of Magadha in 362 BCE. The first Nanda
an encounter with Buddha as well. ruler was Mahapadma. It is believed that he
usurped the throne by murdering the last
His son Ajatashatru ascended the of the Shishunaga kings. Under the Nandas,
throne by killing his father. King Prasenajit the empire expanded considerably, and the
immediately took back Kasi, which he had wealth and power of the Nandas became
handed out as dowry to Bimbisara. This widely known and feared. Mahapadma
led to a military confrontation between Nanda was succeeded by his eight sons,
Magadha and Kosala. The struggle lasted and they were together known as the
until Prasenajit was overthrown and died navanandas or the nine Nandas. During
at Rajgriha, the capital of Magadha Empire. the process of empire building, Nandas
exterminated many kshatriya clans and
subjugated kshatriya-ruled kingdoms,
which had still retained a degree of
autonomous authority, thus creating a
centralised state. An inscription known
as the Hathigumpha (elephant cave) from
Udayagiri near Bhubaneshwar, Odisha,
records the aqueduct built by King Nanda
three hundred years earlier. This is also
indicative of the geographical extent of the
Nanda Empire. Though the Nandas were
able administrators and had strengthened
the Magadha Empire, they were not popular
Bimbisara among the people.
60 Emergenc
e of State and Empire
A centralised state required a new administrative framework to govern an extensive territory,

the creation of a bureaucracy, resources of money and men for managing the administration
and the army. A system of revenue administration had to be developed to raise the funds needed
for the state through taxation. Such a political formation led to the development of cities as
administrative centres, distinct from villages and rural areas. A large standing army was required
for expanding and retaining the empire.
4.3 Persian and Macedonian of its strategic location on the trade route
Invasions between the East and the West, it emerged
as an important centre of learning and
The period from the sixth century witnessed culture. Students came from far and wide to
close cultural contact of the north-west of Taxila in search of knowledge. The city was
India with Persia and Greece. It might be brought to light by the excavation carried
surprising to know that Gandhara and its out in the 1940s by Sir John Marshall. Taxila
adjoining regions on the Indus were part of is considered “one of the greatest intellectual
the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Cyrus, achievements of any ancient civilization”.
the emperor of Persia, invaded India around Panini seems to have compiled his well-
530 BCE and destroyed the city of Kapisha. known work, Ashtadhyayi, here.
According to Greek historian Herodotus,
Gandhara constituted the twentieth and the Impact of Persian Contact
richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire.
The region continued to be part of the As the north-western part of India came
Persian Empire till the invasion of Alexander under the control of the Persian Empire
the Great. The inscriptions of Darius I from about middle of the sixth century,
mention the presence of the Persians in the the region became a centre of confluence
Indus region and include “the people of of Persian and Indian culture. The
Gadara, Haravati and Maka” as subjects of Persian contact left its impact on art,
the Achaemenid Empire. architecture, economy and administration
of ancient India. The cultural impact
was felt most in the Gandhara region.
The word “Hindu” appears for The most significant impact was the
the first time in an inscription of development of the Kharosthi script, used
Darius I at Persepolis, Iran. Darius in the north-western part of India. It was
lists “Hindu” as part of his empire. The used by Ashoka in his inscriptions in the
word “Sindhu”, denoting a river in general Gandhara region. The Kharosthi script
and Indus in particular, became “Hindu” was derived from Aramaic used widely in
in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S and the Achaemenid Empire of Persia.
called it Indu, which eventually came to be
Like Aramaic, Kharosthi was written
called Hindu and later India.
from right to left. Persian sigloi (silver coin)
is an imitation from the region. The earliest
coins in India are traced to the period of the
Taxila
mahajanapadas. The Indian word for coin
Takshashila or Taxila is situated in present- karsa is of Persian origin. The coins might
day Pakistan. Between the fifth century have been inspired by the Persian coins. The
and fourth century BCE, it was part of the existence of coins in that period suggests
Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Because trade links between India and Persia. The
Emergenc
Ashokan edicts might have been inspired by conquests in the Punjab region, Alexander
the edicts of the Achaemenid king Darius. expressed his desire to march further east
The Ashokan edicts use the term lipi instead to attack the Magadha Empire. However,
of the Iranian term dipi. his already tired troops had heard about the
The Mauryan art and architecture great emperor in the east (Nanda) and his
show traces of Persian influence. Mauryan formidable army and refused to be engaged
columns of the Ashokan Pillar are similar in a war against such a powerful adversary.
to the columns found in the Achaemenid
Empire. The bell-shaped capital of the
columns, especially the lion capital of Sarnath
pillar and the bell capital of Rampurval pillar,
show resemblance to designs found in the
Achaemenid columns. Similarly, the pillared
remains of the Palace in Pataliputra display
a remarkable similarity to the pillared hall
in the Achaemenid capital. However, the
Emperor Alexander
craftsmen, though inspired by the Persian
art and architecture, gave a definite Indian In 326 BCE when Alexander entered
character to their work. the Indian subcontinent after defeating
the Persians, Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila,
Connection between Persian surrendered and accepted the suzerainty of
Alexander. The most famous of Alexander’s
and Sanskrit
encounters was with Porus, ruler of the region
There are linguistic similarities between
between Jhelum and Beas. The two armies met
Rig Veda and Avesta. The term Aryas
in the battle of Hydaspes in which Porus was
was also used by the ancient Persians.
According to Indologist Thomas Burrow, imprisoned. Later, impressed by the Porus’s
only phonetic change had occurred dignity, Alexander restored his throne on
overtime. The Bogaz Koi (in North-East the condition of accepting his suzerainty. His
Syria) Inscription dating back to 1380 battle-weary soldiers refused to march further.
BCE records a treaty between a Hittite and Alexander did not want to proceed against
a Mitanni King. It mentions the names of a the reluctance of his army. During his return,
few Rig Vedic gods such as Indara, Uruvna Alexander died of typhoid in Babylon.
(Varuna), Mitira and Nasatiya (Ashvins).
4.4 Alexander’s Invasion

During Dana Nanda’s reign, Alexander
invaded north-west India (327–325 BCE).
In many ways, the invasion by Alexander
is a watershed in Indian history. It marked
the beginning of the interaction between
India and the West, which spanned many
centuries to follow. Greek historians began
to write about India, and Greek governors
and kings ruled in the north-western
region of India, which introduced new Surrender of Porus to Alexander, 1865
styles of art and governance. After his engraving by Alonzo Chappel (modern representation)
62 Emergenc
The Impact of Alexander’s established the Mauryan Empire and

Invasion became its first emperor in 321 BCE.
Alexander’s invasion led to the establishment
of Greek satrapies in the north-western
region of the Indian
subcontinent. Trade routes
opened up with the West.
There were four different
trade routes in use, which
facilitated the movement
of Greek merchants Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh
and craftsmen to India, Seleucus Nicator
We know from the Junagadh
establishing direct contact
rock inscription (referred to earlier) that
between India and Greece. As trade contact
Chandragupta had expanded his empire
increased, many Greek settlements were
westward as far as Gujarat. One of his great
established in the northwest of India.
achievements, according to local accounts, was
Alexandria near Kabul, Boukephala near
that he waged war against the Greek prefects
Peshawar in Pakistan and Alexandria in
(military officials) left behind by Alexander and
Sindh were some of the prominent Greek
destroyed them, so that the way was cleared
settlements.
to carry out his ambitious plan of expanding
The Greek accounts of India the territories. Another major event of his
provide valuable information but with a bit reign was the war against Seleucus, who was
of exaggeration. Alexander’s death created one of Alexander’s generals. After the death of
a void in the north-west, facilitating the Alexander, Seleucus had established his kingdom
accession of Chandragupta Maurya to the extending up to Punjab. Chandragupta defeated
throne of Magadha. It also helped him to him in a battle some time before 301 BCE and
conquer the numerous small chiefdoms in drove him out of the Punjab region. The final
the north-west and bring the region under agreement between the two was probably not
his empire. too acrimonious, since Chandragupta gave
Seleucus 500 war elephants, and Seleucus sent
an ambassador to Chandragupta’s court. This
4.5 Mauryan Empire ambassador was Megasthenes, and we owe
Contemporary accounts by Greek much of the information that we have about
historians show that Chandragupta was Chandragupta to Indica, the account written
a youth living in Taxila when Alexander by Megasthenes. The original of this work is
invaded India. Greek historians have lost, but many Greek historians had reproduced
recorded his name as “Sandrakottus” parts of his account describing the court of
or “Sandrakoptus”, which are evidently Chandragupta and his administration.
modified forms of Chandragupta.
Chandragupta
Inspired by Alexander, Chandragupta led
a revolt against the Nandas years later and Chandragupta was obviously a great
overthrew them. Chandragupta achieved ruler who had to reinvent a strong
it either by inciting the people to rise administrative apparatus to govern
against an unpopular monarch, or by his extensive kingdom. (The system of
soliciting their support in overthrowing governance and polity is discussed in the
an unpopular king. Chandragupta next section.) Chandragupta was ably
Emergenc
His sons were appointed as viceroys of

the different provinces of the empire. We
do not know much about his military
exploits, but the empire passed intact to
his son, Ashoka.
Bindusara ruled for 25 years, and
he must have died in 272 BCE. Ashoka
was not his chosen successor, and the
fact that he came to the throne only four
years later in 268 BCE would indicate
Chandragupta (modern representation) that there was a struggle between the
sons of Bindusara for the succession.
advised and aided by Chanakya, known Ashoka had been the viceroy of Taxila
for political manoeuvring, in governing when he put down a revolt against the
his empire. Contemporary Jain and local officials by the people of Taxila,
Buddhist texts hardly have any mention and was later the viceroy of Ujjain, the
of Chanakya. But popular oral tradition capital of Avanti and a major city and
ascribes the greatness of Chandragupta commercial centre. As emperor, he is
and his reign to the wisdom and genius credited with building the monumental
of Chanakya. Chanakya, also known as structures that have been excavated in
Kautilya and Vishnugupta, was a Brahmin the site of Pataliputra. He continued
and a sworn adversary of the Nandas. the tradition of close interaction with
He is credited with having devised the the Greek states in West Asia, and there
strategy for overthrowing the Nandas was mutual exchange of emissaries from
and helping Chandragupta to become the both sides.
emperor of Magadha. He is celebrated as
the author of the Arthasastra, a treatise Ashoka
on political strategy and governance. His
intrigues and brilliant strategy to subvert The defining event of Ashoka’s rule was his
the intended invasion of Magadha is the campaign against Kalinga (present-day
theme of the play, Mudrarakshasa. Odisha) in the eighth year of his reign. This
is the only recorded military expedition of
the Mauryas. The number of those killed
Bindusara in battle, those who died subsequently, and
Chandragupta’s son Bindusara succeeded those deported ran into tens
him as emperor in 297 BCE in a peaceful of thousands. The campaign
and natural transition. We do not know had probably been more
what happened to Chandragupta. He ferocious and brutal than
probably renounced the world. According usual because this was
to the Jain tradition, Chandragupta spent a punitive war against
his last years as an ascetic in Chandragiri, Kalinga, which had broken
near Sravanabelagola, in Karnataka. away from the Magadha
Bindusara was clearly a capable ruler Empire (the Hathigumpha
and continued his father’s tradition of inscription speaks of
close interaction with the Greek states of Kalinga as a part of the
West Asia. He continued to be advised by Emperor Ashoka
Nanda Empire). Ashoka was
Chanakya and other capable ministers. Devanampiya devastated by the carnage
64 Emergenc
and moved by the suffering that he converted

to humanistic values. He became a Buddhist
and his new-found values and beliefs were
recorded in a series of edicts, which confirm
his passion for peace and moral righteousness
or dhamma (dharma in Sanskrit).
Edicts of Ashoka Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE),

The edicts of Ashoka in the Brahmi at British Museum
thus constitute the
most concrete source
of information about
the Mauryan Empire. There are 33 edicts
comprising 14 Major Rock Edicts, 2
known as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts,
some Minor Rock Edicts and a few Minor
Pillar Inscriptions. The Major Rock Edicts
extend from Kandahar in Afghanistan,
Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra in north-
west Pakistan to Uttarakhand district The Ashoka edicts at Saranath
in the north, Gujarat and Maharashtra
in the west, Odisha in the east and as
far south as Karnataka and Kurnool
district in Andhra Pradesh. Minor Pillar
Inscriptions have been found as far north
as Nepal (near Lumbini). The edicts were
written mostly in the Brahmi script and
in Magadhi and Prakrit. The Kandahar
inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic,
while the two inscriptions in north-west
Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.
The geographical spread of the
edicts essentially defines the extent
of the vast empire over which Ashoka Rock Edict - Kandahar in Afghanistan
ruled. The second inscription mentions
lands beyond his borders: “the Chodas
(Cholas), the Pandyas, the Satiyaputa, the
Keralaputa (Chera), even Tamraparni,
the Yona king Antiyoka (Antiochus),
and the kings who are the neighbours of
this Antioka”. The edicts stress Ashoka’s
belief in peace, righteousness and justice
and his concern for the welfare of his
people. By rejecting violence and war,
advocating peace and the pursuit of
dhamma, Ashoka negated the prevailing
philosophy of statecraft that stressed that Rock Edict of Ashoka, Dhauli, Odisha
Emergenc
an emperor had to strive to extend and The consolidation of a state extending over
consolidate his empire through warfare nearly two-thirds of the sub-continent had
and military conquests. taken place with formalised administration,
development of bureaucratic institutions and
Third Buddhist Council economic expansion, in addition to the rise
One of the major events of Ashoka’s reign of new heterodox religions and philosophies
was the convening of the Third Buddhist that questioned the established orthodoxy.
sangha (council) in 250 BCE in the capital
Pataliputra. Ashoka’s deepening commitment
4.6 The Mauryan State and
to Buddhism meant that royal patronage was
extended to the Buddhist establishment. An Polity
important outcome of this sangha was the The major areas of concern for the Mauryan
decision to expand the reach of Buddhism to state were the collection of taxes as revenue
other parts of the region and to send missions to the state and the administration of justice,
to convert people to the religion. Buddhism in addition to the maintenance of internal
thus became a proselytizing religion and security and defence against external
missionaries were sent to regions outlying aggression. This required a large and complex
the empire such as Kashmir and South India. administrative machinery and institutions.
According to popular belief, Ashoka sent his Greek historians, taking their lead from
two children, Mahinda and Sanghamitta, Megasthenes, described the Mauryan state
to Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism. It as a centralised state. What we should infer
is believed that they took a branch of the from this description as a centralised state
original bodhi tree to Sri Lanka. is that a uniform pattern of administration
Ashoka died in 231 BCE. Sadly, was established throughout the very large
though his revolutionary view of governance area of the empire. But, given the existing
and non-violence find a resonance in our state of technology in communications and
contemporary sensibilities, they were not in transport, a decentralised administrative
consonance with the realities of the times. system had to be in place.
After his death, the Mauryan Empire slowly This bureaucratic set-up covered a
disintegrated and died out within fifty years. hierarchy of settlements from the village,
But the two centuries prior to Ashoka’s to the towns, provincial capitals and major
death and the disintegration of the Mauryan cities. The bureaucracy enabled and required
Empire were truly momentous in Indian an efficient system of revenue collection,
history. This was a period of great change. since it needed to be paid out of taxes
collected. Equally, the very large army of the
Mauryan Empire could be maintained only
with the revenue raised through taxation.
The large bureaucracy also commanded
huge salaries. According to the Arthasastra,
the salary of chief minister, the purohita and
the army commander was 48,000 panas,
and the soldiers received 500 panas. If we
multiply this by the number of infantry
and cavalry, we get an idea of the enormous
resources needed to maintain the army and
Ashoka’s visit to the Ramagrama the administrative staff.
Sanchi Stupa Southern Gate
66 Emergenc
Arthasastra Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh), Ujjain

Perhaps the most detailed account of (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in the north-
the administration is to be found in the west, and Tosali in Odisha in the south-
Arthasastra (though the work itself is now east. The provinces were administered by
dated to a few centuries later). However, it governors who were usually royal princes.
must be remembered that the Arthasastra In each region, the revenue and judicial
was a prescriptive text, which laid down the administration and the bureaucracy of the
guidelines for good administration. If we Mauryan state was replicated to achieve a
add to this the information from Ashoka’s uniform system of governance. Revenue
edicts and the work of Megasthenes, we collection was the responsibility of a
get a more comprehensive picture of the collector-general (samaharta) who was
Mauryan state as it was. also in charge of exchequer that he was,
in effect, like a minister of finance. He had
to supervise all the provinces, fortified
Provincial Administration towns, mines, forests, trade routes and
At the head of the administration was others, which were the sources of revenue.
the king. He was assisted by a council of The treasurer was responsible for keeping
ministers and a purohita or priest, who was a a record of the tax
person of great importance, and secretaries revenues. The accounts
known as mahamatriyas. The capital region of each department had
of Pataliputra was directly administered. to be presented jointly
The rest of the empire was divided into by the ministers to the
four provinces based at Suvarnagiri (near king. Each department
had a large staff of
MAURYAN EMPIRE N
W E
Pushkalayati Mauryan Empire
Taxila
Capital of empire S
Provincial Capital
Kandahar Pillar edict of Ashoka
Other city/town
Delhi-Topra
Delhi-Meerut
Delhi
(Indraprastha)
Shravasti Lumbini
Mathura Rampurya
Patala Vaishall Pataliputra

Gujjara Allahabad
Saranath
Kaushambi Varanasi Rajagriha
Vidisha Rupnath
Ujjain Sanchi Tripuri
Tamralipti
Bharukaccha
Sopara
BAY
OF
ARABIAN Sannati
BENGAL
SEA
Amaravati
Suvarnagiri Nittur Yerragudi
Siddapur Brahmagiri
An
SA KER
da
TY ALA
Laks
m a n a n d N ico
AP
(I n d i a)
UT
(I n d ia)
AS
RA
h ad w eep
OL
PU
CH
TR
AS
Y
AS
ND
PA
b ar
Map not to scale

I N D I A N O C E A N
Emergenc
superintendents and subordinate officers The dharmasthiya courts mostly dealt with
linked to the central and local governments. civil law relating to marriage, inheritance
and other aspects of civil life. The courts
District and Village were presided over by three judges well-
Administration versed in sacred laws and three amatyas
(secretaries). Another type of court
At the next level of administration came
was called kantakasodhana (removal of
the districts, villages and towns. The
thorns), also presided over by three judges
district was under the command of a
and three amatyas. The main purpose of
sthanika, while officials known as gopas
these courts was to clear the society of
were in charge of five to ten villages.
anti-social elements and various types of
Urban administration was handled by a
crimes, and it functioned more like the
nagarika. Villages were semi-autonomous
modern police, and relied on a network
and were under the authority of a gramani,
of spies for information about such anti-
appointed by the central government, and
social activities. Punishments for crimes
a council of village elders. Agriculture was
were usually quite severe. The overall
then, as it remained down the centuries,
objective of the judicial system as it
the most important contributor to the
evolved was to extend government control
economy, and the tax on agricultural
over most aspects of ordinary life.
produce constituted the most important
source of revenue. Usually, the king was Ashoka’s Dharmic State
entitled to one-sixth of the produce. In
reality, it was often much higher, usually Ashoka’s rule gives us
about one-fourth of the produce. an alternative model
of a righteous king
Source of Revenue and a just state. He
instructed his officials,
The Arthasastra, recommended the yuktas (subordinate
comprehensive state control over officials), rajjukas (rural administrators)
agricultural production and marketing, with and pradesikas (heads of the districts) to
warehouses to store agricultural products go on tours every five years to instruct
and regulated markets, in order to maximise people in dhamma (Major Rock Edict
the revenues from this most important 3). Ashoka’s injunctions to the officers
sector of the economy. Other taxes included and city magistrates stressed that all the
taxes on land, on irrigation if the sources of people were his children and he wished
irrigation had been provided by the state, for his people what he wished for his own
taxes on urban houses, customs and tolls on children, that they should obtain welfare
goods transported for trade and profits from and happiness in this world and the next.
coinage and trade operations carried on by These officials should recognise their own
the government. Lands owned by the king, responsibilities and strive to be impartial
forests, mines and manufacture and salt, on and see to it that men were not imprisoned
which the state held a monopoly, were also or tortured without good reason. He
important sources of revenue. added that he would send an officer every
five years to verify if his instructions were
Judicial Administration carried out (Kalinga Rock Edict 1).
Justice was administered through courts, Ashoka realised that an effective
which were established in all the major ruler needed to be fully informed about
towns. Two types of courts are mentioned. what was happening in his kingdom and
68 Emergenc
EDICTS OF ASHOKA N
W E
Manserah
S
Edicts of Ashoka
Shabazgarhi
Major rock edicts
Pillar edicts
Kandahar Minor rock edicts
Kalsi
Territorial limits
Delhi
Lumbini
Meerut
Lauriya-
Nandangarh Rampurva
Kausambi Lauriya-
Araraj
I N D I A
Girnar
Sopara Dhauli
Sannathi Jaugada
BAY
Amaravati OF
ARABIAN BENGAL
SEA
Yerragudi
L a k sh ad wee
(I n d ia)
p
insisted that he should be advised and 4.7 Economy and Society

informed promptly wherever he might be
(Major Rock Edict 6). He insisted that all Agriculture
religions should co-exist and the ascetics Agriculture formed the backbone of the
of all religions were honoured (Major economy. It was the largest sector in terms
Rock Edicts 7 and 12). Providing medical of its share in total revenue to the state and
care should be one of the functions of employment. The Greeks noted with wonder
the state, the emperor ordered hospitals that two crops could be raised annually in
to be set up to treat human beings and India because of the fertility of the soil. Besides
animals (Major Rock Edict 2). Preventing food grains, India also grew commercial crops
unnecessary slaughter of animals and such as sugarcane and cotton, described by
showing respect for all living beings was Megasthenes as a reed that produced honey
another recurrent theme in his edicts. In and trees on which wool grew. These were
Ashoka’s edicts, we find an alternative important commercial crops. The fact that the
humane and empathetic model of agrarian sector could produce a substantial
governance. The edicts stress that surplus was a major factor in the diversification
everybody, officials as well as subjects, of the economy beyond subsistence to
act righteously following dhamma. commercial production.
Emergenc
Crafts and Goods crafts. Woodwork was another important

Many crafts producing a variety of craft for ship-building, making carts and
manufactures flourished in the economy. chariots, house construction and so on.
We can categorise the products as Stone work–stone carving and polishing–
utilitarian or functional, and luxurious had evolved as a highly skilled craft. This
and ornamental. Spinning and weaving, expertise is seen in the stone sculptures
especially of cotton fabrics, relying on the in the stupa at Sanchi and the highly
universal availability of cotton throughout polished Chunar stone used for Ashoka’s
India, were the most widespread pillars.
occupations outside of agriculture. A great
variety of cloth was produced in the country,
ranging from the coarse fabrics used by
the ordinary people for everyday use, to
the very fine textures worn by the upper
classes and the royalty. The Arthasastra
refers to the regions producing specialised
textiles – Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal),
Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai and many
others. Each region produced many
distinctive and specialised varieties of Sanchi Stupa
fabrics. Cloth embroidered with gold and
silver was worn by the King and members A whole range of luxury goods
of the royal court. Silk was known and was produced, including gold and silver
was generally referred to as Chinese silk, articles, jewellery, perfumes and carved
which also indicates that extensive trade ivory. There is evidence that many other
was carried on in the Mauryan Empire. products like drugs and medicines,
pottery, dyes and gums were produced in
Metal and metal works were of great the Mauryan Empire. The economy had
importance, and the local metal workers thus developed far beyond subsistence
worked with iron, copper and other metals production to a very sophisticated level of
to produce tools, implements, vessels and commercial craft production.
other utility items. Iron smelting had
been known for many centuries, but there Crafts were predominantly urban-
was a great improvement in technology based hereditary occupations and sons
after about 500 BCE, which made it usually followed their fathers in the practice
possible to smelt iron in furnaces at very of various crafts. Craftsmen worked primarily
high temperatures. Archaeological finds as individuals, though royal workshops
show a great qualitative and quantitative for producing cloth and other products
improvement in iron production also existed. Each craft had a head called
after this date. Improvement in iron pamukha (pramukha or leader) and a jettha
technology had widespread implications (jyeshtha or elder) and was organised in a
for the rest of the economy. Better tools seni (srenior a guild), so that the institutional
like axes made more extensive clearing identity superseded the individual in craft
of forests possible for agriculture; better production. Disputes between srenis were
ploughs could improve agricultural resolved by a mahasetthi, and this ensured
processes; better nails and tools improved the smooth functioning of craft production
woodwork and carpentry as well as other in the cities.
70 Emergenc
Trade We do not have much information

