Introduction to Elementary Particles

This book is a comprehensive presentation of the main topics of contemporary Theoretical Physics : the Geometry of the Universe and Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, Mechanics and momentum, Force Fields and gravitation, Nuclear Particles and Nuclear Fields, Stable systems, discontinuous processes and Bosons. Starting from the concepts of Physics it shows how the representations introduced in the last 70 years such as  spinors and gauge fields can be used to build a consistent Theoretical and Unified Theoretical Physics, encompassing all the known phenomenon, from elementary particles to stars systems, without the need for exotic interpretations, such as additional dimensions or particles. The book introduces new mathematical tools, which are documented in a substantial appendix.

Editors: Ilya Selyuzhenkov (ilya.selyuzhenkov@gmail.com), Alberica Toia (a.toia@gsi.de);
Reviewers: P.P. Bhaduri, C. Blume, S. Chattopadhyay, J. de Cuveland, I. Deppner, D. Emschermann, V. Friese, M. Golubeva, F. Guber, N. Herrmann, J. Heuser, C. Höhne, W. Müller, C. Müntz, I. Selyuzhenkov, P. Senger, C. Sturm, A. Toia;
Contributors: Members of CBM Collaboration;
DOI: 10.15120/GSI-2018-00485 (https://dx.doi.org/10.15120/GSI-2018-00485);  ISBN 978-3-9815227-5-4;
Printed in Darmstadt by GSI, March 2018;

Protons, Electrons & Neutrons are vortices in a 3 dimensional universe (propagation in the “Dark Matter”) spinning around the time axis – 4th dimension.

The universe is composed of one particle the “Dark Matter” (I define it in a totally different way than presently) - https://rb.gy/cfr720 . Propagation (as a result of a “Big Bang”) through the “Dark matter”, 4th dimension through 3 dimension universe, creates all we know including basic particles, forces, energy etc. & resolve issues like entanglement – no need for the endless number of overcomplicated elementary particles. Since the sea of “Dark matter” is infinitely large then any place in the universe is the point of inception. Also there is a continues number of “Bangs”, one after the other, each one is a new creation. This opens up a whole realm where issues of time and its definition can be well understood.

This paper proposes a simple hypothesis on a plausible internal structure of all the elementary particles with non-zero rest masses, a hypothesis based on gravitational and electromagnetic standing waves (similar to string theory) that may offer plenty of explanations on: (1) the shape of spacetime at very low length-scales; (2) a general mechanism (and formula) for the generation of non-zero rest mass (nzrm) and electromagnetic charge (plus an explanation of Einstein’s equivalence principle between inertial mass and gravitational mass); (3) a more profound equivalence principle between nzrm and spacetime micro-curvature. This paper continues (from an alternative angle of view) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author in physics (cited in anti-chronological order, from the latest to the oldest) and mathematics.
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To ponder different points of view is a good intellectual exercise to acquire wider perspectives. To be restricted to that of the Standard Model is an intellectual constrain.

We propose an alternative approach which does not appeal to imaginary elements as does the QCD, but that resorts exclusively on the integer electric charge. So, in the present standpoint, elementary particles are considered to be no more but quantum states of the integer electric charge. Charged particles are the quantum states |q±> of a single electric charge q± while neutral particles are formed by a pair of electric charges of opposite sign in a paired state <q-||q+>. Thus for example, the electron and the proton are electric charges of opposite sign in two different quantum states. In this context, the electron corresponds to a quantum state |q-> of the charge q-and the proton to another specific state |q+> of the charge q+. For its part, the neutron corresponds to a paired state <q-||q+>, in which the quantum state of the q-and q+ differ. In fact, the quantum state of |q+> corresponds to a proton and the |q-> state forms a shell. Thus, the neutron is formed of a massive proton core |q+> and a lighter shell |q->.

