Translation Techniques Revisited
Translation Techniques Revisited
Translation Techniques Revisited
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The aim of this article is to clarify the notion of translation technique, understood as an
instrument of textual analysis that, in combination with other instruments, allows us to
study how translation equivalence works in relation to the original text. First, existing
definitions and classifications of translation techniques are reviewed and terminological,
conceptual and classification confusions are pointed out. Secondly, translation techniques are redefined, distinguishing them from translation method and translation strategies. The definition is dynamic and functional. Finally, we present a classification of
translation techniques that has been tested in a study of the translation of cultural elements in Arabic translations of A Hundred Years of Solitude by Garcia Marquez.
MOTS-CLS/KEYWORDS
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functions in relation to the corresponding unit in the source text. To do this we need
translation techniques. We were made aware of this need in a study of the treatment
of cultural elements in Arabic translations of A Hundred Years of Solitude1. Textual
and contextual categories were not sufficient to identify, classify and name the
options chosen by the translators for each unit studied. We needed the category of
translation techniques that allowed us to describe the actual steps taken by the translators in each textual micro-unit and obtain clear data about the general methodological option chosen.
However, there is some disagreement amongst translation scholars about translation techniques. This disagreement is not only terminological but also conceptual.
There is even a lack of consensus as to what name to give to call the categories,
different labels are used (procedures, techniques, strategies) and sometimes they are
confused with other concepts. Furthermore, different classifications have been proposed and the terms often overlap. This article presents the definition and classification of translation techniques that we used in our study of the treatment of cultural
elements in Arabic translations of A Hundred Years of Solitude. We also present a
critical review of earlier definitions and classifications of translation techniques.
2. THE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CLASSIFYING
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
2.1. Translation Technical Procedures in the Compared Stylistics.
Vinay and Darbelnets pioneer work Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais
(SCFA) (1958) was the first classification of translation techniques that had a clear
methodological purpose. The term they used was procds techniques de la traduction. They defined seven basic procedures operating on three levels of style: lexis,
distribution (morphology and syntax) and message. The procedures were classified as
direct (or literal) or oblique, to coincide with their distinction between direct (or
literal) and oblique translation.
Literal translation occurs when there is an exact structural, lexical, even morphological equivalence between two languages. According to the authors, this is only
possible when the two languages are very close to each other. The literal translation
procedures are:
Borrowing. A word taken directly from another language, e.g., the English word bulldozer has been incorporated directly into other languages.
Calque. A foreign word or phrase translated and incorporated into another language,
e.g., fin de semaine from the English weekend.
Literal translation. Word for word translation, e.g., The ink is on the table and Lencre est
sur la table.
Oblique translation occurs when word for word translation is impossible. The
oblique translation procedures are:
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Transposition. A shift of word class, i.e., verb for noun, noun for preposition e.g.,
Expditeur and From. When there is a shift between two signifiers, it is called crossed
transposition, e.g., He limped across the street and Il a travers la rue en boitant.
Modulation. A shift in point of view. Whereas transposition is a shift between grammatical categories, modulation is a shift in cognitive categories. Vinay and Darbelnet
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postulate eleven types of modulation: abstract for concrete, cause for effect, means for
result, a part for the whole, geographical change, etc., e.g., the geographical modulation
between encre de Chine and Indian ink. Intravaia and Scave (1979) studied this procedure in depth and reached the conclusion that it is qualitatively different from the
others and that the others can be included within it.
Equivalence. This accounts for the same situation using a completely different phrase,
e.g., the translation of proverbs or idiomatic expressions like, Comme un chien dans un
jeu de quilles and Like a bull in a china shop.
Adaptation. A shift in cultural environment, i.e., to express the message using a different situation, e.g. cycling for the French, cricket for the English and baseball for the
Americans.
These seven basic procedures are complemented by other procedures. Except for
the procedures of compensation and inversion, they are all classified as opposing pairs.