Trade or exchange becomes a natural about the merchant communities. In
concomitant of economic diversification general, long-distance overland trade was
and growth. Production of a surplus beyond undertaken by merchant groups travelling
subsistence is futile unless the surplus has together as a caravan for security, led by
exchange value, since the surplus has no a caravan leader known as the maha-
use value when subsistence needs have been sarthavaha. Roads through forests and
met. Thus, as the economy diversified and unfavourable environments like deserts
expanded, exchange becomes an important were always dangerous. The Arthasastra,
part of realising the benefits of such however, stresses the importance of trade
expansion. Trade takes place in a hierarchy and ensuring its smooth functioning.
of markets, ranging from the exchange of Trade has to be facilitated through the
goods in a village market, between villages construction of roads and maintaining
and towns within a district, across cities them in good condition. Since tolls and
in long-distance overland trade and across octroi were collected on goods when they
borders to other countries. Trade also were transported, toll booths must have
needs a conducive political climate as was been set up and manned on all the trade
provided by the Mauryan Empire, which routes. Urban markets and craftsmen were
ensured peace and stability over a very generally closely monitored and controlled
large area. The rivers in the Gangetic plains to prevent fraud. The Arthasastra has a
were major means for transporting goods long list of the goods – agricultural and
throughout northern India. Goods were manufactured – which were traded in
transported further west overland by road. internal and foreign trade. These include
Roads connected the north of the country to textiles, woollens, silks, aromatic woods,
cities and markets in the south-east, and in animal skins and gems from various parts of
the south-west, passing through towns like India, China and Sri Lanka. Greek sources
Vidisha and Ujjain. The north-west route confirm the trade links with the west
linked the empire to central and western through the Greek states to Egypt. Indigo,
Asia. Overseas trade by ships was also ivory, tortoiseshell, pearls and perfumes and
known, and Buddhist Jataka tales refer to rare woods were all exported to Egypt.
the long voyages undertaken by merchants.
Sea-borne trade was carried on with Burma Coins and Currency
and the Malay Archipelago, and with Sri Though coinage was known, barter was
Lanka. The ships, however, were probably the medium of exchange in pre-modern
quite small and might have hugged the economies. In the Mauryan Empire, the silver
coastline. coin known as pana and its sub-divisions
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse Karshapana-Bindusara
Emergenc
were the most commonly used currency. representation of cities is found in the
Hordes of punch-marked coins have been sculptures in Sanchi, which portray royal
found in many parts of north India, though processions, and cities are seen to have
some of these coins may have been from roads, a multitude of people and multi-
earlier periods. Thus while coins were in storeyed buildings crowded together.
use, it is difficult to estimate the extent to
which the economy was monetised.
Urbanisation in Sixth
Process of Urbanisation Century BCE
Urbanisation is the process of the One of the first pre-requisites for urbanisation
establishment of towns and cities in an is the development of an agricultural base.
agrarian landscape. Towns can come up This had evolved in the Indo-Gangetic plain
for various reasons – as the headquarters and from very early on there are references
of administration, as pilgrim centres, as to cities like Hastinapura and Ayodhya.
commercial market centres and because of By about sixth century BCE, urbanization
their locational advantages on major trade had spread to the doab and many new city
routes. In what way do urban settlements centres like Kaushambi, Bhita, Vaishali and
differ from villages or rural settlements? Rajagriha, among others, are mentioned in
To begin with, towns and cities do not the region. Buddhist texts about Buddha’s
produce their own food and depend on the preaching were always located in urban
efficient transfer of agricultural surplus centres. Cities developed primarily because
for their basic consumption needs. A of the spread of agriculture and wet rice
larger number of people reside in towns cultivation, in particular in the doab region,
and cities and the density of population after the marshy land was drained and
is much higher in cities. Cities attract a reclaimed for cultivation. The fertile soil
variety of non-agricultural workers and and plentiful availability of water from the
craftsmen, who seek employment, thereby perennial rivers made it possible to raise
forming the workforce for the production even two crops of rice, and the production
of manufactured goods and services of of a large agricultural surplus to feed the
various kinds. These goods, in addition cities. The improvements in iron technology
to the agricultural products brought in also had an impact on economic life both
from the rural countryside, are traded in rural and urban areas. As Magadha grew,
in markets. Cities also tend to house many regional centres like Ujjain were also
a variety of persons in service-related incorporated into the empire.
activities. The sangam poetry in Tamil
and the Tamil epics provide vivid pictures
Housing and Town Planning
of cities like Madurai, Kanchipuram and
Poompuhar as teeming with people, with Towns were often located along the
vibrant markets and merchants selling rivers, presumably for ease of access to
a variety of goods, as well as vendors transportation. They were surrounded
selling various goods including food door by moats and a rampart to provide
to door. Though these literary works defensive protection. They were always
relate to a slightly later period, it is not open to attacks since treasuries holding
different in terms of the prevailing levels government revenue were housed in
of technology, and these descriptions may them, in addition to the fact that as
be taken as an accurate depiction of urban trading centres, the local people and
living. The only contemporary pictorial merchants were also wealthy. As the towns
72 Emergenc
became more prosperous, the quality monumental architecture that he added to

of the houses, which were built of mud the capital, like the many-pillared hall.
brick and even of fired brick, improved.
Towns also had other facilities like drains,
ring wells and mud pits, testifying to Art and Culture
the development of civic amenities and Most of the literature and art of the period
sanitation. Excavations from the Mauryan have not survived. Sanskrit language and
period show that the standard of living literature were enriched by the work of
had improved as compared to the earlier the grammarian Panini (c. 500 BCE), and
period. The houses were built of brick, Katyayana, who was a contemporary of
and the cities had ring wells and soak pits. the Nandas and had written a commentary
There was a quantitative increase in the on Panini’s work. Buddhist and Jain texts
use of iron and the variety of iron artefacts. were primarily written in Pali. Evidently
many literary works in Sanskrit were
City of Pataliputra produced during this period and find
mention in later works, but they are not
Pataliputra was the great capital city in available to us.
the Mauryan Empire. It was described as
a large and wealthy city, situated at the The Arthasastra notes the perform-
confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers, ing arts of the period, including music,
stretching in the form of a parallelogram. instrumental music, bards, dance and the-
It was more than 14 kilometres in length atre. The extensive production of crafted
and about 2 kilometres wide. It was luxury products like jewellery, ivory carv-
protected by an outer wall made of wood, ing and wood work, and especially stone
with loopholes for shooting arrows at carving should all be included as products
enemies. There were 64 gates to the city of Mauryan art.
and 570 watch towers. There was a wide Many religions, castes and
and deep moat outside the wall, which communities lived together in harmony
was fed by water from the river, which in the Mauryan society. There is little
served both as a defence and an outlet for mention of any overt dissension or
sewage. There were many grand palaces in disputes among them. As in many regions
the city, which had a large population. The of that era (including ancient Tamil
city was administered by a corporation Nadu), courtesans were accorded a special
of 30 members. Ashoka added to place in the social hierarchy and their
the magnificence of the city with the contributions were highly valued.
SUMMARY
Gana-sanghas in course of time became the larger mahajanapadas and of the 16

kingdoms, Magadha eventually emerged as the most powerful.
The first known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara, followed by his son Ajatashatru.
Mahapadma Nanda started the Nanda dynasty.
The invasion of north-west India by Alexander in 326 BCE opened up trade with
the West. After the death of Alexander, Chandragupta founded the Mauryan
Empire.
Emergenc
The three notable Mauryan rulers, Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka,

established a centralised state. The system of Mauryan administration came to
light through the accounts of Arthasastra and Indica.
Mauryan Empire set in a new phase in Indian history as trade and commerce
grew manifold during this period.
Mauryan Empire continued the earlier tradition of consolidation of the empire.
The truly revolutionary change that was attempted was Ashoka’s exhortations to
his officials and people to follow dhamma, abjure violence and lead a moral life.
Mauryan Empire marked a distinct phase in Indian history with significant
advances in technology and economic and social development, and created the
framework for a large, centrally administered, state.
Timeline
Notable Events Years
Invasion of Cyrus (Emperor of Persia) 530 BCE
Nandas establishing their empire in Magadha 362 BCE
Invasion of Alexander 326 BCE
Chandragupta founding the Mauryan Empire 321 BCE
Defeat of Seleucus by Chandragupta 301 BCE
Bindusara succeeding Chandragupta 297 BCE
Third Buddhist Sangha convened by Ashoka 250 BCE
Death of Ashoka 231 BCE
EXERCISE
I. Choose the correct answer
1. Brahmi script in Ashoka’s pillar inscription was deciphered by _____.
(a) Thomas Saunders (b) James Prinsep
(c) Sir John Marshal (d) William Jones
2. The first known ruler of Magadha was ______ of the Haryanka dynasty.
(a) Bimbisara (b) Ajatashatru
(c) Ashoka (d) Mahapadma Nanda
74 Emergenc
3. ____________ was the ruler of Magadha during the invasion of Alexander in India.
(a) Mahapadma Nanda (b) Dhana Nanda
(c) Bindhusara (d) Bimbisara
4. A comprehensive historical chronicle in Pali from Sri Lanka serving as an important source for the
Mauryan Period is ______.
(a) Mahavamsa (b) Deepavamsa
(c) Brahmanas (d) Mudrarakshasa
5. The play ______ by Visakadatha describes Chandragupta and his accession to the throne of the
Magadha Empire.
(a) Mudrarakshasa (b) Rajatharangini
(c) Arthasastra (d) Indica
6. Megasthenes’work ______describes the court of Chandragupta and his administration.

(a) Indica (b) Mudrarakshasa
(c) Ashtadhyayi (d) Arthasastra
7. The ______ was a prescriptive text for good administration.

(a) Arthasastra (b) Indica
(c) Rajatharangini (d) Mudrarakshasa
II. Answer the following briefly

1. How did Bimbisara extend the territory of Magadhan Empire?
2. Write a note on Mahapadma Nanda.
3. What made Alexander the Great to restore the throne of Porus ?
4. What are the features of a centralised state?
5. Give a brief note on the literary sources for the study of Mauryan state.
6. In what ways did the invasion of Alexander make a watershed in Indian history?
III. Answer the following

1. Mention the urban features revealed by archaeological findings.
2. Explain the features of the monarchies or kingdoms on the Gangetic plains.
3. Highlight the impact of the invasion of Alexander the Great on India.
4. What do you know of Ashoka’s campaign against Kalinga?
5. Discuss the extensive trade on textiles carried on during the Mauryan period.
6. Write a note on the commodities traded between India and West and South Asia.
Emergenc
IV. Answer the following in detail

1. Explain the sources for the study of the Mauryan Empire.
2. Describe the salient features of Mauryan polity.
3. Highlight the impact of Persians on India.
4. Give an account of the edicts of Ashoka.
Activity
1. Preparing a chart with information on the edicts of Ashoka.
2. Discussion on the outcome of the conquest of Kalinga.
3. Comparing the present-day system of administration with the Mauryan administration.
4. Making an album with pictures of Sanchi-Saranath pillars and Magadha and Mauryan kings.
GLOSSARY
antithetical - contrasting - ¯KÙHØC

inciting - inducing - ¾Ù©Ý
acrimonious - bitter - >@ÜHTG
manoeuvring - planned action - ¹âÖz
adversary - enemy - ZKT
negate - nullify - Y@JàHCTEETÔ¤
proselytizing - attempt to convert one’s - IEITäL¯Jäz
religion
empathetic - showing concern for - IäLPß6Dß[G
others IÚEà
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the History and Culture of the
Indian Sub-continent before the Coming of the Muslims, Picador, 2004.
2. Abraham Eraly, Gem in the Lotus: The Seeding of Indian Civilization, Penguin, 2000.
3. B.M. Barua, The Ajivikas, University of Calcutta, 1920.
4. D.N. Jha, Ancient India in Historical Outline, Manohar, New Delhi, 2010.
5. Dhammika, Ven. S. The Edicts of King Ashoka – an English Rendering. 1993/94.
6. John Keay, India: A History. 2000.
76 Emergenc
7. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, (ed.) The Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (reprint), 1996.
8. Romila Thapar, Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (rev. ed.), 1997.
9. Romila Thapar, The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300,
Penguin Books, 2002.
10. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. 1, George, Allen & Unwin, London
11. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to
the 12th Century, Pearson, Delhi, 2008.
12. Wm. Theodore D. Bary, ed., Sources of Indian Tradition, vol. 1, Columbia University
Press, New York, 1958.
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html
2. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/religion/f2001/edit/docs/samannaphala.pdf
Emergenc
Lesson Evolution of Society

in South India
5
Learning Objectives
To understand the social and political formation in early south India from the
third century BCE to the fifth century CE
Introduction
Stupas. The stupa is a heap of clay
In the Deccan region, encompassing major that evolved out of earthen funerary
parts of present day Andhra, Karnataka and mounds, in which the ashes of the dead
Maharashtra, the Satavahanas established a were buried. Buddhist stupas evolved
powerful kingdom in the first century BCE. out of the burial of the ashes of the
In the south, the three family ruling houses, mortal remains of the Buddha. Buddhist
the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas sacred architecture originated with
were their contemporaries, ruling the fertile the eight stupas where the ashes were
parts of Tamizhagam. But the Tamil rulers divided. Hemispherical shape, the stupa
started two centuries earlier as they figure symbolizes the universe; and the Buddha
in Asoka’s inscriptions of the third century represents the emperor of the spiritual
BCE. There were many common things as universe. The stupa has a path around it
for devotional circumambulation.
well as differences in the polity and society
of the Deccan and Tamil regions.
Sources The coins issued by the Cheras, Cholas,
Archaeological Pandyas, and the chieftains of the
Sangam Age.
The megalithic burials sites of the
early historic period. Roman copper, silver and gold coins.
Excavated material from ancient
sites, including ports, capital towns, Epigraphic
with architectural remains, such as in The Asokan inscriptions, written in Prakrit,
Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Alagankulam, found in Andhra-Karnataka regions.
and Uraiyur.
The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in
Buddhist sites with stupas and chaityas
the caves of Tamil Nadu and Kerala such
located in Andhra and Karnataka regions
as in Mangulam, Jambai, and Pugalur.
(Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, etc.)
The Satavahana inscriptions and other
Numismatic Buddhist inscriptions of the Andhra
Coins of pre-Satavahana chieftains region
and of the Satavahanas from Andhra- Short inscriptions found on pottery
Karnataka region. and rings and stones in Tamil Nadu
78
and some sites outside India, like Foreign Notices

in Berenike, and Quseir al Qadhim The following Greek and Latin sources
(Egypt). inform us about the long distance cultural
and commercial connections.
Literary
The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient
Tamil texts including the Sangam and Greek text of the first century CE.
post-Sangam literature Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, first
The Arthasastra, the treatise on century CE
economy and statecraft authored by Ptolemy’s Geography, second century
Kautilya CE
The Puranas which mention the Vienna Papyrus G 40822, a Greek
genealogy of the Andhras/Satavahanas, document datable to the second
Buddhist Chronicles such as century CE.
Mahavamsa. A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table
Gatha Saptasati, a Prakrit text
composed by the Satavahana king Hala
5.1 South India during
Classical Tamil Literature
Mauryan times
The Classical Sangam corpus consists The Asokan edicts (c. 270-30 BCE) present
of Tholkappiyam, the eight anthologies for the first time a picture of the political
(Ettuththokai), Paththuppattu. Tholkappiyam, condition in south India. Rock Edict II lists
attributed to Tholkappiyar, is the earliest the Tamil ruling houses Cholas, Pandyas,
extant Tamil grammatical text dealing not Keralaputras and Satiyaputra as neighbour
only with poetry but also the society and rulers, lying beyond his domain, where
culture of the times. The Pathinen Kilkanakku he is said to have made provision for
(18 minor works) and the five epics belong to two types of medical treatment: medical
post-Sangam times (fourth to sixth century treatment for both humans and animals.
CE) and describe a different social and The Mauryan empire at that time included
cultural set-up. northern parts of Karnataka and Andhra,
Ettuthogai and Pathupattu collections have about 2400 poems. These poems, varying in length
from 3 to 800 lines, were composed by panar, the wandering bards and pulavar, the poets.
The Eight Anthologies are 1. Natrinai; 2. Kurunthogai; 3. Aingurunuru; 4. Patitruppathu;
5. Paripadal; 6. Kalithogai; 7. Akananuru; 8. Purananuru
Pathupattu (ten long songs): 1. Thirumurugatrupatai; 2. Porunaratrupatai;
3. Sirupanatruppatai; 4. Perumpanatruppatai; 5. Mullaipattu; 6. Maduraikanchi;
7. Nedunalvadai; 8. Kurinjipattu; 9. Pattinappalai; 10. Malaipadukadam.
Patinen Kilkanakku texts, which are post-Sangam works, include eighteen texts, which mostly deal
with ethics and moral codes. The most important of them are Thirukkural, and Naladiyar.
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai are the two important epics useful for insights into cultural and
religious history.
Evolution of Society in South India 79
while the Tamil kingdoms were treated as is available about their rulers, their coins
independent neighbours. and inscriptions reveal that they were
chiefs who controlled small territories.
Women Poets of the Sangam Age

5.2 South India under the
Of the over 450 poets who contributed Satavahanas
to the corpus of Sangam poetry about
thirty are women. They composed more The Satavahanas emerged in the first century
than 150 poems. The most prominent BCE in the Deccan region. They ruled over
DQGSUROL¿FDPRQJWKHPZDV$YYDL\DU parts of Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka and
2WKHUV LQFOXGH $OOXU 1DQPXOODL\DDU Madhya Pradesh. From recent archaeological
Kaakkaipadiniyar, Kavarpendu, evidence it is understood that the Satavahanas
1DOYHOL\DDU 2NNXU 0DVDDWKL\DU DQG started to rule in the Telengana area and
Paarimakalir. then moved to Maharashtra to rule in the
Godavari basin with Prathistan (Paithan
in Maharashtra) as their capital. Later they
After the decline of the Mauryan moved eastwards to control coastal Andhra
power, and before the rise of the also. The work of Pliny talks about 30 walled
Satavahanas, many small principalities towns, a large army, cavalry and elephant force
emerged. Although not much information in the Andhra country.
SATAVAHANA EMPIRE
Malwa
Avanti Ujjayani
Saurashtra Utkala Tripuri
Junagadh Bharuch
Girnar Anupa
Vidarbha ga
Nasik lin Sisupalpuri
Kalyan Muluka Ka
Pratishthan
Sopara Bay of
Asmaka
Arabian Bengal
Sea
Amravati
Andama
L a k shad weep
(I n dia)
n and Nicob
(I n d ia)
ar
Indian Ocean
80 Evolution of Soc
i ety in South India
Gautamiputra Satakarni
was the greatest of the
Satavahana kings. He
defeated the Shaka
ruler Nahapana and
reissued the coins of
Nahapana with his own royal insignia.
The inscription of his mother Gautami
Balashri at Nashik mentions him as the
conqueror of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Naneghat inscription
Yavanas. He is also said to have performed
the prestigious Vedic asvamedha sacrifice. Buddhists and Brahmins. The Naneghat
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, the inscription refers to tax exemptions given
successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni, to the lands granted to Buddhist monks.
expanded the frontiers of the Satavahana Thus we notice the beginning of priestly
Empire. The coins issued by him are found groups attaining higher status. These land
scattered in many parts of south India. donations created a group of people who
Yagnashri Satakarni was another famous did not cultivate, but owned land. This led
ruler who issued coins with a ship motif, to the development of land-based social
indicating the importance of the overseas hierarchy and divisions in the society.
trade during his reign. For the first time a big state covering
a major part of the Deccan was established.
Several rock-cut caves dedicated to the
Buddha sangha bear evidence that they
were situated in the trade routes linking
the interior to the coastal parts of Konkan
region. It was also a period of brisk Indo-
Roman trade.
Vasishthiputra Pulumavi 5.3 The Sangam Age

King Hala is credited with the The first three centuries of the Common
writing of Gatha Sattasai, a collection of Era are widely accepted as the Sangam
700 love poems. Written in Maharshtri period, as the information for this period
Prakrit dialect, it has themes similar to is mainly derived from the Sangam
those found in the Tamil Sangam poetry. literature. More correctly this has to be
The Satavahana Empire declined called as the early historical period and
around the 3rd century CE and was starts one or two centuries earlier, from
replaced by the Ikshvakus, followed by the the second century BCE, as we have clear
Pallavas, in Andhra and the Kadambas in epigraphical and archaeological evidence,
northern Karnataka. in addition to literary evidence.
Importance of Satavahana Period The Muvendar

Offering land grants was an important Though the three Tamil ruling families
development of the Satavahana times. The were known to Asoka in the third century
beneficiaries of these grants were mostly BCE itself, some individual names are
known only from the Sangam poems flourishing port during his time. Another
of the first century and later. Known as king, Perunarkilli is said to have performed
muvendar, ‘the three crowned kings’, the the Vedic sacrifice Rajasuyam. Karikalan’s
Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas controlled death was followed by a succession dispute
major agrarian territories, trade routes between the Puhar and Uraiyur branches
and towns. But the Satiyaputra (same of the Chola royal family.
as Athiyaman) found in the Asokan The Cheras controlled the central
inscription along with the above three and northern parts of Kerala and the
houses is a Velir chief in the Sangam Kongu region of Tamil Nadu. Vanji was
poems. their capital and the ports of the west
The Cholas controlled the central coast, Musiri and Tondi, were under their
and northern parts of Tamil Nadu. Their control. Vanji is identified with Karur,
core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later while some scholars identify it with
known as Cholamandalam. Their capital Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala. Now it is
was Uraiyur (near Thiruchirapalli town) and accepted by most scholars that there were
Puhar or Kaviripattinam was an alternative two main branches of the Chera family
royal residence and chief port town. Tiger and the Poraiya branch ruled from Karur
was their emblem. Kaviripattinam attracted of present-day Tamil Nadu.
merchants from various regions of the The Patitrupathu speaks of eight
Indian Ocean. Pattinappalai, composed by Chera kings, their territory and fame.
the poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar, offers The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur
elaborate descriptions of the bustling trading mention Chera kings of three generations.
activity here during the rule of Karikalan. Chellirumporai issued coins in his name.
Karikalan, son of Ilanjetchenni, Imayavaramban Nedun-cheralathan and
is portrayed as the greatest Chola of the Chenguttuvan are some of the prominent
Sangam age. Pattinappalai gives a vivid Chera kings. Chenguttuvan defeated many
account of his reign. Karikalan’s foremost chieftains and is said to have ensured the
military achievement was the defeat of safety of the great port Musiri by putting
the Cheras and Pandyas, supported by as down piracy. But the great north Indian
many as eleven Velir chieftains at Venni. expedition of Chenguttuvan mentioned in
He is credited with converting forest Silappathikaram is however not mentioned
into habitable regions and developing in the Sangam poems. He is said to have
agriculture by providing irrigation through ruled for fifty-six years, patronising the
the embankment of the Kaveri and orthodox and heterodox religions. Some
building reservoirs. Kaviripattinam was a Cheras issued copper and lead coins, with
Karikalan (modern representation) Cheran Chenguttuvan with Ilango Adigal

(modern representation)
82 Evolution of Soc
Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman

coins. There are many other Chera coins
with their bow and arrow emblem but
without any writing on them.
The Pandyas ruled from Madurai.
Korkai was their main port, located near
the confluence of Thampraparani with
the Bay of Bengal. It was famous for pearl
fishery and chank diving. Korkai is referred
to in the Periplus as Kolkoi. Fish was the
emblem of the Pandyas. Their coins have Nedunchezhiyan (modern representation)
elephant on one side and a stylised image
of fish on the other. They invaded Southern credit for capturing Milalai and Mutthuru
Kerala and controlled the port of Nelkynda, (Pudukottai district) two important places
near Kottayam. According to tradition, from a Vel chief. He is praised as the lord of
they patronized the Tamil Sangams and Korkai, and as the overlord of the southern
facilitated the compilation of the Sangam Paratavar, a martial and fishing community
poems. The Sangam poems mention the of the Tirunelveli coast.
names of several kings, but their succession
and regnal years are not clear.
5.4 Social Formation in
Tamil Eco-zones
Sangam poems help us
understand the social
formation of the time.
According to the thinai
concept, Tamilagam was
divided into five landscapes
Coin of Peruvazhuthi or eco-regions namely
Kurinji, Marutam, Mullai, Neytal and Palai.
The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi Each region had distinct characteristics –
inscription mentions a Pandya king by name a presiding deity, people and cultural life
Nedunchezhiyan of the second century BCE. according to the environmental conditions,
Maduraikanchi refers to Mudukudumi- as follows:
Peruvazhuthi and another Nedunchezhiyan,
victor of Talaiyalanganam, and a few other Kurinji: hilly region: hunting and
Pandya kings. Mudukudimi-Peruvazhuthi gathering
is referred to in the Velvikkudi copper Marutham: riverine tract:
plates of eighth century for donating land to agriculture using plough and irrigation.
Brahmans. He seems to have issued coins with
Mullai: forested region: pastoralism
the legend Peruvazhuthi, to commemorate
combined with shifting cultivation
his performance of many Vedic sacrifices.
Neythal: coastal land: fishing and
Nedunchezhiyan is praised for his
salt making.
victory over the combined army of the Chera,
the Chola and five Velir chieftains (Thithiyan, Palai: parched land. Unsuitable for
Elini, Erumaiyuran, Irungovenman, and cultivation and hence people took to cattle
Porunan) at Talayalanganam. He is also given lifting and robbery.
5.5 Tamil Polity The following counter arguments

are presented in response:
In a way this thinai classification is said
to reflect the uneven socio-economic A closer look at the Sangam literature
developments of the different localities. That is reveals that social differentiation is
seen in the political forms too. Three levels of evident in the Marutham region.
rulers are found:1) Kizhar, 2) Velir, 3) Vendar. The territorial associations are very
Kizhar were the heads of the villages or a small clear in the case of the Muvendar,
territory, later known as nadu. They were the and their important position is
chiefs of tribal communities living in specific corroborated by the Greco-Roman
areas. The Vendar were kings controlling texts from the first century CE.
larger, fertile territories. Warfare for territorial expansion was
The Velir, who were many in a major theme of Puratthinai
number, controlled the territories of Evidence for taxation at the highways
varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and in the port of Kaviripattinam is
and forest areas, that were in between the cited. The Chera king is spoken as
muvendar’s fertile territories. Chiefs like receiving the resources from the hills
Athiyaman, Pari, Ay, Evvi and Irungo each and the port of Musiri.
commanded a big area, rich in natural
Trade played an important role between
resources. They were generous patrons
the late first century BCE and third
of the poets and bards. They had military
century CE.
power and there were frequent wars
among these chiefs on account of capture
of cattle. On many occasions they seem to Political Ascendancy of the
have united and confronted one or other Vendar
of the three kings.
From the chiefs of the Iron Age (c. 1100-
There are differing views among 300 BCE) emerged the Vendar of the
scholars, with regard to the political early historic period. While certain chiefs
organization of the three kingdoms. The attained higher status (vendar) through
earlier and dominant view is that the the larger and effective control of pastoral
Sangam Age society was a well-organised and agricultural regions, others in the
state society. The other view which is marginal regions remained as chieftains
put forward in recent decades is that the (velir). For example, Athiyamans,
polities of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas mentioned as Satiyaputra in the Ashoka
were pre-state chiefdoms. The arguments inscriptions, became weak and did not
for the latter view are: attain the status of kings like the Chola,
1. No social stratification is noticed. Pandya and Chera vendar.
2. Proper territorial association is The Vendar subjugated the
absent. chieftains and fought with the other two
Vendars. For this they mobilized their
3. Destructive warfare did not allow
own warriors, besides seeking the support
the development of agriculture and
of some Velir chiefs. The adoption of
surplus production for the emergence
titles was one of the measures adopted
of the state.
by the Sangam Age Vendar to display
4. No evidence of taxation as in the their power. Titles such as Kadungo,
governments of North India. Imayavaramban and Vanavaramban and
84 Evolution of Soc
Peru Vazhuthi distinguished themselves

from the ordinary people and the Velirs.
The patronization of bards and
poets and entertaining them in their courts
(avaiyam) was probably a step undertaken
by the kings to glorify their name and
fame and also their territories and towns.
For example, the Chola king Karikalan is
said to have offered a huge amount of gold
coins to Uruttirankannanar who composed
Pattinappalai.
5.6 Society and Economy

In the Sangam Age the wars waged by the Stones for ornaments, Pattanam
Vendar were involved in expanding their
territorial base by annexing the enemy’s
territories. Endemic warfare presumably The names of persons mentioned in
created conditions for social disparities. inscriptions on pottery reveal the presence
of non-Tamil speakers, mostly traders, in
War captives serving in some cult centres
certain craft centres and towns. Traders from
are mentioned. Some references to slaves
faraway regions were present in the Tamil
are also found there.Women were actively
country. Manimegalai refers to Magadha
engaged in economic production and there artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva smiths
were a significant number of women poets and Yavana carpenters working in co-
in the Sangam Age. operation with Tamil craftsmen. Trade-
There is evidence of craft related terms such as vanikan, chattan
production such as bronze vessels, beads and nigama appear in the Tamil-Brahmi
and gold works, textiles, shell bangles and inscriptions. Salt merchants called umanar,
ornaments, glass, iron smithy, pottery travelled in bullock carts along with their
making. Craft production was common in families for trade activities. Chattu referred
the major urban centres such as Arikamedu, to the itinerary or mobile merchants.
Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam,
Madurai, Korkai, and Pattanam in Kerala.
Maduraikanchi speaks about day markets
as well as and night markets selling
several craft goods. Raw materials for
the production of various objects and
ornaments were not available everywhere.
Precious and semi-precious stones were
collected, which were exchanged for other
commodities. Such raw materials reached
the industrial centres, where various
objects were made, and they were again
exchanged for some other produce.
Roman Amphora
is a legend associated with the movement

of Chandragupta Maurya to Karnataka
region before the time of Ashoka. The
Satavahanas, Sangam kings and Ikshvahus
supported Vedic sacrifices. The evidence
for the movement of Brahmins and the
performance of Vedic ritual practices
is found in the Sangam texts. But the
varnasrama ideology was yet to take root
in the Tamil region.
Evidence of Buddhism is widely
found in south India. The Krishna
and Godavari delta of Andhra had
many important Buddhist centres.
Roman Glass Bowls
Archaeological excavations conducted in
Amaravathi, Nagarjunakonda, etc. show
how deep-rooted was Buddhism. In Tamil
In trade, barter system was much Nadu, Kaviripattinam and Kanchipuram
in vogue, though coins were also in use. have evidence of Buddhist Stupas. But
Roman coins circulated as bullion. Long compared to Jainism, the evidence for
distance trade existed and the connections Buddhism is restricted to a few sites in
with the Roman empire and southeast Asia Tamil Nadu. The numerous cave shelters
are in evidence at many archaeological with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found
sites. The southern part of India, because in Tamil Nadu show that Jainism was
of its easy access to the coast and location more influential in the Tamil country.
in the maritime trade route connecting the Their influence on the common people is
East and the West, played an important role not known but we have evidence for the
in the overseas contacts. The major early merchants and lay devotees supporting
historic ports have evidence of Roman Jain monks by providing rock shelters and
amphora, glassware and other materials offerings. In the post-Sangam centuries
suggesting active maritime activities. The
wealth brought by the Romans and the
arrival of foreign merchants is evidenced
in archaeology as well as literature. Roman
gold and silver coins have been found in
many hoards in the Coimbatore region
and in many other places in south India.
5.7 Ideology and Religion

The earliest evidence of the appearance
of formal religious activities appears in
the time of the Asoka, when Buddhism
reached south India and Sri Lanka.
Asoka’s daughter is considered to have
Amaravathi Stupa
taken the Bodhi tree to Sri Lanka. There
86 Evolution of Soc
Tamil culture disappeared in this interval.

