AMANUrban Infrastructure

SPRINGER BRIEFS IN GEOGRAPHY
Alok Tiwari
Urban
Infrastructure
Research
A Review of
Ethiopian Cities
123
SpringerBriefs in Geography
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/10050
Alok Tiwari
Urban Infrastructure
Research
A Review of Ethiopian Cities
123
Alok Tiwari
Department of Urban and Regional Planning
King Abdulaziz University
Jeddah
Saudi Arabia
ISSN 2211-4165 ISSN 2211-4173 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Geography
ISBN 978-3-319-30401-4 ISBN 978-3-319-30403-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30403-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016932352
© The Author(s) 2016

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Dedicated to my parents:
Mrs. Asha Tiwari and Mr. Ram Adhar Tiwari
Preface and Acknowledgement
Modern Ethiopia is undergoing rapid urban transformation. The pace of change in

cities and towns is unprecedented indeed; many international and local organiza-
tions have also endorsed the same statistic. Besides the amazing changes and
growth which are taking place, cities in Ethiopia are faced with multifarious and
complex challenges.
Previous studies sanction the veracity of the huge gap that exists between the
supply and their persisting demand for urban infrastructure and services in the
urban centres of Ethiopia; supplies further fail to amalgamate concurrent concerns
such as environmental sustainability, employment generation, poverty eradication,
gender, and partnerships with the community and private sector. It was also realized
that there is a wide capacity gap among public servants, who are responsible for the
policymaking and execution of the projects and programmes related to the urban
infrastructure sector.
Urban Management Masters Programme (UMMP), at Ethiopian Civil Service
University, Addis Ababa, is an ambitious capacity building programme for urban
professionals working in the public sector. While working as a course coordinator
at this academic programme, I realized that the participants of UMMP have ended
with pertinent and vital research projects from different parts of urban Ethiopia
covering a range of topics related to urban infrastructure and services; however, the
findings of these projects have remained unpublished. This point motivated me to
conduct a review for the broader academic and professional community, who have
some sort of curiosity regarding contemporary urban issues of the global south in
general and especially in the low income countries like Ethiopia.
I believe that this book will set an agenda of research for urban infrastructure
researchers in Ethiopia. I am extremely thankful to all my students at the Ethiopian
Civil Service University, who hold intense thrust for the development of Ethiopia as
research investigators.
Further, I offer my gratitude to Dr. Samson Kassahun, Academic Vice-President,
Ethiopian Civil Service University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Dr. Mohammed
Aljoufie, Dean, Faculty of Environment Design, King Abdulaziz University,
vii
viii Preface and Acknowledgement
Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for contributing to my research works. I would

like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Emad Qurunflah, Chairman of Urban and
Regional Planning Department for all his assistance.
Finally, I am thankful to my wife Kavita, son Kavyansh, and daughters Alokita
and Anuja for their emotional support in this review.
Jeddah
December 2015
Contents
1 An Overview of Contemporary Urban Infrastructure Research . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Urban Infrastructure Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Smart City and Urban Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Innovative Financing of Urban Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Themes in Urban Infrastructure Research in Ethiopian Cities . .... 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 7
2.2 Major Infrastructures Themes Investigated by Researchers
in Ethiopian Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Road Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Infrastructure for Urban Storm Water Management . . . . . 8
2.2.4 Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.5 Social Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.6 Urban Green Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.7 Rural–Urban Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.8 Urban Infrastructure for Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.9 Urban Infrastructure for Solid Waste Management
and Sanitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.10 ICT Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.11 Integrated Urban Infrastructure and Other Themes . . . . . . 11
2.3 Reviewed Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Addis Ababa Chartered City Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Dire Dawa Chartered City Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.3 Afar Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.4 Amhara Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.5 Benishangul–Gumuz Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ix
x Contents
2.3.6 Gambela Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.3.7 Harari Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.8 Oromia Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3.9 Somali Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.10 SNNP Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.11 Tigray Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 An Appraisal on Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 35
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 35
3.2 Urban Energy Efficiency Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 36
3.3 Integrated Provision of Roads and Drainage for Urban Storm
Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Urban Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4 Review of Findings and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 41
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 41
4.2 An Overview of Research Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 41
4.2.1 Transformation Towards Efficient Energy
Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 41
4.2.2 Urban Infrastructure to Handle Storm Water . . . . . . .... 42
4.2.3 Constraints on Urban Road Infrastructure and Its
Associated Furniture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 43
4.2.4 Ensuring Sustainable Water Supply to the Urban
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 43
4.2.5 Community Involvement in Urban Infrastructure
Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 45
4.2.6 Focus on Green Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 46
4.2.7 Muddling on Institutional Integration for Urban
Infrastructure Provision and Management . . . . . . . . .... 46
4.2.8 Gaps in the Provision of Social Infrastructure . . . . . .... 47
4.2.9 Appraisal of Indigenous Material-Based/Labour-
Intensive Urban Infrastructure Provision . . . . . . . . . .... 48
4.2.10 Infrastructure for Sanitation, Solid Waste and Liquid
Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 49
4.2.11 Urban ICT Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 50
4.2.12 Challenges on Financing Urban Infrastructure and
Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 50
4.2.13 Urban Infrastructure for Tourism Development . . . . .... 51
4.2.14 Other Prudent Themes in Urban Infrastructure
Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 51
Contents xi
4.3 Pattern of Recommendations and Offered Solutions . . . . . ...... 52

4.3.1 Strengthening the Institutional Setup . . . . . . . . . ...... 52
4.3.2 Capacity Building on Managerial Issues . . . . . . . ...... 52
4.3.3 Popular Consultation and Participation
of Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 53
4.3.4 Promote Institutional Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 53
4.3.5 Creating an Effective Monitoring and Evaluation
Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.6 Opt for ICTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.7 Creating Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5 Assessment on Research Design and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.3 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Acronyms/Abbreviations
AACA Addis Ababa City Administration

AAWSA Addis Ababa Water and Sewerage Authority (City
Administration of Addis Ababa; Ethiopia)
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AMREF African Medical Research and Education Foundation
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BDCA Bahir Dar City Administration
BOT Build-Operate-Transfer (a PPP model)
BPR Business Process Reengineering
BSC Balanced Scorecard
CBOs Community-Based Organizations
CLD Causal Loop Diagram
CSA Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia
CSIRO Commonwealth Science and Industrial Research Organisation
(Clayton South, Victoria, Australia)
DDCDEO Dire Dawa Cooperatives Developments and Expansion Office
DDFEDO Dire Dawa Finance Economic and Developments Office
DDMO Dire Dawa Municipal Office
DDRA Dire Dawa Roads Authority
DWSSO Dessie Water Supply and Sewerage Office
EEPCO Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
ESMAP Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme (World
Bank)
ETC Ethiopian Telecommunication Corporation (now known as Ethio
Telecom)
EU European Union
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit,
GmbH (German: German Society for International Cooperation,
Ltd.)
xiii
xiv Acronyms/Abbreviations
GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH

(German: German Agency for Technical Cooperation)
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IT Information Technology
I-TECH International Training and Education Center on HIV (University
of Washington; Seattle, WA)
JWSO Jig-Jiga Water Supply Office
LAN Local Area Network
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCD Liquid Crystal Display (display technology)
MDG Millennium Development Goals (UN)
MHMRS Ministry of Health and Ministry Responsible for Seniors
(Canada)
MSEs Micro and Small Enterprises
MWR Ministry of Water Resources (Ethiopia)
NGOs Non-governmental Organizations
PEST Political Economical Social Technological
PPP Public Private Partnership
RMSEDA Regional Micro and Small Enterprises Development Agency
SNNPR Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region
SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
UFW Unaccounted for Water (water distribution network)
UNEP United Nations Environment Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (now
United Nations Children’s Fund)
US-AID United States Agency for International Development
USD United States Dollar (currency of the USA)
WAN Wide Area Network
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WHO World Health Organization
Chapter 1
An Overview of Contemporary Urban
Infrastructure Research
Abstract This chapter gives an outline of the ongoing global policy interventions
and initiatives associated to urban infrastructure. Topics such as sustainability and
urban infrastructure, ICT-driven smart city infrastructure, innovative financing and
partnership options with the community and private sector are the core subject
matter.

Keywords Sustainability ICT Smart city Eco-efficiency Urban metabolism

PPP Community partnerships
1.1 Introduction
Cities are complex, diverse and dynamic entities. It has a dense population in
comparison to its rural counterparts. A city requires a well-structured skeleton, upon
which the city can flourish; it is in fact known as infrastructure. City for its residents
is a site which fulfils not only their basic needs, but also offers plenty of different
products and services to be consumed. Dwellers of a city can also comprehend their
dreams, desires and many more facets of life. Moreover, a city can also provide
people pleasure and satisfaction which can be translated into better quality of life
and well-being, whether individually or collectively. Therefore, the city is made of
two essential elements, space and population, but to make cities liveable and
competitive in the era of globalization, to cope up with the challenges created by
climate change, to ensure sustainable development for all its dwellers and to assure
its prosperity efficient, adequate urban infrastructure must be promised.
Regrettably, if a city failed to make available adequate urban infrastructure to its
dwellers, it can start up a series of negative consequences, including plunge in the
urban health and adverse impact on the local economy, environment, aesthetics and
attractiveness.
State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013 report recognized infrastructure as an
essential base for prosperity (UN-HABITAT 2013). A city could not be imagined
© The Author(s) 2016 1

A. Tiwari, Urban Infrastructure Research,
SpringerBriefs in Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30403-8_1
2 1 An Overview of Contemporary Urban Infrastructure Research
without its infrastructure which is an integral part of the urban fabric, a basic
foundation on which a city can bloom.
Recent researches on urban infrastructure predominantly deal with the topics
such as sustainability, smart city technologies, innovative financing and manage-
ment mechanism that are briefly discussed further in this chapter.
1.2 Urban Infrastructure Sustainability
The Brundtland Commission defined sustainability as a paradigm that aims to meet

the needs of the present generation without compromising the capabilities of future
generations (WCED 1987). Cities are known as bigger consumer of the world’s
environmental resources (World Bank 1996); as their infrastructures control and
regulate the flow of environmental resources, they are well pertinent for sustain-
ability attentions (Hardoy et al. 2001).
In fact, sustainability of urban infrastructures, including water supply, sanitation,
storm water, drainage, sewerage and solid-waste management, is a prerequisite for
any planned enhancement of a city’s environment. Swilling (2006) has identified
some essential elements for the sustainable functioning of infrastructure, as pro-
moting energy efficiency, waste minimization and reuse, resource efficiency in
construction, mass transportation, stress to grow food locally, efficient water uses
and reuse of treated sewerage, biodiversity enhancements, valuing participation and
diversity, equity, health and well-being with fair trade at all levels.
Eco-efficiency is an indicator of sustainability initially evolved by WBCSD 2000
aimed at reducing resource consumption, reducing the impact on nature while
increasing product or service value. The concept was later adopted by the United
Nations after modifications and the addition of social inclusiveness. Creating
eco-efficient and socially inclusive urban infrastructure can improve competitive-
ness of a city and the quality of life of its inhabitants, including the poor, through
environmentally sustainable urban development; cities like Curitiba (Brazil), Seoul
(South Korea), Singapore and Bogota (Colombia) are the best examples (United
Nations 2011; Jordán and Infante 2012).
Made up over many decades, a city can be perceived as complex and inter-
connected infrastructure system to handle wide-ranging and gigantic resource flows
needed to back people’s prosperity (UNEP 2013). Some scientists appreciated city
as a living entity describing the constant flow of resource inputs (water, land,
energy and raw materials) and outputs (services, products, refuse and wastes, etc.)
as a city’s metabolism (Ravetz 2000) and it is the infrastructure which can keep this
flow (metabolic) healthy.
Low-carbon urbanism has set a new agenda for urban infrastructure research;
this type of approach can be achieved through retrofitting, replacing and expanding
existing urban infrastructures (Chan et al. 2013; Bulkeley et al. 2014; Li 2014).
1.2 Urban Infrastructure Sustainability 3
Consequently, it is very clear that offering sustainable infrastructure is a top

priority considering the environmental stress in the cities as they regulate and
control resource flow to keep the urban environment healthy and also to ensure and
improve ‘Quality of Life’ for city dwellers.
1.3 Smart City and Urban Infrastructure
‘Smart City’ is a phenomenon, completely reliant on sensors and ICT infrastructure