Even though the excuse to justify the many shortcomings of the Standard Model of elementary particles has been to attribute them to its presumed incompleteness, this is not its worst deficiency. The first one is its high artificiality, most particularly that of its QCD branch that relies on six types of quarks, their three colors, their two fractional electric charges, their disparate masses and on eight types of ghostly gluons, etc., which are furthermore only mathematical imaginaries that do not have a physical existence, despite being considered physical elements by its supporters. Their significance is limited to the mathematical context that uses them, in which they play the role of mathematical operators. The extrapolation of their existence to physical reality is an intellectual error that corresponds to a form of mathematical "animism". Subsequently all experimental results are systematically interpreted according to the premises of the Standard Model and some of them have been doctrinairely considered as the detection of quarks. Besides being highly fictitious, the QCD model fails in providing a credible explanation in very basic experimental data. It is quite inappropriate to claim that the standard model gives properly account for elementary particles since it already fails e.g. to provide a reliable explanation to the charge distribution symmetry of the deuteron without appealing to much twisted resources, a specialty of the QCD.

FERNÁNDEZ ÁLVAREZ-ESTRADA, R., RAMÓN MEDRANO, M., LLANES ESTRA-DA, F.-J., Partículas elementales. Una vía hacia el cosmos, Madrid, Pirámide, 2018, 299 pp., ISBN 978-84-368-4018-6. Es una obra de divulgación avanzada sobre las partículas elementales-su produc-ción y detección, simetrías y las teorías de sus interacciones-, que conecta el mundo microscópico y el macroscópico viéndolos con solución de continuidad. Sus autores señalan en el prólogo que "el objetivo, desde el principio, ha sido escribir un libro de extensión razonable, que proporcione una perspectiva amplia de la materia a un nivel comprensible. En aras de la filosofía básica del libro, se han omitido conceptos superiores en el texto principal" (p. 13).

This short technical paper presents a new standard model for Elementary Particles. All elementary particle masses are related by simple math. This math is similar to the math used for wifi signals and it is called 1024-QAM. The 1024-QAM table graphically displays how all elementary particles are related, similar to the Standard Periodic Table in chemistry. If we line up all of the particle masses in order, we find there are a number of "gaps." These are called the mass gaps, and they line up perfectly with 1024-QAM, which fits the sequence. Supersymmetry (SUSY) is also found to occur with 1024-QAM. Mass Groups 1 thru 8 have heavyweight counterparts which are found in Mass Groups 9 thru 16. 4 new particles are predicted to be discovered between 0.7 to 15 TeV.  The only possible explanation for elementary particles to match a QAM pattern, is due to a blinking or discrete universe.  This short ebook provides compelling evidence that our universe is literally blinking, off and on.  This blinking frequency is about 1.1 THz.

This paper proposes a simple "Mirrored" Universe (toy-)Model (MUM) based on a relative big G (Newtonian gravitational constant [G]), a variable quantum big G and a finite mass ambitus of our universe (OU), with far reaching implications leading to new paths beyond the Standard model (SM) of particle physics (PP) and Einstein’s General Relativity (EGR).
MUM also (empirically) predicts:
(1) the total mass of all possible known and unknown life forms (LFs) from our observable universe (ObU);
(2) a very strong quantum gravitational field (QGF) acting inside elementary particles (EPs);
(3) an average non-zero radii of all known EPs;
(4) that a nucleon (proton/neutron) and generally an atomic nucleus can be regarded as a binary logarithmic "map" of OU AND OU can be considered a binary exponential map/expansion of a standard nucleon or atomic nucleus;
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Two and a half centuries ago, scientist discovered solutions of the wave equation that represent dark quanta. These quanta configure all other objects that exist in the universe. Dark quanta Two and a half centuries ago, scientist discovered solutions of the wave equation that are not waves but shock fronts. The discoverers did not notice that these objects are quantized, but they discovered that the shock fronts only existed in odd numbers of participating dimensions. It is time to rediscover these objects and for that reason I have given them names. This makes it easier to discuss these objects. I use warp as name for one-dimensional shock fronts and clamp as name for three-dimensional spherical shock fronts. Shock fronts do not exist apropos of nothing. Shock fronts need to be triggered by a corresponding trigger. Warps are one-dimensional shock fronts. During travel, they keep their shape and their amplitude. Until they are caught, they do not alter. Each warp carries a standard bit of energy. In physical reality, warps occur as separate objects, or they appear equidistant combined in strings where they emulate the behavior of photons. Photons obey the Einstein-Planck relation. This relation means that all photons share the same spatial length. The emitter most arrange the periodic trigger. Clamps are three-dimensional spherical shock fronts. The front keeps its shape, but during travel, it diminishes its amplitude as 1/r with distance r from the trigger location. The clamp quickly fades away, but in the meantime, the front integrates into the Green's function of the carrier field. Therefore, the clamp temporarily deforms its carrier. Each clamp carries a standard bit of mass. As separate objects, warps and clamps cannot be observed. They represent dark quanta. Only combined in huge continuously regenerated, dense, and coherent swarms the clamps can cause a significant persistent deformation of their carrier. Also, large clouds of dark quanta can generate an observable macroscopic influence. Particles Stochastic mechanisms exist that apply stochastic processes, which own a characteristic function, can generate the recurrently regenerated dense and coherent swarm of hop landing locations of a point-like object. That object is an elementary particle and hops around in a stochastic hopping path. The stochastic processes play a crucial role. The characteristic function acts as a displacement generator. Therefore, at first approximation, the swarm moves coherently as a single object. Clamps do what the Higgs is supposed to do. They give elementary particles their mass. However. separate clamps will never become observable in measuring instruments, such as the LHC. Elementary particles are elementary modules. Together, they constitute all other modules and the modules can form modular systems. Also, the modules move coherently as a single object. This fact indicates that their footprint a stochastic process also generates, whose characteristic function acts as a displacement generator. This effect is possible if the characteristic function of the module equals