This idea of the Kalabhra interregnum is
no more accepted as correct.
Rather this is the time when the
greatest Tamil work Tirukkural was written
along with many other works grouped
as the eighteen minor works. The epics
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai also
belong to this period. As this was the time
when the non-orthodox religions, Jainism
and Buddhism became more influential,
Buddha Statue, Nagarjunakonda
the scholars of the orthodox Vedic-
Puranic school seem to have created the
impression that the ruling Kalabhras of
Jains contributed substantially to Tamil the time were evil in nature.
literature. The recent interpretation of the
period takes it as a period of transition
leading to enlarged state societies under the
5.8 Age of Kalabhras - Post
Pallavas ruling over northern Tamilnadu
Sangam Period and the Pandyas in the south from the sixth
The period between the Sangam Age century onwards. To start with, the rulers
and the Pallava-Pandya period, roughly of these new states were patrons of the Jain
between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known and Buddhist religions and gradually they
as the age of Kalabhras in the history of came under the spell of the orthodox Vedic-
Tamizhagam. As the three traditional Puranic religion emerging in the form of the
kingdoms disappeared in this interval Bhakti cults of Saivism and Vaishnavism. But
due to the occupation of their territory the influence of Jain and Buddhist religions
by a warlike group called the Kalabhras, on the general society was so strong as to
this period was called an interregnum or evoke much aversion from the Bhakti saints.
'dark age' by earlier historians. It was also
supposed that many good traits of earlier
A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district datable to about the

middle of the fifth century, name two kings. They are Chendan and Kurran. Though there is no
mention about their family or dynasty name, some scholars identify them as Kalabhra rulers.
The Kalabhra kingdom seems to have been uprooted by Pandyas around the third quarters of
sixth century CE.
SUMMARY
The history of south India can be traced clearly from about the third century
BCE, as script was adopted for writing Tamil, and written evidence in the form
inscriptions and literature are available.
Economic development with agro-pastoral expansion characterised the Early
Historic Period.
The Cheras, Cholas, and the Pandyas, who were at the level of chiefdoms in the
Iron Age, became kings with the title of Vendar in the Sangam Age.
The Satavahanas who ruled Andhra, Karnataka and Maharashtra regions were
contemporary rulers.
Buddhism and Jainism had a strong presence in south India. Vedic ideas started
to influence the ruling class.
Sea-borne trade in the Indian Ocean regions and with the Roman world developed.
The idea of Kalabhra interregnum is contested as cultural activities continued as
before in this period.
EXERCISE
I. Choose the correct answer:

1. Karikala was the son of _________
(a) Sengannan (b) Kadungo
(c) Ilanjetchenni (d) Athiyaman
2. Which of the following pairs is not correct?

(i) Talayalanganam - Nedunchezhiyan
(ii) Pattinapalai - Uruttirankannanar
(iii) Gajabahu - Ceylon
(iv) Tiruvanchikulam - Cholas
(a) (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (d) (iv)
3. _________ performed Rajasuya sacrifice

(a) Perunarkilli (b)Mudukudumi Peruvazhuthi
(c) Simuka (d) Athiyaman
4. Indravihara is mentioned in _________ .

(a) Manimegalai (b) Silappathikaram
(c) Ashoka inscription (d) Chera coin
88 Evolution of Soc
5. Ikshavakus wielded power in _________.

(a) Andhra-Karnataka region (b) Odisha
(c) Deccan region (d) Banavasi
6. Read the following and pick out the wrong statement

(i) Kalabhras are referred to as Kaliyarasars
(ii) Kalabhras were Saivites
(iii) Kalabhras defeated Pallavas and Pandyas
(iv) Ikshavakus supported vedic sacrifices
(a) (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (d) (iv)
II. Answer briefly

1. Explain Barter System.
2. What do you know from Madurai Kanchi?
3. What did Hiuen Tsang see in Kanchipuram?
4. Identify Adukotpattu Cheralathan.
III. Write short notes

1. The five eco-zones of Tamil land during Sangam Age
2. Karikala as the greatest of early Chola rulers.
3. Achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarani.
4. Distinction between Khizhar and Velir.
IV. Write in Detail

1. Sangam polity should be considered pre-state chiefdom. Give your reasons in support of or against
this statement?
2. Describe the administrative structure in the kingdom of Muvendars.
3. Who were the Kalabhras? What do we know about them from Pulankurichi inscriptions.
4. Attempt an account of traders and their long distance trade during the Sangam and the immediate
post-Sangam period.
Activity
1. Deliberations on various ideas articulated in Thirukkural
2. Visit to ancient port-towns in the neighbourhood to compile an account of the ruins and the
memories of the local people there.
GLOSSARY
numismatic - pertaining to coins - FTDJÕ>ãHäJ

PXQL¿FHQFH - generosity - Y>T[CPãNå[I
corroborate - confirm - 6²ÜH©Ú«
exalted - dignified - 6JßÛE
insignia - emblem - 2>TKÖzåGÝ
interregnum - the interval - 4[CÜH©>TMÝ
amalgamate - combine, come together - 4[D
commemoration - celebration in honour - Y>TÙCTØCÝ
of or in memory of
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. R.Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization in South India. Oxford
University Press, 1996.
2. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India. Oxford University Press, 1955.
3. Noboru Karashima, ed., A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.
Oxford University Press, 2014.
4. Rajan Gurukkal, Social Formation in South India. Oxford University Press, 2009.
5. Romila Thapar, Early India. Penguin.
6. R. Sathyanathier, History of India, Vol. I, 1972 (Reprint).
7. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval South India. Pearson
Longman, 2009.
90 Evolution of Soc
Lesson Polity and Society in

Post-Mauryan Period
6
Learning Objectives
To learn the cultural influence of Greeks on India

To know the Indo-Greek rulers and their contributions
To have knowledge about invasion of Sakas, Pahlavis of Parthians and Kushanas
from Central Asia
To gain understanding of the importance of contact between India and Central
Asia
To understand the reciprocal influence on art and literature
To gain insight into the magnitude of trade with Rome and its impact on economy
Introduction conquest of the Punjab region. When he

In the four centuries following the death of began his return march to the West, he left
Emperor Asoka and the resulting decline the conquered territories under provincial
of the Mauryan Empire, parts of India governors. One of Chandragupta Maurya’s
were subject to the invasion of the Indo- early military expeditions was against
Greeks, Sakas and Kushanas from West these foreign intruders.
and Central Asia. All of them established Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s
themselves as rulers over large parts of most capable generals, succeeded in
India. This strengthened the process of making himself the master of a vast
acculturation and the assimilation of territory from Phrygia (Turkey) to the river
foreign cultures and art forms into Indian Indus after 311BCE. Within a few years,
society. It also resulted in the integration probably around 305 BCE, Chandragupta
of India with the Mediterranean world and waged a war against Seleucus and defeated
Central Asia and China through extended him. However, this was not the savage
trade linkages. defeat that happened to Alexander’s
governors. Instead, Chandragupta made
a peace treaty with Seleucus. Seleucus
6.1 Indo-Greek Relations surrendered the land he had conquered
The Beginnings up to the Indus and received 500 war
elephants in return. There is also mention
India’s interaction with the Greeks began of a marriage agreement. The treaty also
with the invasion of north-western India led to the establishment of diplomatic
by Alexander (327–325 BCE) and his
91
relations between the Greeks and the at Pataliputra. Many historians argue that
Mauryan emperor. Megasthenes was sent the elaborate administrative institutions
to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra as the of the Mauryan Empire drew inspiration
Greek ambassador. from the administrative systems of the
Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son, Persians and Greeks. The eventual rise
continued to maintain friendly ties with of Indo-Greek kingdoms in western
the Greek kingdoms in West Asia. Greek India strengthened these cross-cultural
historians refer to ambassadors sent by influences and gave rise to a distinct
Ptolemy II of Egypt and to Bindusara’s school of art.
correspondence with Antiochus of Syria.
Asoka also continued the tradition of
Indo-Greek kings
friendly relations with the Greek kingdoms.
His Rock Edict (13) mentions five yona The Seleucid Empire, which extended
kings, identified as Antiochus II Theos of from northern Afghanistan (Bactria) to
Syria, Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt, Syria, began to weaken and disintegrate
Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, Magas after 250 BCE. The governor of Bactria,
of Cyrene and Alexander of Corinth. This Diodotus, revolted against Antiochus
also indicates that the relations of Asoka II and became the independent ruler of
with the Greeks extended beyond West Bactria. In 212 BCE, the king of Bactria
Asia well into the heartland of Greece. was a Greek named Euthydemus. The
Seleucid emperor Antiochus III was
We now come across the term
unable to subjugate Euthydemus and
yavana (or yona) for Greeks, which was
agreed to negotiate a settlement with
used throughout India. The word was
him, since Antiochus himself needed to
derived from the Persian word yauna,
turn his attention to his dominions in the
which referred to Greeks. In India the
West. But Antiochus III did come down
term yavana was used to denote all persons
the Kabul river and managed to defeat the
of Greek origin, including those of mixed
local Indian king, known as Subhagasena.
race and even the Phoenicians.
Nothing much is known about this king.
This regular interchange of It can be inferred that the mention of an
ambassadors and correspondence, as well independent king in the region might
as the extension of the Mauryan Empire be an indication of the weakening of the
till Afghanistan, facilitated regular trade central authority of the Mauryan Empire
from India to the West as far as Egypt. after Asoka’s death in 236 BCE.
Trade was carried on by the overland route
via north-west Afghanistan (Bactria) and
also partly by the coastal route along the Demetrius
Persian Gulf and Red Sea. A variety of Euthydemus’s son Demetrius succeeded
luxury goods, including ivory, tortoise him (c. 200 BCE), and another Demetrius,
shell, pearls, indigo and other dyes, probably Demetrius II, was the first
aromatic substances like spikenard or nard known Indo-Greek king (c. 175 BCE).
(a fragrant oil from the Gangetic region) The distinguishing feature of the reign of
and malabathrum (leaf of cinnamon, the Indo-Greek kings was their exquisite
used as an aromatic) and rare woods were coinage. Minted in the same style as Greek
exported from India. coins of silver, they carried the portrait
The cultural influence of the Greeks of the reigning king on one side with
is evident from the capitals of monuments his name. The coins thus give us a visual
92 Polity and Soc
i ety in Post-Mauryan Period
picture of the kings, who are represented north-west of the country. His coins have
in various kinds of headgear and with been found over an extensive area ranging
distinctive facial and physical features. from the valleys of the Kabul and Indus
Extensive collections of these coins have rivers to as far as western Uttar Pradesh.
been found from the period, which makes This gives a good indication of the extent
it possible to reconstruct the lineage of the of his kingdom. Though he does not look
Indo-Greek kings with certainty. like a great and heroic conqueror as seen
Indian accounts of the period refer in his coins, he is said to have raided the
to the yavana invasion of Ayodhya (Saketa) Gangetic region along with the kings of
and further east into the Magadha territory. Panchala and Mathura. King Kharavela
However, since the Greeks seem to have of Kalinga mentioned in the Hathigumpa
been beset by internal dissensions, they did inscription, was not able to stop him.
not retain any of this territory. They ceded Menander successfully attacked Pataliputra,
land to Pushyamitra, the Sunga emperor but retreated without consolidating his
who had usurped the throne after the last conquest. Interestingly, in his coins, he is
Mauryan ruler. Numismatic evidence also described as “king” and “soter” or saviour,
proves Demetrius’s association with India. and not as a great conqueror.
He issued bi-lingual square coins with Menander is mainly remembered as
Greek on the obverse and Kharoshti (the the eponymous hero of the Buddhist text,
local language of north-western Pakistan) Milinda-pinha (questions of Milinda), in
on the reverse. which he is engaged in a question-and-answer
discussion on Buddhism with the teacher
Nagasena. He is believed to have become a
Buddhist and promoted Buddhism.
Demetrius II
At about 165 BCE, Bactria was lost

to the Parthians and Sakas. After this, the
yavanas continued to rule in central and
southern Afghanistan and north-western Menander
India. The Greeks continued to be beset
with internal squabbles among many Another Indo-Greek king whose
claimants to power, and the names of name is remembered is Antialcidas (or
more than thirty kings can be identified Antialkidas), c. 110. He is known to us
from their coins. It is possible that they all primarily because his emissary, Heliodorus,
ruled small pockets as autonomous rulers who was sent to the court of King
and issued their own coinage. Bhagabhadra erected a pillar or garuda-
dhvaja with its capital adorned by a figure
of Garuda, in honour of God Krishna
Menander (Vasudeva). Heliodorus had evidently
Menander (c.165/145–130 BCE) was the become a follower of Vishnu. (The pillar
best known of the Indo-Greek kings. He is stands in isolation in the middle of a open
said to have ruled a large kingdom in the ground in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.)
Polity and Soc

i ety in Post-Mauryan Period 93
Indian interactions with the Greeks was westward by the Chinese who had built
not limited to the Indo-Greek kings. Greeks the Great Wall to keep out nomads and to
were becoming known and their presence protect their villages and agriculture from
recorded throughout the sub-continent. their raids. The Yueh-chi, in turn, turned
Merchants, sailors and many others of Greek westward and pushed the Sakas towards
origin were travelling to India, so there was a eastern Iran, where the Parthians had
continued interaction with the Greeks. become rulers following the collapse of the
Seleucid empire. As a curious historical
event, in 58 BCE, the independent Parthian
6.2 Sakas, Parthians and kingdom of eastern Iran was established by
Kushanas the Parthian Vonones (or Azes, according
The Indo-Greek kingdoms in north-western to some historians). This year was taken to
India were ousted by various nomadic denote the start of the Vikram samvat era,
tribes from Central Asia, known as the the Indian calendar.
Sakas (Scythians), Parthians (Pahlavis)
and Kushanas (yueh-chi or yuezhi tribes in Sakas
Chinese). In spite of the fact that they followed The Sakas were pushed back from eastern
the Greek practice of issuing vast amounts of Iran by the Parthian ruler Mithradates
coinage with their names and titles (mostly (188–123 BCE), and they then turned to
“king of kings”), this is a very confusing north-western India and finally settled in
period in our history. It is a daunting task to the region between the Indus valley and
try and work out the lineage of various ruling Saurashtra. The first Saka ruler in India was
clans and dynasties that came into India. Maues or Moa/Moga (20 BCE to 22 CE). He
The first question that arises is: why occupied Gandhara, driving a wedge into
and how did nomadic tribes turn to war and the Indo-Greek kingdoms, but it was his
conquest? The advent of these tribes in India successor Azes who finally destroyed the
arose as a result of a complex sequence of last remnants of the Indo-Greek kingdoms
migrations and political developments in and extended Saka rule as far as Mathura.
Central Asia. In the eastern part of Central In India, the Sakas became
Asia, the Yueh-chi were being pushed assimilated into Hindu society. They
began to adopt Hindu names and religious
beliefs, so much so that their coins had
representations of Hindu gods on one side.
The Sakas appointed kshatrapas or satraps
as provincial governors to administer
their territories. Many of the kshatrapas
titled themselves mahakshatrapas and
were virtually independent rulers.
One of the most famous of the Saka
kshatrapas was Rudradaman (130–150 CE).
His exploits are celebrated in the famous
rock inscription of Junagadh (in Gujarat).
According to this inscription, he had even
defeated the Satavahanas in battle. His name
indicates that the process of assimilation into
Junagath Inscription of Rudradaman Indian society was complete by that time.
94 Polity and Soc

Kushanas hence, divided about Kanishka’s period.

The Sakas were displaced by the Parthian His rule is said to have started anywhere
Gondophernes, who first conquered Kabul between 78 and 144 CE. Kanishka was an
(c. 43 CE). He lost the Kabul valley to the ardent follower of Buddhism and hosted the
Kushanas, but he was successful against fourth Buddhist mahasangha or council (the
the Sakas in India. Records of his rule have third council had been held in Pataliputra
been discovered in Peshawar district. The during Asoka’s reign). By now Mahayana
Sakas approached the Kushanas (yueh-chi) Buddhism had become the dominant sect,
for war help against the Parthians. The first and Kanishka supported the missions sent
Kushana king who conquered Afghanistan to China to preach Buddhism.
was Khujula Kadphises, followed by Wima
Kadphises. The two kings extended Kushana
territory to Gandhara, Punjab and as far to the
east as the Ganga-Jumna doab till Mathura.
Kanishka
Kanishka Kanishka Coin
The best known of the Kushana kings was
Kanishka, who is thought to have ruled Kushana coins were of the highest
from 78 CE till 101 or 102 CE. Ironically, 78 quality and conformed to the weight
CE is held to be the beginning of the “Saka standards of Roman coins. In the coins,
era” in the Indian calendar. Historians are, Kushana rulers are referred to as “king of
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Polity and Soc

kings”, “Caesar”, “lord of all lands” and by other Art and Literature
such titles. Unfortunately, the titles did not During the reign of
leave much room on the coins for the actual Kushanas, there was great
name of the ruler. Hence our information on creative energy when art
the Kushana kings tends to be very uncertain. and literature flourished.
Kanishka’s coins as well as his statue found This was partly due to
near Mathura show him dressed in a belted royal patronage and
tunic along with overcoat and wearing boots, partly due to other factors, like the growing
testifying to his Central Asian origins. ascendancy of Mahayana Buddhism, which
The Karakoram highway, a joint allowed the representation of the person of
project between China and Pakistan, Buddha in human form.
which was completed in 1979, has The Greek influence led
yielded great dividends for archaeologists to an Indo-Greek style
and historians. The rock of Hunza of sculpture and art
mentions the first two Kadphises and the commonly referred to
Kusanadevaputra (son of God) Maharaja as Gandhara art. Statues
Kaniska. This inscription confirms that of Buddha, sculpted
Kanishka’s empire stretched from Central particularly in Taxila
Asia till eastern India. Buddhist sources and the north-western
record that he had conquered Magadha regions, show him in
and Kashmir and Khotan in Sinkiang. graceful garments,
Gandhara Art
The artefacts found along the surrounded by cherubs
Karakoram highway also establish that this was and leaves inspired by
the route taken by Buddhist monks travelling the Greek tradition. But mention must also
to China on their mission to spread Buddhism. be made of the red sandstone sculpture with
Merchants followed the missionaries, so this intricate carving produced near Mathura.
became a major commercial route for the The Buddhists began to carve out
import of Chinese silk and horses from the rock caves in the hills of western India, which
West into India. Indian merchants established served as religious centres with chaityas and
themselves in various towns in Central viharas, stretching from the Ajanta caves to
Asia and seized the opportunity to become the Kanheri caves in Mumbai. Large statues
intermediaries in the luxury trade between of Buddha were sculpted in these caves as a
China and the Roman Empire, since merchants part of the Mahayana tradition, and in later
from the West did not want to venture further centuries, they were further embellished
east beyond Central Asia. with murals of extraordinary beauty, as
Kushana kings, mostly with their seen in the Ajanta caves.
names ending with –shka (among them Kanishka was the patron of Buddhist
Huvishka and Vasishka as well as later philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva
Kanishkas and even Vasudeva), ruled for at and Vasumitra, as well as the great Buddhist
least one century more, but nothing much is teacher Nagarjuna. Asvaghosha is known
known about them. Clearly the empire was for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated
beginning to break down, and the satraps as the author of the first Sanskrit play,
(the Kushanas also continued the practice of Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts. The
appointing satraps to govern the provinces) great dramatist Bhasa, whose plays were
were able to set themselves up as independent re-discovered only about a hundred years
rulers in various regional capitals. ago in South India, most probably belonged
96 Polity and Soc

to this period. Among the Hindu treatises, we We know that these kings were known to
find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s Kamasutra the Mauryas even in the 3rd century BCE
and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape and Asoka’s second rock edict mentions
by the second century CE. them as kingdoms bordering his empire.
However, there were many war lords and
chiefs (often referred to as velir) who were
Gandhara Art
ruling over smaller principalities in the region.
Situated in the cross-roads of cultural
influences, Gandhara region was influenced We have extensive information about
by Greek and Roman culture. Gandhara the Tamil region coming from the corpus
school of art developed in the first century of Tamil poetry collectively known as the
Common Era. During the time of Kushana Sangam literature, dating from the third
Empire, in view of its contact with Rome, the century BCE to the third century CE. To
techniques of Roman art were assimilated these we can add the epics Silappadikaram
and applied in north-western India. The and Manimekalai, which were written
Gandhara art is famous for the portrayal of somewhat later. The very large volume of
Buddha in a spiritual state, eyes half-closed in trade with the Tamil region evoked a great
meditation. deal of interest among the Roman and
Greek historians and geographers, and their
accounts complement the information in
6.3 The Tamil Kingdoms the Tamil sources, especially with respect to
Southern India remained immune to trade. A first century CE account in Greek,
the political changes taking place in the the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (Periplus
northern part of the country. Around the first Maris Erythraei), is the most reliable source
century CE, the Satavahana kingdom was of information on the ports of the Indian
established in the Deccan area, comprising coast and trade. Archaeological findings
the modern states confirm the information from all these
of Andhra Pradesh sources.
and Telangana.
This, however, Contours of International Trade
was not like the
Two major developments changed the
centralised empire
contours of trade between Europe and
of the Mauryas,
India towards the beginning of the
and the provincial
Common Era. By the end of the last
governors of the
century BCE, Rome emerged as the
Satavahanas had a Image of Satavahana King
Gautami Putra Satakarni superpower of the Mediterranean world,
considerable degree
displacing the Greek kingdoms, and the
of autonomy.
republic became an empire in 27 BCE
The political landscape of the Tamil under Emperor Augustus. Rome was the
region was fragmented into small kingdoms, largest and, probably, the wealthiest city
in contrast to the north where extensive in the world commanding huge resources
empires flourished. The Tamil region was realised through conquests in Europe
ruled by muvendar, the three kings – the and North Africa. The wealth of Rome
Pandyas from their capital Madurai, the greatly increased the demand for various
Cholas from their capital Uraiyur (now products from India, especially the spices
a suburb of the city of Tiruchi), and the and textiles of the Tamil country, resulting
Cheras from Vanji (modern-day Karur). in a great expansion of trade.
Polity and Soc

Era, Roman ships did not venture past

the western coast of India around Cape
Comorin. So the ports on the west coast
were the main ports involved in trade with
Rome. From the west coast, the Roman
traders travelled overland through the
Palghat pass to production centres further
east. Kodumanal and Padiyur in Erode
Roman Trade-Ship and Vaniyampadi near Salem had mines
producing beryl, which was a gemstone
The second development was the in high demand in Rome. In addition,
discovery of the pattern of monsoon winds Chennimalai near Erode produced iron
in the Arabian Sea in the first century and steel (remnants of furnaces and slag
CE by Hippalus, an Egyptian sailor. Till have been found here), which was also
then, the sea trade between India and exported to Rome. This is the reason why
the Mediterranean world was controlled the finds of Roman coins of the earlier
by the Arabs. Arabs had a monopoly of period are concentrated in Coimbatore,
the knowledge of the source regions of Erode, Salem and Karur districts.
products such as cinnamon and pepper,
which formed the main export to Rome.
But when the information about the direct
sea route became common knowledge,
Roman ships began to sail directly to the
western coast of India. They could thus
avoid sailing close to the coastline, which
made them vulnerable to attacks by pirates.
Further, this also meant that the overland
route could be circumvented completely,
since traders on that route were also
vulnerable to attacks by Parthians in Iran.
The ultimate result of the combination of
the growing demand from Rome and the
opening of the direct sea route to western
India was a increase in the number of
ships sailing to India from about twenty Muziri papyrus document
ships a year to almost one ship a day.
By the end of the
first century CE, however,
6.4 Trade Between Roman ships had begun
Tamizhagam and Rome to sail to ports on the
Coromandel (east) coast
Trade had flourished between the Tamil of Tamil Nadu, and
country and Rome even when Rome was a many of these ports are
republic. Roman coins and artefacts of the mentioned in the Periplus. On the west coast,
period have been excavated at Arikamedu, the main ports were Naura (Cannanore)
near Pondicherry, which is said to have and Tyndys/Tondi (Ponnani), which were
been an Indo-Roman trading station. said to be on the northern border of the
Before the first century of the Common Tamil country of the Cheras. Musiri or
98 Polity and Soc