aiming to make cities clean, green and most importantly safe places to live in.
Komninos (2006) deliberated smart cities with high potentials of creativity, learn-
ing, innovations and knowledge creating in a digital environment. The EU has
attempted a strategy for attaining urban growth in a ‘smart’ way for its metropolitan
areas, which is a wired, ICT-driven form of development (Caragliu et. al. 2011).
Although initially Hollands (Peterson 2008) raised his concerns about the
legitimacy of smart city, in his article ‘will the real smart city please stand up?’,
now it is turning into reality as cities like Amsterdam are now emphasizing on the
innovations to make them more resource efficient with the added benefits of ICT
and sensing technologies (ASC 2014). It is expected that application ICT tech-
nologies would cut 7.8 billion tonnes of global carbon emissions by 2020 (TCG
2008), whilst it is believed that 90 % of this diminution will occur because of
adopting smart city technologies.
Based on the city challenges, companies are offering numerous smart city
software solutions for smart and integrated water management. In fact, smart city
concept rotates around endless knowledge acquisitions, motivations, quantifica-
tions, scrutinies and alterations, thereafter. This concept is made of multiple
ingredients inclusive of smart economy, smart movements, smart citizen, smart
governance, smart life style and smart environment. In a smart city project at the
first ICT acts as an infrastructure and second the ICT infrastructure regulates,
controls and sometimes alters other urban public and private infrastructure and
services by astute decision-making based on information generated through sensing
of the city pulse with constant and critical monitoring and measurements.
1.4 Innovative Financing of Urban Infrastructure
Peterson (2008) pointed out the significance of land base financing of urban in-
frastructure provision, especially in the fast-growing cityscapes. As a supplement of
borrowing, land base financing triggers direct revenues that cut necessity of future
debts and its associated jeopardies.
Link between urban infrastructure planning and urban infrastructure financing is
often overlooked, while city governments mainly in developing countries are facing
a variety of constraints to finance their infrastructure through traditional methods
4 1 An Overview of Contemporary Urban Infrastructure Research
(local taxes, grants from central governments, external funding, etc.), hence looking
for new and innovative financing mechanism to fulfil the fast-growing demand of
urban infrastructures.
The World Bank has estimated that 1 trillion USD is required annually in
developing countries to close the infrastructure gap between what is needed and
what is built, at present (World Bank 2014).
Current urban financing waves come in two parts: first to check the financial
health of the city and city governments in the form of credit rating; and second to
offer solutions best fitting to local needs. As a solution, PPP has emerged as a viable
option to ease management and financing constraints on urban infrastructure and
services, which local governments in developing countries are facing (Narayan
2013).
Actually, PPP is an exclusive type of contract between government and private
sector, in which government keeps decisive obligation on offering infrastructure
and services and delegate partnerships with private sector in management, financing
and delivery thereof. Service contracts, management contracts, lease, concession
and BOT (Build–operate–transfer) are some PPP options that are successfully being
practiced worldwide (Forrer et al. 2010).
1.5 Conclusion
There is no doubt that robust urban infrastructure and services are very fulcrum of
socio-economic development and environmental improvement of our cities. Some
contemporary paradigms are discussed in this chapter, which has occupied and
guided the whole research agenda dealing with urban infrastructure and services. At
first, sustainability of urban infrastructure is prerequisite to keep the hope alive for
future generations and fulfil the needs of current generation for a planet that is
already resource constrained. Second, idea of smart city is an initiative to efficient
provision, management, operation, control and monitoring of urban infrastructure
and services in real time, by entrenching advanced ICT tools and applications in the
process. Finally, land base financing is a mechanism of financing which is
becoming very popular in developing countries, while PPP is an instrument to
involve private sector in management, operation and delivery of urban infrastruc-
ture and services.
References
ASC—Amsterdam Smart City (2014) http://amsterdamsmartcity.com. Accessed 18 June 2015

Bulkeley H, Broto VC, Anne Maassen A (2014) Low-carbon Transitions and the Reconfiguration
of Urban Infrastructure. Urban Studies, Special issue article: Urban energy transitions: places,
processes and politics of socio-technical change. Urban Stud 51(7):1471–1486
References 5
Caragliu A, Bo CD, Nijkamp P (2011) Smart cities in Europe. J Urban Technol 18(2):65–82.
doi:10.1080/10630732.2011.601117
Chan EHW, Choy LHT, Yung EHK (2013) Editorial—Current research on low-carbon cities and
institutional responses. Habitat Int 37:1–3 (2013)
Forrer J, Kee JE, Newcomer KE, Boyer E (2010) Public private partnership and public
accountability questioned. Public Adm Rev 70:475–484
Hardoy JE, Mitlin D, Satterthwaite D (2001) Environmental problems in an urbanizing world.
Earthscan, London
Jordán R, Infante B (2012) A strategic planning approach for developing eco-efficient and socially
inclusive urban infrastructure. Local Env Int J Justice Sustain 17(5):533–544. doi:10.1080/
13549839.2012.680278
Komninos N (2006) The architecture of intelligent cities: integrating human, collective and
artificial intelligence to enhance knowledge and innovation. In: 2nd IET international
conference on intelligent environments, 2006, IE 06, vol 1. IET, pp. 13–20
Li Y (2014) Low carbon eco-city: new approach for Chinese urbanization. Habitat Int 44
(2014):102–110
Narayan V (2013) Public private partnership for urban infrastructure & services in India. Int J
Logistics Supply Chain Manage Perspect 2(3):405–410
Peterson GE (2008) Unlocking land values for urban infrastructure finance. World Bank
Publications, Herndon, VA, USA
Ravetz J (2000) City Region 2020: integrated planning for a sustainable environment. Earthscan,
London
Swilling M (2006) Sustainability and infrastructure planning in South Africa: a Cape Town case
study. Env Urbanization 18:23. doi:10.1177/0956247806063939
TCG-The Climate Group (2008) SMART 2020: enabling the low carbon economy in the
information age, A report by The Climate Group on behalf of the Global e Sustainability
Initiative (GeSI). https://www.greenbiz.com/sites/default/files/document/Smart-2020-Report.
pdf. Accessed 21 June 2014
Swilling M, Robinson B, Marvin S, Hodson M, UNEP (2013) City-Level Decoupling: Urban
resource flows and the governance of infrastructure transitions. A Report of the Working
Group on Cities of the International Resource Panel
UN-HABITAT (2013) State of the world’s cities 2012/2013: Prosperity of cities. Routledge
United Nations (2011) Are we building competitive and liveable cities? Guidelines for developing
eco efficient and socially inclusive urban infrastructure. Clung Wicha Press Co., Ltd, Thailand
WBCSD, World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2000). Eco-efficiency: creating
more value with less impact. www.wbcsd.org/web/publications/eco_efficiency_creating_more_
value.pdf. Accessed 15 May 2014
WCED (1987) Our common future. Oxford University Press, Oxford
World Bank (1996) The world urbanization prospects. United Nations, Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, New York
World Bank (2014) Innovations to finance a sustainable Urban Future. http://www.worldbank.org/
en/news/feature/2014/04/04/finance-innovations-for-sustainable-cities. Accessed 29 June 2014
Chapter 2
Themes in Urban Infrastructure Research
in Ethiopian Cities
Abstract Chapter examines foremost types of urban infrastructure which are

popularly investigated together with the cities where these investigations are exe-
cuted. Review attempts to synthesize the unique characteristics of Ethiopian cities
in term of their infrastructure paucity or; abundance otherwise.

Keywords Road Energy Storm water drainage Sewerage Integration

ICT Water supply Green infrastructure Sanitation Solid waste management

Social infrastructure Health Education Financing Addis ababa Dire dawa

Bahir dar Mekelle Jimma Hawassa
2.1 Introduction
Wherever you go, in Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, construction of a solid

structure could be easily seen, this is what we say infrastructure boom (BBC 2014)
but the scenario is not the same across all Ethiopian cities, indeed; glitches even
exists at the capital. A total of 189 different research topics concerned to urban
infrastructure and services were reviewed in this study which is the subject matter
of the first part of this chapter. Whilst the second part offers minutiae of 78 scru-
tinized Ethiopian cities, varying in size, population and location.
2.2 Major Infrastructures Themes Investigated

by Researchers in Ethiopian Cities
A variety of urban infrastructure and services were considered by research inves-

tigators in Ethiopian cities; which includes specifically physical infrastructures—
like road, energy, storm water drainage, water supply and sanitation, green
infrastructure, solid waste management infrastructure, and ICT infrastructure and
social infrastructure—mainly education and health. Apart from these; some

8 2 Themes in Urban Infrastructure Research in Ethiopian Cities
research investigations were focused on organizational and governance issues such

as integration of infrastructures and services, government policies on infrastructure,
their challenges and solution, infrastructure for tourism, financing of infrastructure,
rural–urban linkages, and infrastructure in relation to urban sprawls.
2.2.1 Road Infrastructure
Roads has a key role to play in transporting people goods physically; scholars
researched, cobblestone roads which are the one indigenous material based, labour
intensive, environmentally sustainable and viable infrastructure, also one of the best
practices in the country adopted as a preferable mode of infrastructure provision
policy specially in the interiors of the Ethiopian cities. Challenges, opportunities,
employability potentials of cobblestone roads and its role in poverty alleviation are
largely analysed by the scholars (Ahmednur 2009; Shewarega 2009; Mola 2010;
Solomon 2010; Yeshiwas 2010; Adem 2011a, b; Assefa 2011; Kalayu 2011; Wube
2011; Haileyessus 2011).
Additionally, provision and management of road Infrastructure, its integration
with other infrastructures, role in city development, performance of Ethiopian road
fund in road maintenance, community participation in planning, construction,
maintenance, road safety, economic role of roads, are some other issues which are
considered for research (Dereje 2009; Hassen 2009; Kokebe 2009; Zemedkun
2009; Hailemichael 2010; Lemessa 2010; Negede 2010; Mesfin 2010a, b, c; Fufi
2011; Abdissa 2011; Asnake 2011; Dinkayehu 2011; Mohammedyakob 2011;
Nasra 2011; Niman 2011; Said 2011; Azmeraw 2011; Zeleke 2011).
Furthermore, road Infrastructure for visually handicapped and labour-based
practices like natural soil stabilization technology was among other themes of study
(Samuel 2011; Wubiye 2011).
2.2.2 Energy
Cities are doubtlessly, the larger consumer of energy while the developing countries
like Ethiopia are still consuming a huge amount of bio-masses for cooking purposes
hence researchers attempted to evaluated socio-economic and environmental impact
of improved stoves (Ahmed 2008; Wodaje 2010; Wubishet 2010). Issues of elec-
tricity were also appeared pertinent for research (Alehegne 2011).
2.2.3 Infrastructure for Urban Storm Water Management
Ethiopia cities at large, are troubled with storm water leading into floods especially
during the rainy season due to inadequate installation of desired infrastructure,
2.2 Major Infrastructures Themes Investigated by Researchers … 9
problem is more critical in cities of highland regions like Addis Ababa, Adigrat;
though it exist in cities with plain geographies like Bahir Dar. Scholars attempted to
examine the role of integration among road and drainage infrastructure in offering
solution for urban floods, while the other associated themes were; impact of urban
flood on urban infrastructure, PPP in the integration of road and drainage, and
impact of delayed provision of such infrastructures (Gebremariam 2008; Moges
2008; Dagnachew 2009; Kassaye 2009; Tamirat 2010; Wendale 2010; Adnan
2011; Mustefa 2011; Beniyam 2011; Birhanu 2011; Dereje 2011; Beyene 2011;
Girmay 2011; Mitiku 2011; Shanbel 2011; Siraj 2011; Workineh 2011; Zamil
2011).
2.2.4 Water Supply
Importantly, water is an environmental or ecological resource and an economic

good as well, despite of the fact of Ethiopia’s being a water tower for African
continent, because of nature’s bounty in form of many lakes and rivers; sustainable
urban water supply is still an issue of serious concern.
Themes, accentuated by the research investigators were: household accessibility
of urban water supply, water infrastructure in new self-added residences, financing
challenges and prospects of water and sanitation services, sustainability of water
infrastructure, community participation, innovative options for water infrastructure
strengthening, customer’s satisfaction, supply and consumption, impact of urban
expansion on water supply systems, factors affecting water demand and supply,
operation and maintenance of water supply projects, non-revenue of water and
challenges on cost recovery and water supply asset management (Meseret 2008;
Ermias 2009; Tmuzghy 2009; Kinfe 2009; Teka 2010; Abdu 2010; Abera 2010;
Ahmed 2010; Alemayehu 2010a, b; Desalegn 2010; Bedada 2010; Bekele 2010;
Belay 2010; Berihun 2010; Birhanu 2010; Birishet 2010; Degenet 2010; Dereje
2010; Gelane 2010; Lulu 2010; Maru 2010; Mesfin 2010a, b, c; Mohammed 2010;
Salim 2010; Selamawit 2010; Semeneh 2010; Tesema 2010; Abdisamad 2010;
Kumulachew 2010; Aklilu 2010; Belete 2010; Tsegay 2010; Abdi 2011; Adem
2011a, b; Aden 2011; Alemu 2011; Amanuel 2011; Amsalu 2011a, b; Brhanu
2011; Getachew 2011a, b, c; Haftamu 2011; Hussien 2011; Mulugeta 2011;
Mengistu 2011; Meskerem 2011; Mohammed 2011a, b; Negese 2011; Negussie
2011; Shimeri 2011; Shishay 2011; Taye 2011; Abraham 2011; Welancho 2011;
Wesenseged 2011; Wointu 2011; Yesuf 2011).
2.2.5 Social Infrastructure
It was observed that the study of soft or social infrastructure in urban areas was not
really popular among urban infrastructure scholars in general; though a few like
Kifle (2008) assessed the need of social infrastructure (health and education) in
context of MDGs. Abiot (2009) assessed the provision, management and financing
of healthcare services while the comparison between private and public provision of
health amenities were also examined (Hailab 2009; Selamawit 2011; Amsalu
2011a, b; Hadra 2011; Mebruka 2011; Werede 2011; Haregua 2011; Dibera 2011;
Kelifa 2011; Meseret 2011; Munir 2011; Tewfik 2011).
Financing of educational infrastructure (Tilahun 2010) assessment of educa-
tional infrastructure provision and community participation were additional issues
under investigation (Abebe 2011; Adane 2011; Amine 2011; Asegedech 2011;
Helen 2011; Leykun 2011; Measho 2011; Million 2011; Mulatu 2011; Rezene
2011; Seboka 2011; Teshome 2011). Role of BPR in educational infrastructure
improvement was amongst the novel topic reconnoitred (Ayalneh 2011).
2.2.6 Urban Green Infrastructure
Urban green infrastructure was an emergent topic chosen by a limited number of

research investigators (Senbeta 2009; Abdulahi 2010; Beyene 2010; Tiruset 2010;
Alganesh 2011; Mechal 2011; Eyader 2011; Genet 2011; Nigussie 2011).
2.2.7 Rural–Urban Linkages
Sisay (2009) concentrated his study on infrastructure provision as a tool in rural–