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Calque
Literal translation
Lencre est sur la table (F) The ink is on the table (E)
Transposition
Crossed transposition
Modulation
Equivalence
Adaptation
Compensation
I was seeking thee, Flathead (E) En vrit, cest bien toi que je
cherche, O Tte-Plate (F)
Dissolution
Concentration
Amplification
Economy
Reinforcement
Condensation
Explicitation
Implicitation
Generalization
Particularization
Articularization
Juxtaposition
Grammaticalization
Lexicalization
Inversion
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Additions. Several of the SCFA procedures are included in this category. Nida lists different circumstances that might oblige a translator to make an addition: to clarify an
elliptic expression, to avoid ambiguity in the target language, to change a grammatical
category (this corresponds to SCFAs transposition), to amplify implicit elements (this
corresponds to SCFAs explicitation), to add connectors (this corresponds to SCFAs
articulation required by characteristics of the TL, etc.). Examples are as follows. When
translating from St Pauls Epistles, it is appropriate to add the verb write in several
places, even though it is not in the source text; a literal translation of they tell him of her
(Mark I:30) into Mazatec would have to be amplified to the people there told Jesus about
the woman, otherwise, as this language makes no distinctions of number and gender of
pronominal affixes it could have thirty-six different interpretations; He went up to
Jerusalem. There he taught the people some languages require the equivalent of He went
up to Jerusalem. Having arrived there, he taught the people.
Subtractions. Nida lists four situations where the translator should use this procedure,
in addition to when it is required by the TL: unnecessary repetition, specified references, conjunctions and adverbs. For example, the name of God appears thirty-two
times in the thirty-one verses of Genesis. Nida suggests using pronouns or omitting
God.
Alterations. These changes have to be made because of incompatibilities between the
two languages. There are three main types.
1) Changes due to problems caused by transliteration when a new word is introduced
from the source language, e.g., the transliteration of Messiah in the Loma language,
means deaths hand, so it was altered to Mezaya.
2) Changes due to structural differences between the two languages, e.g., changes in
word order, grammatical categories, etc. (similar to SCFAs transposition).
3) Changes due to semantic misfits, especially with idiomatic expressions. One of the
suggestions to solve this kind of problem is the use of a descriptive equivalent i.e.,
a satisfactory equivalent for objects, events or attributes that do not have a standard term in the TL. It is used for objects that are unknown in the target culture
(e.g., in Maya the house where the law was read for Synagogue) and for actions that
do not have a lexical equivalent (e.g., in Maya desire what another man has for
covetousness, etc.)
Nida includes footnotes as another adjustment technique and points out that
they have two main functions: 1) To correct linguistic and cultural differences, e.g.,
to explain contradictory customs, to identify unknown geographical or physical
items, to give equivalents for weights and measures, to explain word play, to add
information about proper names, etc.; 2) To add additional information about the
historical and cultural context of the text in question.
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2)
3)
Items that are unknown by the target culture. He suggests adding a classifier next to the
word (as Nida does), e.g., the city of Jerusalem or, by using a cultural equivalent (similar
to the SCFA procedure of adaptation), e.g., in Jesus parable (Matthew 7:16) to change
grapes / thorn bushes and figs / thistles for other plants that are more common in the
target culture. However, he warns the reader that this procedure is not always possible.
Taber y Nida (1974) list five factors that have to be taken into account when it is used:
a) the symbolic and theological importance of the item in question, b) its fequency of
use in the Bible, c) its semantic relationship with other words, d) similarities of function and form between the two items, e) the readers emotional response.
The historical framework. Here Margot proposes a linguistic rather than a cultural
translation, on the grounds that historical events cannot be modified.
Adaptation to the specific situation of the target audience. Margot maintains that the
translators task is to translate and that it is up to preachers, commentarists and Bible
study groups to adapt the biblical text to the specific situation of the target audience.
He includes footnotes as an aid to cultural adaptation.
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Alteration
Cultural equivalent
Equivalent description
Footnotes
Omission. This is to omit redundancy and repetition that is characteristic of the SL,
e.g., to translate The committee has failed to act by La comisin no actu, omitting the
verb to fail and avoiding over-translation: La comisin dej de actuar.
Desplacement and Inversion. Displacement corresponds to SCFAs inversion, where
two elements change position, e.g., The phone rang and Son el telfono.
Table 3
Vzquez Ayoras contribution
Omission
Inversion
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505
Addition vs. Omission. He defines them as unjustified periphrasis and concision and
considers them to be translation errors. Addition is to introduce unjustified stylistic
elements and information that are not in the ST, omission is the unjustifiable suppression of elements in the ST.
Paraphrase. This is defined as excessive use of paraphrase that complicates the TT without stylistic or rhetorical justification. It is also classified as a translation error. Delisles
paraphrase and addition coincide with Margots illegitimate paraphrase.