Muziris was an important port located subsequently comprised only cotton textiles
further south. Traditionally identified as and pepper, which were relatively low-value
Kodungallur, the recently undertaken commodities.
Muziris excavation locates the port at A further change in the trading
Pattanam, a few kilometers away. Muziris pattern evolved because of the increased
was probably the busiest port on the coast. A vulnerability of the traditional overland
recently discovered trade agreement written silk route. Silk cloth and yarn from China
on papyrus between a merchant of Muziris were carried by sea to the Coromandel
and a merchant of Alexandria indicates ports, from where they were transshipped
the large consignments of cargo carried to Rome. Information about the trade
even by individual merchants. According relations of the Tamil region with the
to Sangam poetry, Musiri was the centre of south-east and further east is very scanty.
two circuits of trade. Boats came in from However, tortoiseshell (an important
the interior carrying rice and took back export to Rome) was sourced from islands
fish, which indicates a kind of barter trade near Malaya in the Indian Ocean, while silk
in the primary consumption goods. At the came from China. There was also constant
same time, sacks of pepper were brought interaction with Java and Sri Lanka, which
to the market and were exchanged for gold, are mentioned in Tamil literature almost as
which came in the ships, which in turn, was extensions of Tamil Nadu, and Buddhism
transported on barges to the shore. was probably the connecting link, which
The ships sailing from India to Rome brought these countries together.
carried pepper, a large quantity of pearls,
ivory, silk cloth, spikenard (a fragrant oil
Foreign merchants (yavanas)
from the Gangetic region which was much
in demand for personal use among wealthy The expansion of overseas trade and
Romans) malabathrum, the leaf of the shipping brought foreign merchants and
cinnamon tree, again used as an aromatic, sailors to the Tamil region. Because of the
sapphire, beryl, diamonds and tortoiseshell. seasonal nature of the monsoon winds,
As Roman ships began to trade with the and the prevailing levels of technology,
Coromandel coast, the fine cotton textiles of long voyages necessitated long periods of
the region were also exported. From Rome, stay in host countries. We find interesting
the main imports were coin, topaz, antimony, insights into the response of Tamil society
coral, crude glass, copper, tin and lead and to the presence of these foreign merchants.
wine. Clearly, the value of the exports from Puhar was the most important port on the
the Tamil region was much higher than Coromandel coast. Here, yavana merchants
the value of imports from Rome, and the lived in especially ear-marked residential
volume of trade peaked in the second half quarters in the harbour area. Though they
of the first century CE, during the reign were allowed to trade freely, and were
of Emperor Tiberius. The growing trade noted for their attractive goods, there was
imbalance, which had to be met through a good deal of reserve in the attitude of
exports of coins or silver, became a source the local Tamils to foreign merchants who
of concern. There was a complaint that were considered an alien, barbaric people,
each year the trade to India caused a drain who spoke a harsh-sounding language.
of 55 million sesterces to Rome. Ultimately Other yavanas also came with the
Emperor Vespasian passed laws to curb merchants. The fortress of Madurai was
the luxury consumption of the wealthier guarded by yavanas carrying large swords.
classes in Rome, and imports from India There are also references to yavana
Polity and Soc
metal workers and carpenters, who were groups. It is more than probable that they
described as “hard-eyed” probably because exchanged their salt for other goods and
they had grey or blue eyes. All these may necessities, rather than selling the salt
not have been strictly of Greek origin, as for money. However, the extent of the
implied by the term yavana, which had overland and overseas trade, as well as
become a generic word to denote persons the descriptions of the city markets in the
from the eastern Mediterranean regions. literature would imply that money was the
main medium of exchange.
Trade and the Economy: The
Larger Picture
The magnitude of the expansion of trade
that is evident in this period could have
been achieved only through major changes
to the production base of the economy. Even
in the case of primary products like mined
Roman coins
gemstones like beryl, increased demand
would have involved more labour to work the
mines, more implements and more capital.
In the case of textiles, there would have been
a considerable increase in weaving activity
and in the subsidiary activities like spinning
to produce the yarn for weaving, and perhaps
even growing more cotton to increase the
supply of the raw material. Growing trade Chera coins
thus would lead to a considerable degree of The Roman coins that have been
expansion of the economy. found in various centres substantiate this
Merchants became more visible inference. Locally, imitations of Roman
and important as trade grew. There were coins were also minted, primarily to
merchants dealing with specific products increase the supply of money in circulation.
like food grains, cloth, gold and jewellery Fairly large volumes of Chera coins have
in the markets of the big cities. Merchants also been found in the bed of the Amaravati
were also involved in overseas trade, as river. The very large quantities of Indo-
well as overland trade. Thus, the circuits Greek and Kushana coins found in North
of trade became more specialised with India would lead to a similar conclusion
institutionalised arrangements to support about the level of monetisation. All this
the expanding commercial activities. would lead to the inference that there was
considerable use of money as the medium
One of the most important questions of exchange in the ancient period.
that arises is what was the extent to which
money was used in commerce. This is
Conclusion
difficult to answer. In all pre-modern
economies, barter was an important The centuries in discussion in this chapter
medium of exchange. For instance, salt were not a period of great political stability.
merchants of the Tamil region carried With the exception of Kanishka, the invaders
salt in their carts from the coastal areas in North India did not consolidate their
of the east inland, travelling together in conquests by establishing large, stable
100 Polity and Soc

empires. Even Kanishka ruled only for a and up to the known Mediterranean world
relatively short period, and his empire slowly in the west. For the south, in addition to
fell apart after his death. The Tamil region did internal trade and circuits of exchange, there
not have the unifying force of a large empire was exponential growth in overseas trade to
and was fragmented into relatively small the west, and also to the east up to China. The
kingdoms and even smaller principalities. result would be seen in a considerable degree
The most important development of this of economic growth and increased prosperity,
period both for the north and the south was which is evident from the excavations of cities
the great expansion of trade. From the north, as well as the descriptions of urban centres in
trade relations extended to China in the east Tamil poetry.
SUMMARY
The invasion of Greeks led to the reciprocal influence.

In India, after Alexander’s death, his general Seleucus Nicator, succeeded to
the region across north-western India as a ruler and consequently diplomatic
relations were established.
The Seleucid Empire got weakened and as a result, following a couple of his
successors, Menander, the best known of Indo-Greek Kings ruled the empire.
The Indo-Greek kingdom was ousted by the Sakas followed by the Parthians
and the Kushanas. The Sakas appointed kshatraps or provincial governors to
administer the territories.
Rudradaman was the most famous Saka ruler. After him, the Sakas were displaced
by the Parthians who were succeeded by the Kushanas.
The best known of the Kushanas was Kanishka who was an ardent follower of
Mahayana form of Buddhism. Gandhara art developed during his period.
Buddhist philosophers such as Asvaghosha, Parsva, Vasumitra and Nagarjuna
were patronised by Kanishka.
In South India, Satavahana kingdom was established in the first century CE.
Muvendar (Chola, Chera and Pandya) were dominant in this region.
Trade developed between the Tamil country and Rome. Puhar became an
important port on Coramandel coast. Yavana merchants lived in port towns.
These centuries were not a period of political stability. Yet, expansion of maritime
trade led to economic growth and prosperity.
Polity and Soc

EXERCISE
I. Choose the correct answer:

1. ______________ was one of the most capable generals of Alexander.
(a) Seleucus Nicator (b) Antigonus (c) Antiochus (d) Demetrius
2. Megasthenes was sent by Seleucus Nicator to the capital Pataliputra as the ______________
ambassador.
(a) Roman (b) Greek (c) Chinese (d) British
3. The regular interchange of ambassadors and correspondence______________.

(a) affected the regular trade from India to the West
(b) facilitated regular trade from India to the West
(c) facilitated regular trade from India to the East
(d) none of the above
4. ______________ was the best known of the Indo-Greek kings.

(a) Euthydemus (b) Demetrius (c) Menander (d) Antialcidas
5. Kushana coins were of higher quality than that of ______________ coins.

(a) Roman (b) Greek (c) Gupta (d) Satavahana
6. Indo-Greek style of art and sculpture is referred to as ______________.
(a) Mathura art (b) Gandhara art (c) Bagh art (d) Pala art
7. Which of the following is not correctly matched?

(a) Buddhacharita - Asvagosha
(b) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea - Megasthenes
(c) Arthasastra - Kautilya
(d) Kamasutra - Vatsyayana
8. The most famous Saka kshatrap was ______________.

(a) Moga (b) Rudradaman (c) Azes (d) Yesovarman
9. The contours of trade between Europe and India was changed towards the beginning of the
Common Era because
(i) Rome emerged as the super power of the Mediterranean world by the end of the last century
BCE.
(ii) The discovery of the pattern of the monsoon winds in the Arabian Sea by Hippalus was in the
first century CE.
(a) (i) is correct (b) (ii) is correct

(c) Both (i) and (ii) are correct (d) Both (i) and (ii) are wrong
102 Polity and Soc

10. Roman coins have been excavated at ______________.

(a) Arikamedu (b) Adhichanallur (c) Puhar (d) Pallavaram
II. Attempt a brief note on the following

1. What led to the integration of India with the Mediterranean world, Central Asia and China?
2. What was the result of the war between Chandragupta and Seleucus Nicator?
3. What is meant by the term Yavana?
4. “Menander is said to have ruled a large kingdom in the North West of the country.” Elaborate.
5. Write a short note on “Kshatraps”.
6. Make a list of the following: Items exported to Rome; Items imported into India from Rome.
7. Explain the contribution of merchants to the expanding trade and commerce.
III. Write short answers

1. Point out the speciality of the coins of Demetrius.
2. What do you know of Menander?
3. “The Roman coins of the earlier period are concentrated in Coimbatore, Erode, Salem and Karur
districts.” Why?
4. “Muziri was the centre of two circuits of trade.’” How?
5. Explain the importance of money as medium of exchange.
6. Highlight the cultural influence of India’s contact with Greeks.
IV. Write answers in detail

1. “The rise of Indo-Greek kings in Western India strengthened trade and cultural contacts”. Explain.
2. Discuss the contribution of Kanishka to art and literature.
3. Explain how Rome emerged as the super power of the Mediterranean world.
4. Given an account of the Tamil Kingdoms of first century CE.
Activity
1. Collect interesting information about India by Megasthenes.
2. Explore the coinage of Indo-Greeks.
3. Compare and contrast Mahayana and Hinayana forms of Buddhism.
4. Locate Rome as an important commercial hub on the world map.
Polity and Soc

GLOSSARY
acculturation - adapting to the - LHÙHT©9äLà

surrounding culture
eponymous - the person after whom - YHJ±Ô¤J
someone is named
daunting - discouraging - 7Ô>Ý4OÔ>ÚEÔ>
embellished - add beauty - 2O¤H©Ú«
squabble - argument - @Ö@K¶
doab - a fertile tract of land - 4±F>´Ôx[Cà
between two adjacent >TDÜH©ÝY@µ[IJTG
rivers MÜH¤
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. John Keay, India: A History. Harper Collins.
2. R.C. Majumdar, History and Culture of the Indian People: The Age of Imperial Unity
(vol. II). Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan’s
3. Kanakalatha Mukund, Merchants of Tamilakam: Pioneers of International Trade.
Penguin Books India.
4. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Motilal Banarsidass.
5. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to A.D.1300. Penguin Books India.
104 Polity and Soc

ICT CORNER
Polity and society in Post-Mauryan Period
This activity is to explore Maps.

You can know about countries,
capitals, flags and cities in all
the continents using Educational
Interactive Game Settera Map
Quiz.
Steps:
• Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR
Code.
• Free Map Quiz page will appear on the screen.
• Scroll down and you can select any continent or country
(ex. Indian Cities)
• Explore various places on the map, play and engage in
quiz activities
Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4
Browse in the link

Web: https://online.seterra.com/en/
Mobile : https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.seterra.free
*Pictures are indicative only.
Polity and Soc

Lesson
The Guptas
7
Learning Objectives
To learn the importance of Gupta rule in Indian history.

To understand the significance of land grants and its impact on agricultural
economy of the empire.
To acquaint ourselves with the nature of the society and the socio-economic life
of the people of the time.
To know the development of culture, art and education during the period.
Introduction a golden age, it is not entirely accurate.

After the Mauryan empire, many small Many scholars would, however, agree that
kingdoms rose and fell. In the period from it was a period of cultural florescence and
c. 300 to 700 CE, a classical pattern of an a classical age for the arts.
imperial rule evolved, paving the way for
state formation in many regions. During Sources
this period, the Gupta kingdom emerged There are three types of sources for
as a great power and achieved the political reconstructing the history of the Gupta
unification of a large part of the Indian period.
subcontinent. It featured a strong central
government, bringing many kingdoms I. Literary sources
under its hegemony. Feudalism as an Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati and
institution began to take root during this Katyayana smritis.
period. With an effective guild system
and overseas trade, the Gupta economy Kamandaka’s Nitisara, a work on
boomed. Great works in Sanskrit were polity addressed to the king (400 CE)
produced during this period and a high D e v i ch an drag u p t am and
level of cultural maturity in fine arts, Mudrarakshasam by Vishakadutta
sculpture and architecture was achieved. provide details about the rise of the
The living standards of upper Guptas.
classes reached a peak. Education, art Buddhist and Jaina texts
and study of science progressed, but the Works of Kalidasa
feudal system of governance put people
in some form of hardship. Although some Accounts of the Chinese traveller
historians proclaim that Gupta period was Fahien
106
II. Epigraphical Sources the Nepal Terai. According to Allahabad pillar

Mehrauli Iron Pillar inscription – inscription Samudragupta, the illustrious son
achievements of Chandragupta I. of Chandragupta I, had conquered the whole
fertile plains west of Prayag to Mathura and
Allahabad Pillar inscription – launched a spectacular raid through Kalinga
describing Samudragupta’s personality into the south as far as Kanchipuram,
and achievements in 33 lines composed the Pallava capital. The Puranas mention
by Harisena and engraved in Sanskrit Magadha, Allahabad and Oudh as the Gupta
in Nagari script. dominions.
7.1 Chandragupata I and

Empire Building
The first ruler of the Gupta Empire was Sri
Gupta (240–280 CE) who was succeeded by
his son Ghatotkacha (280–319 CE). Both Sri
Gupta and Ghatotkacha are mentioned as
Maharajas in inscriptions. Chandragupta I,
the son of Ghatotkacha, ruled from 319 to 335
CE and is considered to be the first great king
of the Gupta Empire. Chandragupta held the
title of maharaja-adhiraja (great king over
other kings). His imperial position is inferred
from the records of others. No inscriptions or
coins have survived from his reign.
Mehrauli Iron Pillar

7.2 Samudragupta
III. Numismatic Sources Chandragupta I appointed his son
Samudragupta to succeed him in 335 CE.
Coins issued by Gupta kings contain
A lengthy eulogy on him, inscribed on an
legends and figures. These gold coins tell
Ashokan pillar, suggests that he was claiming
us about the titles the Guptas assumed
the legacy of the Mauryan kingdom.
and the Vedic rituals they performed.
This inscription gives an impressive list
of kings and regions that succumbed to
Origins of the Gupta Dynasty Samudragupta’s march across the country.
Evidence on the origin and antecedents of the Four northern kings were
Gupta dynasty is limited. The Gupta kings conquered mainly in the area around
seem to have risen from modest origins. Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh. The
Chandragupta I, who was the third ruler of kings of the south and the east were
the Gupta dynasty married Kumaradevi, a forced to pay homage, and from the places
Lichchavi prince. The marriage is mentioned mentioned, it appears that Samudragupta
in the records of his successors with pride campaigned down the eastern coast as
indicating that that royal connection would far as Kanchipuram. Nine kings of the
have contributed to the rise of Guptas. western half of the Ganges Plain were
Lichchavi was an old, established gana-sangha violently uprooted. The forest kings (tribal
and its territory lay between the Ganges and chiefs of Central India and the Deccan)
The Guptas 107
EMPIRE OF GUPTAS N
W E
Empire of Guptas S
Ancient towns
Temples
Buddhist temple
Stupas
Cave temple
YAUDHEYAS
Indraprastha
KOSALA
Mathura Kapilavastjhu
tra
pu
ARJUNAYANAS ma
MALAVAS Kushinagar ah
Br
Mandasaur Ayodhya
Prayaga Nalanda
Kashi GayaRajgriha
Ujjayini
I N D I A
Valabhi Bharut
Sanchi Tamralipti
Girnar
MAHAKOSALA BAY
OF
A
Ajanta BENGAL
G
G
od
Ellora N
LI
av
VAKATAKAS KA Puri
ar
Kri
ARABIAN
i
shn
Nagarjunakonda a Vengi
SEA
Srisailam Amaravati
AS
AV
LL
PA Kanchi
An
da m
CHOLAS
Lakshad weep isla
an and n ic ob ar i
CH
Tanjore
ER
(I N D I A )
(I N D I A )
AS
Madurai
S
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were forced to pay tribute. The kings of to accept Gupta’s suzerainty. In addition,
Assam and Bengal in eastern India and foreign kings, such as the Daivaputra
those of small kingdoms in Nepal and the Shahanushahi (a Kushana title), the Sakas
Punjab also paid tribute by submission. and the king of Lanka also paid tribute, as
Nine Republics in Rajasthan, including mentioned in the eulogy.
the Malavas and Yaudheyas, were forced Though this statement is exaggerat-
ed, it is undeniable that the southern kings
paid tribute, while the northern kingdoms
were annexed to the Gupta Empire un-
der Samudragupta. His direct control was
confined to the Ganges valley, since the
Sakas remained unconquered in western
India. The tribes of Rajasthan paid trib-
ute, but the Punjab was outside the limits
of his authority. Samudragupta’s campaign
broke the power of the tribal republics in
those regions that led to repeated invasions
from the Huns.
The relationship with Kushanas is
not certain, but with regard to Lanka, its
ruler Meghavarman sent presents and
requested permission from Samudragupta
to build a Buddhist monastery at Gaya.
Allahabad Pillar Samudragupta’s reign lasted for about
108 The Guptas
The kingdom’s prosperity grew out

of its trade links with Roman Empire. After
establishing himself in eastern and western
India, Chandragupta II defeated northern
rulers like the Huns, Kambojas and Kiratas.
He was a great conqueror and an able
Samudragupta playing the vina
administrator as well. His other names
(as mentioned in coins) include Vikrama,
40 years, which must have given him Devagupta, Devaraja, Simhavikrama,
ample time to plan and organise these Vikramaditya and Sakari. His court had nine
campaigns. He performed the horse- jewels or navaratnas, that is, nine eminent
sacrifice ritual to proclaim his military people in various fields of art, literature
conquests. and science. This included the great
Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, the Sanskrit scholar
Samudragupta patronised scholars
Harisena, the lexicographer Amarasimha,
and poets like Harisena and thus
and the physician Dhanvantari. Fahien, the
promoted Sanskrit literature. Though an
Buddhist scholar from China, visited India
ardent follower of Vaishnavism, he also
during his reign. He records the prosperity
patronised the great Buddhist scholar
of the Gupta Empire. Chandragupta II was
Vasubandhu. As a lover of poetry and
the first Gupta ruler to issue silver coins. His
music, he was given the title “Kaviraja”.
rule thus formed the peak period of Gupta’s
His coins bear the insignia of him playing
territorial expansion.
the vina (lute).
Chandragupta II was succeeded
by his son Kumara Gupta I, who founded
7.3 Chandragupta II the Nalanda University. He was also called
Named after his grandfather, Chandragupta Sakraditya. The last great king of the Gupta
II was a capable ruler, who ruled for 40 dynasty, Skanda Gupta, was the son of
years from c. 375 to 415 CE. He came to Kumara Gupta I. He was able to repulse an
power after a succession struggle with his attack by the Huns, but the recurrence of
brother Rama Gupta. He is also known Huns’ invasion strained his empire’s coffers.
as Vikramaditya. With the capital at The Gupta Empire declined after the death
Pataliputra, Chandragupta II extended of Skanda Gupta in 467 CE. He was followed
the limits of the Gupta by many successors who hastened the end of
Empire by conquest and the Gupta Empire. The last recognised king
matrimonial alliances. of the Gupta line was Vishnu Gupta who
He married off his reigned from 540 to 550 CE.
daughter Prabhavati to
a Vakataka prince, who 7.4 Gupta’s Administrative
ruled the strategic lands
Chandragupta II of Deccan. This alliance
System
was highly useful when he proceeded The King
against the Saka rulers of western India.
Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa During the Gupta age, political hierarchies
and Gujarat by defeating the Saka rulers can be identified by the titles adopted. Kings
who had reigned for about four centuries in assumed titles such as maharajadhiraja,
the region. parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara.
They were also connected with gods
The Guptas 109
Fahien’s account on Mathura and Pataliputra

At Mathura, the people are numerous and happy; they do not
have to register their household. Only those who cultivate the
royal land have to pay a portion of the grain from it. Criminals are
fined both lightly and heavily depending on the circumstances.
In the case of repeated rebellion, their right hands are
cut off. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any
living creatures or drink any intoxicant.
The inhabitants of Pataliputra are rich and prosperous
and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence. In the
cities, the Vaisya families establish houses for dispensing charity
and medicines. All the poor and destitute, orphans, widows and
childless, maimed and cripples are provided with every kind of
help.
The origin of Huns is not definitely known. According to

Roman historian Tacitus, they were a barbarian tribe living
near Caspian Sea and contributed to the fall of Roman
Empire. They organised under Attila and were known
for their savagery and bestiality in Europe. One branch
of Huns, know as white Huns, moved towards India from
Central Asia and their invasion began about a hundred
years after the Kushanas.
through epithets such as parama-daivata designation “amatya” occurs on several

(the foremost worshipper of the gods) and Bita seals, and the “kumaramatya” seems
parama-bhagavata (the foremost worshipper to have been pre-eminent among amatyas
of Vasudeva Krishna). Some historians have and equivalent in status to princes of royal
suggested that the Gupta Kings claimed blood. Kumaramatyas were attached to the
divine status. For example, Samudragupta king, crown prince, revenue department or
is compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in a province. One of the Vaishali seals refers
the Allahabad inscription. These assertions to a kumaramatya who seems to have been
can be seen as reflections of an attempt to in charge of the maintenance of the sacred
claim divine status by the king. coronation tank of the Lichchavis.
Individuals holding the ranks
0LQLVWHUVDQGRWKHU2I¿FLDOV of kumaramatya sometimes had
Seals and inscriptions make a mention additional designations as well, and such
of official ranks and designations, whose ranks were hereditary. For example,
precise meaning is often uncertain. The term Harisena, composer of the Allahabad
“kumaramatya” occurs in six Vaishali seals, prashasti (inscriptions of praise), was
which suggests that this title represented a kumaramatya, sandhivigrahika and
a high-ranking officer associated with mahadandanayaka, and was the son of
an office (adikarana) of his own. The Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka.
110 The Guptas
Council of Ministers The provinces of the Gupta Empire

The Gupta king was assisted by a council of were divided into districts known as visayas,
mantrins (ministers). The Allahabad prashasti which were controlled by officers known
refers to an assembly or council, presumably of as vishyapatis. The vishyapatis seems to
ministers, which was known as the Sabha. The have been generally appointed by the
various high-ranking functionaries included provincial governor. Sometimes, even the
the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika kings directly appointed the vishyapatis.
(minister for peace and war), who seems to Prominent members of the town assisted
have been a high-ranking officer in charge of the vishyapati in administrative duties.
contact and correspondence with other states,
including initiating wars and concluding Administrative Units below the
alliances and treaties. District level
High-ranking officials were called The administrative units below the district level
dandanayakas, and mahadandanayakas were included clusters of settlements known variously
high-ranking judicial or military officers. One as vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta. There are
of the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka references to officials known as ayuktakas and
named Agnigupta. The Allahabad prashasti vithi-mahattaras. At the village level, villagers
refers to three mahadandanayakas. All these chose functionaries such as gramika and
suggest that these posts were hereditary by gramadhyaksha. The Damodarpur copper
nature. Another person had a designation plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions
mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry), an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight
indicating military functions. members) headed by the mahattara. Mahattara
has a range of meanings including village
Division of the Empire elder, village headman, and head of a family
community. The Sanchi inscription of the
The Gupta Empire was divided into time of Chandragupta II mentions the panch-
provinces known as deshas or bhuktis. mandali, which may have been a corporate
They were administered by governors who body.
were usually designated as uparikas. The
uparika was directly appointed by the king
and he, in turn, frequently appointed the Army
head of the district administration and Seals and inscriptions mention military
the district board. Uparika carried on the designations such as baladhikrita and
administration “with the enjoyment of the mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry
rule consisting of elephants, horses and and cavalry). The standard term “senapati”
soldiers”, indicating his control over the does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but
military machinery as well. The fact that the the term could be found in some Vakataka
uparika had the title maharaja in three of the epigraphs. A Vaishali seal mentions the
Damodarpur plates indicates his high status ranabhandagar-adhikarana, which is the
and rank in the administrative hierarchy. office of the military storehouse. Another
The Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta, Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana
dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to maharaja (office) of the dandapashika, which may
Surashmichandra as a lokpala, governing have been a district-level police office.
the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada
The officials connected specifically
rivers. Lokpala here seems to refer to a
with the royal establishment included the
provincial governor.
mahapratiara (chief of the palace guards)
The Guptas 111
and the khadyatapakita (superintendent of cultivation when they were donated to

the royal kitchen). A Vaishali seal mentions a them as religious endowments. Cultivators
person both as a mahapratihara and a taravara. were asked to maintain their crops properly
The top layer of the administrative structure from damages and those who indulged
also included amatyas and sachivas, who in damaging the crops were punished.
were executive officers in charge of various Likewise, crops and fields were fenced.
departments. The system of espionage included The crops cultivated during the
spies known as dutakas. The ayuktakas were Gupta period were rice, wheat, barley,
another cadre of high-ranking officers. peas, lentils, pulses, sugarcane and oil
seeds. From Kalidasa, we come to know
7.5 Economic Condition that the south was famous for pepper and
cardamom. Varahamihira gives elaborate
Nitisara, written by Kamandaka, is a advice on the plantation of fruit trees.
text like Arthasastra. It emphasises the
The Paharpur copper plate inscription
importance of the royal treasury and
indicates that the king was the sole proprietor
mentions various sources of revenue.
of the land. Even when he made land grants,
The many ambitious military campaigns
he reserved his prerogatives over it. The
of kings like Samudragupta must have
location and boundaries of individual plots
been financed through revenue surpluses.
were marked out and measured by the
Gupta inscriptions reveal some details
record keepers and influential men in the
about the revenue department. The
locality. As stated in Paharpur plates, an
akshapataladhikrita was the keeper of
officer called ustapala maintained records of
royal records. Gupta inscriptions mention
all the land transactions in the district and
the terms klipta, bali, udranga, uparikara,
the village accountant preserved records of
,and iranyavesti meant forced labour.
land in the village. During the Gupta period,
the land was classified as detailed below.
Agriculture and Agrarian
Structure Kshetra Cultivatable land
Agriculture flourished in the Gupta Khila Waste land
period due to establishment of irrigation Aprahata Jungle or waste land
works. Apart from the state and individual
cultivators, Brahmins, Buddhists and Vasti Habitable land
Jain sanghas brought waste lands under Gapata Saraha Pastoral land
Different Land Tenures

Types of Tenures Nature of Holding
Nivi dharma Endowment of land under a kind of trusteeship was prevalent in North
and Central India and Bengal.
Nivi dharma A perpetual endowment. The recipient could make use of income derived
aksayana from it.
Aprada dharma Income from land could be enjoyed, but the recipient is not permitted to
gift it to anyone. The recipient has no administrative rights either.
Bhumichchi- Right of ownership acquired by a person making barren land cultivable for
dranyaya the first time. This land was free from any rent liability.
112 The Guptas
Other Land Grants