This short technical paper presents a new standard model for Elementary Particles. All elementary particle masses are related by simple math. This math is similar to the math used for wifi signals and it is called 1024-QAM. The 1024-QAM table graphically displays how all elementary particles are related, similar to the Standard Periodic Table in chemistry. If we line up all of the particle masses in order, we find there are a number of "gaps." These are called the mass gaps, and they line up perfectly with 1024-QAM, which fits the sequence. Supersymmetry (SUSY) is also found to occur with 1024-QAM. Mass Groups 1 thru 8 have heavyweight counterparts which are found in Mass Groups 9 thru 16. Four new particles are predicted to be discovered between 0.7 to 15 TeV.

This paper proposes an M-theory(MT)-derived special type of bijective particle (toy-)theory (BPT), in which each type geometric/topological entity (brane) is assigned one and only one type of physical particle and vice versa. BPT is essentially a topological/geometrical toy-theory (and mainly an exercise of imagination) which tries to explain gravity as a quantum field mediated by 3 types of scale-specific hypothetical massless, heavy and ultra-heavy gravitons: BPT may be thus considered a “trigravity” toy-theory and proposes a way to (at least partially) fill the “gap” between M-Theory (on which BPT is based) and the Standard model (SM) of particle physics. BPT also offers alternative geometrical explanations for rest mass and for electromagnetic charge. This paper continues (from alternative angles of view) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author in physics (listed from the newest to the oldest).
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I have deduced the value of the constant α like statistic limit, correspondent with the quantum-hypothesis “E=hν” d a least interaction between electric charges; in I.S. , others fundamental constants of interaction are a consequence: from masses and quark colours to the gravitation.