urban linkages (Sisay 2009).
2.2.8 Urban Infrastructure for Tourism
Additionally, a few researchers realized role of infrastructure and services in the

promotion and development of tourism in Ethiopian cities (Yohannes 2009; Leul
2010; Fahmi 2010; Habtamu 2010; Mesfin 2010a, b, c; Shakir 2010; Agmas 2010;
Abraha 2011; Merkebu 2011; Nestanet 2011).
2.2.9 Urban Infrastructure for Solid Waste Management

and Sanitation
Current practices of solid waste management and sanitation in Ethiopian cities,

impact of poor sanitation on human health and impact of urban growth on sanitation
2.2 Major Infrastructures Themes Investigated by Researchers … 11
were topics related to urban environmental infrastructure and services were also
scanned (Herya 2010; Alazar 2011; Bedassa 2011; Merga 2011; Sisay 2011;
Asnakech 2010; Fentahun 2010; Getnet 2010; Goitom 2010; Kinfe 2010; Tedelech
2010; Demelash 2010; Gebrehiwot 2010).
2.2.10 ICT Infrastructure
Issues associated with ICT infrastructure in Ethiopian cities includes: the role of
ICT applications in urban local governance development, importance of mobile
telephony in urban management, challenges of ICT accessibility in fostering urban
socio-economic development, ICT for education infrastructure, benefits, challenges
and prospects of ICT in city sector bureau and IT infrastructure provision and
utilization for land administration and management (Gizaw 2010; Wogame 2010;
Yimer 2011; Getacher 2011; Yeshiemebet 2011; Zena 2011).
2.2.11 Integrated Urban Infrastructure and Other Themes
Challenges and opportunities on integrated provision of urban infrastructure and

services, their provision in new formal settlement and assessment of government
policies were additional themes chosen by some research scholars (Michael 2009;
Abiy 2010; Alemayehu 2010a, b; Asfaw 2010; Getachew 2011a, b, c; Gadet 2010;
Hailekiros 2011; Moges 2011; Nigus 2011). Moreover, Maru (2011) has examined
the effect of sprawling in the provision and management of urban infrastructure and
services. Ethiopia is predominantly a country dependent upon agriculture and
dairy-associated occupation, a researcher (Yalemzewd 2010) has attempted to
examine the scenario aimed at improved infrastructure for livestock markets.
2.3 Reviewed Cities
Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic country administratively divided into two chartered city

regions namely Addis Ababa (capital city of Ethiopia) and Dire Dawa and nine
regional states including—Afar, Amhara, Benishangul Gumuz, Gambela, Harari,
Oromia, Somali, Southern Nations Nationality People’s and Tigray.
According to CSA (2007) Ethiopia has 972 urban centres though there are only
86 cities which have a population of more than twenty thousand; pace of urban-
ization is very fast in the country though country has a population of 73.8 million,
out of which only 11.8 million are urban residents, which is merely 16 %.
This review includes 80 cities (see Table 2.1 and Fig. 2.1).
Table 2.1 Reviewed Ethiopian cities

Region/chartered city region City
1. Addis Ababa Addis Ababa
chartered city region
2. Dire Dawa chartered city region Dire Dawa
3. Afar region Dubti
4. Amhara region Arereti, Bahir Dar, Bati, Chagni, Dangila, Debark,
Debre Birhan, Debre Markos, Debre Tabor, Dessie,
Gondar, Injibera, Kamise, Motta, Sekota, Wereta,
Woldia
5. Benishangul–Gumuz region Assosa, Mandura
6. Gambela region Gambela
7. Harari region Harar
8. Oromia region Adama, Aira, Ambo, Arsi Negelle, Bedessa, Bishoftu,
Bule Hora, Burayu, Chiro, Dembi Dollo, Dhera,
Gebreguracha, Gimbi, Goba, Harawacha, Holeta,
Jimma, Modjo, Nedjo, Nekemte, Robe, Sebeta,
Shashamane, Welenchiti, Wolliso, Yabello
9. Somali region Jig-Jiga
10. Southern Nations Nationality Aleta Wondo, Arba Minch, Bele, Bonga, Dilla, Durame,
People’s Region-SNNPR Halaba, Hawassa, Hossana, Jinka, Masha, Soyama,
Tarcha, Wolaita Sodo, Wolkitte, Worabe
11. Tigray region Abi-Adi, Adigrat, Adiremets, Alamata, Axum,
Freweyne, Humera, Korem, Mekelle, Shire Endassilasie
2.3.1 Addis Ababa Chartered City Region
Addis Ababa (New flower in English) is the largest city, and one of the two
chartered cities of Ethiopia which is also serving as the capital of the country. City
was founded in 1886 by Emperor Menelik-II. The city is located at the elevation of
2355 m, having a population of 3.4 million (2008) and area of 527 km2.
2.3.2 Dire Dawa Chartered City Region
Dire Dawa is the second chartered city region, located at the eastern part (9.6°N,
41.9°E) of the country on the bank of Dechatu River. City lies on the elevation of
1276 m; it has a population of 607,000 (2008), with a geographical spread of,
1.2 km2.
2.3 Reviewed Cities 13
Fig. 2.1 Reviewed Ethiopian cities
2.3.3 Afar Region
Afar region is one of the emerging regions in Ethiopia and also the homeland of
Afar people. Although the capital of Afar region is Samera, the town reviewed in
the region is Dubti.
Dubti
Dubti is a town situated in north-eastern part of Ethiopia (11.7°N, 41.1°E) near to
Awash River and Addis Ababa-Djibouti highway. The city has a total population of
16,346 (2007). The town is a level plain.
2.3.4 Amhara Region
Amhara region is home to Amhara ethnic group; it has its capital in Bahir Dar.
A total of 19 towns are reviewed from this region.
Arerti
Arerti is a small town in north Shoa administrative zone, located at highland (8.9°N,
39.4°E coordinates) with a distance of 135 km east of national capital Addis Ababa
and 705 km south of regional capital Bahir Dar.
Bahir Dar
Bahir Dar is the capital of Amhara region, located at 11.6°N 37.9°E coordinates. It
has a population of 318,000 (2007) and an area of approximately 26 km2. City is
also known for Lake Tana (originating source of River Nile). City is a level plain
with an average elevation of 1800 m.
Bati
Bati is an important market town (11.2°N and 40.1°E) in the Oromia zone of
Amhara region of north-central Ethiopia. Town has an elevation of 1502 m, pop-
ulation of 24,000 (2007).
Chagni
Chagni is a town situated at north- western part of Ethiopia (10.9°N and 36.6°E) in
Amhara region. It has an average elevation of 1583 m; and population of 30,000
(2005). The town serves as administrative capital of Guangua woreda.
Dangila
Dangila town is located at 11.2°N latitude and 36.8°E longitudes. Town has a
population of 36,000 (2007). The town is surrounded by Amen and Fincha rivers,
with an average elevation of 2120 m.
Debark
Debarq is the closest town of Semien Mountains National Park, located at Gondar-
Axum highway (13.1°N and 37.9°E) in northern Ethiopia. It falls in Semien Gondar
zone of Amhara region on the elevation of 2850 m. It has population of 21,000
(2007).
Debre Birhan
The town is located at north-eastern part of Ethiopia (9.6°N and 39.5°E), and serves
as capital of North Showa zone of Amhara region. It has elevation of 2750 m and
population of 95,000 (2009). The town believed to be in existence for more than six
centuries.
Debre Markos
Debre Markos is situated in north-central part of Ethiopia (10.3°N and 37.7°E), in
Amhara region, it comes into Gojjam zone. Town has an average elevation of
2446 m, with a population of 71,000 (2007).
Debre Tabor
Deber Tabor is found at Debub Gondar Zone, north-central Ethiopia (11.8°N and
38.1°E) in Amhara region. Town has an average altitude of 2705 m, population of
39,000 (2008) and geographical area of 6 km2.
Dessie
Dessie is situated in north-central part of Ethiopia (11.2°N and 39.6°E), in Amhara
region, it comes into Debub Wollo Zone. Town has an average elevation of 2470 m,
with a population of 279,000 (2012).
Gondar
Gondar is the capital of Semien Gondar zone, north-scentral Ethiopia (12.6°N and
37.4°E) in Amhara region. Town has an average altitude of 2133 m, population of
358,000 (2008). It had privilege of being ancient Ethiopian capital.
Injibera
Injibera is a town in north-central Ethiopia, which serves as capital of Agew Awi
Zone in Amhara Region. Town has a mountainous topography and average ele-
vation of 2560 m. Population of the town was 21,000 in 2007 census.
Kamise
The town is located at north-eastern part of Ethiopia (10.5°N and 40.3°E), and
serves as capital of Oromia zone of Amhara region. It has elevation of 1424 m and
population of 19,000 (2007).
Motta
Motta is a town in north-central Ethiopia (11.1°N and 37.9°E), falls into Misraq
Gojjam zone in Amhara Region. Town has an average elevation of 2266 m.
Population of the town was 39,000 in 2007 census, spread over a geographical area
of 8 km2.
Sekota
Sekota town is located at north-eastern part of Ethiopia (12.6°N and 38.9°E), and
lies at Wag Hemrazone zone of Amhara region. It has elevation of 1424 m and
Wereta
Wereta is a north Ethiopian town (11.9°N and 37.7°E), located at Debub Gondar
Zone of Amhara Region. It has an elevation of 1828 m and population of 13,000 in
2010.
Woldia
Woldia is a hilly market town of northern Ethiopia (11.8°N and 39.5°E), comes into
Semien Wollo zone of Amhara region. It has an average altitude of 2112 m with a
2.3.5 Benishangul–Gumuz Region
Benishangul–Gumuz, region is home of Berta or Benishangul and Gumuz ethnic

groups; spread over western part of the country. Capital of the region is Assosa.
A total of 2 towns were reviewed in the study including the regional capital Assosa
and Mandura.
Assosa
Asosa is the capital of Benishangul–Gumuz, region located at western part of
Ethiopia (10°N and 34.4°E). The town has an elevation of 1570 m with a flatland
topographical features. The population of the city was 22,000 in 2007.
Mandura
Mandura is a west Ethiopian town (11°N and 36°E), lies into Metekel zone of the
Benishangul–Gumuz region. It has an elevation of 2331 m and population of 7000
(2009).
2.3.6 Gambela Region
Gambela region is home of Gambela ethnic group and situated in the western part
of Ethiopia amid Baro and Akobo Rivers. Gambela is the only town reviewed from
the region.
Gambela
Gambela town serves as regional capital of Gambela. The city has its location at
8.5°N and 34.6°E coordinates. It comprises flatland topography with an average
altitude of 526 m; the city population was 39,000 in 2007.
2.3.7 Harari Region
Harari region is motherland of Harari ethnic group; it is the smallest region of the
country located at western part. Harar is the capital of the region and also the only
town included in the current review.
Harar
The town of Harar serves as the capital of Harari region; it has a hilltop positioned
on the eastern arm of Ethiopian highlands. It is a fortified town, accredited by
UNESCO as world heritage site. The city is located at 89.5°N and 41.9°E coor-
dinates. It has an average altitude of 1885 m and population estimated 152,000
(2012).
2.3.8 Oromia Region
Oromia is the largest region of Ethiopia in term of geographical area; it is a