Agrahara grants Given to Brahmins, it was perpetual, hereditary and tax free.
Devagrahara grants A land grant in favour of a Brahmin as well as gifts to merchants
for the repair and worship of temples.
Secular grants Grants made to feudatories of Guptas.
Irrigation Sudarsana lake at the foot of Girnar Hills

in Gujarat.
The importance of irrigation to agriculture
was recognised in India from the earliest
Position of Peasantry
times. From the Narada Smriti, we
understand that there were two kinds of The position of peasantry was undermined.
dykes: the bardhya, which protected the They were reduced to the position of serfs
field from floods, and the khara, which due to the caste classification and also due
served the purpose of irrigation. To to the granting of various privileges and
prevent inundation, jalanirgamah (drains) lands to others. The practice of lease-holding
were constructed, which is mentioned by reduced the permanent tenants to tenants at
Amarasimha. Canals were constructed will (which means tenants could be evicted
not only from rivers but also from tanks without notice). The farmers were required to
and lakes. The most famous lake was the pay various taxes.
List of Different Kinds of Taxes

Tax Nature
Bhaga King’s customary share of the produce normally amounting to one-sixth of
the produce paid by cultivators
Bhoga Periodic supply of fruits, firewood, flowers, etc., which the village had to
provide to the king
Kara A periodic tax levied on the villagers (not a part of the annual land tax)
Bali A voluntary offering by the people to the king, but later became compulsory.
It was an oppressive tax.
Udianga Either a sort of police tax for the maintenance of police stations or a water
tax. Hence, it was also an extra tax.
Uparikara Also an extra tax. Scholars give different explanations about what it was
collected for.
Hiranya Literally, it means tax payable on gold coins, but in practice, it was probably
the king’s share of certain crops paid in kind.
Vata-Bhuta Different kinds of cess for maintenance of rites for the winds (vata) and the
spirits (bhuta)
Halivakara A plough tax paid by every cultivator owning a plough
Sulka A royal share of merchandise brought into a town or harbour by merchants.
Hence it can be equated with the customs and tolls.
Klipta and related to sale and purchase of lands.
Upakilpta
The Guptas 113
Industry: Mining and Metallurgy called sresti and sarthavaha existed. Sresti
Mining and metallurgy was one of the was usually settled at a particular place
most flourishing industries during the and enjoyed an eminent position by
Gupta period. Amarasimha, Varahamihira virtue of his wealth and influence in the
and Kalidasa make frequent mention of commercial life and administration of
the existence of mines. The rich deposits the place. The sarthavaha was a caravan
of iron ore from Bihar and copper from trader who carried his goods to different
Rajasthan were mined extensively during places for profitable sale.
this period. Trade items ranged from products
The list of metals used apart from for daily use to valuable and luxury goods.
iron were gold, copper, tin, lead, brass, They included pepper, sandalwood,
bronze, bell-metal, mica, manganese, elephants, horses, gold, copper, iron and
antimony, red chalk (sanssilajata) and red mica. The abundant inscriptions and
arsenic. seals mentioning artisans, merchants
and guilds are indicative of the thriving
Blacksmiths were next only to crafts and trade. (Guild is a society
agriculturists in importance in the society. or other organisation of people with
Metal was used for the manufacture of common interests or an association of
various domestic implements, utensils merchants.) There are several references
and weapons. The improvement in the in several sources to artisans, traders and
ploughshare, with the discovery of iron, occupational groups in the guilds. Guilds
for deep ploughing and for increasing continued as the major institution in the
cultivation happened during this period. manufacture of goods and in commercial
The most important and visible enterprise. They remained virtually
evidence of the high stage of development autonomous in their internal organisation,
in metallurgy is the Mehrauli Iron Pillar of and the government respected their laws.
King Chandra in the Qutb Minar Complex These laws were generally drafted by a
in Delhi, identified with Chandragupta larger body, the corporation of guilds, of
II. This monolith iron pillar has lasted which each guild was a member.
through the centuries without rusting. It is a The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis
monument to the great craftsmanship of the describe the organisation and activities of
iron workers during the Gupta period. Coin guilds. They mention that the guild had
casting, metal engraving, pottery making, a chief and two, three or five executive
terracotta work and wood carving were officers. Guild laws were apparently
other specialised crafts. laid down in written documents. The
A significant development of the Brihaspati Smriti refers to guilds rendering
period in metal technology was the making justice to their members and suggests
of the seals and statutes of Buddha and that these decisions should, by and large,
other gods. It was laid down that the people be approved by the king. There is also
had to pay for the loss arising out smelting mention of the philanthropic activities of
of iron, gold, silver, copper, tin and lead. guilds, for instance, providing shelter for
travellers and building assembly houses,
temples and gardens. The inscription also
Trade and Commerce records that the chief of the guilds played
The contribution of traders to the an important role in the district-level
soundness of the Gupta economy is quite administrative bodies. There is also
impressive. Two distinctive types of traders mention of joint corporate bodies of
114 The Guptas
merchant-bankers, caravan merchants and changes in the ornamentation of the

artisans. The guilds also acted as banks. facade and in the designs of the pillars in
The names of donors are mentioned in the interior. The most notable groups of
this inscription. the rock-cut caves are found at Ajanta and
Usury (the lending of money at an Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (Madhya
exorbitant rate of interest) was in practice Pradesh). The Udayagiri caves (Orissa)
during the Gupta period. The detailed are also of this type.
discussion in the sources of that period
indicates that money was used, borrowed
and loaned for profit. There were many
ports that facilitated trade in the western
coast of India such as Calliena (Kalyan),
Chaul port in ruin sixty kilometres south
of Mumbai, and the markets of Male
(Malabar), Mangarouth (Mangalore),
Salopatana, Nalopatana and Pandopatana
on the Malabar coast. Fahien refers to
Tamralipti in Bengal as an important centre
of trade on the eastern coast. These ports and Ajantha Rock-Cut Caves
towns were connected with those of Persia, The structural temples have the
Arabia and Byzantium on the one hand and following attributes: (1)flat-roofed square
Sri Lanka, China and Southeast Asia on the temples; (2) flat-roofed square temple
other. Fahien describes the perils of the sea with a vimana (second storey); (3) square
route between India and China. The goods temple with a curvilinear tower (shikara)
traded from India were rare gems, pearls, above; (4) rectangular temple; and (5)
fine textiles and aromatics. Indians bought circular temple.
silk and other articles from China.
The second group of temples shows
many of the characteristic features of the
The Guptas issued many gold coins but Dravida style. The importance of the third
comparatively few silver and copper coins. group lies in the innovation of a shikhara
However, the post-Gupta period saw a that caps the sanctum sanctorum, the
decline in the circulation of gold coins.
main feature of the Nagara style.
7.6 Cultural Florescence Stupas
Art and Architecture Stupas were also built in large numbers

but the best are found at Samat (Uttar
By evolving the Nagara and the Dravida Pradesh), Ratnagiri (Orissa) and Mirpur
styles, the Gupta art ushers in a formative Khas (Sind).
and creative age in the history of Indian
architecture with considerable scope for
future development. Sculpture: Stone Sculpture
A good specimen of stone sculpture is the
Rock-cut and Structural Temples well-known erect Buddha from Sarnath.
The rock-cut caves continue the old forms Of the puranic images, perhaps the most
to a great extent but possess striking impressive is the great Boar (Varaha) at
novelty by bringing about extensive the entrance of a cave at Udayagiri.
The Guptas 115
Metal statues Gupta pottery remains found at

The technology of casting statues on a large Ahchichhatra, Rajgarh, Hastinapur and
scale of core process was practised by the Bashar afford proof of excellence of pottery.
craftsmen during the Gupta period with great The most distinctive class of pottery of this
workmanship. Two remarkable examples of period is the “red ware”.
Gupta metal sculpture are (1) a copper image
of the Buddha about eighteen feet high at Sanskrit Literature
Nalanda in Bihar and (2) the Sultanganj
The Guptas made Sanskrit the official
Buddha of seven-and-a-half feet in height.
language and all their epigraphic records
were written in it. The period saw the last
Painting phase of the Smriti literature.
The art of painting seems to have been
in popular demand in the Gupta period Smritis are religious texts covering a wide
than the art of stone sculptures. The range of subjects such as ethics, politics,
mural paintings of this period are found culture and art. Dharmasastras and puranas
at Ajanta, Bagh, Badami and other places. form the core of this body of literature.
Sanskrit Grammar
The Gupta period also saw the development
of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini who
wrote Ashtadhyayi and Patanjali who
wrote Mahabhashya on the topic. This
period is particularly memorable for the
compilation of the Amarakosa, a thesaurus
in Sanskrit, by Amarasimha. A Buddhist
scholar from Bengal, Chandrogomia,
composed a book on grammar named
Ajantha Painting Chandravyakaranam.
From the point of technique, the

surface of these paintings was perhaps Puranas and Ithihasas
done in a very simple way. The mural The Puranas, as we know them in their
paintings of Ajanta are not true frescoes, present form, were composed during this
for frescoes is painted while the plaster is time. They are the legends as recorded
still damp and the murals of Ajanta were by the Brahmins. They were originally
made after it had set. The art of Ajanta composed by bards (professional
and Bagh shows the Madhyadesa School storytellers), but now, having come into
of painting at its best. priestly hands, they were rewritten in
classical Sanskrit. Details on Hindu
Terracotta and Pottery sects, rites and customs were added in
order to make them sacrosanct religious
Clay figurines were used both for religious documents. The succession of dynasties
and secular purposes. We have figurines was recorded in the form of prophesies.
of Vishnu, Karttikeya, Durga, Naga and Thus what began as popular memories
other gods and goddesses. of the past were revived and rewritten
116 The Guptas
in prophetic form and became the Dhanvantri. Kalidasa’s famous dramas

Brahmanical interpretation of the past. are Sakunthalam, Malavikagnimitram
The Mahabharata and the Ramayana also and Vikramaurvashiyam. The works of
got their final touches and received their Sudraka (Mrichchhakatika), Visakhadatta
present shape during this period. (Mudraraksasa and Devichandraguptam)
and the lesser known dramatists and writers
also contributed to the literary and social
Eighteen major puranas are listed. Of
values in the classical age. An interesting
them the well known are: Brahma Purana,
Padma Purana, Vishnu Purana, Skanda
feature of the dramas of this period is
Purana, Shiva Maha Purana, Markendeya that while the elite spoke in Sanskrit, the
Purana, Agni Purana, Bhavishya Purana, common people spoke Prakrit.
Matsya Purana and Shrimad Bhagavat
Purana.
Prakrit Language and Literature
In Prakrit, there was patronage outside
Buddhist Literature the court circle. The Gupta age witnessed
the evolution of many Prakrit forms
The earliest Buddhist works are in Pali,
such as Suraseni used in Mathura and
but in the later phase, Sanskrit came to be
its vicinity, Ardh Magadhi spoken in
used to a great extent. Most of the works
Awadh and Bundelkhand and Magadhi in
are in prose with verse passages in mixed
modern Bihar.
Sanskrit. Arya Deva and Arya Asanga of
the Gupta period are the most notable
writers. The first regular Buddhist work Nalanda University
on logic was written by Vasubandhu. Nalanda was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a
Vasubandhu’s disciple, Dignaga, was also large Buddhist monastery in the ancient
the author of many learned works. kingdom of Magadha in India. The site
is located about ninety five kilometres
Jaina Literature southeast of Patna near the town of Bihar
Sharif and was a centre of learning from
The Jaina canonical literature at first took
the fifth century CE to c. 1200 CE. It is a
shape in Prakrit dialects. Sanskrit came to
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
be the medium later. Within a short time,
Jainism produced many great scholars The highly formalised methods of Vedic
and by their efforts the Hindu itihasa learning helped inspire the establishment of
and puranas were recast in Jaina versions large teaching institutions such as Taxila,
to popularise their doctrines. Vimala Nalanda and Vikramashila, which are often
produced a Jaina version of Ramayana. characterised as India’s early universities.
Siddasena Divakara laid the foundation of Nalanda flourished under the patronage of the
logic among the Jainas. Gupta Empire in the fifth and sixth centuries
and later under Harsha, the emperor of Kanauj.
The liberal cultural traditions inherited from
Secular Literature the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth
Samudragupta himself had established and prosperity until the ninth century. The
his fame as Kaviraja. It is widely subsequent centuries were a time of gradual
believed that his court was adorned decline, a period during which Buddhism
by the celebrated navaratnas like became popular in eastern India patronised
Kalidasa, Amarasimha, Visakadatta and by the Palas of Bengal.
The Guptas 117
In the Surya Siddanta,

Aryabhatta (belonging to
late fifth and early sixth
century CE) examined
the true cause of the solar
eclipses. In calculation of
the size of the earth, he
is very close to the modern estimation. He
was the first astronomer to discover that the
earth rotates on its own axis. He is also the
Nalanda University
author of Aryabhattiyam, which deals with
arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
At its peak, the Nalanda attracted
scholars and students from near and far Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita
with some travelling all the way from (sixth century CE) is an encyclopaedia
Tibet, China, Korea and Central Asia. of astronomy, physical geography, botany
Archaeological findings also confirm and natural history. His other works are
the contact with the Shailendra dynasty Panch Siddhantika and Brihat Jataka.
of Indonesia, one of whose kings built a Brahmagupta (late sixth and early seventh
monastery in the complex. century CE) is author of important
works on mathematics and astronomy,
Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed namely Brahmasphuta-siddhanta and
by an army of the Mamluk dynasty of the Khandakhadyaka.
Delhi Sultanate under Bakhtiyar Khalji in
c. 1200 CE. While some sources note that Medical Sciences
the Mahavihara continued to function in a
makeshift fashion for a little longer, it was Metallic preparations for the purpose
eventually abandoned and forgotten. The of medicine and references to the use of
site was accidentally discovered when the mercury and iron by Varahamihira and
Archaeological Survey of India surveyed the others indicate that much progress was
area. Systematic excavations commenced in made in chemistry. The Navanitakam
1915, which unearthed 11 monasteries and 6 was a medical work, which is a manual
brick temples situated on 12 hectares (30 acres) of recipes, formulation and prescriptions.
of land. A trove of sculptures, coins, seals and Hastyayurveda or the veterinary science
inscriptions have also been discovered since authored by Palakapya attests to the
then and all of them are on display in the advances made in medical science during
Nalanda Archaeological Museum situated the Gupta period.
nearby. Nalanda is now a notable tourist
destination and a part of the Buddhist tourism 7.7 Decline of the Gupta
circuit. Recently, the government of India, in Empire
cooperation with other South and South-east
The last recognised king of the Gupta line was
Asian countries, has revived this university.
Vishnugupta who reigned from 540 to 550
Gupta Sciences CE. Internal fighting and dissensions among
the royal family led to its collapse. During
Mathematics and Astronomy
the reign of a Gupta king, Budhagupta, the
The invention of the theory of zero and the Vakataka ruler Narendrasena of western
consequent evolution of the decimal system Deccan, attacked Malwa, Mekala and Kosala.
are to be credited to the thinkers of this age. Later on, another Vakataka king Harishena
118 The Guptas
conquered Malwa and Gujarat from the Malwa, the Maukharis of Uttar Pradesh,
Guptas. During Skanda Gupta’s reign, the the Maitrakas in Saurashtra and others in
grandson of Chandragupta II, the Huns Bengal. In time, the Gupta Empire came
invaded northwest India. He was successful to be restricted to only Magadha. They did
in repulsing the Huns, but consequently his not focus on empire building and military
empire was drained of financial resources. conquests. So, weak rulers along with
In the sixth century CE, the Huns occupied incessant invasions from foreign as well
Malwa, Gujarat, Punjab and Gandhara. As as native rulers caused the decline of the
the Hun invasion weakened the Gupta hold Gupta Empire. By the beginning of the sixth
in the country, independent rulers emerged century, the empire had disintegrated and
all over the north like Yasodharman of was ruled by many regional chieftains.
Feudalism
The social formation of feudalism was the characteristic of the medieval society in India. Feudal
features listed by historian R.S. Sharma are: royal grants of land; transfer of fiscal and judicial rights
to the beneficiaries; the grant of their rights over peasants, artisans and merchants; an increased
incidence of forced labour; appropriation of surplus by the state; a decline in trade and coinage;
payment of officials through land revenue assignments; and the growth of the obligations of the
samantas (subordinate or feudatory rulers).
SUMMARY
After the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta kingdom emerged as a great power.
Sri Gupta founded the Gupta dynasty.
Samudragupta (335–375 CE) conquered and consolidated the empire.
Chandragupta II through his conquests and matrimonial alliances extended the
empire further.
Kumara Gupta founded the Nalanda University.
Skanda Gupta repulsed the Huns but Huns’ invasion strained his treasury.
The Gupta kings claimed divine status and were assisted by Council of Ministers
and a band of officials.
The Gupta rulers patronised art, literature and science. Kalidasa, Harisena,
Amarasimha, Dhanvantri and Varahamihira adorned their court.
The drain of treasury because of Huns’ invasion and the weak successors of later
Guptas led to the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.
The Guptas 119
EXERCISE

1. Which is the least reliable of the sources for the study of Gupta period?
(a) Literary sources (b) Epigraphical sources

(c) Numismatic sources (d) Myths and legends
2. Choose and match:
Literary Works Author

1. Dhanvantri - Suryasiddantha
2. Varahamihira - Amarakosha
3. Harisena - Brihadsamhita
4. Amarasimha - Ayurveda
(a) 4,3,1,2 (b) 4,1,2,3
(c) 4,2,1,3 (d) 4,3,2,1
3. __________ was given the title “Kaviraja”.
(a) Chandragupta I (b) Samudragupta

(c) Chandragupta II (d) Srigupta
4. __________, a Chinese traveller, presented an idyllic picture of Indian society in

the fifth century CE.
(a) Itsing (b) Hieun-Tsang (c) Fahien (d) Wang-Hieun-Tse
5. Which one of the following is the wrong option for the rock-cut cave temple of
Gupta Period?
(i) Udayagiri cave (Odisha)
(ii) Ajanta and Ellora caves (Maharashtra)
(iii) Elephanta cave (Maharashtra)
(iv) Bagh (Madhya Pradesh)
(a) i (b) ii (c) iii (d) iv
6. The first regular Buddhist work on logic was written by __________.
(a) Dignaga (b) Vasubandhu

(c) Chandrogamia (d) Varahamihira
7. _________ is the notable lyric of Kalidasa.
(a) Sankunthalam (b) Raghuvamsa

(c) Kumarasambhava (d) Megaduta
120 The Guptas
,, $QVZHUEULHÁ\
1. Write down the names of Gupta rulers in chronological order until Skanda Gupta.
2. What do you know of Huns?
3. Attempt a brief account of Fahien on Mathura.
4. List down the Buddhist scholars along with their literary works.
5. Discuss the importance of Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
III. Write short answers

1. Describe the administrative divisions of Gupta Empire.
2. Write a short note on Vikramashila University.
3. Gupta period also recorded the growth of Jaina literature. Elaborate.
4. Comment on the scientific advancement made during Gupta period.
5. What could be the reasons for the decline of the Gupta Empire? Suggest any three
reasons.
,9 :ULWH\RXUDQVZHULQGHWDLO
1. “Gupta period is called the Golden Age of Ancient India.” Give reasons.
2. Describe the land classification and land tenures followed in Guptas’ times.
3. Examine the role of guilds during Gupta period.
GLOSSARY
hegemony - dominance - ZIMTÔ>Ý

lexicographer - compiler of a - 2>KTEJTÜHPß
dictionary
epithet - title - 2[CYIT
coffer - treasury - >±ÉMÝ
perpetual - everlasting - 8ÜZHT«Ý
[MÚ±Ô¤Ý
exorbitant - excessive - >¶Ý2>ITG
facade - front - ¯>Ü®
ransack - plunder - ¹[LJT©
dissension - disagreement - >±Ú«ZPä²[I
incessant - ceaseless - 4[CJLTE
The Guptas 121
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. R.Champakalakshmi, Trade, Ideology and Urbanization in South India 300 BC to
1300, Oxford University Press, 1996
2. Kulke Herman (ed), The State in India (1000-1700), Oxford University Press, 1997.
3. Romila Thapar, A History of India, Vol. I, Penguin, 1980.
4. Romila Thapar, Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (Penguin Paperback), 2003.
5. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India from the Stone Age to
the 12th Century, Pearson, 2009
6. R.S.Sharma, Indian Feudalism, Macmillan, 1980
7. KesavanVeluthat, The Political Structure of Early Medieval South India, Orient
Longman, 1993.
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire
2. https://www/ancient.eu/Gupta_Empire
122 The Guptas
ICT CORNER
The Guptas
Through this activity you will

know about world historic events
through Interactive timeline.
Steps:
• Open the Browser and type the given URL (or) Scan the QR
Code.
• Timeline page will appear on the screen.
• Click Search Options and Enter any Timeline (Ex. Gupta
Empire)
• Explore the Timeline events of any empire with pictorial
descriptions.
Step1 Step2 Step3 Step4
Browse in the link

Web: https://www.timetoast.com/categories
*Pictures are indicative only.
The Guptas 123
Lesson Harsha and Rise of Regional

Kingdoms
8
Learning Objectives
I Harsha
To know the ancestors and contemporaries of Harsha
To learn about the military conquests of Harsha
To understand the nature of Harsha’s administration
To obtain knowledge of the religious policy of Harsha
To become aware of the socio-cultural life of the people in India from the
accounts of Hieun Tsang
II The Palas
To know the history of Palas as a strong regional power in eastern India
To learn the contribution of prominent Pala rulers such as Dharmapala, Devapala
and Mahipala I in administering their kingdom
To understand the significance of their role in the spread of Mahayana Buddhism
in the Ganges plain
To gain knowledge about the contribution of Palas to literature, art and
architecture
III The Rashtrakutas

To know the greatness of the Rashtrakutas
To learn the fact that successful rulers, Krishna I through Krishna III, prevented
the Pallava expansion northward.
To apprise yourself of the development of Kannada literature under the patronage
of Rashtrakutas.
I Harsha Rajasthan and Malwa), regional identity

became pronounced with the emergence
Introduction of many small states. Maithriyas had
North India splintered into several warrior organised a powerful state in Sourashtra
kingdoms after the downfall of the Gupta (Gujarat), with Valabhi as their capital.
Empire. Excepting in the areas that were Agra and Oudh were organised into
subdued by the Huns (modern Punjab, an independent and sovereign state
124
by the Maukharis. The Vakatakas had Prabakara Vardhana’s dream of building

recovered their position of ascendency an empire was eventually realised by his
in the western Deccan. Despite political younger son Harsha-vardhana.
rivalry and conflict among these states, Rajavardhana (605-606 CE),
Thaneswar, lying north of Delhi between the eldest son of Prabhakaravardhana,
Sutlej and Yamuna, was formed into an ascended the throne after his father’s death.
independent state by Pushyabhutis. It He was treacherously murdered by Sasanka,
rose to prominence under Harsha. Harsha the Gauda ruler of Bengal. This resulted
ruled the kingdom as large as that of the in his younger brother Harsha-vardhana
Guptas from 606 to 647 CE. becoming the king of Thanesar. Harsha had
known the weakness of a group of small
Sources kingdoms and conquered his neighbours to
Literary sources
integrate them into his empire. As Thanesar
was too close to the threats from the north-
Bana’s Harshacharita west, Harsha shifted his capital from
Hieun Tsang’s Si-Yu-ki Thanesar to Kanauj. Kanauj was located in
the rich agricultural region of the western
Ganges Plain.
Epigraphical sources
Madhuban copper plate inscription Harsha as King of Kanauj
Sonpat inscription on copper seal The magnates of Kanauj (the capital of
Maukhari kingdom), on the advice of their
Banskhera copper plate inscription
minister Poni, invited Harsha to ascend
Nalanda inscription on clay seals the throne. A reluctant Harsha accepted
the throne on the advice of Avalokitesvara
Bana’s Harshacharita was the first Bodhisatva with the title of Rajputra
formal biography of a king. It inau- and Siladitya. Thus the two kingdoms of
gurated a new literary genre in Thaneswar and Kanauj became united
India. under Harsha’s rule. Consequently, Harsha
transferred his capital to Kanauj.
8.1 Pushyabhutis
8.2 Harsha’s Military
The founder of the Vardhana dynasty was
Conquests
Pushyabhuti who ruled from Thaneswar.
He served as a military general under the On his accession in 606 CE Harsha focused
imperial Guptas and rose to power after his attention on the affairs of his sister
the fall of the Guptas. With the accession Rajyasri who had fled to Vindhya mountains
of Prabakara Vardhana (580–605 CE), to escape from the evil design of Deva
the Pushyabhuti family became strong Gupta of Malwa to covet her. Harsha went
and powerful. Prabakara Vardhana to Vindhya mountain ranges and succeeded
fought against the Gurjaras and the Huns in saving his sister who was about to burn
and established his authority as far as herself after killing Deva Gupta. Harsha
Malwa and Gujarat. He gave his daughter consoled Rajyasri and brought her back
Rajyasri in marriage to the Maukhari king, to the kingdom of Kanauj. Later Rajyasri
Grahavarman, of Kanauj (near modern took to Buddhism and was instrumental in
Kanpur), thus making Kanauj his ally. converting Harsha to Buddhism.
Harsha and Rise of Regional Kingdoms 125
Pulikesin II, the Chalukya King

Harsha sought to extend his authority
southward into the Deccan. However the
Chalukya king Pulikesin II, who controlled the
region, humbled Harsha. In commemoration
of his victory over Harsha, Pulikesin assumed
the title of “Parameswara”. Inscriptions in
Harsha Coin
Pulikesin’s capital Badami attest to this victory.
According to Bana, Harsha, in
an effort to build an empire, sent an
ultimatum to the following kings to either
surrender or be prepared for a battle:
1. Sasanka, the Gauda ruler of Bengal.
2. The Maitrakas of Valabhi and
Gurjara of Broach region.
3. The Chalukya king, Pulikesin II, in
the Deccan
4. Rulers of Sindh, Nepal, Kashmir, Pulikesin II (modern representation)
Magadha, Odra (northern Odisha)
and Kongoda (another geographical Extent of Harsha’s Empire
unit in ancient Odisha). Harsha ruled for 41 years. His feudatories
Harsha’s immediate task was to take included those of Jalandhar (in the Punjab),
revenge on Sasanka. Harsha entered into Kashmir, Nepal and Valabhi. Sasanka of
an alliance with the king of Kamarupa Bengal remained hostile to him. Though it
(Pragiyaotisha), which is today the is claimed that Harsha’s Empire comprised
modern Assam. But there is hardly any Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Kanauj, Malwa, Odisha,
detail of the war between Harsha and the Punjab, Kashmir, Nepal and Sindh, his
Sasanka. However, Harsha seems to have real sway did not extend beyond a compact
successfully subjugated the Gauda Empire, territory between the Ganges and Yamuna
which included Magatha, Gouda, Odra and rivers. The kingdom of Harsha disintegrated
Kongoda only after the death of Sasanka. rapidly into small states after his death.
Harsha’s Relations with China