This paper is a short summary of my Amazon book called "SUSYA-a SUSY alternative based on a newly proposed electro-gravitational seesaw mechanism applicable to all elementary particles". This book proposes a potentially viable "out-of-the-box" alternative (called "SUSYA") to the currently known supersymmetry (SUSY) theory variants: SUSYA essentially proposes a new type of electrogravitational seesaw mechanism (ESM) applicable to all elementary particles (EPs); ESM is a new type of charge-based mass symmetry/"conjugation" between EPs which predicts the zero/non-zero rest masses of all known/unknown EPs, EPs that are "conjugated" in boson-fermion pairs sharing the same electromagnetic charge (EMC). ESM is actually derived from an extended zero-energy hypothesis (eZEH) which is essentially a conservation principle applied on zero-energy (assigned to the ground state of vacuum) that mainly states a general diophantine quadratic equation governing a form of ex-nihilo creation (of virtual pairs of EPs) and having a pair of conjugate boson-fermion mass solutions for each set of given coefficients. eZEH proposes a general formula for all the rest masses of all EPs from Standard model, also indicating the true existence of the graviton and a possible bijective connection between the three types of neutrinos (all predicted to be actually Majorana fermions) and the massless bosons (photon, gluon and the hypothetical graviton), between the electron/positron and the W boson, predicting at least three generations of leptoquarks (LQs) (defined here as the "mass-conjugates" of the three known generations of quarks) and predicting two distinct types of right-handed neutral massless (Majorana) fermions (NMFs) (modelled as mass-conjugates of the Higgs boson and Z boson respectively) which may be plausible constituents for a hypothetical lightest possible (hot fermionic) dark matter (LPDM) or, even more plausible, the main constituents of a superfluid fermionic vacuum/aether, as also proposed by the notorious Superfluid vacuum theory (SVT) (in which the physical vacuum is modeled as a bosonic/fermionic superfluid). SUSYA also predicts two hypothetical bosons defined as the ultra-heavy [1] bosonic mass-conjugates of the muon and tauon called here the “W-muonic boson” (Wmb/W’) and the “W-tauonic boson” (Wtb/W’’) respectively: Wmb and Wtb are predicted much heavier than the W boson and the Higgs boson so that Wmb and Wtb can be regarded as ultra-heavy charged Higgs bosons with their huge predicted rest energies defining the energy scale at which the electroweak field (EWF) may be unified with the Higgs field (HF). This paper continues (from an alternative angle of view) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author in physics (cited in anti-chronological order, from the latest to the oldest).
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De acuerdo con un modelo consultado en materia de Ciencias Quìmicas considero muy útil el estudio del fenómeno químico y físico de COLMATACIÓN para comprender la natrualeza de la 4D y la dificultad pràctica de establecer un contacto con la misma, partiendo de partículas provenientes de nuestra 3D, toda vez que de acuerdo con la ciencia, se trataría de una clase de COLMATACIÓN CUÀNTICA (Ref. 1), a causa de la aparente enorme dificultad que poseen nuestras partículas 3D en "entrar" al menos de manera visible a la 4D, es decir, las partìculas de 3D sufren colmataciòn sobre "el borde" de una estructura de 4D. HIPÒTESIS O DATOS: 1. POSTULADO CLÁSICO DE IMPENETRABILIDAD. PRINCIPIO DE EXCLUSIÒN DE W.E.PAULI.

This paper explains the anomalous magnetic moment for all elementary particles and composite particles (such as the proton). The special case regarding the Muon anomaly is addressed. It also presents a summary of the issues in accurately measuring the magnetic dipole moment for elementary particles.

The nuclear reactions are very interesting and very big topic in research field, In this research paper we are describing about all types of nuclear reactions taking for light weight, medium weight and heavy weight target nucleus, which is only one types of target nucleus. Here our interest how many types nuclear reactions occur or don't occur at taking for light weight, medium weight and heavy weight target nucleus. Finding the reason why it doesn't become to taking other weight target nucleus and why it becomes in those types of targets nucleus. So we can say it can become very interesting topic in field of finding new information about nucleus reactions to taking different types of targets nucleus.

This book is a comprehensive presentation of the main topics of contemporary Theoretical Physics : the Geometry of the Universe and Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, Mechanics and momentum, Force Fields and gravitation, Elementary Particles and Nuclear Fields, Stable systems, discontinuous processes and Bosons. Starting from the concepts of Physics it shows how the representations introduced in the last 70 years, such as spinors and gauge fields can be used to build a consistent Theoretical and Unified Theoretical Physics, encompassing all the known phenomenon, from elementary particles to stars systems, without the need for exotic interpretations, such as additional dimensions or particles. The book introduces new mathematical tools, which are documented in a substantial appendix.

The word space is used in many ways and most of these applications give this word a different meaning. This makes the notion of space very obscure. Already in the common life of humans takes the word space many different uses. Especially philosophers, mathematicians, and physicists have attributed a huge number of interpretations of the noun “space”. This has led to a huge number of different forms of space. Humans live in an environment that is characterized by space and time. This paper focuses on the most elemental meanings that mathematicians and physicists attribute to the word “space”. Next, the immediate extensions of this elementary space are investigated. Since physicists investigate our physical reality, the paper also investigates how physical reality treats the notion of space.