highland and native place of Oromo ethnic group. At present its functional capital is
in Addis Ababa. Total 26 towns are considered for review from this region.
Adama
Adama (Nazreth) is the former capital of the Oromia region located at central part
of Ethiopia (8.54°N 39.27°E). City has an average elevation of 1712 m and pop-
ulation of 300,000. Close to the national capital, Adama is a busy transport town.
Aira
Aira (Ayira) is a central Ethiopian town (9.1°N and 35.3°E), lies into western
wollega zone of the Oromia region. It has an elevation of 1600 m and population of
20,000 (2010).
Ambo
Ambo is a central Ethiopian town (11.98.9°N and 38.2°E), located at west shewa
zone of Oromia Region. It has an elevation of 2101 m and population of 94,000 in
2012.
Arsi Negelle
Arsi Negelle town is located at south-eastern part of Ethiopia (7.2°N and 38.9°E),
and lies at mirab arsi zone of Oromia region. It has an elevation of 2043 m and
Bedessa
Bedessa is an eastern Ethiopian town (8.9°N and 40.6°E), lies into western hararghe
zone of the Oromia region. It has an elevation of 1761 m and population of 18,000
(2007).
Bishoftu
Bishoftu (Debrazait) is a tourist attraction close to Addis Ababa, located at central
part of Ethiopia (8.7°N and 38.9°E) in Misraq Shewa zone of Oromia region. It has
an elevation of 1920 m and population of 171,000 (2012).
Bule Hora
Bule Hora is a southern Ethiopian town (5.6°N and 38.2°E), lies into borena zone of
the Oromia region. It has an elevation of 1825 m and population of 39,000 (2010).
Burayu
Burayu is a town adjacent to Addis Ababa, located at central part of Ethiopia (9°N
and 38.69°E) in Oromia special zone of Oromia region. It has an elevation of
1920 m and population of 171,000 (2012).
Chiro
Chiro is an eastern Ethiopian town (9°N and 40.9°E), serves as capital of West
hararghe zone of the Oromia region. It has an elevation of 1826 m and population
of 57,000 (2014).
Dembi Dollo
Dembi dollo is a prominent market town of southwestern Ethiopia (8.5°N and
34.7°E). It serves as the capital of Kelem Welega Zone of the Oromia Region. This
town has an elevation of 1701 m and holds a population of 29,000 (2007).
Dhera
Dhera is a south-eastern Ethiopian town (8.3°N and 39.3°E) found in the Arsi Zone
of the Oromia Region. It has an average altitude of 1700 m and comprises 9000
people in 2007.
Gebreguracha
Gebreguracha is a central Ethiopian town (9.7°N and 38.5°E). It is located in north
shewa zone of the Oromia Region. This town has an elevation of 2545 m and holds
a population of 23,000 (2007).
Gimbi
Gimbi is a town in western Ethiopia (9.2°N and 35.8°E) found in the west welega
zone of the Oromia Region. It has an average altitude of 1845 m and comprises
31,000 people in 2007.
Goba
Goba is a south-central Ethiopian town (7°N and 39.9°E). It is located in bale zone
of the Oromia Region. This town has an elevation of 2743 m and holds a population
of 33,000 (2007).
Harawacha
Harawacha is a town in eastern Ethiopia (9.4°N and 42.9°E) found in the west
hararghe zone of the Oromia Region. It has an average altitude of 1900 m and
comprises 21,000 people in 2007.
Holeta
Holeta is a town close to Addis Ababa, located at central part of Ethiopia (9°N and
38.5°E) in Oromia special zone of Oromia region. It has an elevation of 2391 m and
Jimma
Jimma is a south-western Ethiopian town (7.8°N and 36.9°E). It is located in jimma
special zone of the Oromia Region. This town has an elevation of 1780 m and holds
Modjo
Modjo is a town in central Ethiopia (8.7°N and 39.1°E) found in misraq shewa zone
of the Oromia Region on the bank of Modjo River. It has an average altitude of
1788 m and comprises 49,000 people in 2008.
Nedjo
Nedjo is a western Ethiopian town (9.5°N and 35.5°E). It is located in west wollega
zone of the Oromia Region. This town has an elevation of 1821 m and holds a
Nekemte
Nekemte is a town in western Ethiopia (9.1°N and 36.5°E) found in east welega
111,000 people in 2012.
Robe
Robe or Bale-Robe is a southern-central Ethiopian town (7.1°N and 40°E). It is
located in bale zone of the Oromia Region. This town has an elevation of 2492 m
and holds a population of 44,000 (2007).
Sebeta
Sebeta is a town in central Ethiopia (8.9°N and 38.6°E) found in Oromia special
49,000 people in 2007.
Shashamane
Shashamane is a southern-central Ethiopian town (7.2°N and 38.6°E). It is located
in west-arsi zone of the Oromia Region. This town has an elevation of 1933 m and
holds a population of 122,000 (2012).
Welenchiti
Welenchiti is a town in east-central Ethiopia (8.8°N and 39.5°E) found in misraq
(east) shewa zone of the Oromia Region. It has an average altitude of 1436 m and
Wolliso
Wolliso is a southern-western Ethiopian town (8.5°N and 37.9°E). It is located in
debub mirab shewa zone of the Oromia Region. This town has an elevation of
2063 m and holds a population of 38,000 (2007).
Yabello
Yabello is a town in southern Ethiopia (4.9°N and 38.9°E) found in borena zone of
the Oromia Region. It has an average altitude of 1857 m and comprises 18,000
people in 2007.
2.3.9 Somali Region
Somali region is one of the emergent regions of Ethiopia, expanded along with
eastern boundary of the country. It is homeland of Somali tribe. Jig-Jiga is the
capital and only reviewed city from the region.
Jig-Jiga
Jig-Jiga is a town in western Ethiopia (9.3°N and 42.8°E), also serves as the capital
of Somali region and found in Jig-Jiga zone. It has an average altitude of 1609 m
and comprises 2,000,000 people in 2012.
2.3.10 SNNP Region
Southern Nations, Nationalities,and Peoples’ region or SNNP region is located at

the southern part of country having low elevation and full of green and most fertile
areas. A total of 16 towns were reviewed from this region. Region has its capital in
Hawassa.
Aleta Wondo
Aleta Wondo is a town in southern Ethiopia (6.6°N and 38.40°E) found in sidama
zone of the SNNP region. It has an average altitude of 2037 m and comprises
23,000 people in 2007.
Arba Minch
Arba Minch is a southern Ethiopian town (8.5°N and 37.9°E). It is located in gamo
gofa zone of the SNNP region. This town has an elevation of 1285 m and holds a
Bele
Bele is a town in southern Ethiopia (7°N and 37°E) found in wolaita zone of the
SNNP region. It has an average altitude of 1500 m and comprises 7000 people in
2007.
Bonga
Bonga is a southern Ethiopian town (7.3°N and 36.3°E). It is located in keffa zone
of the SNNP region. This town has an elevation of 1714 m and holds a population
of 21,000 (2007).
Dilla
Dilla is a town in southern Ethiopia (6.4°N and 38.3°E) found in gedeo zone of the
SNNP region. It has an average altitude of 1570 m and comprises 80,000 people in
2012.
Durame
Durame is a southern Ethiopian town (7.25°N and 37.9°E). It is located in kembata
tembaro zone of the SNNP region. This town has an elevation of 2101 m and holds
Halaba
Halaba or Alaba Kulito is a town in southern Ethiopia (7.3°N and 38.1°E) found in
kembata tembaro zone of the SNNP region. It has an average altitude of 1726 m
and comprises 27,000 people in 2007.
Hawassa
Hawassa is a southern Ethiopian town (7°N and 38.5°E). It serves as the capital of
SNNP region; and falls in Hawassa special zone of the SNNP region. This town has
an elevation of 1708 m and holds a population of 165,000 (2012).
Hossana
Hosanna is a town in southern Ethiopia (7.5°N and 37.9°E) and capital of hadiya
76,000 people in 2012.
Jinka
Jinka is a southern Ethiopian town (5.8°N and 36.5°E). It is located in debub omo
zone of the SNNP region. This town has an elevation of 1490 m and holds a
Masha
Masha is a town in southern Ethiopia (7.7°N and 35.5°E) and capital of keficho
shekicho zone of the SNNP region. It has an average altitude of 2223 m and
Soyama
Soyama is a southern Ethiopian town (5.8°N and 36.5°E). It is the capital of burji
special woreda of the SNNP region. This town has an elevation of 1660 m and
Tarcha
Tarcha is a town in southern Ethiopia (7.1°N and 37.1°E) and capital of dawuro
25,000 people in 2007.
Wolaita Sodo
Wolaita Sodo is a southern Ethiopian town (6.9°N and 37.8°E). It is the capital of
sodo zone of the SNNP region. This town has an elevation of 1600 m and holds a
Wolkitte
Wolkite is a town in southern Ethiopia (8.3°N and 37.8°E) and capital of gurage
29,000 people in 2007.
Worabe
Worabe is a southern Ethiopian town (6.9°N and 37.8°E). It falls in gurage zone of
the SNNP region. This town has an elevation of 2113 m and holds a population of
19,000 (2010).
2.3.11 Tigray Region
Tigray Region is located at the northern border of Ethiopia. It is the native place of
Tigray ethnic group. The region has its capital in Mekelle. A total of 10 towns are
reviewed from the region.
Abi-Adi
Abi-Adi is a northern Ethiopian town (13.6°N and 39°E). It is found in me-
hakelegnaw zone of the Tigray region. This town has an elevation of 2275 m and
Adigrat
Adigrat is a town in northern part of Ethiopia (14.3°N and 39.5°E) and found in the
misraqawi zone of the Tigray region. It has an average altitude of 2457 m and
Adiremets
Adiremets or Addi Remets is a northern Ethiopian town (13.8°N and 37.3°E). It is
found in miirabawi (western) zone of the Tigray region. This town has an elevation
of 1870 m and holds a population of 5000 (2007).
Alamata
Alamata is a town in northern part of Ethiopia (12.4°N and 39.5°E) and found in the
debubawi (southern) zone of the Tigray region. It has an average altitude of 1520 m
Axum
Axum is a northern Ethiopian town (12.4°N and 39.5°E) having a greater impor-
tance because of its rich heritage and tourist attraction. It is found in debubawi
(southern) zone of the Tigray region. This town has an elevation of 1520 m and
Freweyne
Freweyne is a town in northern part of Ethiopia (14.5°N and 39.5°E) and found in
the misraqawi zone of the Tigray region. It has an average altitude of 2480 m and
Humera
Humera is a northern Ethiopian town (14.3°N and 36.6°E) of strategic significance.
It is found in miirabawi (western) zone of the Tigray region. This town has an
elevation of 602 m and holds a population of 22,000 (2007).
Korem
Korem is a town in northern part of Ethiopia (12.5°N and 39.5°E) and found in the
debubawi (southern) zone of the Tigray region. It has an average altitude of 2539 m
Mekelle
Mekelle is a northern Ethiopian town (13.5°N and 39.5°E). It serves as the capital
of Tigray region and lies in debubawi (Southern) zone. This town has an elevation
of 2084 m and holds a population of 220,000 (2012).
Shire Endassilasie
Shire Endassilasie is a town in northern part of Ethiopia (14.1°N and 38.3°E) and
found in the semien miirabawi (north-western) zone of the Tigray region. It has an
average altitude of 1953 m and comprises 47,000 people in 2007.
2.4 Conclusion 23
2.4 Conclusion
Ethiopia is a developing country actively combating with the challenges on urban

infrastructure and service provision. It was observed, that scholars found a number
of topics appealing and research worthy from water supply to ICT infrastructure.
Additionally, the ethnic diversity and variation on geographies probably makes
above challenges more multifaceted which calls for specific solutions for each
urban settlement indeed.
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state. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian Civil Service University,
Wesenseged B (2011) Challenges and opportunities of financing water supply infrastructure in
Mekelle city. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian Civil Service
Wodaje M (2010) An assessment of alternative urban energy infrastructure: the case of biomass
cooking stoves in Debre Markos town (with special reference to ‘Mirt’ improved stove)
Amhara region. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian Civil Service
Wogame P (2010) An evaluation of mobile phone adoption and its uses in urban management: the
case of Hosanna town, Southern Nations Nationalities and People Region. Unpublished
Ethiopia
Wointu H (2011) Assessing the challenges of water supply infrastructure asset management in
Addis Ababa water and sewerage authority. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management,
Workineh YB (2011) An assessment of drainage infra-structure provision and management in
Injibara town. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian Civil Service
Wube LF (2011) The effects of cobblestone road project on employment creation in Arba Minch
Wubishet TK (2010) The role of biogas energy infrastructure provision in Hawassa city for saving
non-renewable energy resources. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian
Wubiye MJ (2011) Assessment of labour—based practices in natural soil stabilization technology.
The case of AA city roads construction. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management,
Yalemzewd T (2010) Towards improved livestock market infra-structure in AA City and Butajira
Town. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian Civil Service University,
Yeshiemebet AT (2011) Benefits challenges and prospects of information and communication
technology ICT in Addis Ababa city sector Beauros. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban
Yeshiwas YT (2010) Assessment of labor-intensive infrastructure construction technologies in
Bahir Dar city: a case of Cobblestone road construction project. Unpublished master’s thesis,
Yesuf H (2011) An assessment of water supply and service delivery in Dhera town, Oromia
region. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian Civil Service University,
Yimer G (2011) Challenges of ICT accessibility in fostering socio-economic development-in case
of Woldia town administration, Amhara region. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban
Yohannes TG (2009) Infrastructure provision for tourism industry development in Dire Dawa.
Ababa, Ethiopia
Zamil A (2011) An Assessment of the provision and management of storm water drainage
infrastructure in the city of Harar. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian
Zeleke AW (2011) An assessment of road infrastructure provision and management in Bishoftu

town, Oromia region. Unpublished master’s thesis, Urban Management, Ethiopian Civil
Zemedkun A (2009) An assessment of road infrastructure and service provision in Dire Dawa city.
Ababa, Ethiopia
Zena KM (2011) The assessment of IT infrastructure provision and utilization for land
administration and management in Bole sub-city, Addis Ababa. Unpublished master’s thesis,
Chapter 3
An Appraisal on Literature Review
Abstract Literature referred and utilized by the research investigators are valued in
this chapter. As the urban infrastructure domain covers range of academic and
professional disciplines, it warrants a comprehensive consultation of literature from
local to global levels and also from unpublished sources to pervasive sources to lay
a sound understanding of the challenges and the multifarious characteristics of
urban infrastructure issues.
Keywords Literature review Theoretical context Articulating general idea

Formulation of hypotheses
3.1 Introduction
Review of literature formulates not only the prelude of any research investigation
though it also espouses the entire research design at various stages.
It has two main objectives:
• It helps researcher in order to select an explicit problem for inquiry and in
constructing the theoretical context for the whole research; and
• It also contributes in the articulation of the general suppositions about the issues
or variables involved in the problem and developing the single or multiple
hypotheses at later stage.
Apart from the above, literature review also shows the understanding of the
investigator, concerned to the thematic areas under investigation, and consequently
his efficiency to accomplish the research (Kothari 2004).
The review of literature executed for urban infrastructure research in Ethiopian
cities is showcased later in the chapter on three major selected themes:
i. Urban energy efficiency,
ii. Integrated provision of roads and drainage for urban storm water management,
and
iii. Urban water supply.