Harsha had cordial relations with China.
The contemporary T’ang emperor, Tai
Tsung, sent an embassy to his court in
643 and again in 647 CE. On the second
occasion, the Chinese ambassador
Sasanka
found that Harsha had recently died. On
learning that the throne had been usurped
The hostilities between Harsha and by an undeserving king, the Chinese
the Maitrakas ended in the marriage of ambassador rushed to Nepal and Assam to
Dhruvabhatta with the daughter of Harsha. raise a force to dislodge the usurper. Later,
Soon, Valabhi became a subordinate ally the king who had usurped the throne was
of Harsha. taken to China as a prisoner.
126 Harsha and Rise of Regional Kingdoms
Administration
EMPIRE OF HARSHAVARDHANA N
According to historian Burton Stein, W E

a centralised administration did not S
even exist under the powerful Guptas. KASHMIR Harsha’s empire
i
Harsha’s capital
It was restricted only to the central um ab
el en
Jh Ch i
v Other cities
part of the Gangetic plain between Ra
us
d
In
j
tlu
Pataliputra and Mathura. Beyond that Sa Thaneswar
zone, there was no centralised authority. Indraprastha

Kanauj pu
tra
Mathura ma
The only difference between Guptas
Ya
ah
Ga a
B r
ng
un
KAMARUPA
a
and Vardahanas is that the former had Prayaga
Nalanda
Udaipur Kashi
formidable enemies like Huns, while Vidisha
Budh Gaya Rajgrika
SUVARNA
I N D I A
the latter had no such opponents. The VALLABHI
Bhirukachachha Ujjayini Ma
Tamralipti
ha
copper plates of 632 CE record a gift Ajanta
na
di
A
D BAY
of land to two Brahmans. The names CHALUKYAS
O
N
G
O
OF
K
BENGAL
Go
of certain political personages with EASTERN
G
A
da
CHALUKYAS N
LI
va
ARABIAN Vengi KA
state power, as protectors of the gift,
ir
SEA
Pattadakal
are mentioned in them. Some were
Guntur
mahasamantas, allied to the king Badami
Kanchipuram
An
but of a subordinate status. Others
da m
Lakshad weep isla
PALLAVAS
an and n ic ob ar i
were independent maharajas but Kaveri
Tanjore
(I N D I A )
CHOLAS
(I N D I A )
S
acknowledged feudatories of Harsha.
YA
Madurai
ND
n
PA
sl
There was yet another category of
ds
an
ds
rulers who pledged their loyalty to
Harsha and professed to be at his
service. This is the characteristic of
4. Skandagupta - Chief
Harsha’s imperial authority in North India.
Commandant of
Elephant Force
Council of Ministers
It appears that the ministerial administration 5. Dirghadhvajas - Royal Messengers
during the reign of Harsha was the same as 6. Banu - Keeper of Records
that of the imperial Guptas. The emperor
was assisted by a council of ministers(Mantri 7. Mahaprathihara - Chief of the Palace
Parishad)in his duties. The council played an Guard
important role in the selection of the king 8. Sarvagata - Secret Service
as well as framing the foreign policy of the Department
empire. The prime minister was of the most
important position in the council of ministers.
Revenue Administration
.H\2I¿FLDOV
Bhaga, Hiranya and Bali were the three
1. Avanti - Minister for kinds of tax collected during Harsha’s
Foreign Relations reign. Bhaga was the land tax paid in kind.
and War One-sixth of the produce was collected as
2. Simhananda - Commander-inland revenue. Hiranya was the tax paid by
Chief farmers and merchants in cash. There is
3. Kuntala - Chief Cavalry no reference to the tax Bali. The crown
Officer land was divided into four parts.
Part I - for carrying out the affairs consisted of elephants, cavalry and infantry.
of the state Horses were imported. Ordinary soldiers
Part II - for paying the ministers and were known as Chatas and Bhatas. Cavalry
officers of the crown officers were called Brihadisvaras. Infantry
officers were known as Baladhikritas and
Part III - for rewarding men of letters
Mahabaladhikritas. Hieun Tsang mentions
Part IV - for charity to religious the four divisions (chaturanga) of Harsha’s
institutions army. He gives details about the strength
of each division, its recruitment system
Administration of Justice and payment for the recruits.
Criminal law was more severe than that of
the Gupta age. Mimamsakas were appointed Division of the Empire
to dispense justice. Banishment and the
The empire was divided into several
cutting of limbs of the body were the usual
provinces. The actual number of such
punishments. Trial by ordeal was in practice.
provinces is not known. Each province was
Life imprisonment was the punishment for
divided into Bhuktis. And each Bhukti was
the violations of the laws and for plotting
divided into several Vishayas. They were
against the king.
like the districts. Each vishaya was further
Hieun Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, divided into Pathakas. Each such area was
spent nearly 13 years in India (630–643 divided into several villages for the sake of
CE), collecting sacred texts and relics which administrative convenience. Harsha Charita
he took back to China. He was known as refers to a number of officials who took care
the“ prince of pilgrims” because he visited of the local administration. Only their titles
important pilgrim centres associated with are known. What they did isn’t available in
the life of Buddha. His Si-Yu-Ki provides Harsha Charita. We learn that bhogapathi,
detailed information about the social, ayuktha, pratpalaka-purusha and the like
economic, religious and cultural conditions looked after the local administration.
during the reign of Harsha.
According to Hieun Tsang, perfect Cities and Towns
law and order prevailed throughout the Hieun Tsang describes the structure,
empire, as the law-enforcing agencies were aesthetics and safety measures of the
strong. The pilgrim records the principal cities, towns and villages of India. In his
penalties and judicial ordeals practised in view, India was the land of innumerable
India at that time. Corporal punishment villages, numerous towns and big cities
for serious offences was in practise. But the like China. He pointed out that Pataliputra
death penalty was usually avoided. Offences lost its prominence and its place was taken
against social morality and defiance of by Kanauj. The elegance of Kanauj with its
law were punished by maiming. Harsha lofty structures, beautiful gardens and the
travelled across the kingdom frequently to museum of rare collections is described.
ensure his familiarity with his people. He The refined appearance of its residents,
was accessible to people and kept a closer their costly dressings and love for learning
watch on his tributary rulers. and art are also pointed out in his account.
Most of the towns, according to
Administration of Army
Hieun Tsang, had outer walls and inner
Harsha paid great attention to discipline gates. Though the walls were wide and
and strength of the army. The army high, the streets and lanes were narrow.
Residential houses had balconies made and Vedic scholars attended the assembly. A
of wood and coated with lime mortar. golden statue of Buddha was consecrated in
Floors were smeared with cow dung for a monastery and a small statue of Buddha
the purpose of purity and hygiene. Big (three feet) was brought out in a procession.
mansions, public buildings and Buddhist The procession was attended by Harsha and
monasteries and viharas were magnificent other kings.
multi-storeyed structures. They were
built of kiln-fired bricks, red sandstone
Buddhist Assembly at Prayag
and marble. Harsha constructed a large
number of viharas, monasteries and stupas Harsha convened quinquennial assemblies
on the bank of the Ganges. known as Mahamoksha Parishad at Prayag
(at the confluence of the
Harsha built charitable institutions
Ganges and Yamuna).
for the stay of the travellers, and to care for
He distributed his wealth
the sick and the poor. Free hospitals and
among Buddhists, Vedic
rest houses (dharmasalas) in all the towns
scholars and the poor
were constructed where the travellers or the
people. Harsha offered
outsiders could stay. Hospitals were built to
fabulous gifts to the
provide medical treatment free of charge.
Buddhist monks on all
the four days of the assemblage.
Religious Policy
Hieun Tsang observed that the
Harsha was a worshipper of Siva at least principles of Buddhism had deeply
up to 631 CE. But he embraced Buddhism permeated the Hindu society. According to
under the influence of his sister Rajyasri him, people were given complete freedom
and the Buddhist monk Hieun Tsang. He of worship. Social harmony prevailed
subscribed to the Mahayana school of among the followers of various creeds.
thought. Yet he held discourses among Harsha treated the Vedic scholars and the
learned men of various creeds. Slaughter Buddhist bikshus alike and distributed
of animals and consumption of meat charities equally to them.
was restricted. Harsha summoned two
Buddhist assemblies (643 CE), one at
Kanauj and another at Prayag. Caste System
The assembly at Kanauj was attended Caste system was firmly established in the
by 20 kings including Bhaskaravarman of Hindu society. According to Hieun Tsang,
Kamarupa. A large number of Buddhist, Jain the occupations of the four divisions of
Hiuen Tsang, hailed as the prince of pilgrims, visited India during the
reign of Harsha. Born in China in 612 CE he became a Buddhist monk
at the age of twenty. During his travels, he visited various sacred places of
northern and southern India. Hieun Tsang spent about five years in the
University of Nalanda and studied there. Harsha admired him for his deep
devotion to Buddha and his profound knowledge of Buddhism. Hieun
Tsang carried with him 150 pieces of the relics of Buddha , a large number
of Buddha image in gold, silver, sandalwood and above all 657 volumes of
valuable manuscripts.
Hieun Tsang
society continued to be in practice as in was common. On certain occasions, fish

the previous times. People were honest and mutton were eaten. Beef and meat of
and not deceitful or treacherous in certain animals were forbidden.
their conduct. The butchers, fishermen,
dancers and sweepers were asked to stay Education
outside the city. Even though the caste Education was imparted in the monasteries.
system was rigid, there was no social Learning was religious in character. Much
conflict among the various sections of religious literature were produced. The
the society. Vedas were taught orally and not written
down. Sanskrit was the language of the
Status of Women learned people. An individual took to
learning between 9 and 30 years of age.
Hieun Tsang’s account also provides us
Many individuals devoted their whole life to
information on the position of women
learning. The wandering bhikshus and sadhus
and the marriage system of the times.
were well known for their wisdom and
Women wore purdah. Hieun Tsang,
culture. The people also paid respect to such
however, added that the purdah system
people of moral and intellectual eminence.
was not followed among the higher class.
He pointed out that Rajyasri did not wear Harsha as a Patron of Art and
purdah when listening to his discourse.
Literature
Sati was in practice. Yasomatidevi, wife of
Prabhakara Vardhana, immolated herself Harsha patronised literary and cultural
after the death of her husband. activities. It is said the state spent a quarter
of its revenue for such activities. Bana, the
author of Harshacharita and Kadambari, was
Lifestyle
a court poet of Harsha. The emperor himself
The life pattern of the people of India was a renowned litterateur, which is evident
during the rule of Harsha is known from from the plays he wrote such as Priyadarsika,
the accounts of Hieun Tsang. People lived Rathnavali and Nagananda. Harsha gifted
a simple life. They dressed in colourful liberally for the promotion of education.
cotton and silk clothes. The art of wearing Temples and monasteries functioned as
fine cloth had reached perfection. Both centres of learning. Renowned scholars
men and women adorned themselves imparted education in the monasteries at
with gold and silver ornaments. The Kanauj, Gaya, Jalandhar, Manipur and other
king wore extraordinary ornaments. places. The Nalanda University reached its
Garlands and tiaras of precious stones, utmost fame during this period.
rings, bracelets and necklaces were some
of the ornaments used by the royalty. The
Nalanda University
wealthy merchants wore bracelets. women
used cosmetics. Hieun Tsang recorded the fame of the
Nalanda University. Students and scholars
from the Buddhist countries like China,
Dietary Habits
Japan, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Tibet and some
Hieun Tsang also noted that Indians were other countries of Central and Southeast
mostly vegetarians. The use of onion and Asia stayed and studied in the university.
garlic in the food preparation was rare. Shilabhadra, a reputed Buddhist scholar,
The use of sugar, milk, ghee and rice in the who probably hailed from Assam, was
preparation of food or their consumption the head of the University during the
visit of Hieun Tsang. As an educational Pala Rulers

centre of international fame, Nalanda had Gopala I was succeeded by his son
10,000 students on its rolls. Dharmapala, Dharmapala (770–815 CE) who made
Chandrapala, Shilabhadra, Bhadrihari, the Pala kingdom a force to reckon with.
Jayasena, Devakara and Matanga were Bengal and Bihar were directly ruled by
important teachers in the university him. Kanauj was ruled by his nominee.
receiving royal patronage. The rulers of the Punjab, Rajaputana,
II The Palas Malwa and Berar accepted his suzerainty.
He assumed titles like Paramesvara,
After the death of Harsha, the Pratiharas Parambhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja.
(Jalore-Rajasthan), the Palas (Bengal) and the
Dharmapala proved to be a great
Rashtrakutas (Deccan) engaged in a triangular
patron of Buddhism. He founded the
contest for the control of the Ganga–Yamuna
Vikaramasila monastery in Bhagalpur
doab and the lands adjoining it. The Palas
district in Bihar, which developed into
controlled vast areas of the eastern Gangetic
a great centre of Buddhist learning
Plain. Apart from earning revenue from
and culture. He built a grand vihara at
agriculture, Palas also derived income from
Somapura in modern Paharapura (present-
their wide commercial contacts in South-east
day Bangladesh). Dharmapala also built
Asia. Buddhism in Bengal provided a link
a monastery at Odantapuri in Bihar. He
between eastern India and Java and Sumatra.
patronised Harisbhadra, a Buddhist writer.
8.3 Establishment of Pala Dharmapala’s son Devapala
extended Pala control eastwards up
Rule in Bengal
to Kamarupa (Assam). He defeated
Sashanka, the Gauda ruler, believed to have Amoghavarsha, the Rashtrakuta ruler, by
ruled between 590 and 625 CE, is considered allying with all the states that regarded
the first prominent king of ancient Bengal. the Rashtrakutas as their common
After the fall of the Gauda kingdom, there enemy. Devapala was also a great patron
was no central authority, which led to of Buddhism. He granted five villages to
recurring wars between petty chieftains. Balaputradeva, the king of the Sailendra
So, in 750 CE, a group of chiefs met and dynasty of Suvarnadipa (Sumatra), to
decided on a “Kshatriya chief ” named maintain a monastery built by him at
Gopala to be their ruler. There is a story that Nalanda. Nalanda continued to flourish
Gopala was elected because of his ability to as the chief seat of Buddhist learning even
kill a “demoness” that had killed those who during the Pala reign.
were previously elected like him. Though Devapala was succeeded by
Gopala did not have royal antecedents, he Vigramapala, who abdicated his throne
succeeded in acquiring a kingdom. Gopala’s after ruling for a few years and went to
political authority was soon recognised by lead an ascetic life. Narayanapala, son of
several independent chiefs. His original Vigramapala, was also a man of pacific and
kingdom was in Vanga or East Bengal. religious disposition. The Rashtrakutas
and the Pratiharas took advantage of
The Palas ruled eastern India from Narayanapala’s disposition and defeated
Pataliputra between the ninth and the early the Palas. The rise of the Pratiharas in
twelfth centuries. Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali
Jalore under Mihira Bhoja and the advance
were the languages in use in their kingdom.
Palas followed Mahayana Buddhism.
of the Rashtrakutas into Pala territories
inevitably brought about the decline of
the Palas. The petty chiefs, who formerly and repaired several sacred structures
owed allegiance to the Palas, also started at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya.
asserting their independence. Gopala founded the famous monastery
The slide of the Pala dynasty was at Odantapura (Bihar). Dharmapala
accelerated during the rule of his three established the Vikramashila and the
successors – Rajyapala, Gopala III and Somapura Mahaviharas (Bangladesh).
Vigramapala II. The fortunes of the dynasty,
however, were revived by Mahipala I, son of
Vigramapala II. The most important event
of his period was the invasion of northern
India by Rajendra Chola sometime
between 1020 and 1025 CE. However, the
advance of the Cholas beyond the Ganges
was checked by Mahipala I.
Somapura Mahavihara (Bangladesh)
After 15 years of Mahipala’s
rule, four insignificant rulers followed. Literature
Ramapala was the last ruler who tried
to recover the lost glory of the dynasty. The prominent Buddhist scholars of
He ruled for about 53 years and after his Vikramashila and Nalanda universities were
death, the presence of Pala dynasty was Atisha, Saraha, Tilopa, Dansheel, Dansree,
confined to only a portion of Magadha Jinamitra, Muktimitra, Padmanava,
(Bihar) and continued to exist only for Virachan and Silabhadra. The notable Pala
a short period. Vijayasena of the Sena texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra
dynasty who had become powerful by then by Gaudapada, and Nyaya Kundali by
in northern Bengal expelled the last ruler Sridhar Bhatta. Many texts on medicine were
Madanapala (1130–1150 CE) from Bengal compiled by Chakrapani Datta, Sureshwar
and established his dynastic rule. Gadadhara Vaidya and Jimutavahana. The
Palas also patronised Sanskrit scholars. Many
Religion Buddhist tantric works were authored and
translated into Sanskrit. The original tantric
The Palas were great patrons of Mahayana works comprise a varied group of Indian
Buddhism. The Buddhist philosopher and Tibetan texts. The “Mahipalageet”
Haribhadra was the spiritual preceptor of (songs on Mahipala), a set of folk songs, are
Dharmapala, the founder of the Pala kingdom. still popular in the rural areas of Bengal.
Bengal remained one of the few places where Sandhyakar Nandi’s epic Ramacharitam, a
Buddhist monasteries continued to exist. The biography of a later Pala ruler Ramapala,
kingdom as well as Buddhism soon suffered describes how forest chiefs were brought
decline because of large-scale conversion of into their alliance through lavish gifts.
merchants and artisans to Islam.
Art and Architecture

Two artists of this period were Dhiman and
his son Vitapala. They were great painters,
sculptors and bronze statue makers. The
Pala school of sculptural art was influenced
by the Gupta art. Mahipala I constructed
Vikaramashila University
III The Rashtrakutas of country to his brother Dhruva who

The rivalry between the Pratiharas and the eventually crowned himself as the ruler.
Rashtrakutas proved to be destructive to During the reign of Dhruva (780–794 CE), the
both the dynasties. The Arab traveller Al- Rashtrakuta power reached its zenith. After
Masudi who visited Kanauj recorded the humbling the western Ganga king, Dhruva
enmity between the two ruling dynasties. The defeated Dantivarman, the Pallava king. The
Rashtrakutas who were bidding their time to ruler of Vengi (modern Andhra) also had
capture Kanauj from Pratiharas succeeded to accept his suzerainty. After establishing
in their motive and continued to rule until his hegemony in the south, Dhruva turned
10th century CE. They claimed descent from his attention towards the regions around
the Rastikas or Rathikas, an important clan Kanauj. Vatsarya, the Prathihara king,
domiciled in the Kannada-speaking region and Dharmapala, the Pala ruler, who were
and mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka. contenders for supremacy in the region, were
defeated by Dhruva. He nominated his third
son Govinda III as the heir-apparent.
8.4 Rise of the Dynasty The accession of Govinda III (794–814
The Rashtrakutas were originally known CE) to the throne heralded an era of success
to be the feudatories of the Western like never before. Dantika, the Pallava king,
Chalukyas of Vatapi. Though Rashtrakutas was subdued by Govinda III. Vishnuvardana,
were early rulers, the greatest ruler of the the ruler of Vengi, turned out to be his maternal
dynasty was Dandidurga. Ruling from a grandfather and so he did not challenge
smaller part of Berar, Dandidurga built his authority. Thus Govinda III became the
his career of territorial conquest after the overlord of the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta
death of Vikramaditya II (733–746 CE), Empire reached its height of glory.
the Chalukya ruler. He captured Gurjara Govinda III was succeeded by
Kingdom of Nandipuri, Malwa and eastern his son Amoghavarsha (814–880 CE).
Madhya Pradesh and the whole of Berar. Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years and his
By 750 CE, he had become the master first twenty years of the rule witnessed
of central and southern Gujarat and the endless wars with the Western Gangas.
whole of Madhya Pradesh and Berar. Peace returned when Amoghavarsha gave
After consolidating his position, and his daughter in marriage to a Ganga prince.
after defeating Kirthivarman II (746–753 CE), Amoghavarsha was a patron of literature
the last Chalukya ruler of Vatapi, Dandidurga and he patronised the famous Digambara
assumed the titles of Maharajadhiraja, acharya Jinasena, Sanskrit grammarian
Parameshwara and Paramabhattaraha. He Sakatayana and the mathematician
developed relationships with the Pallava ruler Mahaviracharya. Amoghavarsha was
Nandivarman II by giving his daughter in himself a great poet and his Kavirajamarga
marriage to the Pallava king. After Dandidurga’s is the earliest Kannada work on poetics.
death in 758 CE, his uncle (father’s brother) After Amoghavarsha, his successors were
Krishna I ascended the throne. able to sustain the vast empire, but the ablest
among them was Krishna III (939–968 CE).
Krishna I and His Successors
Krishna III was the last great ruler
Krishna I (756–775 CE) defeated the of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. Soon after his
Gangas of Mysore. His eldest son Govinda accession, he invaded the Chola kingdom
II succeeded him in 775CE. He defeated along with his brother-in-law Butunga.
the Eastern Chalukyas. He left the affairs Kanchi and Thanjavur were captured in
943 CE. His army remained in effective Krishna II and Indra III. Buddhism had
control of Thondaimandalam, consisting declined and its only important centre
of Arcot, Chengalpattu and Vellore. In was at Kanheri.
949 CE, he defeated the Chola army of
Rajadithya in the battle of Takkolam (in Literature
present day Vellore district). Krishna
The Rashtrakuta rulers were great patrons
III marched upto Rameshvaram where
of learning. Kannada and Sanskrit
he built a pillar of victory. Thus he
literature made great progress during their
succeeded in establishing his suzerainty
reign. Amoghavarsha I was the author of
over the entire Deccan region. It was
Prasnottaramalika, a Sanskrit work, and
under him the Rashtrakutas joined the
Kavirajamarga, a Kannada work. Jinasena
contest that was held then among the
wrote the Adipurana of the Jains. Krishna
northern ruling dynasties for control
II’s spiritual guide, Gunabhadra, wrote
of Kanauj. The continued conflict over
the Mahapurana of the Jains. The three
the possession of Kanauj emboldened
gems of ancient Kannada literature –
some of the local rajas to assert their
Kavichakravarthi Ponna, Adikavi Panpa
independence. Their defiance destroyed
and Kavichakravarti Ranna – were
the possibility of a single kingdom ruling
patronised by Rashtrkuta king Krishna
northern India with its centre at Kanauj.
III, as well as by Tailapa and Satyashraya
Invasions from the north-west also
of Western Chalukyas.
prevented any such attempts to create
a powerful state. But the successors of
Krishna III were too weak to save the Architecture
kingdom from its decline. The Rashtrakutas made
splendid contributions
Religion to Indian art. The rock-
cut shrines at Ellora
The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was popular
and Elephanta located in present-day
during the Rashtrakuta reign. The famous
Maharashtra belong to their period. The
rock-cut Shiva temple at Ellora was built
Ellora cave complex contains the features of
by Krishna I. The seals have the pictures of
Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments and
Garudavahana of Vishnu or of Shiva seated
art work. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism
in yogic posture. Dantidurga performed the
and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora
Hiranyagarbha ritual at Ujjayini. There are
ascribed to his period.
references to Tula-danas gift or offer of gold
equal to one’s own weight to temple deities. The most striking structure at Ellora
is the creation of the Monolithic Kailasanath
Temple. The temple was hewn out of a single
Hiranyagarbha literally means golden rock during the time of Krishna I in the
womb. A person coming out of this golden
8th century. It is similar to the Lokesvara
womb, after elaborate rituals performed
by priests, is declared as reborn possessing
temple at Pattadakal, in Karnataka, built
a celestial body. The Satavahana king by Chalukya king Vikramaditya II to
Gautamiputra Sathakarni performed this commemorate his victory over the Pallavas.
ritual to claim kshatriya status. The sculptured panels of Dasavatara
Bhirava, Ravana shaking the Mount Kailasa,
dancing Shiva and Vishnu, and Lakshmi
Jainism was patronised by later listening to music are the best specimens of
rulers such as Amoghavarsha I, Indra IV, sculpture inside the temple.
Kailasanath Temple at Ellora

Elephanta Cave
The main shrine at Elephanta is

artistically superior to the shrines at Ellora.
The sculptures such as Nataraja and Sadashiva
excel even that of the Ellora sculptures in
beauty and craftsmanship. Ardhanarishvara
and Maheshamurti are the other famous
sculptures. The latter, a three-faced bust of
Lord Shiva, is 25 feet tall and considered
one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India.
The paintings are still seen in the porch
of the temple of Kailasa and ceilings of the
Ellora Sculptures Mahesamurti shrine at Ellora.
SUMMARY
I Harsha
The period between the Guptas and the Vardhanas saw many independent
principalities. North India lacked a strong central power.
The Huns, Maithrakas of Valabhi, Maukharis of Kanauj, Yasodharman of
Mandasor, Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar and Later Guptas of Magadha were sub-
regional kingdoms.
Harsha subdued the minor powers and became the king of Thanesar and Kanauj.
His authority and control prevailed over Bengal, Kamarupa, Valabhi, Sind, Nepal
and Kashmir.
Harsha maintained cordial relations with China and the Chinese pilgrim Hieun
Tsang recorded the socio-religious conditions of the people of that period.
Harsha patronised Buddhism and convened Buddhist assemblies at Kanauj and
Prayag.
II Palas
The founder of Pala dynasty Gopala was elected to rule by the chieftains and
rulers of little kingdoms.
Dharmapala, Devapala and Mahipala I ruled ably and kept their domain under
effective control.
Weak successors contributed to the decline of the dynasty.
Mahayana Buddhism flourished during the Pala reign.
The patronage of Palas to Vikramashila and Nalanda universities paved the way
for the progress of Buddhist, Jain and Sanskrit literature.
III Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakutas emerged as the most feared and powerful kingdom during the reign
of a series of successful rulers from Krishna I through Krishna III.
Harmony existed amongst various religious sects existing under Rashtrakuta
dominions.
Rashtrakutas patronised Sanskrit and Kannada scholars.
The art found at Ellora and Elephanta are their contributions.
EXERCISE

1. Prabakaravardhanagave his daughter Rajyasri in marriage to____________.
(a) Grahavarman (b) Deva Gupta
(c) Sasanka (d) Pushyaputi
2. Harsha accepted the throne of Kanauj on the advice of______________.

(a) Grahavarman (b) Avalokitesvara Bodisatva
(c) Prabakaravardhana (d) Poni.
3. ________was the minister for Foreign Relations and War.

(a) Kuntala (b) Banu (c) Avanti (d) Sarvagata
4. Which of the following was written by Harsha?