The main online source of this paper: https://www.journalpsij.com/index.php/PSIJ/article/view/30218 ==========================================================This paper proposes a potentially viable "out-of-the-box" alternative (called "SUSYA") to the currently known supersymmetry (SUSY) theory variants: SUSYA essentially proposes a new type of seesaw mechanism (SMEC) applicable to all elementary particles (EPs) and named "Z-SMEC"; Z-SMEC is a new type of charge-based mass symmetry/"conjugation" between EPs which predicts the zero/non-zero rest masses of all known/unknown EPs, EPs that are "conjugated" in boson-fermion pairs sharing the same electromagnetic charge (EMC). Z-SMEC is actually derived from an extended zero-energy hypothesis (eZEH) which is essentially a conservation principle applied on zero-energy (assigned to the ground state of vacuum) that mainly states a general quadratic equation governing a form of ex-nihilo creation and having a pair of conjugate boson-fermion mass solutions for each set of given coefficients. eZEH proposes a general formula for all the rest masses of all EPs from Standard model, also indicating the true existence of the graviton and a possible bijective connection between the three types of neutrinos (all predicted to be actually Majorana fermions) and the massless bosons (photon, gluon and the hypothetical graviton), between the electron/positron and the W boson, predicting at least three generations of leptoquarks (LQs) (defined here as the "mass-conjugates" of the three known generations of quarks) and predicting two distinct types of neutral massless fermions (NMFs) (modelled as mass-conjugates of the Higgs boson and Z boson respectively) which may be plausible constituents for a hypothetical lightest possible (hot fermionic) dark matter (LPDM) or, even more plausible, the main constituents of a superfluid fermionic vacuum/aether, as also proposed by the notorious Superfluid vacuum theory (SVT) (in which the physical vacuum is modeled as a bosonic/fermionic superfluid). SUSYA also predicts two hypothetical bosons defined as the ultra-heavy bosonic mass-conjugates of the muon and tauon called here the "W-muonic boson" (Wmb) and the "W-tauonic boson" (Wtb) respectively: Wmb and Wtb are predicted much heavier than the W boson and the Higgs boson so that Wmb and Wtb can be regarded as ultra-heavy charged Higgs bosons with their huge predicted rest energies defining the energy scale at which the electroweak field (EWF) may be unified with the Higgs field (HF).
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Stable particles (p +, n0, D, He-3, α) moving with speeds (0,3 c-0,99 c) creates baryons and mesons. Stable electrons moving with speeds (0,99 cc) creates leptons (µ−, τ−), neutrinos (νe, νµ, ντ) and bosons W +, W-, Z. Speeds of electrons and protons in atoms are smaller. For example: An electron moving at a speed v e = 0,003c creates spectral line Hα. Weak interactions are caused with stable electrons, which creates leptons, neutrinos and bosons W +, W-, Z. The strong interactions are caused with stable particles (p +, n0, D, He-3, α), which creates baryons and mesons. Therefore creation and annihilation operators in physics are irrelevant. Theory Calculation of the kinetic energy of a particle moving at the velocity of v , [1] p.

The word space is used in many ways and most of these applications give this word a different meaning. This makes the notion of space very obscure. Already in the common life of humans takes the word space many different uses. Especially philosophers, mathematicians, and physicists have attributed a huge number of interpretations of the noun "space". This has led to a huge number of different forms of space. Humans live in an environment that is characterized by space and time. This paper focuses on the most elemental meanings that mathematicians and physicists attribute to the word "space". Next, the immediate extensions of this elementary space are investigated. Since physicists investigate our physical reality, the paper also investigates how physical reality treats the notion of space.

This paper proposes a very simple universe (toy-)model (UM) based on 2D spacetime branes (2DBs) (2DBUM or even more briefly “BUM”), considered here the basic structural units of both our objective and subjective universes: more specifically, these 2DBs are considered both the structural unit of the physical universe but also the unit-tool of knowledge (and knowability!) that any life form (LF) or non-living entity (NLE) is/may be capable of. This paper continues (from alternative angles of view) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author in physics.
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