Discursive creation. This is an operation in the cognitive process of translating by
which a non-lexical equivalence is established that only works in context, e.g., In the
world of literature, ideas become cross-fertilized, the experience of others can be usefully
employed to mutual benefit is translated into French as, Dans le domaine des lettres, le
choc des ides se rvle fcond; il devient possible de profiter de lexprience dautrui. This
concept is close to Nidas alterations caused by semantic incompatibilities and transliteration.
Table 4
Delisles contributions
Dissolution
Reinforcement
Explicitation
Periphrasis (+)
Addition ()
Paraphrase ()
Concentration
Economy
Implicitation
Concession (+)
Discursive creation
Omission ()
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Recognized translation. This is the the translation of a term that is already official or
widely accepted, even though it may not be the most adequate, e.g., Gay-Lussacs
Volumengesetz der Gase and Law of combining volumes.
Functional equivalent. This is to use a culturally neutral word and to add a specifying
term, e.g., baccalaurat = French secondary school leaving exam; Sejm = Polish parliament. It is very similar to Margots cultural equivalent, and in the SCFA terminology it
would be an adaptation (secondary school leaving exam / parliament) with an
explicitation (French/ Polish).
Naturalization. Newmarks definition is not the same as Nidas. For Nida, it comes from
transfer (SCFAs borrowing) and consists of adapting a SL word to the phonetic and
morphological norms of the TL, e.g., the German word Performanz and the English
performance.
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Translation label. This is a provisional translation, usually of a new term, and a literal
translation could be acceptable, e.g., Erbschaftssprache or langue dheritage from the
English heritage language.
Functional equivalent
Naturalization
Translation label
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The SCFA use of the term procedures created confusion wirh another category
related to the process: translation strategies. Procedures are related to the distinction
between declarative knowledge (what you know) and procedural or operative knowledge (know-how) (Anderson 1983). Procedures are an important part of procedural
knowledge, they are related to knowing how to do something, the ability to organise
actions to reach a specific goal (Pozo, Gonzalo and Postigo 1993). Procedures include
the use of simple techniques and skills, as well as expert use of strategies (Pozo y
Postigo 1993). Strategies are an essential element in problem solving. Therefore, in
relation to solving translation problems, we think a distinction should be made
between techniques and strategies. Techniques describe the result obtained and can
be used to classify different types of translation solutions. Strategies are related to the
mechanisms used by translators throughout the the whole translation process to find
a solution to the problems they find. The technical procedures (the name itself is
ambiguous) affect the results and not the process, so they should be distinguished
from strategies. We propose they should be called translation techniques.
3.3. The confusion between issues related to language pairs and text pairs
Vinay y Darbelnets original proposal also led to a confusion between language problems and text problems. Their work was based on comparative linguistics and all the
examples used to illustrate their procedures were decontextualized. In addition, because they gave a single translation for each linguistic item, the result was pairs of
fixed equivalences. This led to a confusion between comparative linguistic phenomena (and the categories needed to analyse their similarities and differences) and phenomena related to translating texts (that need other categories).
The use of translation techniques following the SCFA approach is limited to the
classification of differences between language systems, not the textual solutions
needed for translation. For example, SCFAs borrowing, transposition and inversion,
or, Vzquez Ayoras omission, should not be considered as translation techniques.
They are not a textual option open to the translator, but an obligation imposed by
the characteristics of the language pair.
4. A DEFINITION OF TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Our proposal is based on two premises: 1) the need to distinguish between method,
strategy and technique; 2) the need for an dynamic and functional concept of translation techniques.
4.1. The need to distinguish between method, strategy and technique
We think that translation method, strategies and techniques are essentially different
categories. (Hurtado 1996).
4.1.1. Translation method and translation techniques
Translation method refers to the way a particular translation process is carried out in
terms of the translators objective, i.e., a global option that affects the whole text.
There are several translation methods that may be chosen, depending on the aim of
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the translation: interpretative-communicative (translation of the sense), literal (linguistic transcodification), free (modification of semiotic and communicative categories) and philological (academic or critical translation) (see Hurtado Albir 1999: 32).