(a) Harsha Charitha (b) Priyadharsika
(c) Arthasastra (d) Vikramorvasiyam
5. Which one of the following statements is wrong?

a. Dharmapala established Somapura Mahavihara.
b. Ramapala wrote Ramacharitam.
c. Mahipala Songs are still popular in rural parts of Bengal.
d. Agama Shastra was written by Gaudapada.
II. Answer briefly

1. What are the epigraphical sources for the study of Harsha's Empire?
2. How did Harsha become the king of Kanauj?
3. Discuss the greatness of Mahipala I.
4. Point out the significance of the battle of Takkolam.
5. Highlight the significance of Nalanda University during the Pala dynasty.
III. Write short notes

1. Harsha’s relationship with the Chinese.
2. Importance of Harsha’s criminal justice system.
3. Shrines at Elephanta and at Ellora.
4. Contribution of Rashtrakutas to Kannada literature.
5. Patronage of Rashtrakutas to Jains.
IV. Answer in detail

1. Give an account of the military expeditions of Harsha in northern India.
2. Explain the religious policy of Harsha.
3. Highlight the condition of North India as described by Hieun Tsang.
4. What were the contributions of Palas to Buddhism?
5. Account for the greatness of Rashtrakutas.
Activity
1. Enact a drama on a Buddhist Assembly Meeting.
2. Debate:
(i) Bakthiyar Khalji attacked Nalanda University thinking that it was a fort.
(ii) Hieun Tsang's visit to India to collect Buddhist texts.
GLOSSARY
quinquennial - occurring once in five years :ÛETÙ}ä¤;±¯[L
-
>µÝ
bhikshu - Buddhist monk - YH`ÚEÚ«L
immolate - killing oneself by jumping
- ÜHTÞEà
into fire
reckon - calculate - >DÔx©
preceptor - teacher - 3zJß
booty - plunder
- ZHTåÂMÝ
Y>Tã[NJ}Ô>ÜHØC[P
espoused - supporting a cause ;±>TJÚä¤2àM«
- Y@JàHTØ}ä¤3EK¶
Y>T©ÚEà
hewn - chiselled - Y@«Ô>ÜHØC
ascribed - assigned - @TßÛE«
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Burton Stein (2004), A History of India, Oxford University Press.
2. R.K. Mukerjee, A History of India.
3. Romila Thapar (2002), Early India, Penguin, Haryana.
4. R.Sathianthaier (1972),History of India, Vol. I, S. Viswanathan Printers, Chennai.
5. A.S.Altekar (1934), The Rastrakutas and Their Times, Poona.
6. V.D.Mahajan (1990), Ancient India, Chand & Co., New Delhi.
7. T.V.Mahalingam (1955), The South Indian Polity, Madras.
8. R.D. Banerjee (1915), The Palas of Bengal, Calcutta.
9. R.C.Majumdar (1915), History of Bengal, Calcutta.
INTERNET RESOURCES
1. https://en.m.wikipedia.org.....wiki>pala
2. https://www.tutorialsprint.com>anicient....
3. https//www.brittannica.com
4. https//en.m.wikipedia.org
Lesson Cultural Development

in South India
9
Learning Objectives
To understand state and society in early medieval south India

To know the nature of political conflict between Chalukyas and Pallavas
To understand the cultural exchanges occurring in south India under the two
antagonistic kingdoms
To study the artistic greatness of monuments at Ajantha, Ellora and Mamallapuram
To study the devotional movements and impressive growth of vernacular
literature in early medieval south India.
Introduction Brahmins, as well as the royal and

The political history of south India the non-royal gifts made to religious
during the sixth century to ninth century establishment are equally important
CE was marked by conflicts between sources. The Aihole inscription of
the Chalukyas of Badami (also known Pulikesin II composed by his court poet
as Western Chalukyas), and the Pallavas Ravikirti in Sanskrit is among the most
of Kanchi. At the same time, the period important of Chalukyan inscriptions.
also saw great advancements in the field Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in
of culture and literature. It also broke Kannada, Vikramarjuna-vijayam, also
new grounds in areas like devotional called Pampa-bharata, by Pampa in
literature, art and architecture. The Bhakti Kannada, which were all of a later period,
movement, which impacted the entire and Nannaya’s Mahabharatam in Telugu
sub-continent, originated in the Tamil also provide useful historical data.
country during this period. However, pride of place must
go to Tamil literature. The Bhakti
movement which originated in South
Sources
India found its greatest expression in
Inscriptions on copperplates, on temple the songs composed by the Azhwars and
walls and pillars form a major source of Nayanmars. The poems of the Vaishnavite
historical information for this period. Azhwars were later compiled as the
Inscriptions issued by Chalukyas in Nalayira Divya Prabhandam. The Saiva
Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit literature was canonized as the Panniru
languages, and Pallavas in Tamil and Tirumurai. The Thevaram, composed by
Sanskrit, recording land grants to Appar (Thirunavukkarasar), Sambandar
139
(Thirugnanasambandar) and Sundarar; I Chalukyas and Pallavas

and Thiruvavasagam by Manickavasagar
are prominent texts which are read as sacred 9.1 Chalukyas
literature to this day. Periyapuranam There are two Chalukya families:
written by Sekizhar, in a later period, also Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi) and
provides much historical information. Chalukyas of Kalyani. This lesson
The Mathavilasa Prahasanam written concerns only the Chalukyas of Badami.
by Mahendravarman I in Sanskrit, is an Chalukya dynasty emerged as a strong
important source for the Pallava period. power with its founder Pulikesin I (c. 535-
Many inscriptional sources 566 CE) fortifying a hill near Badami.
including the Allahabad Pillar He declared independence from the
inscription of Samudragupta and the Kadmabas. It is said that he conducted
Aihole inscription of the Chalukya yagnas and performed the asvameda
king Pulakisin II provide details of sacrifice. The capital Badami was founded
Pallava - Chalukya conflict. The Kuram by Kirtivarman (566-597). Pulikesin
copper plates of Parameshwaravarman I’s grandson Pulikesin II (609-(642),
and the Velurpalayam copper plates of after defeating Mangalesha, proclaimed
Nandivarman III record their military himself as king, an event that is described
achievements. Coins help us to under- in the Aihole inscription. One of the
stand the economic condition of the period. most outstanding victories of Pulikesin II
Buddhist sources such as Deepavamsa was the defeat of Harshavardhana’s
and Mahavamsa, written in Pali, the army on the banks of the Narmada. The
accounts of Chinese travellers Hiuen kings of Malwa, Kalinga, and eastern
Tsang and Itsing give us details about the Deccan accepted his suzerainty. His
socio-religious and cultural conditions victories over Kadambas of Banvasi, and
of the Pallava times. The ninth and tenth Gangas of Talakad (Mysore) are also
century writings of Arab travellers and worthy of note. However, his attempt to
geographers such as Sulaiman, Al-Masudi, attack Kanchipuram was thwarted by
and Ibn Hauka also tell us about the Mahendravarma Pallava. This led to a
socio-political and economic conditions prolonged war between the Chalukyas
of India of this period. The sculptures in and the Pallavas. Narasimha Varman I
the temples in Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal (630-668), the Pallava King, attacked and
reflect the culture of the times. occupied Badami. Pulikesin II died in the
From Kuram Copper Plate

(Line 12). The grandson of Narasimhavarman, (who arose) from the kings of this race, just as
the moon and the sun from the eastern mountain; who was the crest-jewel on the head of those
princes, who had never bowed their heads (before); who proved a lion to the elephant-herd of
hostile kings; who appeared to be blessed Narasimha himself, who had come down (to earth) in
the shape of a prince; who repeatedly defeated the Cholas, Keralas, Kalabhras, and Pandyas; who,
like Sahasrabahu (i.e., the thousand-armed Kartavirya), enjoyed the action for a thousand arms in
hundreds of fights; who wrote the (three) syllables of (the word) vijaya (i.e., victory), as on a plate,
on Pulikesin’s back, which was caused to be visible (i.e., whom he caused to turn his back) in the
battles of Pariyala, Manimangala, Suramara, etc., and who destroyed (the city of) Vatapi, just as the
pitcher-born (Agastya) (the demon) Vatapi.
140 Cultural Development in South India
CHALUKYA DYNASTY N
W E
Chalukya dynasty
I N D I A MAGADHA
Narmada Tamralipti
Tapti nadi
BHOJAKAS ha
Ma
PITINKAS Toshali BAY
Godavari
OF
BENGAL
Vatapi KALINGA
ARABIAN Kris ANDHRA
hna
SEA
Suvarnagiri
PULINDAS
An
SATHYA PUTRA
da m
Lakshad weep isla
Kaveri
an and n ic ob ar i
CHOLA
(I N D I A )
(I N D I A )
PANDYA
KERALAPUTRA
n
sl
ds
an
Anuradhapura
ds
battle. Pallava control over Badami and trained in literature, law, philosophy, martial
the southern parts of the Chalukya empire arts and others. Chalukyan kings claimed to
continued for several years. In the mid- rule according to dharma-sastra and niti-
eighth century, the Badami Chalukyas sastra. Pulikesin I (543-566) was well-versed
were overpowered and replaced by the in manu-sastra, puranas, and itihasas. In the
Rashtrakutas. beginning, the Chalukya kings assumed
titles such as Maharajan, Sathyasrayan
Chalukya Administration and Sri-Pritivi-Vallaban. After defeating
State Harshavardhana, Pulikesin II assumed
The king was the head of the administration. the title of Parameswaran. Bhattarakan
In dynastic succession primogeniture was and Maharajathirajan, soon became very
not strictly followed. Generally, the elder popular titles. In the Pallava kingdom, kings
was to be appointed as yuvaraja while the took high-sounding titles such as Dharma
king was in the office. The heir apparent got maharajaadhi raja, Maharajadhiraja,
Aihole Inscription of Pulikesin II

The Megudi temple at Aihole (in Karnataka) stands on top of a hill. On the eastern wall of this
Jaina temple is a 19-line Sanskrit inscription (dated to 556 Saka era: 634-635). The composer is a
poet named Ravikriti. The inscription is a prashasti of the Chalukyas especially the reigning king
Pulikesin II, referred to as Sathyasraya (the abode of truth). It highlights the history of the dynasty,
defeat of all his enemies, especially Harshavardhana.
Cultural Development in South India 141
Dharma maharaja, Maharaja. In the Provincial and District

Hirahadagalli plates the king is introduced Administration
as the performer of agnistoma, vajapeya and
asvamedha sacrifices. Generally, the king appointed his sons as
the provincial governors. The governors
The wild boar was the royal called themselves raja, marakka-rajan
insignia of the Chalukyas. It was claimed and rajaditya-raja-parameswaran. Some
that it represented the varaha avatar of governors held the title maha-samanta and
Vishnu in which he is said to have rescued maintained troops. The chief of vishaya
the Goddess of the Earth. The bull, Siva’s was vishayapati. In turn, vishaya was
mount, was the symbol of the Pallavas. divided into pukti. Its head was pogapati.
Royal Women Village Administration

Chalukya dynasty of Jayasimhan I line The traditional revenue officials of
appointed royal ladies as provincial the villages were called the nala-
governors. They also issued coins in some kavundas. The central figure in village
instances. Vijya Bhattariga, a Chalukya administration was kamunda or pokigan
princess, issued inscriptions. Pallava who were appointed by the kings. The
queens did not take active part in the village accountant was karana and he was
administration of the kingdom, but they otherwise called gramani. Law and order
built shrines, and installed images of of the village was in the hands of a group
various deities, and endowed temples. The of people called mahajanam. There was
image of Queen Rangapataka, the queen a special officer called mahapurush, in
of Rajasimha, is found in the inscription charge of maintaining order and peace of
in Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram. the village. Nagarapatis or Purapatis were
the officials of the towns.
The King and His Ministers
All powers were vested in the king.
Religion
Inscriptions do not specifically speak of a
council of ministers, but they do refer to The Chalukyas patronised both Saivism
an official called maha-sandhi-vigrahika. and Vaishnavism. They built temples
Four other categories of ministers are also for Siva and Vishnu. Brahmin groups
referred to in the epigraphs: Pradhana (head were invited from the Gangetic regions
minister), Mahasandhi-vigrahika (minister and settled to perform regular pujas
of foreign affairs), Amatya (revenue and conduct festivals and ceremonies
minister), and Samaharta (minister of in the temples. Notable Chalukya rulers
exchequer). Chalukyas divided the state like Kirtivarman (566-597), Mangalesa
into political divisions for the sake of (597-609), and Pulikesin II (609-642)
administration: Vishayam, Rastram, Nadu performed yagnas. They bore titles such as
and Grama. Epigraphs speak of the officials parama-vaishana and parama-maheswara.
like vishayapatis, samantas, gramapohis and Chalukyas gave prominent place to
mahatras. Vishayapatis exercised the power Kartikeyan, the war god. Saiva monasteries
at the behest of the kings. Samantas were became centres for popularising Saivism.
feudal lords functioning under the control Chalukyas patronised heterodox sects
of the state. Grampohis and gramkudas also and lavishly donated lands to the
were village officials. Mahatras were the Jain centres. Ravikirti, the poet-laureate
prominent village men. of Pulikesin II, was a Jain scholar. In
the reign of Kirtivarman II (744-755) a

Jain village official built a Jain temple
in a place called Annigere. The prince
Krishna (756-775) appointed Gunapatra,
a Jain monk, as his master. Pujyapatar
the author of Jainentriya-viyakarnam
was a Jain monk, a contemporary of
Vijayadityan (755-772). According to
Hiuen Tsang, there were many Buddhist
Aihole Durga Temple
centres in the Chalukya territory wherein
more than 5000 followers of the Hinayana style. A temple dedicated to the goddess
and Mahayana sects lived. Durga was built on the model of Buddha
Chaitya. It stands on a raised platform in
Literature and Education the form of semi-circle. Another temple,
Chalukyas used Sanskrit in pillar dedicated to the same goddess is called
inscriptions such as in Aihole and Maha- Huccimalligudi, which is rectangular in
kudam. A seventh-century inscription shape. Chalukyas also built Jain temples.
of a Chalukya king at Badami mentions Megudi Jain temple is illustrative of the
Kannada as the local prakrit, meaning evolution of temple architecture under the
the people’s language, and Sanskrit as Chalukyas. The mandapa-type caves are
the language of culture. A chieftain of preserved at Aihole.
Pulikesin II authored a grammar work
Saptavataram in Sanskrit. Badami (Vatapi)
There are four caves in Badami. The
Chalukya Architecture
largest cave temple built by Mangalesa is
Historically, in Deccan, Chalukyas dedicated to Vishnu. The reclining posture
introduced the technique of building of Vishnu on the snake bed and Narasimha
temples using soft sandstones as medium. are exquisite examples of Chalukya art.
In Badami, two temples are dedicated Irrespective of religion, architectural
to Vishnu and one each to Siva and to features share a common style. It
the Jaina tirthankaras. Their temples establishes the technical importance and
are grouped into two: excavated cave the secular attitude of both patron and
temples and structural temples. Badami is architect.
known for both structural and excavated
cave temples. Pattadakal and Aihole are Pattadakal
popular for structural temples.
Pattadakal, a quiet village in Bagalkot
district of Karnataka, is famous for its
Aihole (Ayyavole)
exquisite temples. Pattadakal was a
Built in 634, Aihole, the headquarters of centre for performing royal rituals. The
the famous medieval Ayyavole merchants’ Virupaksha temple was built at the order of
guild was an important commercial centre. queen Lohamahadevi to commemorate the
About seventy temples are located in Aihole. conquest of Kanchipuram by her husband
The earliest stone-built temple is Lad Khan Vikramaditya II. The unique feature of
temple. Its unique trait is a stucco pillar the structural temple built by Rajasimha
with a big capital distinct from northern at Mamallapuram was adopted here by
panels depicting scenes and characters

from the Ramayana. The eastern wall
has a short Kannada inscription, giving
the name of the architect Revadi Ovajja,
who designed the shrine. In Pattadakal,
Chalukyas built more than ten temples
which demonstrate the evolution in
Chalukya architecture. On the basis of
style these temples are classified into two
Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal
groups: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian.
the Chalukyas. Monuments are generally
Painting
associated with the rulers who built them.
However, here we also have signatures of the Paintings are found in a cave temple
architects who conceived the edifices and dedicated to Vishnu in Badami. Chalukyas
the skilled craftspeople who created them. adopted the Vakataka style in painting.
The east porch of the Virupaksha temple Many of the paintings are of incarnations of
has a Kannada inscription eulogizing the Vishnu. The most popular Chalukya painting
architect who designed the temple. The is in the palace built by the King Mangalesan
architect was given the title Tribhuavacharya (597-609). It is a scene of ball being watched
(maker of the three worlds). Several reliefs by members of royal family and others.
on the temple walls bear signatures of the
sculptors who carved them.
9.2 Pallavas
At the south-eastern corner of the
village is the Papanatha temple. Similar to There is no scholarly consensus about the
the Virupaksha temple in its basic plan, origin of the Pallavas. Some early scholars
it has a shikara in the northern style. The held the view that the word Pallava was a
outer walls are richly decorated with many variant of Pahlava, known as Parthians,
PALLAVA TERRITORIES N
W E
Pallava Territories
S
Narmada Mahanadi
God Bay of
ava
ri
Bengal
Bijapur
hna
Arabian Kris
Masulipatnam
Sea
Sira PALLAVA
CauvVellore KANCHI
ery
A
L a ks h a d weep
nda
(I n d ia)
Calicut
man and Nicobar
(I n d ia)
PANDIYA
Madurai
Quilon
Indian Ocean
who moved from western India to the reign of Narasimhavarman I (630-668), the
eastern coast of the peninsula, during Pallavas managed to settle scores by winning
the wars between the Sakas and the several victories over the Chalukyas
Satavahanas in the second century CE. But with the aid of their ally Manavarman,
many scholars today regard them native a Sri Lankan prince, who later became
to south India or “with some mixture of ruler of the island kingdom. The climax
north Indian blood”. was Narasimhavarman’s invasion of the
The Pallavas were associated with Chalukyan kingdom and his capturing of the
Tondaimandalam, the land between the Badami. Narasimhavarman claims to have
north Pennar and north Vellar rivers. defeated the Cholas, Cheras and Kalabhras.
Simhavishnu is believed to have conquered Two naval expeditions despatched to help
the Chola country up to the Kaveri and Manavarman were successful, but this
consolidated his dynastic rule, started by Sri Lankan ruler subsequently lost his
his father Simhavarman. Simhavishnu, kingdom.
vanquishing the Kalabhras, conquered the The Pallava-Chalukya conflict
land up to the Kaveri, thereby coming into continued during the subsequent decades,
conflict with the Pandyas. Simhavishnu’s with some intermittent peace. During the
successor Mahendravarman I (590-630), reign of his grandson, Paramesvaravarman I
whom Appar, converted from Jainism to (670-700), Vikramaditya of the Chalukya
Saivism, was a patron of arts, and a poet kingdom invaded the Pallava country.
and musician in his own right. Paramesvaravarman fought against him
During Mahendravarman’s reign, with the support of the Gangas and
the army of Pulikesin II annexed the Pandyas. As a result, the Pallavas came into
northern part of Pallava kingdom and conflict with the Pandyas in the south. In
almost reached the Pallava capital of the early ninth century, the Rashtrakuta
Kanchipuram. Subsequently, during the king, Govind III, invaded Kanchi during
the reign of the Pallava Dantivarman.
Dantivarman’s son Nandivarman III
aided by western Gangas and Cholas,
defeated the Pandyas at the battle of
Sripurambiyam or Thirupurambiyam.
Aparajita, grandson of Nandivarman III,
lost his life in a battle fought against Aditya
I of the Chola kingdom who invaded
Tondaimandalam. This sealed the fate
of the Pallavas. Thereafter, control over
Tondaimandalam passed into the hands
of the Cholas.
About the Cheras

Though the Kerala region seems to have
been under the rule of the Chera Perumals
during the period from sixth to ninth
century little is known about its history
until the beginning of the ninth century.
Narasimhavarman
Pallava Administration Land Grants

Under the Pallavas, kinship was held to Land ownership was with the king, who
be of divine origin and was hereditary. could make revenue grants to his officers
The king took high-sounding titles, some and land-grants to Brahmans, or else
of which, such as maharajadhiraja, were continue to have land cultivated by small-
borrowed from north Indian traditions. scale cultivators and landlords. The latter
The king was assisted by a group of was the most common practice. Crown
ministers, and in the later Pallava lands were leased out to tenants-at-will.
period this ministerial council played a The status of the village varied according
prominent part in state policy. Some of the to the tenures prevailing. The village
ministers bore semi-royal titles and may with an inter-caste population paid land
well have been appointed from among the revenue. The brahmadeya villages were
feudatories. donated to a single Brahman or a group
Distinctions are made between of Brahmans. These villages tended to be
amatyas and mantrins. While a mantri is more prosperous than the others because
generally understood to be a diplomat, no tax was paid. There were devadana
amatya is a counsellor. Mantri Mandala villages, donated to a temple, and the
was a council of ministers. Rahasyadhikrita revenue was consequently received by
was a private secretary of the king. the temple authorities and not by the
Manikkappandaram-Kappan was an officer in state. The temple authorities assisted the
charge of the treasury (Manikka - valuables; village by providing employment in the
Pandaram - treasury; Kappan – keeper). service of the temple. This last category of
Kodukkappillai was the officer of gifts. They villages gained greater significance when
were central officers under the Pallava king. in later centuries the temples became the
Kosa-adhyaksa was the supervisor of the centres of rural life. During the Pallava
Manikkappandaram-kappan. Judicial courts period the first two types of villages were
were called Adhikarna Mandapa and judges predominant.
called Dharmadhikarins. Fines are mentioned
in the Kasakudi plates of Nandivarman In 1879, eleven plates held together by a
Pallava as Karanadandam (fine in superior/ ring of copper, its two ends soldered and
higher court) and Adhikaranadandam (fine stamped with a royal seal depicting a bull
and a lingam (the Pallava symbol) were
in district level).
discovered in Urrukkattukottam, near
The governor of a province was Puducherry. It records a grant of a village
advised and assisted by officers in made in the twenty-second year of the king
charge of districts who worked in close Nandivarman (753 CE). The inscriptional
collaboration with local autonomous text commences with a eulogy of the king in
institutions, largely in an advisory Sanskrit, followed by the details of the grant
capacity. They were built on local in Tamil, and a concluding verse in Sanskrit.
relationship of caste, guilds, craftsmen
and artisans (such as weavers and oil-
mongers), students, ascetics and priests. Village Life
There were assemblies of villagers and In the village, the basic assembly was
also representatives of districts. General the sabha, which was concerned with all
body meetings of the assembly were held matters relating to the village, including
annually, and meetings of smaller groups endowments, land, irrigation, cultivated,
were responsible for implementing policy. punishment of crime, the keeping of
a census and other necessary records.

Village courts dealt with petty criminal
cases. At a higher level, in towns and
districts, courts were presided over by
government officers, with the king as the
supreme arbiter of justice. The sabha was
a formal institution but it worked closely
with the urar, an informal gathering of
the entire village. Above this was a district
council which worked with nadu or
district administration. Villages populated
entirely or largely by Brahmans preserved Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchipuram
records of the functioning of assemblies
and councils. The link between the village came almost exclusively from rural
assembly and the official administration sources, mercantile and urban institutions
was the headman of the village. being largely unplanned. Two categories
of taxes were levied on the village. The
land revenue paid by the cultivator to
Tank Irrigation the state varied from 1/6th to 1/10th of
A special category of land, eripatti or tank the produce, and was collected by the
land, was known only in south India. village and paid to the state collector. In
This land was donated by individuals, the the second category were local taxes, also
revenue from which was set apart for the collected in the village but utilized for
maintenance of the village tank. Rainwater services in the village itself. The tax money
was stored in the tank so that land could was spent for repairing irrigation works,
be irrigated during the annual long, dry illuminating the temple, etc. When the
spell. The tank, lined with brick or stone, state land tax was inadequate, the revenue
was built through the cooperative effort of was supplemented by additional taxes on
the village, and its water was shared by all draught cattle, toddy-drawers, marriage-
cultivators. The maintenance of these tanks parties, potters, goldsmiths, washermen,
was essential to the village. Practically textile-manufacturers, weavers, brokers,
every inscription from the Pallava period letter-carriers, and the makers of ghee.
pertaining to the rural affairs refers to the The loot and booty obtained in war
upkeep of the tank. Next in importance added to the revenue of the state. Pallava
came wells. Water was distributed by considered war to be very important
canals, which were fitted with sluices and a series of sculptures depicting the
to regulate the water level and prevent important events connected with the reign
overflowing at the source. The distribution of Nandivarama Pallava, notably Pallava
of water for irrigation was supervised by troops attacking a fort are seen in the
a special tank committee appointed by the Vaikunta Perumal temple at Kanchipuram.
village. Water taken in excess of allotted to This fort is depicted in the sculptures
a particular cultivator was taxed. as having high ramparts with soldiers
attacking it and elephants standing near it.
Revenue and Taxation
Pallava Army
Land grants recorded mainly on
copperplates provide detailed information Much of the state revenue went to
on land revenues and taxation. Revenue maintain the army. The king maintained
a standing army under his direct control. controlled by the Pallavas and the Chalukyas
The army consisted of foot-soldiers, commanded a limited income from land.
cavalry and a small force of elephants. Mercantile activity had not developed
Chariots were by now almost out of use sufficiently to make a substantial contribution
and in any case were ineffective in the to the economy. The Pallavas had maritime
hilly terrains, as much of the fighting took trade with south-east Asia, where by now
place there. Cavalry, though effective, there were three major kingdoms: Kambuja
was expensive, as horses had to be (Cambodia), Champa (Annam), and
imported. The Pallavas developed a navy Srivijaya (the southern Malaya peninsula and
and built dockyards at Mamallapuram Sumatra). On the west coast, the initiative in
and Nagapattinam. However, the Pallava the trade with the West was gradually passing
navy was inconsiderable compared to into the hands of the foreign traders settled
the naval strength of the Cholas who along the coast, mainly Arabs. Indian traders
succeeded them. were becoming suppliers of goods rather
than carriers of goods to foreign countries,
and communication with the west became
Trade
indirect, via Arabs, and limited to trade alone.
Kanchipuram was an important trading
centre in the Pallava period. The
merchants had to obtain license to market Society
their goods. Barter system generally Brahmins as learned scholars in literature,
prevailed but later the Pallavas issued astronomy, law and others functioned as
gold and silver coins. Merchants had their the royal counsellors. Not only were they
own organizations such as Manigramam. in the teaching profession, they were also
In foreign trade, spices, cotton textiles, involved in agriculture, trade and war.
precious stones and medicinal plants were They were exempted from paying taxes and
exported to Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Sri capital punishment. The next important
Lanka, China and Burma. Mamallapuram social group which ruled the state was
was an important seaport. called sat-kshatryas (quality kshatriyas).
Traders founded guilds and called Not all the kshatryas were of warring
themselves as sudesi, nanadesi, ainurruvar groups; some of them were involved
and others. Their main guild functioned in trading as well. They also enjoyed
at Aihole. Foreign merchants were known the right to read the Vedas, a privilege
as Nanadesi. It had a separate flag with denied to lower varnas. The trading group
the figure of bull at the centre, and they maintained warriors for protection and
enjoyed the right of issuing vira-sasanas. founded trade guilds. The people who
The jurisdiction of this guild stretched were at the bottom of the society worked
over entire south-east Asia. The chief of in agriculture, animal husbandry, and
this guild is registered in the inscriptions handicraft works. People engaged in
as pattanswamy, pattnakilar, and scavenging, fishing, dry-cleaning and
dandanayaka. Its members were known as leather works were positioned outside the
ayyavole-parameswariyar. varna system.
Most scholars agree that
Aryanisation or the northern influence
Maritime Trade
on the south picked up pace during the
Unlike in the Ganges plain, where large areas Pallava period. This is evident from the
were available for cultivation, the regions royal grants issued by the kings. The caste
structure had firmly established. Sanskrit Monasteries and Mutts

came to be held in high esteem. Monasteries continued to be the nucleus of
Kanchipuram continued to be the Buddhist educational system and were
a great seat of learning. The followers located in the region of Kanchi, and the
of Vedic religion were devoted to the valleys of the Krishna and the Godavari
worship of Siva. Mahendravarman was rivers. Buddhist centres were concerned
the first, during the middle of his reign, with the study of Buddhism, particularly as
to adopt the worship of Siva. But he this was a period of intense conflict between
was intolerant of Jainism and destroyed orthodox and heterodox sects. But Buddhism
some Jain monasteries. Many of the was fighting a losing battle. Royal patronage,
great Nayanmars and Alwars, Saiva and which the Buddhists lacked, gave an edge to
Vaishanava poet-saints lived during his the protagonists of Vedic religions.
time. Buddhism and Jainism lost their Apart from the university at
appeal. However, Hiuen-Tsang is reported Kanchi, which acquired a fame equal to
to have seen at Kanchi one hundred that the Nalanda, there were a number
Buddhist monasteries and 10,000 priests of other Sanskrit colleges. Sanskrit was
belonging to the Mahayana school. the recognized medium, and was also the
official language at the court, which led to
*URZLQJLQÀXHQFHRI its adoption in literary circles. In the eighth
Brahmanism century the mathas (mutts) became popular.
This was a combination of a rest house, a
Perhaps the most obvious sign of the feeding-centre, and an education centre,
influence of Aryan culture in the south which indirectly brought publicity to the
was the pre-eminent position given to particular sect with which it was associated.
Brahmins. They gained materially through
large gifts of land. Aryanisation is also Growing Popularity of Sanskrit
evident in the evolution of educational
institutions in the Pallava kingdom. In Mahendravarman I composed Mathavilasa
the early part of this period education was Prahasanam in Sanskrit. Two
controlled by Jains and Buddhists, but extraordinary works in Sanskrit set
gradually the Brahmins superseded them. the standard for Sanskrit literature in
The Jains who had brought with them the south: Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya and
their religious literature in Sanskrit and Dandin’s Dashakumaracharita. Dandin of
Prakrit, began to use Tamil. Jainism was Kanchipuram, author of the great treatise
extremely popular, but the competition on rhetoric Kavyadarsa, seems to have
of Hinduism in the succeeding centuries stayed in Pallava court for some time.
greatly reduced the number of its
adherents. In addition, Mahendravarman I Rock-cut Temples
lost interest in Jainism and took up the
cause of Saivism, thus depriving the Jains Mahendravarman I is credited with the
of valuable royal patronage. The Jains had introduction of rock-cut temples in the
developed a few educational centres near Pallava territory. Mahendravarman claims
Madurai and Kanchi, and religious centres in his Mandagappattu inscription that his
such as the one at Shravanabelagola in shrine to Brahma, Isvara and Vishnu was
Karnataka. But a vast majority of the Jaina made without using traditional materials
monks tended to isolate themselves in such as brick, timber, metal and mortar.
small caves, in hills and forests. Mahendravarman’s rock temples are
usually the mandapa type with a pillared Mural paintings in Ellora are found
hall or the mandapa in front and a small in five caves, but only in the Kailash
shrine at the rear or sides. temple are they preserved. Some murals
in Jain temples are well preserved. Not
only animals, birds, trees, flowers are
pictured elegantly, but human emotions
and character - greed, love, compassion-
are depicted with professional skill.
The Ellora caves were designated as

a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1983.
Rock-cut temple of Mahendravarma Pallava