36 3 An Appraisal on Literature Review
3.2 Urban Energy Efficiency Scenario
A research investigation made on improved efficiencies in biomass consumption in

the urban areas of Ethiopia, for fulfilling energy requirements of local people,
attempted to review a variety of literature, such as reports from the global agencies
to the national- and local-level relevant published and unpublished works aimed at
the environmental and socio-economic consequences of fuel wood consumption.
Ahmed (2008) rightly observed that inefficient consumption of the biomasses is
the root cause for the environmental degradation and increasing temperature in the
city surroundings, decline in ambient air quality through pollutants (Rajagopal and
Zilberman 2007; Smith 1994; Ahuja 1990), while it is highly relevant for the
livelihood and subsistence for many (Hailelul 2002).
The time consumed by women in fuelwood collection affects their other pro-
ductive and leisure activities (ESMAP 1991), while burning of fuelwood produces
indoor air pollution and causes millions of death at global level and also increases
various types of respiratory diseases including prevailing bronchitis, low birth rates
and increased infant mortality (Cetinkaya et al. 2000; Station and Harding 2002).
Some of reviewed literature fit into the studies carried out in developing coun-
tries like India, Philippines, Turkey and Ethiopia.
Reviewed literature also prompts for attaining insights and problem-solving
strategies such as adoption of improved stoves (Douglas et al. 1994).
Evolution process of improved stoves was started at its manufacturing from mud
without chimney with lesser energy efficiency (Kammen 1995; Ergeneman 2003)
and later improved stoves with chimney were developed (Sinha 2002).
Additionally, researcher observed that despite of its potential improved stoves
are still less popular in many Ethiopian cities, where people still rely on biomass for
cooking the traditional food.
3.3 Integrated Provision of Roads and Drainage

for Urban Storm Water Management
From the literature, Gebremariam (2008) noted that natural drainage and water
cycle is interrupted by human activities on the urban landscape, and man-made hard
pavements allowed rainwater to runoff, rather than soak it into groundwater storage.
It has resulted urban floods, leading to loss of lives, property damage, stagnant
water (favourable place for mosquito breeding leading to epidemics like malaria
and dengue), communication interruptions and loss of livelihoods (Basak 1999;
Douglas and Alam 2006).
From various global experiences, urban floods could be managed or mitigated
through adequate grey infrastructure provision including proper drainage along
with roads (preferably in both sides), sustainable handling of wastewater and storm
water through separate handling, and reducing point and non-point water pollution
3.3 Integrated Provision of Roads … 37
to enhance storm water quality (Butler and Davies 2004; Sample and Heaney 2006;
Walsh 2000; Clary et al. 2002). Besides that, experiences from Australian cities
divulge that green infrastructures such as vegetated swale or biofilters might prove
exceedingly worthwhile in urban storm water management (CSIRO 1999).
In active participation of community, CBOs and NGOs are also indispensable to
mitigate urban flood disasters (Schubeler 1996).
Researcher found a huge gap in the adequate and integrated provision of road
and drainage infrastructure because of which Ethiopian cities are struggling to
manage urban flood.
3.4 Urban Water Supply
Water supply is a critical infrastructure; without that life is not possible. Ethiopia is
a country often known as the water tower of East Africa because of its perennial
rivers and great lakes; the country also has the greatest water reserve in Africa
(BBC 2004).
Nevertheless, Ethiopian cities are faced with severe deficits in sustainable urban
water supply. Salim (2010) inaugurated his literature review from the World Bank
discussion paper by citing Churchill (1987), who outlined that in developing
countries adequate water supply can improve health conditions by reducing
waterborne diseases, mortality and morbidity rates and the number of working days
lost, and can increase the GDP.
Later, from the local-level studies, the scholar stated that household income is
the determining factor for household water consumption, fluctuating from 300 to
1000 litres per day (Yimer 1992). Additionally, highly educated people consume
more water (Tesfaye 1984).
Moreover, the interesting fact is that household, who has lower access to water
pay more in comparison to those who have piped water connections, is revealed
from Canadian know-hows (MHMRS 2000).
Reports from international agencies confirm that a large portion of urban pop-
ulation (31 %) in big African cities are not serviced with piped water supply
connection; only 43 % own yard taps, while 21 % people are served by public taps
and rest 5 % by water tankers (WHO 2000).
A household which have access to potable water supply could be defined as
households, who receive 20 lpcd water, at an affordable price, or less than 10 % of
household income (UN-HABITAT 2003).
Water demand management is a challenging task for service providers, where
the water losses and leakage hamper the demand management (Arlosoroff 1999;
Mwendera et al. 2003). Total water losses are usually demarcated as unaccounted
for water or UFW; some scholars suggest that 10 % of UFW is tolerable (AAWSA
1997; Richard et al. 2000).
Leaking pipelines, illegal water connections, defects in metering and improper
accounting are the main reasons for water losses (WHO 2001; Mitchell et al. 2000;
Farley and Trow 2003). According to Macro (2006), water supply sector in
Ethiopia is plagued with paucity of services and development due to lack of
capacity on management, policy and regulatory matters and to handle planning,
operation and maintenance activities. Towns with a population of 2–50 thousands
are confronted with adequate water supply challenges in particular (World Bank
2005).
Dessalegn (1999) noted that the creeping development in water supply sector is
due to legislation, investment, policy and participation gaps. MWR (2002) admitted
that underdevelopment of urban water supply sector is the result of institutional
instability, management problems, lack of coordination and weakness in operation
and maintenance of the projects.
After 2002, MWR gave a policy slogan for ‘full cost recovery and self-reliance’
in urban water supply sector, restructuring of water tariffs and incentives to service
providers on improving cost recovery was the first strong step towards strength-
ening of the system (Alebel 2004).
On the basis of literature review of water sector-related challenges, researcher
found that the similar problem is still prevailing in most of the Ethiopian towns
which deserve comprehensive examination.
3.5 Conclusion
From this chapter, it can be concluded that researcher subjugated broad body of
literature at different levels, scales and sources, which was obvious because of
complexity inherent in urban infrastructure challenges.
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Chapter 4
Review of Findings and Recommendations
Abstract This chapter represents patterns of findings and recommendations of the

reviewed research reports. It was observed that energy consumption scenario in the
cities is unsustainable; storm water handling fixtures in selected are inadequate, and
there is a wide gap between the demand and supply of urban roads and their
associated furniture. Urban water supply in the cities is not up to mark in terms of
quality and quality while the worth of community participation is not well explored.
Moreover, green infrastructure in the cities is not passable. Deficits were also
reported in the integration and financing aspects. Additionally, sanitation, health,
education, promotion of indigenous material-based urban infrastructure, solid and
liquid waste management, ICT infrastructure and tourism infrastructures also faced
with several defies. Hence, an exhaustive and integrated plan for urban infras-
tructure facilities is anticipated on the priority basis.
Keywords Urban road

Water supply
Participation ICT
Integration

Financing Sanitation Health Education Indigenous material-based Solid

waste Liquid waste
4.1 Introduction
This chapter scans findings and recommendations from various research investi-
gations on the challenges of urban infrastructure and services in Ethiopian cities.
4.2 An Overview of Research Findings
4.2.1 Transformation Towards Efficient Energy

Infrastructure
In his study, Ahmed (2008) found that fuelwood consumption is the most imper-
ative drivers of deforestation. In his field study in the Woldia city of Amhara region,
42 4 Review of Findings and Recommendations
he examined potential sustainable (social, economic and environmental) impact of

‘Mirt’1 stoves, which is expedient in cooking ethnic food injera,2 and concluded
that sound adoption of these improved stoves can have positive social, economic
and environmental impacts. It was estimated that average annual biomass con-
sumption in the city was about 16 thousand metric tons that draws 18 thousand
cubic metres of fuelwood annually from the city and its surroundings while the
adoption of improved stove is saving 1.1 thousand metric tons biomass annually
that can be translated into saving of nearly 2 thousand cubic metres of fuelwood.
Additionally, it can offer time and money saving, improvement in indoor health
conditions, and create employment opportunities, strengthening entrepreneurships
through MSEs, though several institutional, financial and individual constraints
were identified in achieving these goals.
Studies from Debre Markos in Amhara region and Hawassa in SNNP region
endorse above suppositions (Wodaje 2010; Wubishet 2010).
4.2.2 Urban Infrastructure to Handle Storm Water
In studies from Adigrat, Abi-Adi, Alamata (Tigaray region), Dangila, Bahir Dar,
Kemessie, Injibara and Dessie (Amhara region), Chiro, Gimbi, Welenchiti,
Shashamane (Oromia region), Worabe (SNNP region), Harari (Harari region) and
Addis Ababa, researchers pinpointed that the certain areas of these cities are vul-
nerable to the severity of urban floods due to inadequate quality and quantity of
matching drainage lines to the roads, poor road constructions and improper oper-
ation and maintenance of existing drainage. Scenario is even worse in some cities
because of their undulating topography (Gebremariam 2008; Moges 2008;
Dagnachew 2009; Kassaye 2009; Wendale 2010; Tamirat 2010; Adnan 2011;
Mustefa 2011; Dereje 2011; Workineh 2011; Zamil 2011; Shanbel 2011; Siraj
2011; Girmay 2011; Mitiku 2011; Beyene 2011). Beniyam (2011) linked inade-
quacy of storm water drainage with the inability in tackling future climate change.
Dagnachew (2009) used satellite imagery and physical surveys to scrutinize
flood prone areas (by storm water) in Addis Ketema subcity of Addis Ababa city
and concluded that obstructions of drains, connection of sewers to drains, absence
of drain in most cases and clogging of drains with solid wastes diminish carrying
capacity of drainage, resultant into heavy urban floods. Additionally, only half of
the existing drains were in good condition while others one-fourth were in moderate
and rest were in severe conditions. Furthermore, half of the drains are open and on
each 1 km of roads only 0.46 km of drainage is available and in the budgets for road
1
Mirt is an Amharic (national language of Ethiopia) word which means ‘best’. It is in fact an
improved fuelwood stove made of mortar (a mixture of cement and local sand).
2
Injera is Ethiopian ethnic flat bread cooked from ‘Tef’ (millet that contains highly nutrient dietary
fibre and iron) flour.
4.2 An Overview of Research Findings 43
construction less than 1 % is allocated for drainage construction. Inappropriate

integration of roads with drainage triggered a number of glitches such as loss in
environmental quality, terrific odour in the surroundings, degradation of urban land,
loss of aesthetics and breeding of disease causing microorganism in logged water.
Birhanu (2011) examined the scenario in which road and drainage infrastructure
is provided in Bishoftu/Debrazait town (Oromia region) and found a huge gap
between their demand and supply and advocated that overburdened city adminis-
tration cannot fulfil entire demand with their existing capacities.
4.2.3 Constraints on Urban Road Infrastructure and Its

Associated Furniture
Results of a study, in Bishoftu/Debrazait (Oromia region), conclude that less

know-how of professionals, financial and resource constraints, higher volume of
non-asphalt and non-cobblestone roads, poor practices on road operation, man-
agement and maintenance obstruct utility of road infrastructure and cause eco-
nomic, environmental and social damages (Zeleke 2011).
Glitches concerned to urban road infrastructure, equally been found at Bahir
Dar Primary>Bahir Dar in Amhara region, Dire Dawa in Dire Dawa region, Jig-Jiga
in Somali region, Robe, Asella, Shashemene and Adama in Oromia region, Dilla
in SNNP region, Axum and Mekelle in Tigray region, and Assosa in
Benishangul-Gumuz region (Hassen 2009; Kokebe 2009; Zemedkun 2009;
Lemessa 2010; Hailemichael 2010; Azmeraw 2011; Said 2011; Niman 2011;
Mohammedyakob 2011; Haileyessus 2011; Kalayu 2011; Asnake 2011; Abdissa
2011; Azmeraw 2011).
Fufi (2011) has investigated that road infrastructure in Gimbi town is not well
adequate, so is its furniture such as drainage (provided only for 1/5 of the available
roads), sidewalks (which is also shared by pedestrians and cyclist), culverts (few in
number), loading areas and street lights. Statistics on the quality and quantity of
roads in the town is quite disturbing; only 7 km out of total 41 km is asphalt road,
about 70 % roads are in poor condition because of maintenance crevice, and street
lighting is offered only on 1/3 portion.
4.2.4 Ensuring Sustainable Water Supply to the Urban