Each solution the translator chooses when translating a text responds to the global option that affects the whole text (the translation method) and depends on the
aim of the translation. The translation method affects the way micro-units of the text
are translated: the translation techniques. Thus, we should distinguish between the
method chosen by the translator, e.g., literal or adaptation, that affects the whole text,
and the translation techniques, e.g., literal translation or adaptation, that affect microunits of the text.
Logically, method and functions should function harmoniously in the text. For
example, if the aim of a translation method is to produce a foreignising version, then
borrowing will be one of the most frequently used translation techniques. (Cf. This
has been shown in Molina (1998), where she analyses the three translations into
Arabic of Garca Marquezs A Hundred Years of Solitude. Each translation had
adopted a different translation method, and the techniques were studied in relation
to the method chosen).
4.1.2. Translation strategy and translation techniques
Whatever method is chosen, the translator may encounter problems in the translation process, either because of a particularly difficult unit, or because there may be a
gap in the translators knowledge or skills. This is when translation strategies are
activated. Strategies are the procedures (conscious or unconscious, verbal or nonverbal) used by the translator to solve problems that emerge when carrying out the
translation process with a particular objective in mind (Hurtado Albir 1996, 1999).
Translators use strategies for comprehension (e.g., distinguish main and secondary
ideas, establish conceptual relationships, search for information) and for reformulation (e.g., paraphrase, retranslate, say out loud, avoid words that are close to the
original). Because strategies play an essential role in problem solving, they are a central part of the subcompetencies that make up translation competence.
Strategies open the way to finding a suitable solution for a translation unit. The
solution will be materialized by using a particular technique. Therefore, strategies
and techniques occupy different places in problem solving: strategies are part of the
process, techniques affect the result. However, some mechanisms may function both
as strategies and as techniques. For example, paraphrasing can be used to solve problems in the process (this can be a reformulation strategy) and it can be an amplification technique used in a translated text (a cultural item paraphrased to make it
intelligible to TT readers). This does not mean that paraphrasing as a strategy will
necessarily lead to using an amplification technique. The result may be a discursive
creation, an equivalent established expression, an adaptation, etc.
4.2. A dynamic and functional approach to translation techniques
In our opinion, most studies of translation techniques do not seem to fit in with the
dynamic nature of translation equivalence. If we are to preserve the dynamic dimension of translation, a clear distinction should be made between the definition of a
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509
technique and its evaluation in context. A technique is the result of a choice made by
a translator, its validity will depend on various questions related to the context, the
purpose of the translation, audience expectations, etc.
If a technique is evaluated out of context as justified, unjustified or erroneous,
this denies the functional and dynamic nature of translation. A technique can only
be judged meaningfully when it is evaluated within a particular context. Therefore,
we do not consider it makes sense to evaluate a technique by using different terminology, two opposing pairs (one correct and the other incorrect), e.g., Delisles
explicitation/implicitation and addition/omission.
Translation techniques are not good or bad in themselves, they are used functionally and dynamically in terms of:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
The genre of the text (letter of complaint, contract, tourist brochure, etc.)
The type of translation (technical, literary, etc.)
The mode of translation (written translation, sight translation, consecutive interpreting, etc.)
The purpose of the translation and the characteristics of the translation audience
The method chosen (interpretative-communicative, etc.)
Obviously, translation techniques are not the only categories available to analyse
a translated text. Coherence, cohesion, thematic progression and contextual dimensions also intervene in the analysis.
5. A PROPOSAL TO CLASSIFY TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES
Our classification of translation techniques is based on the following criteria:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
To isolate the concept of technique from other related notions (translation strategy,
method and error).
To include only procedures that are characteristic of the translation of texts and not
those related to the comparison of languages.
To maintain the notion that translation techniques are functional. Our definitions do
not evaluate whether a technique is appropriate or correct, as this always depends on its
situation in text and context and the translation method that has been chosen.
In relation to the terminology, to maintain the most commonly used terms.
To formulate new techniques to explain mechanisms that have not yet been described.
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Adaptation. To replace a ST cultural element with one from the target culture, e.g., to
change baseball, for ftbol in a translation into Spanish. This corresponds to SCFAs
adaptation and Margots cultural equivalent.
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Amplification. To introduce details that are not formulated in the ST: information,
explicative paraphrasing, e.g., when translating from Arabic (to Spanish ) to add the
Muslim month of fasting to the noun Ramadan. This includes SCFAs explicitation,
Delisles addition, Margots legitimate and illigitimate paraphrase, Newmarks explicative paraphrase and Delisles periphrasis and paraphrase. Footnotes are a type of amplification. Amplification is in opposition to reduction.