Heterodox I / Buddhist caves
II. Ellora – Ajanta and There are 12 Buddhist caves. Every

Buddhist cave temple is of a unique
Mamallapuram
model in architecture. Some are modest;
Aurangabad district in Maharashtra is the while others are double-storeyed or
centre of the groups of caves in Ellora and triple-storeyed. The plans of the caves
Ajanta. The Ellora group of caves are famous demonstrate that these were designed
for sculptures while the Ajanta group of as religious centres where monks stayed
caves are famous for paintings. The dates of and the disciples were trained in religious
these temples range from c. 500 to c. 950 CE. treatises and scriptures. The main hall in
But the activity of creating cave temples may the centre and the cubical rooms on either
have started two hundred years earlier. The side were used as monasteries for teaching
first cave temple was created for the Ajivikas. and preaching. This is attested by a figure,
Some of the temples are incomplete. in cave number six, of man reading a
manuscript on a folding table. The panels in
these caves portray scenes from the life of
9.3 Ellora the Buddha. Three different characters are
The rock-cut cave temples in Ellora are indentified by the sculptures in the caves.
in 34 caves, carved in Charanadri hills. The central figure is Buddha found in three
Without knowledge of trigonometry, sagacious postures: meditating (dhyana
structural engineering, and metallurgy, the mudra), preaching (vyakhyana mudra) and
Indian architects could not have created touching the earth by index finger of right
such exquisite edifices. The patrons of hand (bhumi-sparsha mudra).
these caves range from the dynasties of
Goddesses
Chalukyas to Rashtrakutas. The heterodox
sects first set the trend of creating this Buddhist caves represented goddesses by way
model of temples. Later, orthodox sects of the carved images of Tara, Khadiravani-
adopted it as a medium of disseminating tara, Chunda, Vajradhat-vishvari, Maha-
religious ideologies. These temples were mayuri, Sujata, Pandara and Bhrikuti. In
linked to Ajivikas, Jainism, Buddhism, cave twelve, a stout female figure is depicted
and Brahmanism. The earliest temples are wearing a waistband and headgear of a
modest and simple with no artistic claims. cobra. Khadrivani-tara also holds a cobra in
But, the later temples are elegant edifices. one of her hands in the same cave.
mounted on a crocodile and the river goddess

Yamuna mounted on a tortoise.
9.4 Ajanta
The Ajanta caves are situated at a distance
of about 100 km north of Aurangabad in
Maharashtra. Totally 30 caves have been
scooped out of volcanic rocks. Though
chiefly famous for mural paintings, there are
Buddha in Meditation-Ellora
some sculptures too. The Hinayana sect of
Heterodox II / Jain caves Buddhism started the excavation of caves in
Ajanta. The patrons were the kings who ruled
A few Jain caves are also seen in Ellora the Deccan plateau during the period c. 200
group and are distinct from others. But BCE to 200 CE. Inscriptions speak of the
they are incomplete. The figures of Yaksha- patrons who range from kings to merchants.
matanga, Mahavira, Parsvanatha, and First phase of the caves belong to the period
Gomatesvara are surrounded by attendants. from c. 200 BCE to 200 CE. The second phase
started from c. 200 CE to 400 CE.
Caves of Vedic Religions
Paintings
The earliest caves in these groups are modest
and simple. Mostly, they are square-shaped Ajanta caves are the repository of rich mural
except Kailasanatha cave (cave-16), which is paintings. Paintings of the early phase
a massive monolithic structure, carved out are mostly in caves nine and ten, which
of a single solid rock. This temple is said to belong to the period of the Satavahanas.
represent Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva. The authors of Ajanta paintings followed
The temple is two storeyed and the Kailasa ingenious techniques. First, they plastered
temple is on the first one. The lower storey the ridged surface of the volcanic rock. This
has carved life-size elephants, which looks plaster was made of vegetable fibres, paddy
like they are holding up the temple on their husk, rock-grit, and sand. This surface was
backs. The temple exterior has richly carved overlaid with a thin layer of lime, ready to
windows, images of deities from the Hindu receive the pigment. Recently it was noticed
scriptures and Mithunas (amorous male that a stretch of cloth was reinforced on the
and female figures). Most of the deities to surface for the application of pigment.
the left of the temple entrance are Saivite The colours were extracted out
and the deities to the right of the entrance of natural objects and minerals. The
are Vaishnavite. The courtyard has two prominent colours used are black, red,
huge pillars with the flagstaff and a Nandi white, yellow, blue and green. The
mandapa. The wedding ceremony of Siva- aesthetic features of the paintings are
Parvati, the attempted lifting of the Kailasa garland, necklaces, headgear, ear-rings
mountain by Ravana, and the destruction and the perfection of the movements of
of Mahisasura by the goddess Durga are the human hands. The story panels are
beautiful specimens. Weapons and musical attractive and informative. Scenes from
instruments of the gods are also depicted the Jataka stories and select episodes from
through the panel sculptures. An interesting the life history of Buddha are the central
sculpture is that of the river goddess Ganga theme of the paintings.
independently is another important feature.

The popular Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara is
depicted in painting and sculpture.
9.5 Mamallapuram
The iconic Shore Temple of Pallavas at
Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) was
constructed during the reign of Rajasimha
(700-728). The temple comprises three
shrines, where the prominent ones
are dedicated to Siva and Vishnu. The
Ajantha: Bodhisatva
exterior wall of the shrine, dedicated to
The celestial figures of Kinnaras, Vishnu, and the interior of the boundary
Vidyadharas and Gandharvas are depicted wall are elaborately carved and sculpted.
in paintings and sculptures. In the In southern India, this is one amongst the
paintings of the later period Bodhisattva is earliest and most important structural
shown in larger relief. Though a variety of temples. Unlike other structures of the
human moods are presented, the dominant region, the Shore Temple is a five-storeyed
ones are of compassion and peace. Light rock-cut monolith. The monolithic
and shadow are intelligently used. Human vimanas are peculiar to Mamallapuram.
figures depicted in different colours have The Rathas there are known as the
been interpreted to mean that they are Panchapandava Rathas. The Arjuna Ratha
from different ethnicities. contains artistically carved sculptures of
Siva, Vishnu, mithuna and dwarapala. The
Architecture and Sculpture most exquisite of the five is the Dharmaraja
Ratha, with a three-storied vimana and a
Architecturally, Ajanta caves are grouped
square base. The Bhima Ratha is rectangular
into two: chaityas and viharas. The chaityas
in plan and has beautiful sculptures
have vaulted ceilings with long halls. In the
of Harihara, Brahma, Vishnu, Skanda,
rear end of the halls the statue of Buddha is
Ardhanarisvara and Siva as Gangadhara.
seen. The sculpture of Buddha in the garba-
griha is in the classical model. His image is
the embodiment of benevolence. Heaviness
is the general character of the sculptures.
Sculptures of Yakshis and Hariti with children
are significant. Bodhisattva carved out
Panchapandava Rathas
The most important piece of carving

in Mamallapuram is the Descent of the
Ganga (variously described as ‘Bhagirata’s
Penance’ or ‘Arjuna’s Penance’). The portrayal
of puranic figures with popular local stories
reveals the skill of the artists in blending
Ajantha Cave 12: Vihara Cells various aspects of human and animal life. The
of Madurai in south of Tamil country

patronised the religious movement of
Bhakti, spearheaded by the elite and the
wealthy merchant class. The local temple
became the nucleus of this movement.
Bhakti became the instrument to touch
the hearts of people emotionally, and
mobilize them.
Bhakti cult as a religious movement
Shore Temple at Mamallapuram opened a new chapter in the history of
Tamilnadu in the early medieval period. A
sculptural panel in the Krishna mandapa,
strong wave of Tamil devotionalism swept
where village life with cows and cowherds is
the country from the sixth through the
depicted with beauty and skill, is yet another
ninth centuries. The form was in hymns of
artistic wonder to behold.
the Nayanmars and the Azhwars. The saints
of Saivism and Vaishnavism simplified the
Conclusion use of Tamil language with the application of
Rock-cut temples were common in the music. They brought the local and regional
Pallava period. The structural temples and ethos into the mainstream. Azhwars (totally
the free-standing temples at Aihole and 12) and Nayanmars (totally 63), came from
Badami in the Deccan and at Kanchipuram different strata of Tamil society, such as
and Mamallapuram provide testimony artisans and cultivators. There were women
to the architectural excellence achieved saints as well like Andal, an Azhwar saint. The
during the period. poet Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Tilakawathi),
and the Pandya queen Mangayarkkarasiyar
The Deccan style of sculpture shows were prominent female Nayanmar saints.
a close affinity to Gupta art. Pallava sculpture The refashioning of Saivism and Vaishnavism
owed a lot to the Buddhist tradition. Yet the by the Bhakti saints effectively challenged
sculpture and the architecture of the Deccan Buddhism and Jainism. The influence of
and Tamil Nadu were not mere offshoots of the Bhakti movement is still discernable in
the northern tradition. They are distinctly Tamilnadu.
recognizable as different and have an originality
of their own. The basic form was taken from the
older tradition, but the end result unmistakably Sources
reflected its own native brilliance. Hymns of Thevaram corpus; Nalayira-
divyaprapandam; Periyapuranam;
III. Devotional Movement and Tiru-thondarthogai; Manickavasakar’s
Literature Tiruvasagam; Hymns engraved on the
walls of temples. Miniature sculptures
9.6 Tamil Devotionalism in the circumambulation of temples;
paintings in the temples.
The emergence of regional polities in
south India necessitated the establishment
Bhakti as Ideology
of states based on a certain ideology. In
the context of the times religion alone The term Bhakti has different connotations.
could be the rallying point. The Pallavas It includes service, piety, faith and worship.
of Kanchipuram in north and the Pandyas But it also has an extended meaning. It
is an enactment of emotion, aesthetics

and sensitivity. Bhakti hymns have three
major themes: First and foremost is the
idea of devotion to a personal god. The
second is a protest against orthodox Vedic
Brahmanism and the exclusiveness of the
Brahmans in their access to divine grace
and salvation. The third is the outright
condemnation of Jains and Buddhists as
heretics. Azhwars
by Nadamuni, at the end of the ninth

Bhakti and the Arts century. Nadamuni who served as a
Originating with folk dancing, the priest at the Ranganatha temple in
choreography of temple dancing became Srirangam is credited with compiling this
highly sophisticated and complex work comprising four thousand poems.
renderings of religious themes as apparent Periyalvar lived in Srivilliputtur during
in the final form. From the Pallava period the reign of Pandyan king Maravarman
onwards trained groups of dancers were Srivallabha in the ninth century. The
maintained by the more prosperous themes are mostly Krishna’s childhood.
temples. Classic scenes from puranas, Krishna is the hero in Andal’s hymns.
and itihasas were sculpted on the walls Her songs convey her abiding love for
of the temples, in bronze and stone. Krishna. Nammalvar, from Kurugur
Subsequently, artists were attached to the (Alvar Tirunagari), now in Thoothukudi
temples with state patronage in order to district, is considered the greatest
promote the fine arts like music, dance and amongst Alvars. Nammalvar authored
others. Religious hymns set to music were four works that include the Tiruvaymoli.
popularized by the Tamil saints, and the Vaishnava devotees believe that his hymns
singing of these hymns became a regular distil the essence of the four Vedas. From
feature of the temple ritual. The veena the twelfth century, the Vaishnava hymns
was probably the most frequently used were the subject of elaborate and erudite
instrument. Sometime around the fifth commentaries.
century CE, it was replaced in India by a
lute with a pear-shaped body. Some two Nayanmars
centuries later it took the form in which it The prominent Saiva poets
is found today-a small gourd body with a include Tirunavukarasar (Appar),
long finger-board. Tirugnanasambandar and Sundarar, and
Manikkavasagar. Nambi Andar Nambi
9.7 Azhwars and compiled their hymns into an anthology
Nayanmars
Azhwars
Azhwars composed moving hymns
addressed to Vishnu. They were compiled
in the Nalayira Divviyaprabandham
Nayanmars
of eleven books, towards the end of tenth society into mainstream politics through
century. The first seven books, commonly the motto of service, surrender and
known as Thevaram, contain the hymns sacrifice. Every layman could understand
of Sambandar (I to III), Appar (books this motto because Bhakti literary canons
IV to VI) and Sundarar (book VII) and were composed in Tamil in simple
Manikkavasagar (book VIII). Sekkilar’s syntactic and semantic style. But, with the
Periyapuranam is the twelfth thirumurai arrival of Adi Sankara Bhakti discourse
of the Saiva canon. It is a hagiography began in Sanskrit in a philosophical
of the sixty-three Nayanmars but mode.
contains an undercurrent of historical
information as well. This collection of Advent of Adi Sankara
12 books is named Panniru Tirumurai. Against the background of the emerging
The Periyapuranam relates many stories pan-Indian need for an ideology to evolve
about Nayanmars and the miraculous statehood, a new doctrine was expounded
episodes in their lives. by Sankara from Kaladi, Kerala. With
his new doctrine of Maya (illusion) he
Impact held debates with his counterparts from
The devotional movement manifested different sects of religions and won over
itself as a great social transformation. them. Fundamentally, Sankara’s Advaita
The apogee of its movement was the or non-dualism had its roots in Vedanta
coming up of temples that became or Upanishadic philosophy. His attempts
prominent in the Tamil landscape. to root out Buddhism and to establish
Temples, in later Chola times, became smarta (traditionalist) mathas resulted
great social institutions. Politically, in the establishment of monasteries in
the Bhakti movement prompted the different places viz., Sringeri, Dvaraka,
rulers to establish the settlements for Badrinath, and Puri, which were headed
the invited Brahmin groups from the by Brahmin pontiffs. Sankara looked
north of the Indian sub-continent. Royal upon Saiva and Vaishnava worship as two
members, local administrative bodies equally important aspects of the Vedic
and individuals initiated the calendrical religion. Monastic organization and
celebrations and festivals to be conducted preservation of Sanskrit scriptures were
in the temples for which they started the two major thrusts of Sankara school.
making endowments to meet their
expenditure. It directly speeded up the 9.9 Sri Ramanujar
emergence of state in Tamil country and
(1017-1138)
indirectly integrated the different social
groups into the religious fold through the Sri Ramanujar, a native of Sriperumpudur,
instrumentality of temple institutions. underwent philosophical training under
Over the centuries the Bhakti movement Yatavaprakasar in Kanchipuram in
spread all over India, and resulted in a Sankara school of thought. The young
transformation of Hinduism. Ramanujar did not agree with the
teachings of his guru and was fascinated
by the teachings of the Srirangam school
9.8 Adi Sankara (788-820) of thought. Yamunacharya who once
Bhakti or devotional movement found him in Kanchi invited him to
incorporated different sections of the Srirangam. But as soon as he reached
Sri Rangam, Yamunacharya passed

away. Ramanujar was then declared the
head of monastery in Srirangam. He
took control of monastery, temple and
united the sect with efforts at modifying
the rituals in temples. Ramanuja was a
teacher-reformer and a great organiser.
He challenged the monist ideology of Adi
Sankara and in his effort to widen the
social base to include social groups other
than Brahmans. Described as qualified
monism, his philosophy of Visishtadvaita
influenced many thinkers and developed
into a separate tradition. A century after
his death, there was a schism which
developed into two separate schools under
Vedanta Desikar and Manavala Mamuni.
Sri Ramanujar
Ramanuja took interest in propagating
the doctrine of Bhakti to social groups
outside the varnashrama system. He composite Indian culture. The popularity
influenced some temple authorities to of the bhakti cult in various parts of India
permit the social groups outside the was inaugurated by the Tamil devotional
varnashrama system to enter into temple cult, indicating that ‘maximum of common
at least once a year. It is believed that due characteristics was beginning to merge in
to the perceived threat to their religious the various regions of the sub-continent’.
faith and existence, Ramanujar had to Quoting M.G.S. Narayanan and Kesavan
leave his place of residence. Veluthat, we can sum up the significance
of bhakti ideology as ‘the cementing force
bringing together kings, Brahmin priests
Conclusion and the common people in a harmonious
The developments in south India that took manner to strengthen the rule of the newly
place during this time facilitated the fusion established Hindu kingdoms based on the
of north Indian and south Indian traditions caste system.’
and paved the way for the evolution of a
SUMMARY
I Chalukyas and Pallavas
Chalukyas
Chalukyas of Vatabi, Pulikesin II in particular prevented Harsha in the north and
Pallavas in the south from extending their territorial power into their occupied
territory of Deccan.
Chalukyas established a comprehensive administrative structure at the provincial,
district and village level and supported both Vedic and heterodox religions.
Their contribution to art and architecture are evident from the temples and the
monuments at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakkal.
Pallavas
Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with Kanchipuram as
their capital.
Efforts of Pallava kings, Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I, to extend
their territory further north led to constant wars with Chalukyas.
Pallava period witnessed introduction of Sanskrit and establishment of Brahmadeyas.
Pallava rule is known for its architecture and Mamallapuram is a classic example.
Pallava kings patronized literature and art. Mahendravarman himself authored
Mathavilasaprahasanam
II Ellora, Ajanta and Mamallapuram
Ellora
Ellora caves are famous for sculptures representing all religious sects: Ajivika,
Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism.
Panels in Buddhist caves portray scenes from the life of Buddha.
Kailasanatha cave temple features panels with scenes of puranas and legends.
Ajanta
There are thirty caves in Ajanta. In five caves there are mural paintings. Scenes
from Jataka stories and select scenes from the life history of Buddha are depicted.
Apart from the statue of Buddha, Bodhisattva is also a striking feature of chaityas
and viharas.
Mamallapuram
Rock-cut temples and structural temples are Pallavas’ contribution
Shore temples at Mamallapuram is a classic example of Pallava architecture
Descent of Ganges, Arjuna’s penance are illustrious examples of the sculptural
excellence.
III The Bhakti Movement

Azhwars and Nayanmars
The hymns of Azhwars and Nayanmars inaugurated the bhakti cult in Tamil country.
Pallavas and Pandyas patronized the bhakti movement. Bhakti as ideology helped
integrate all sections of society under the banner of religion.
Ramanujar challenged the monistic ideology of Adi Sankara and expounded
Visishtatvaita.
Ramanujar attempted to include even outcastes into the devotional movement.
A synthesis of north Indian and south Indian traditions occurred during this
period.
EXERCISE
1. Which one of the following is not properly paired?
(a) Govinda III – Vatabi (b) Ravikriti – Pulikesin II
(c) Vishayam- Rashtrakutas (d) Nammalvar-Kurugur
2. Choose and match

1. Simhavishnu - Chalukya
2. Jayasimhan I - Rashtrakuta
3. Aditya I - Dockyard
4. Mamallapuram - Chola king
(a) 4, 3, 1, 2 (b) 4, 1, 2, 3
(c) 2, 1, 4, 3 (d) 4, 3, 2, 1
3. Kambuja is modern__________.
(a) Assam (b) Sumatra (c) Annam (d) Cambodia
4. __________ is a religious centre established by Jains

(a) Saravanabelgola (b) Madurai (c) Kanchi (d) Kalugumalai
5. Where was temple built for performing royal rituals by Chalukyas

(a) Aihole (b) Badami (c) Megudi (d) Pattadakkal
6. Foreign merchants were known as __________.

(a) Pattanswamy (b) Nanadesi (c) Videshi (d) Desi
7. _________ is the doctrine propounded by Adi Sankara

(a) Monism (b) Visistatvaita (c) Saiva Siddhantha (d) Vedanata
II. Answer briefly

1. What do you know of the battle of Sripurambiyam?
2. Attempt a brief account of Aihole Inscription.
3. Identify two important literary works in Kannada of Chalukyas’ time .
4. Point out the contribution of Ramanujar in making Vaishnavism more inclusive.
III. Write short notes:

1. Administrative divisions of Pallavas
2. Kailasanatha cave in Ellora.
3. Famous trio of Saiva saints.
4. Role of Alwars in popularising Vaishnavism in Tamil country
5. Importance of royal women during Chalukya rule.
IV. Write your answer in detail

1. Highlight the importance of land grants issued by the Pallava kings.
2. Discuss the maritime activity in Pallava kingdom.
3. Describe the architectural excellence of shore temples at Mamallapuram.
Activity
1. A comparative analysis of Bhakti movement in the south and in the north of India.
2. Exploring the life history of Alvars and Nayanmars.
GLOSSARY
insignia - a badge showing official position - zLÜ®[IÖzåGÝ

mercantile - commercial - P~>Ý@TßÛE
protagonist - one who champions - ¯åYG©ÜHß
HGLÀFH - building - >ØCCÝIT[>
connotation - meaning - 2ßÚEÝYHT±ã
erudite - learned/scholarly - 3âÛ«>äL
esoteric - meant for the enlightened - YIÞJ¶
6ãNPß>´Ô>T>
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Champakalakshmi, R., Religion, Tradition, and Ideology: Pre-Colonial South India,
Oxford University Press, 2011.
2. Noburu Karasimha, A Concise History of South India, Oxford University Press, 2014
3. Burton Stein, History of India, Oxford University Press, 2002
4. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India: From Pre-historic Times to Fall of
Vijayanagar, Oxford India Paperbacks, 1997.
5. R. Sathianathier, History of India, Vol. I, 1972 (Reprint)

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Lesson Emergence of State

Introduction such as the Ganga and its many tributaries,

4.1 Rise of Magadha under Kosala was then annexed to Magadha.

A centralised state required a new administrative framework to govern an extensive territory,

4.4 Alexander’s Invasion

The Impact of Alexander’s established the Mauryan Empire and

His sons were appointed as viceroys of

and moved by the suffering that he converted

Edicts of Ashoka Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE),

Arthasastra Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh), Ujjain

Patala Vaishall Pataliputra

Map not to scale

insisted that he should be advised and 4.7 Economy and Society

Crafts and Goods crafts. Woodwork was another important

Trade We do not have much information

Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse Karshapana-Bindusara

became more prosperous, the quality monumental architecture that he added to

Gana-sanghas in course of time became the larger mahajanapadas and of the 16

The three notable Mauryan rulers, Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka,

6. Megasthenes’work ______describes the court of Chandragupta and his administration.

7. The ______ was a prescriptive text for good administration.

II. Answer the following briefly

III. Answer the following

IV. Answer the following in detail

antithetical - contrasting - ¯KÙHØC

Lesson Evolution of Society

and some sites outside India, like Foreign Notices

Evolution of Society in South India 79

Women Poets of the Sangam Age

Vasishthiputra Pulumavi 5.3 The Sangam Age

Importance of Satavahana Period The Muvendar

Karikalan (modern representation) Cheran Chenguttuvan with Ilango Adigal

Tamil-Brahmi legends, imitating Roman

5.5 Tamil Polity The following counter arguments

Peru Vazhuthi distinguished themselves

5.6 Society and Economy

Evolution of Society in South India 85

is a legend associated with the movement

5.7 Ideology and Religion

Tamil culture disappeared in this interval.

A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district datable to about the

Evolution of Society in South India 87

I. Choose the correct answer:

2. Which of the following pairs is not correct?

3. _________ performed Rajasuya sacrifice

4. Indravihara is mentioned in _________ .

5. Ikshavakus wielded power in _________.

6. Read the following and pick out the wrong statement

(a) (i) (b) (ii) (c) (iii) (d) (iv)

II. Answer briefly

III. Write short notes

IV. Write in Detail

Evolution of Society in South India 89

numismatic - pertaining to coins - FTDJÕ>ãHäJ

Lesson Polity and Society in

To learn the cultural influence of Greeks on India

Introduction conquest of the Punjab region. When he

Gana-sanghas in course of time became the larger mahajanapadas and of the 16

The three notable Mauryan rulers, Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka,

numismatic - pertaining to coins - FTDJÕ>ãHäJ

To learn the cultural influence of Greeks on India

The invasion of Greeks led to the reciprocal influence.

acculturation - adapting to the - LHÙHT©9äLà

To learn the importance of Gupta rule in Indian history.