Population
Potable water supply is the most critical infrastructure in an urban area indeed.
Ethiopian cities seem highly overstrained in this sector as researchers investigated.
Tmuzghy (2009) concluded that 40 % demand for potable water was unmet in
capital city, around 18 % customers were not satisfied with the AAWSA services
and 32 % reported that they are getting water less than 6 h daily. A high rate of
UFW (29 %) was recorded in Mekelle (Tigray region) which has an increasing
trend and accounts for 6.6 million ETB annually (Kinfe 2009).
Service deficiency was observed in the newly self-aided housing units of Akaki
kality subcity (Addis Ababa region) where the residents are dependent for water on
standpipes for the construction of their houses, while in most cases (68 %) they
were forced to travel more than 2 km for water fetching (Ermias 2009).
Apart from above malfunctions cities like Addis Ababa (Addis Ababa region),
Woliata Sodo, Durame, Aleta Wondo, Masha, Dilla, Jinka (SNNP region), Gondar,
Bahir Dar, Woldia, Bati, Debre Tabor, Sekota, Dangila, Wegeda (Amhara region),
Gimbi, Gebreguarcha, Robe, Aira, Nekemte, Burayu, Adama, Shashamane, Sebeta,
Bule Hora, Harawacha, Asella, Dhera, Nedjo (Oromia region), Dilla, Hosanna,
Soyama, Tarcha (SNNP region), Shire Endassilasie,Adigrat, Alamata, Humera and
Freweyne (Tigray region) Mandura (Benishangul-Gumuz region) are also con-
fronted with several water supply-related challenges such as unmet demands of
potable water, poor quality of supplied water, inadequate and inequitable distri-
bution of public tap stands, unfair water tariffs, frequent interruptions in the supply,
leakage of water pipe lines and inadequate number of technical workforce (Abera
2010; Alemayehu 2010a, b; Asfaw 2010; Desalegn 2010; Bedada 2010; Bekele
2010; Berihun 2010; Birhanu 2010; Birishet 2010; Degenet 2010; Gelane 2010;
Lulu 2010; Maru 2010; Mesfin 2010; Mohammed 2010; Selamwit 2010; Semeneh
2010; Tesema 2010; Kumulachew 2010; Aklilu 2010; Belete 2010; Tesgaye 2010;
Abdi 2011; Adem 2011a, b; Aden 2011; Alemu 2011; Amanuel 2011; Amsalu
2011a, b; Brhanu 2011; Getachew 2011a, b, c; Haftamu 2011; Hussien 2011;
Mulugeta 2011; Mengistu 2011; Meskerem 2011; Mohammed 2011a, b; Negese
2011; Shishay 2011; Sisay (2011; Yesuf 2011; Abraham 2011; Welancho 2011 and
Shimeri 2011).
Salim (2010) in his research inquiry of Halaba (SNNP region) confirmed that the
water tariffs are not realistic in the town as poor people (without household water
connections) are paying more compared to the connected households, employees of
water board are less skilled and less paid that hampers their commitment, even the
policymaking body lacks planners and technocrats, and above of all effective
monitoring and evaluation mechanism is ambiguous.
Customer satisfaction was examined in Ambo (Oromia region) and it was pro-
ven that more than one-third of total customers (36 %) were unhappy with the water
supply services and almost half of them (47 %) complained that staff of provider
agency is not supportive and helpful to the customers, and majority of the cus-
tomers (47 %) were eager to see improvement in the level of services (Dereje 2010),
and quite similar results were drawn in Wolliso town of Oromia region (Negussie
2011).
It was also concluded that groundwater water table tends to decline in Nekemte
(Oromia region) especially in the dry seasons consequential into widening of
demand and supply gaps, worsening already unmet demands (Belay 2010).
The case study of Dubti town (Abdu 2010) divulges that in the last decade the
population has been doubled due to shift in the capital of region from Aysaita to
Semera and because of the establishment of a sugar project near the town, which
has overstressed town’s water supply capacity indeed.
Aging water system and their low capacities has worsened the problem. Apart
from this no service standards are determined by the authorities to ensure sus-
tainable water supply in the town while the water tariffs are not realistic.
Meseret (2008) found that the city of Dessie is combating with the challenges of
water supply having inadequate financial and human resources. The absence of land
titles is obstructing the new household connections while irregular operation and
maintenance leads to leaking of supply lines. Later, Ahmed (2010) recognized that
in Dessie DWSSO planned to expand its service area up to 87 % households though
by year 2010 the achievement was only 34 %.
Coverage and quality of the water supply services is poor in newly inhabited
areas. Non-revenue water and cost recovery is a bewildering issue of concern in the
town (Taye 2011).
Research on water supply inconsistencies in Jig-Jiga town (Somali region) is
vital to understand infrastructure state of the region as no studies are available for
this particular region. Abdisamad (2010) pointed out managerial and human
resource-related deficiencies in JWSO; water supply system lacks proper operation
and maintenance practices while established in 1975; the system do not possess an
efficient asset management plan.
4.2.5 Community Involvement in Urban Infrastructure

Works
A study of Chiro town in Oromia region (Teka 2010) shows that involvement of
community in the water infrastructure projects is too slender, although high
involvement of community members was recorded in the phase problem identifi-
cation (85 %) which has been narrowed in other succeeding phases such as con-
struction (75 %). Moreover, it is imperative to mention that no community member
was contacted and consulted while making decisions regarding location of the water
supply project and its genus; local authorities solely took the resolutions.
Management of water supply facility was being executed through community
representatives (through water management committees) and they also feel that
there was lack of transparency in the fund management. It was also proven that the
water management committees neither have capacity nor skills to fairly operate and
maintain such facilities. It was observed that the tariff collected from users was not
enough to cover operation and maintenance cost of the project, resultant into their
poor condition.
Community participation in education infrastructure provision was reported low
in Shire-Inda selassie town of Tigray region and Holeta town of Oromia region
(Measho 2011). Lack of community involvement was also reported insignificant in
urban water supply projects at Jig-Jiga town of Somali region (Mohammed 2011a, b).
4.2.6 Focus on Green Infrastructure
Green infrastructure is an embryonic theme among the scholars in Ethiopian con-

text, indeed. In fact, green infrastructure possesses multifaceted value because of
the various psychological services offered by it which determines the quality of life
in cities and to diminish ecological stress on the city life (Chiesura 2004; Mell
2010; Schäffler and Swilling 2013).
In Arsi Negelle town (Oromia region) green infrastructure is overburdened with
other land uses like residential, commercial, religious, cemeteries, bus stations and
temporary markets (Beyene 2010). Quality and quantity of green infrastructure is
also not reasonable in Debra Markos town (Amhara region); existing green
infrastructure is dwindling due to increasing fuelwood demand, urban growth and
land-use changes (Tiruset 2010). Green infrastructures are also stressed in Mekelle
(Tigray region), Kamise (Amhara region) Assossa town (Benishangul-Gumuz
region), Arada subcity (Addis Ababa region), Nekemte, Yabello and Goba (Oromia
region) cities (Senbeta 2009; Abdulahi 2010; Alganesh 2011; Mechal 2011; Eyader
2011; Genet 2011).
In Goba town (Oromia region), Abdulahi (2010) found that existing green
infrastructure is rapidly shrinking due to rapid changes in land uses from green and
open spaces to residential, commercial and mixed uses, which made local residents
unsatisfied. Existing green infrastructure is not well protected; stakeholder’s par-
ticipation in the expansion of green infrastructure is quite low, and vacant open
spaces are encroached with solid wastes, especially along with the drains and river
banks. Due to the absence of green infrastructure, the solid wastes dumped on
vacant spaces flows with storm water and falls down into rivers causing health
risks. The town failed to properly implement its ‘Development plan-2002’ as 20
green spaces were planned while only nine were executed. There is no proper
inventory of green infrastructure, and stakeholders at local level consider it as a
nonproductive entity.
4.2.7 Muddling on Institutional Integration for Urban

Infrastructure Provision and Management
Various infrastructure providers in the cities do not have an integrated system

which affects adjacent infrastructures while doing construction or repair works for
others. The practice is quite alike into urban fabrics across the country; a study of
Bahir Dar city in Amhara region (Abiy 2010) unveils that because of poor insti-
tutional integration among ETC, EEPCO and BDCA cause recurrent interruptions
and damage the utility lines, especially of water supply; improper communication
among institutions, lack of common special database and absence of real-time
monitoring system are the basic reasons responsible.
Very similar findings were drawn by the researchers in case of Addis Ababa in
Addis Ababa region, Adigrat and Mekelle in Tigray region, Dembi Dollo and
Sebeta in Oromia region (Dereje 2009; Michael 2009; Alemayehu 2010a, b;
Getachew 2011a, b, c; Hailekiros 2011).
Moges (2011) with an example of Bahir Dar in Amhara region indicated that
there is still a huge gap in urban policies guiding to institutional integration in the
provision and management of urban infrastructures.
4.2.8 Gaps in the Provision of Social Infrastructure
4.2.8.1 Education
In the city of Jimma (Oromia region) it was observed that the physical infrastructure
in the government school (from pre-primary to preparatory level) is not satisfactory.
There is inadequacy of tables, chairs and quality of buildings, while the shortage of
green and open spaces and land for future expansion is also aggravating the
problem. The absence of good governance and the lack of community participation
in the planning and budgeting of school are thought to be major reasons for such
cracks, which is when the most popular school in the city is being run through
community resources, although the scenario is slightly changing, because of the
increasing involvement of the private sector (Kifle 2008).
Investigations from Adiremets and Alamata in Tigray region, Arerti in Amhara
region and Asella in Oromia region, and Bele and Bonga in SNNP region sanction
that the existing educational infrastructure is not capable to achieve the target to
maximize access, coverage, quality, equity and efficiency in primary and secondary
education (Leykun 2011; Million 2011; Seboka 2011; Teshome 2011; Helen 2011;
Amine 2011).
4.2.8.2 Health
Jimma city is also facing challenges in offering an appropriate health infrastructure

to its dwellers in terms of quality and quality; there is a wide gap in the demand and
supply of health services. City is lagging behind in many health fronts such as
management of HIV/AIDS, the rate of infant mortality and the rate of maternal
mortality which is still higher (Kifle 2008). Research inquiries in Dire Dawa (Dire
Dawa city region), Gerbaguracha,Gimbi (Oromia region), Bahir Dar (Amhara
region), Worabe, Durame (SNNP region), Addis Ababa (Addis Ababa region) and
Harari (Harari region) pronounce similar impression (Hailab 2009; Selamwit 2011;
Amsalu 2011a, b; Haregua 2011; Dibera 2011; Koat 2011; Meseret 2011; Munir
2011; Tewfik 2011).
Werede (2011) carried out a comparative study between government and private
delivery of healthcare services in Mekelle (Tigray region) and concluded while
government sector offers more affordable services, but on one hand it cannot fulfil
total demand, and on the other hand, the quality of services is also poor; on the
contrary, private sector services are not affordable for poor people but the quality of
services is quite better.
Provision of healthcare infrastructure in Hawassa city (SNNP region) is inade-
quate in reference to national standard which guides to establish 1 hospital for 250
thousands, health center on 25 thousands and health post on 5 thousands popula-
tions.3 On one hand private healthcare service providers have an important share in
service delivery and it is not affordable for the most of the residents, while on the
other hand private providers play very limited role in the prevention of health
problems.
Government as a regulator is lethargic in monitoring the private providers.
Improper adherence to WHO standards, insufficient community consultation and
participation in healthcare service planning and delivery, slow delivery, deficit of
drugs, small number of hospital beds, scarcity of instruments and professionals, and
frequent interruptions in water and electricity supplies are among the major
shortcomings of healthcare infrastructure (Abiot 2009).
4.2.9 Appraisal of Indigenous Material-Based/

Labour-Intensive Urban Infrastructure Provision
Cobblestone road construction technologies were brought to Ethiopian cities by

GIZ (previously known as GTZ) in the year 2006 because of its two main virtues: at
first it uses local raw materials and second it gives large scale employment to local
unskilled workforce as it is labour-intensive.
The cobblestone road project has greater significance to employ of local skills
and to exploit local resources efficiently. Savings of foreign currency, freedom from
market uncertainties, better durability and less construction costs, less construction
time, longer lifespan, easier and low-cost operation and maintenance are the reasons
government and international agencies have promoted such type of technologies.
Cobblestone technology is ecofriendly too as it produces less wastes and do not
increase the temperature in its surroundings as compared to asphalt roads. Despite
of all its advantages, scholars divulged that the cobblestone projects in cities like
Dire Dawa, Addis Ababa, Hosanna, Hawassa, Bahir Dar, Adama and Arba Minch
are oppressed from administrative apathy, financial mismanagement, carelessness
towards safety standards, weak logistics, poor integration among implementing
institutions (such as DDMO, DDRA, DDFEDO, DDCDEO and RMSEDA in
Dire Dawa) and pathetic capacities of MSEs (Ahmednur 2009; Shewarega 2009;
3
As per guidelines of Federal Ministry of Health in Ethiopian Health Policy.
Mola 2010; Solomom 2010; Yeshiwas 2010; Adem 2011a, b; Assefa 2011; Nasra
2011; Wube 2011).
Natural soil stabilization technology is another labour-intensive technique
deployed for urban road provision in Ethiopian cities; researcher examined the
technology in Addis Ababa (Addis Ababa region) and concluded that the tech-
nology has great potential though it is not popular due to apathy of policymakers
(Wubiye 2011).
4.2.10 Infrastructure for Sanitation, Solid Waste and Liquid