Borrowing. To take a word or expression straight from another language. It can be pure
(without any change), e.g., to use the English word lobby in a Spanish text, or it can be
naturalized (to fit the spelling rules in the TL), e.g., gol, ftbol, lder, mitin. Pure borrowing
corresponds to SCFAs borrowing. Naturalized borrowing corresponds to Newmarks
naturalization technique.
Calque. Literal translation of a foreign word or phrase; it can be lexical or structural,
e.g., the English translation Normal School for the French cole normale. This corresponds to SCFAs acceptation.
Compensation. To introduce a ST element of information or stylistic effect in another
place in the TT because it cannot be reflected in the same place as in the ST. This
corresponds to SCFAs conception.
Description. To replace a term or expression with a description of its form or/and function, e.g., to translate the Italian panettone as traditional Italian cake eaten on New Years
Eve.
Discursive creation. To establish a temporary equivalence that is totally unpredictable
out of context, e.g., the Spanish translation of the film Rumble fish as La ley de la calle.
This coincides with Delisles proposal.
Established equivalent. To use a term or expression recognized (by dictionaries or language in use) as an equivalent in the TL, e.g., to translate the English expression They
are as like as two peas as Se parecen como dos gotas de agua in Spanish. This corresponds
to SCFAs equivalence and literal translation.
Generalization. To use a more general or neutral term, e.g., to translate the French
guichet, fentre or devanture, as window in English. This coincides with SCFAs acceptation. It is in opposition to particularization.
Linguistic amplification. To add linguistic elements. This is often used in consecutive
interpreting and dubbing, e.g., to translate the English expression No way into Spanish
as De ninguna de las maneras instead of using an expression with the same number of
words, En absoluto. It is in opposition to linguistic compression.
Linguistic compression. To synthesize linguistic elements in the TT. This is often used
in simultaneous interpreting and in sub-titling, e.g., to translate the English question
Yes, so what? With Y?, in Spanish, instead of using a phrase with the same number of
words, S, y qu?. It is in opposition to linguistic amplification.
Literal translation. To translate a word or an expression word for word, e.g., They are as
like as two peas as Se parecen como dos guisante, or, She is reading as Ella est leyendo. In
contrast to the SCFA definition, it does not mean translating one word for another. The
translation of the English word ink as encre in French is not a literal translation but an
established equivalent. Our literal translation corresponds to Nidas formal equivalent;
when form coincides with function and meaning, as in the second example. It is the
same as SCFAs literal translation.
Modulation. To change the point of view, focus or cognitive category in relation to the
ST; it can be lexical or structural, e.g., to translate
as you are going to have a
child, instead of, you are going to be a father. This coincides with SCFAs acceptation.
Particularization. To use a more precise or concrete term, e.g., to translate window in
English as guichet in French. This coincides with SCFAs acceptation. It is in opposition
to generalization.
Reduction. To suppress a ST information item in the TT, e.g., the month of fasting in
opposition to Ramadan when translating into Arabic. This includes SCFAs and
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Delisles implicitation Delisles concision, and Vzquez Ayoras omission. It is in opposition to amplification.
Substitution (linguistic, paralinguistic). To change linguistic elements for paralinguistic
elements (intonation, gestures) or vice versa, e.g., to translate the Arab gesture of putting your hand on your heart as Thank you. It is used above all in interpreting.
Transposition. To change a grammatical category, e.g., He will soon be back translated
into Spanish as No tardar en venir, changing the adverb soon for the verb tardar,
instead of keeping the adverb and writing: Estar de vuelta pronto.
Variation. To change linguistic or paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures) that
affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes of textual tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect, etc., e.g., to introduce or change dialectal indicators for characters
when translating for the theater, changes in tone when adapting novels for children, etc.
Table 6
Classification of translation techniques
Baseball (E) Ftbol (Sp)
Adaptation
Amplification
Borrowing
Calque
Compensation
Description
Discursive creation
Established equivalent
They are as like as two peas (E) Se parecen como dos gotas
de agua (Sp)
Generalization
Linguistic amplification
Linguistic compression
Literal translation
Modulation
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Particularization
Reduction
Substitution
(linguistic, paralinguistic)
Transposition
Variation
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