Waste Management
Dream light project is an ambitious project in Bhairdar city (Amhara region) to

ensure sustainable solid waste management. Fentahun (2010) evaluated effective-
ness of this project and concluded that the project has on average coverage of 89 %
and still 6500 m3 of solid wastes remain uncollected, and disposed on the river-
banks, streets, storm water drainage and open spaces. Disposal site is unprotected,
while reuse, recycle and composting practices are uncommon. The project excludes
chemical, industrial and healthcare wastes.
Solid waste collected in Dessie (Oromia region) is around 50 % (quite lesser than
Bahir Dar) which is mainly due to lack of technical, financial and resource capacity
at the municipality (Getnet 2010). Similar observations were made from Assosa in
Benishangul-Gumuz region, Hosanna and Wolaita Sodo in SNNP region, Humera
and Alamata in Tigray region and Nekemte and Gimbi in Oromia region (Kinfe
2010; Tadelech 2010; Demelash 2010; Goitam 2010; G/hiwot 2010; Asnakech
2010; Merga 2011).
Researchers found that poor sanitation and solid waste management impedes
urban health and livability. Alazar (2011) noted that only 14 % residents have
access to improved sanitation facilities in Bahir Dar (Amhara region), 76 % rely
upon tradition unimproved sanitation facilities (including open toilets), while the
rest 10 % are still practicing open defecation; 11 % solid waste in the city remain
uncollected and no proper treatment of wastewater/sewer is in place that are
released into open spaces and water bodies increasing incidents of waterborne
diseases.
Unreliable water supply encumbers health and hygienic behaviors such as
washing of hands. Similar findings were documented in Hrari city of Hrari region
(Herya 2010).
Study in Chiro town of Oromia region noted that health problems are in severe
form because of compromised sanitation infrastructure; further, it was found that
majority of households (45 %) in town were grieved with diseases caused by
unsanitary conditions, and the rate was even higher (65 %) among children
(Bedassa 2011).
4.2.11 Urban ICT Infrastructure
ICT applications can increase efficiency of urban land administration and man-
agement though in Addis Ababa because of budgetary constraints, higher costs of
hardware and software, lack of ICT professionals, limited access to WAN/LAN and
improper connectivity to web portal and Internet are obstructing such applications
(Zena 2011). A study reveals that government sector is reluctant in adopting ICTs
due to capacity constraints in Hawassa city of SNNP region (Gizaw 2010).
Yeshiemebet (2011) found that despite of all the efficiencies, ICTs can offer
AACA that is still relying on outdated modes of communication, documentation,
field and office management which obstructs sustainable infrastructure management
indeed.
Getacher (2011) divulges that government schools of Addis Ababa lack ICT
infrastructure including LCD projectors, LCD televisions, audio and video players
and desktop computers which may prove valuable in competing with private school
and improving quality of education.
4.2.12 Challenges on Financing Urban Infrastructure

and Services
Almost all the research investigations concluded that financial constraints are the
major obstacles in the way of provision, operation, management and maintenance
of urban infrastructure and services in Ethiopian cities, a few unambiguously
tackled the defy. In Dubti town (Afar region), the researcher noted that healthcare
services are not financially sovereign as they are solely dependent on regional state
grant and donations, while their own resources (user fees) are very limited that
hinders their services in terms of both the quality and quantity. Although AMREF,
UNICEF, Global Fund and I-TECH offer financial resources in terms of cash,
grants and aids for hiring health professional and payments of their salaries,
sponsoring trainings for health workers and supply of medicines and instruments
but these assistances are not being efficiently utilized as the monitoring and eval-
uation mechanism is not well in place (Hadra 2011). Study in Bedassa (Oromia
region) exposes the same hitches (Mebruka 2011).
Study from Debra Markos (Amhara region) and Mekelle (Tigray region)
unveiled that water supply project in the town still rely on traditional financing
sources such as grants from regional governments, donors with a little income from
water user charges that are not sufficient for the cost recovery and make the project
sustainable, while there are high losses due to UFW (Getachew 2011a, b, c;
Wesenseged 2011).
4.2.13 Urban Infrastructure for Tourism Development
Ethiopian cities are center of attraction for tourists since long because of their rich
heritage and ethnic diversity. Tourism is source of livelihood for local residents in
cities like Bahir Dar and Debark in Amhara region, Addis Ababa in Addis Ababa
region, Dire Dawa in Dire Dawa region, Harari in Harari region, Korem and Axum
in Tigray region and Bishoftu/Debrazait in Oromia region.
All the researchers were in agreement that additional urban infrastructures are
required to attain tourism sector development, while Ethiopian cities in general do
not have its adequate stock; both the tourists and local residents including the
individual tourism service providers are largely (42–80 %) not satisfied with
existing infrastructure and rated their condition as ‘poor’ (Yohannes 2009; Fahmi
2010; Habatamu 2010; Mesfin 2010a, b; Shakir 2010; Leul 2010; Abraha 2011;
Merkebu 2011; Nestanet 2011).
4.2.14 Other Prudent Themes in Urban Infrastructure

Research
Researcher observed in Hawassa (SNNP region) that design defects in an urban

infrastructure such as road, together with their poor operation, maintenance and
governance, can not only reduce their utility though it can also harmfully upset
quality of people’s health and life; consequences could be even worse in the case of
physically challenged–visually handicapped in particular (Dinkayehu 2011; Samuel
2011).
Wointu (2011) alleged that infrastructure asset management is an overlooked
realm in AAWSA that decreases efficiency of water supply services in Addis Ababa
(Addis Ababa region); this deficiency lowers performance level of the service
provider in the operation and maintenance.
Gambella is one of the emergent regions in Ethiopia where Gambella is its
capital city; a study on the city found that overall level of infrastructure and services
is poor because of data unavailability, lack of capacities related to planning,
resources, finance, operation, maintenance and management. Lack of awareness
and participation from community members has intensified the shortcomings
(Gadet 2010).
In Modjo-Lume area of Oromia region, Sisay (2009) pointed out that infra-
structure development could contribute in the sustainable urban and regional
growth by enhancing urban–rural linkages; it was proven that better provision of
road connectivity in Lume area can increase market potentials of rural products
(vegetables, fruits and dairy) by minimizing travel time, while the Modjo town can
get additional incomes by offering marketplace to these products.
Nigus (2011) made a highly pertinent observation that Ethiopia got its first
comprehensive Urban Development policy in 2004 with due attention on urban
infrastructure component though initially it was highly stressed with political

decisions and financial challenges. Later, the progress in the sector has been seen
with the help of international development agencies such as GIZ, US-AID, World
Bank and with the application of strategic management tools like SWOT, PEST,
BSC, BPR and innovative management and financing options through PPP.
4.3 Pattern of Recommendations and Offered Solutions
Nearly, all researchers were in agreement to bring about certain policy-level

reforms to efficiently provide urban infrastructure and services in Ethiopian cities
which are as follows:
4.3.1 Strengthening the Institutional Setup
Government service providers in Ethiopian cities need a complete refurbishing

including the following:
• Appointing expert members in the executive boards, having expertise in plan-
ning, finance, accounting and technical aspects.
• Revision of remunerations to the officials and staff to avoid higher turnover
rates.
• Keeping the updated record for the specialized human resource requirements in
different trades and making appointments proactively.
• Starting proper asset management practices on finance and other resources.
4.3.2 Capacity Building on Managerial Issues
It is a felt need that institutions and organization related to urban infrastructure and
services are seriously lacking on managerial capacities that should be carefully
tackled through the following:
• Preparing a smart strategic plan in real sense, based on comprehensive analysis
of available resources.
• Offering of on-job training to staff on regular basis.
• Making a dynamic user tariffs for all the services while keeping in mind the
affordability for poor and cost recovery for the infrastructure services itself.
• Providing micro-credits to the poor, especially to the water poor who cannot
afford higher initial costs for the new connections.
4.3 Pattern of Recommendations and Offered Solutions 53
• Optimizing production and distribution /supply capacities for the infrastructure

and services.
• Ensuring early detection of losses, if any.
• Keeping proactive management plan for the operation and maintenance of the
infrastructure and services.
4.3.3 Popular Consultation and Participation

of Stakeholders
There should be greater emphasis on the consultation with different stakeholders on

the planning, financing, delivery, operation, maintenance and management of the
infrastructure and services; all possible stakeholders and consensus makers
including NGOs, CBOs and private sectors should be encouraged to participate
actively in the processes.
4.3.4 Promote Institutional Integration
Urban infrastructure and services that are offered in an urban fabric are functionally
interdependent, and vulnerability in a system influences others; hence, their proper
operation and protection requires collaborative decision-making (Samborski 2010).
Institutional integration for collaborative decision-making could be accomplished
through the following:
• A vertical framework should be created for the anticipated integration across the
various levels of governance-federal, regional and local.
• Horizontal integration should be carried out through city-level inter-
organizational channel.
4.3.5 Creating an Effective Monitoring and Evaluation

Framework
To check the health of the urban infrastructure and services in Ethiopian cities, an
effective monitoring and evaluation framework should be established as per the
following suggestions:
• Benchmarking service standards and indicators for each infrastructure service
and for every town exclusively.
• Deploying independent professionals for unbiased monitoring and evaluation.
• Using ICT-based modern devices at large, for speedy monitoring and

evaluation.
• Community members should be involved adequately to keep the monitoring and
evaluation process transparent.
4.3.6 Opt for ICTs
Advantages of ICTs are indisputable; it has ability to make urban infrastructure

management practices more efficient and sustainable. The tasks commended for
Ethiopian cities are as follows:
• Uses of ICT for informing community members/service users on and creating
awareness among them to increase participation.
• Keep the urban infrastructure management process transparent through creating
interactive web portals and information kiosks.
• ICTs should be used for sustainable asset management.
• Geospatial database should be created for effective planning controls.
• ICTs can help in the effective monitoring and evaluation of urban infrastructure
works.
4.3.7 Creating Partnerships
By now it has been soundly concluded that government alone cannot offer sus-
tainable urban infrastructure; this notion calls for two major partnerships:
• PPP for urban infrastructure management and
• Community contracting.
4.4 Conclusion
This chapter delineated the synopsis of the findings and recommendations made by
the researchers to make urban infrastructure services more accessible, adequate,
reliable, affordable and efficient in Ethiopian cities. These options include sus-
tainable provision of urban infrastructure and services in terms of quality and
quantity through strengthening of institutional setup, capacity building on man-
agement strategies, improve community partnerships, encourage institutional inte-
gration, efficient monitoring and evaluation, application of ICTs and innovations in
partnerships.
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Chapter 5
Assessment on Research Design
and Methods
Abstract Current chapter sketches the research design and methods deployed by
urban infrastructure researchers in Ethiopia. Review devalues higher acceptance of
cross-sectional research design at large through surveys. Additionally, descriptive
statistics was applauded by majority for the primary data analysis with few
exceptions who used advanced technologies such as GIS-based thematic mapping.
Keywords Cross-sectional research design Mixed approach GIS Descriptive

statistics Causal loop diagram
5.1 Introduction
Research design and methods are two substantial components in a scientific

research project, assessment on which is vital to determine quality of research. The
first section of this chapter analyses the design of research projects and the second
section deals with research methods adopted by the scholars in urban infrastructure
research on Ethiopian cities.
5.2 Research Design
Designing a research project is a serious process which converts curiosity of

thoughts into meaningful realities. Research design is a constant process which
deals between the investigator and peers, on a paradigm or established norms of
noble science. This process usually surpasses disciplinary boundaries, epistemol-
ogy, or subfield (Gatrell et al. 2012). In fact, research design is the unambiguous
structure within which a research project is executed and accomplished.
Although there are many types of research design, based on chosen approach,
some scholars categorize these approached to qualitative, quantitative and mixed
approaches (Creswell 2009). Considering this taxonomy, all of 189 reviewed
research studies fall under ‘mixed approach’.

68 5 Assessment on Research Design and Methods
Vaus (2001) stated four comprehensive types of research design as:

• Experimental
• Longitudinal
• Cross-sectional
• Case study
All the research designs mentioned above have their pros and cons, though these
can be further sub-divided into experimental and non-experimental designs. In fact,
longitudinal, cross-sectional and case study research designs are non-experimental.
Same variable is measured over more than once in timescale in a longitudinal
study, while there is no control group (Shah 1977).
Of the all reviewed research projects, only two have employed longitudinal
study method, while the rest (a total of 187) are cross-sectional studies which are
also recognized as snapshot studies. These studies can either analyse trends through
indicators or they test correlational hypotheses, often with the help of huge samples
(Creswell 2009). More attention is required while testing causal relationships
between the variables through this design (Shadish et al. 2002) though it is
preferable because of higher external validity inherent in it and its potentials on
being executed with limited resources.
5.3 Research Methods
A research investigator selects a method of research on the basis of his convenience

and the demands of the project.
Research methods are usually the set of procedures deployed during various
stages of a research investigation including goal setting, formulation of hypothesis
or research questions, treatments, variables, samples, test and measurements, and
statistical analysis of data.
Most of the researchers used survey method to collect primary data with ques-
tionnaires and interviews; some of them also carried out a physical measurement for
the investigated infrastructure (Dagnachew 2009). A few novel research practices
are methods that are discussed further.
Reviewed research projects gestured that any sort of research investigation in the
urban infrastructure and services themes demands critical thinking (see Fig. 5.1) to
formulate problem-solving strategies. Critical thinking includes the following
questions:
• Why these problems exist?
• Why we want to fix it?
• Why it is research worthy?
• Why the problem is there?
• Why the problem started?
• Why the problem continued?
5.3 Research Methods 69
Fig. 5.1 Critical thinking in urban infrastructure research
• Why the problem increasing? and

• Why the problem cannot be solved?
Critical thinking is also a prerequisite to formulate a strategic plan for the
provision of sustainable urban infrastructure (Malekpour et al. 2015).
There are many possible ways to think in a strategic manner, as Ahmed (2008)
deployed causal loop diagram, CLD, method for the research inquiry, which is a
tool to visualize the interrelationships among different components in a system.
Considering the method of data analysis, usually researchers preferred to use
descriptive statistics; especially the percentage was the most popular measure to
showcase the findings.
Regarding data presentation, pie chart was the dominating in presenting survey
data while a very few researchers used thematic maps to demonstrate their results,
and photographs also seem to be a prevalent medium for the presentation of data.
5.4 Conclusion
A sound research methodology is well anticipated for the scientific investigation of

urban infrastructure challenges. Researchers in the reviewed projects largely used
cross-sectional study approach to accomplish their research objectives. The key
virtue of all projects was being based fundamentally on primary data through
70 5 Assessment on Research Design and Methods
surveys with the help of questionnaires and interviews. A few have shown inno-
vations by deploying physical measurements and GIS manipulation techniques.
One scholar used causal loop diagram method to apprehend complexity of the
discipline. Descriptive statistics was popularly practiced for data analysis, while
numerous qualitative and qualitative techniques of data presentation were deployed.
References

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Chapter 6
Summary and Conclusion
This study attempts to exhibit contemporary research investigation on urban in-

frastructure and services, in a number of Ethiopian cities. Infrastructure boom can
be easily noticed in the key cities such as Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, Mekelle, etc.
Skyline of these cities showcases countless high-rise buildings under construction
here and there.
On the contrary, the benefit of urban infrastructure boom is not legitimately
distributed across all the places and communities. The scenario is prevalent,
regardless of the fact that political ecology of the country witnessed remarkable
positive changes, after the long monarchy and then the communist military regimes.
The things changed dramatically during the current regime which came into
existence in 1991. Political stability contributed in the growth of urban infras-
tructure stocks, indeed, though the research findings indicate that there is still a
wide gap between the demand and supply of urban infrastructure and services for
the rapidly growing urban population.
Inadequate provision and management of urban environmental services is the
common characteristics of urban infrastructure in Ethiopian cities as reported by the
researchers. Medium and small cities are the worst hit resultant into compromised
public health scenario. Provision and management deficits and gaps were reported
from each and every city, which are mainly concerned to storm water drainage,
water and sanitation, and sewerage system while interrupted supplies of electricity
make the situation worse. Furthermore, these inadequacies could not be seen in
isolation as it creates a vicious circle, and vulnerability in one infrastructure also
affects other infrastructure, i.e. in the absence of storm water drainage, running
water starts to overflow from open drainage or sewers and produces a heavy runoff
of polluted water causing damage of property and sometime loss of lives too. Green
infrastructure in the many cities lacks due attention which hampers people’s health
and quality of life.
Some additional observations are discoursed in the subsequent section.
The growth of Ethiopian cities is speedy, which is not impressively and
exclusively tackled by the current urban master plans; in fact there is no efficient
72 6 Summary and Conclusion
mechanism in place to handle these severe challenges. It is clearly visible and

evident in the capital city Addis Ababa where master plans are not well imple-
mented and enforced for regulating urban expansion; there are new urban resi-
dential developments which lack public utilities like parks and play grounds, piped
water supply, interior road paving, public transportation, commercial amenities,
parking, etc. Even at the centrally located, multi-storey residential buildings lack
parking facilities where vehicle parking is prohibited on main road. Moreover, less
attention is paid to the safety and comfort of pedestrians, while urban designing is
very slightly applied in the place making. In brief infrastructure planning is not well
integrated in regulatory urban master plans.
Moreover, sustainability assessments have not been carried out for urban in-
frastructure and building construction; hence, their durability is suspicious.
Probably, immediate demand of housing and infrastructure darkened the quality
aspect and centre of the focus moved only towards the quantity. In Addis Ababa,
personal experience of the author, regarding sanitary and plumbing fitting and
plumbing fixtures, was quite disappointing as they needed to be replaced repeatedly
while in shorter durations and leads to the wastage of resources. Author enquired
about LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) at many under construction sites of urban
infrastructures and the response was not promising. The fact is also tragic that
design and construction standard in the most buildings was of lower quality.
Although the current cost of infrastructure and building construction is lower, but as
their environmental performance has been compromised, they are going to be
expensive because of higher costs of repairs, maintenance and even replacement in
many cases.
Additionally, urban informal sector in Ethiopian cities is faced with continuous
ignorance by officials whilst they offer many urban infrastructure services either
occasionally or regularly; during the failure of water supply in Addis Ababa city,
the service is guaranteed by small independent service providers who are basically
from informal sector—basically the immigrants from rural Ethiopia; their role in
offering services in many phases of solid waste management like door-to-door
collection, sorting, transportation and reuse is also remarkable. Therefore, informal
sector can be understood as a saviour when the urban infrastructure and services are
disrupted. Despite of the remarkable contribution by the informal sector, they are
not well appreciated by the urban policy and decision makers as there are no
appropriate regulations to do so.
Furthermore, none of the researchers considered market-based financing of
urban infrastructure which is successfully executed in many developing countries.
Finally, the significance of this review is to determine agenda of future research
studies dealing with urban infrastructure and services in Ethiopian cities. Under this
research agenda universities, private sector and government should work together in
collaboration for knowledge co-creation and produce meaningful solutions
thereafter.
Index
A Bishoftu, 12, 17, 43, 51

AAWSA, 37, 43, 51 Bonga, 12, 20, 47
Abi-Adi, 12, 21, 42 Borena zone, 17, 19
Adama, 12, 17, 43, 44, 48 BOT, 4
Addi Remets, 22 BPR, 10, 52
Addis Ababa, 7, 9, 11–13, 16–18, 42, 44, BSC, 52
46–51, 71, 72 Bule Hora, 12, 17, 44
Adigrat, 9, 12, 22, 42, 44, 47 Burayu, 12, 17, 44
Adiremets, 12, 22, 47 Burji special woreda, 21
Afar region, 12, 13, 50
Agew Awi, 15 C
Aira, 12, 17, 44 Causal loop diagram (CLD), 69
Akobo, 16 Chagni, 12, 14
Alaba Kulito, 20 Chiro, 12, 17, 42, 45, 49
Alamata, 12, 22, 42, 44, 47, 49 Cobblestone, 8, 43, 48
Aleta Wondo, 12, 20, 44 Co-creation, 72
Ambo, 12, 17, 44 Construction, 2, 7, 8, 43–46, 48, 71, 72
Amen, 14
Amhara region, 12–15, 41–44, 46, 47, 49–51 D
AMREF, 50 Dangila, 12, 14, 42, 44
Arba Minch, 12, 20, 48 Dawuro zone, 21
Arerti, 13, 47 Debark, 12, 14, 51
Arsi Negelle, 12, 17, 46 Debrazait, 17, 43, 51
Arsi Zone, 18 Debre Birhan, 12, 14
Assosa, 12, 15, 16, 43, 49 Debre Markos, 12, 14, 42
Axum, 12, 14, 22, 43, 51 Debre Tabor, 12, 14, 44
Debub, 14, 15
B Debubawi (southern), 22
Bahir Dar, 9, 12–14, 42–44, 46–49, 51, 71 Debubawi (southern) zone, 22
Bale zone, 18, 19 Debub mirab shewa zone, 19
Baro, 16 Dembi Dollo, 12, 17, 47
Bati, 12, 14, 44 Dessie, 12, 14, 42, 45, 49
Bedessa, 12, 17 Dhera, 12, 18, 44
Bele, 12, 20, 47 Dilla, 12, 20, 43, 44
Benishangul-Gumuz region, 12, 15, 16, 43, 44, Dire Dawa, 11, 12, 43, 47, 48, 51
49 Drainage, 2, 7, 9, 35–37, 42, 43, 49, 71

SpringerBriefs in Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30403-8
74 Index
Dubti, 12, 13, 44, 50 Kelem Welega Zone, 17

Durame, 12, 20, 44, 47 Kembata tembaro zone, 20
Knowledge, 3, 72
E Korem, 12, 22, 51
Education, 7, 10, 11, 45, 47, 50
Energy, 2, 7, 8, 35, 36, 41 L
Lake Tana, 14
F Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), 72
Fincha, 14
Freweyne, 12, 22, 44 M
Maintenance, 8, 9, 38, 42, 43, 45, 48,
G 50, 51, 53, 72
Gambela, 11, 12, 16 Management, 4
Gambela region, 12, 16 Mandura, 12, 15, 16, 44
Gebreguracha, 12, 18 Masha, 12, 21, 44
Gedeo zone, 20 Mehakelegnaw zone, 21
Gimbi, 12, 18, 42–44, 47, 49 Mekelle, 12, 21, 22, 43, 44, 46, 47,
GIZ, 48, 52 50, 71
Global Fund, 50 Metekel, 16
Goba, 12, 18, 46 MHMRS, 37
Gojjam, 14, 15 Miirabawi (western) zone, 22
Gondar, 12, 14, 15, 44 Mirab arsi zone, 17
Green infrastructure, 7, 10, 46 Misraqawi zone, 22
Guangua, 14 Misraq (east) shewa zone, 19
Gurage zone, 21 Misraq Shewa zone, 17
Modjo, 12, 18, 51
H Modjo River, 18
Halaba, 12, 20, 44 Motta, 12, 15
Harar, 12, 16
Harari, 11, 12, 16, 42, 47, 51 N
Harari region, 12, 16, 42, 47, 51 Nazreth, 17
Harawacha, 12, 18, 44 Nedjo, 12, 18, 44
Hawassa, 12, 20, 42, 48, 50, 51 Nekemte, 12, 18, 44, 46, 49
Hawassa special zone, 20 North shewa, 18
Health, 1, 4, 7, 10, 37, 42, 46–51, 53, 71
Holeta, 12, 18, 45 O
Hossana, 12, 20 Of hadiya zone, 20
Humera, 12, 22, 44, 49 Oromia, 11, 12, 14–19, 42–47, 49–51
Oromia region, 16, 17, 18, 42–47,
I 49–51
ICT, 3, 4, 7, 11, 23, 50, 54 Oromia zone, 14, 15
Infrastructure, 2–4, 7–11, 23, 35–38, 41–43,
45–54, 67–69, 71, 72 P
Injibera, 12, 15 PEST, 52
In rural–urban linkages, 10 PPP, 4, 9, 52, 54
Private sector, 4, 47, 48, 72
J
Jig-Jiga, 12, 19, 43, 45 Q
Jimma, 12, 18, 47 Quality of Life, 3
Jinka, 12, 21, 44
R
K River Nile, 14
Kamise, 12, 15, 46 Road, 7–9, 37, 42, 43, 48, 49, 51, 72
Keffa zone, 20 Robe, 12, 19, 43, 44
Index 75
S UN-HABITAT, 1
Samera, 13 UNICEF, 50
Sanitation, 2, 7, 9, 10, 49, 71 Urban master plans, 71
Sebeta, 12, 19, 44, 47 US-AID, 52
Sekota, 12, 15, 44
Semien Gondar, 14, 15 W
Semien miirabawi (north-western) zone, 22 Wag Hemrazone, 15
Shashamane, 12, 19, 42, 44 Water supply, 2, 7, 9, 23, 35, 37, 38,
Shire Endassilasie, 12, 22, 44 43–46, 49–51, 72
Shoa, 13 Welenchiti, 12, 19, 42
Showa, 14 Wereta, 12, 15
SNNP region, 19–21, 42–44, 47–51 West-arsi zone, 19
Social, 2, 7, 9, 42, 43, 47 Western hararghe, 17
Sodo zone, 21 West hararghe zone, 17, 18
Solid waste, 7, 10, 49, 72 West shewa, 17
Somali region, 19, 43, 45 West welega, 18
Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples’ West wollega zone, 18
region, 19 WHO, 37, 48
Soyama, 12, 21, 44 Wolaita Sodo, 12, 21, 49
Storm water, 2, 7, 8, 35, 36, 42, 46, 49, 71 Wolaita zone, 20
SWOT, 52 Woldia, 12, 15, 41, 44
Wolkitte, 12, 21
T Wolliso, 12, 19, 44
Tarcha, 12, 21, 44 Wollo, 14, 15
Tigray region, 21, 22, 43–47, 49–51 Worabe, 12, 21, 42, 47
Tourism, 8, 10, 51 World Bank, 2, 4, 37, 38, 52
U Y
UFW, 37, 44, 50 Yabello, 12, 19, 46

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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN GEOGRAPHY

ISSN 2211-4165 ISSN 2211-4173 (electronic)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016932352

© The Author(s) 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

Modern Ethiopia is undergoing rapid urban transformation. The pace of change in

Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for contributing to my research works. I would

1 An Overview of Contemporary Urban Infrastructure Research . . . . 1

2.3.6 Gambela Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.3 Pattern of Recommendations and Offered Solutions . . . . . ...... 52

AACA Addis Ababa City Administration

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH

© The Author(s) 2016 1

1.2 Urban Infrastructure Sustainability

The Brundtland Commission deﬁned sustainability as a paradigm that aims to meet

Consequently, it is very clear that offering sustainable infrastructure is a top

1.3 Smart City and Urban Infrastructure

‘Smart City’ is a phenomenon, completely reliant on sensors and ICT infrastructure

1.4 Innovative Financing of Urban Infrastructure

ASC—Amsterdam Smart City (2014) http://amsterdamsmartcity.com. Accessed 18 June 2015

Abstract Chapter examines foremost types of urban infrastructure which are

Wherever you go, in Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, construction of a solid

2.2 Major Infrastructures Themes Investigated

A variety of urban infrastructure and services were considered by research inves-

© The Author(s) 2016 7

research investigations were focused on organizational and governance issues such

2.2.1 Road Infrastructure

2.2.3 Infrastructure for Urban Storm Water Management

2.2.4 Water Supply

Importantly, water is an environmental or ecological resource and an economic

2.2.5 Social Infrastructure

2.2.6 Urban Green Infrastructure

Urban green infrastructure was an emergent topic chosen by a limited number of

2.2.7 Rural–Urban Linkages

Sisay (2009) concentrated his study on infrastructure provision as a tool in rural–

2.2.8 Urban Infrastructure for Tourism

Additionally, a few researchers realized role of infrastructure and services in the

2.2.9 Urban Infrastructure for Solid Waste Management

Current practices of solid waste management and sanitation in Ethiopian cities,

2.2.10 ICT Infrastructure

2.2.11 Integrated Urban Infrastructure and Other Themes

Challenges and opportunities on integrated provision of urban infrastructure and

2.3 Reviewed Cities

Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic country administratively divided into two chartered city

Table 2.1 Reviewed Ethiopian cities

2.3.1 Addis Ababa Chartered City Region

2.3.2 Dire Dawa Chartered City Region

Fig. 2.1 Reviewed Ethiopian cities

2.3.3 Afar Region

2.3.4 Amhara Region

2.3.5 Benishangul–Gumuz Region

Benishangul–Gumuz, region is home of Berta or Benishangul and Gumuz ethnic

2.3.6 Gambela Region

2.3.7 Harari Region

2.3.8 Oromia Region

Oromia is the largest region of Ethiopia in term of geographical area; it is a

2.3.9 Somali Region

2.3.10 SNNP Region