THEME 3: DEVELOPMENT OF LINGUISTIC SKILLS.

ORAL COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION, WRITTEN

COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION.
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN THE ENGLISH
CLASS.

ÍNDICE

1. INTRODUCTION

2. KEY PERSPECTIVES IN THE HISTORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

3. ORAL COMPREHENSION. LISTENING.

4. ORAL PRODUCTION. SPEAKING.

5. WRITTEN COMPREHENSION. READING.

6. WRITING PRODUCTION. WRITING.

7. CONCLUSION.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. INTRODUCTION

As a teacher, this unit is crucial because it focuses on developing students' linguistic skills:
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. According to Jeremy Harmer’s diagram, these skills are
interconnected, with listening and reading classified as receptive skills, while speaking and writing
are productive skills. Additionally, listening and speaking are related to the oral medium, whereas
reading and writing pertain to the written medium.

To achieve effective communication, we must focus on developing the skills necessary for both
oral and written expression. As teachers, it's essential to support students in mastering the four
communicative skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. This essay explores the various
methods used in foreign language acquisition throughout history, each with its supporters and
critics, based on differing perspectives on language learning. Additionally, it examines the didactic
application of these communicative skills in the classroom, analyzing processes, strategies, and
activities for skill development, as well as the challenges students may face.

2. KEY PERSPECTIVES IN THE HISTORY OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

✓ The Literary Method

Throughout much of Western history, foreign languages were taught with a focus on classical
literature, driven by the emphasis on literacy and aristocratic values. During the Renaissance, there
was a revival of interest in the classics, especially Latin, with a focus on written mastery rather than
spoken language. As a result, learners were primarily taught to imitate classical texts rather than use
the language in practical, everyday contexts.

✓ The Grammar Translation Method

This method, which gained popularity in the 1800s, aimed to reform the older literary approach
to language teaching. It focused on translating sentences between the first language (L1) and the
target language (L2). Known as the grammar translation method, it emphasized mastering grammar
and memorizing extensive vocabulary lists, with minimal attention to speaking or listening skills.

✓ The Direct Method

The direct method is based on the idea that learning a second language (L2) is easier when it is
taught without using the first language (L1), mimicking how a child learns their native language. In
this approach, learners are expected to communicate in the L2 under realistic conditions. However,
a common criticism is that achieving this method in the classroom, an inherently unrealistic setting,
can be challenging. Despite this, the direct method continues to have significant support.
 ✓ The Audio-Lingual Method

Developed in the 1950s and rooted in behaviorist psychology, the audio-lingual method views
language learning as a habit-forming process. It emphasizes oral practice over grammar rules, with
learners repeatedly practicing phrases until patterns are established. Systematic changes are then
introduced to expand learners' skills. However, this method offers limited opportunities for
creativity, which may not align with the broader expectations of many language learners.

✓ The Communicative Approach

The communicative approach to language learning aims for communicative competency,

emphasizing the need for learners to understand how to use language appropriately in various
situations and develop strategies for effective communication. It focuses on practical language use
and functional aspects rather than formal structures. Critics argue that a "bridge" between functional
use and formal grammar is necessary for effective language learning.

✓ Language Immersion

Language immersion aims to create an environment where learners must use the target
language (L2) to succeed. An example of this approach was implemented in Quebec in the 1960s,
where English-speaking parents wanted their children to become proficient in French. The program
starts with "primary" immersion in kindergarten, where instruction is entirely in French. Over time,
English is gradually introduced, resulting in a balanced instruction of 60% English and 40% French.

3. ORAL COMPREHENSION AND PRODUCTION

3.1 ORAL COMPREHENSION. LISTENING

Listening ability is essential for acquiring "comprehensible input" needed for effective speaking
(Qi, 1997). It involves not only understanding spoken content but also identifying and summarizing
key information for later use. Therefore, mastering listening skills is crucial for English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) learners, who should engage actively in activities and focused tasks to develop
these skills.

3.2 THE LISTENING PROCESS

The oral comprehension of an utterance involves three stages: First, sounds are received into a
sensory store and organized into meaningful units based on the listener's existing language
knowledge. Second, short-term memory processes this information, comparing it with long-term
memory to extract meaning. In the final stage, the listener constructs meaning and may transfer it to
long-term memory for later use. However, when listening to a foreign language, these stages are
less fluid due to limited language skills or knowledge, making it difficult to organize sounds,
process information, and store it effectively.

3.3 LISTENING PROCEDURES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

In the classroom, developing listening skills involves three key stages:

• Pre-listening Stage: Activities aim to prepare learners by focusing their attention on the topic,
activating relevant background knowledge, and setting expectations for what they will hear.
Tasks like predicting the main points or completing gaps in texts help engage students.
• While-listening Stage: This stage focuses on understanding factual information and details.
Teachers ask questions to check comprehension and help learners develop the ability to extract
messages from spoken language.
• Post-listening Stage: Activities in this stage assess whether learners have understood the
material and completed the tasks. It also involves reflecting on any comprehension issues and
expanding on the topic or language. Learners should transfer what they've learned to new tasks
and contexts.

Teachers in EFL contexts should be aware of these stages, understand their students' needs, set
clear objectives, design meaningful tasks, and use effective techniques to encourage participation and
engagement.

3.4 DEVELOPING LISTENING ACTIVITIES

When designing listening tasks, aim for realistic expectations, as complete recall of all details is
unlikely even for native speakers. Focus on creating success-oriented exercises to build students'
confidence.

• Contextualize Listening Activities: Design tasks that simulate real-life situations to help
students anticipate the type of information and how to use it.
• Pre-listening Activities: Prepare students by engaging them in tasks such as predicting the
content or following instructions for the upcoming activity.
• While-listening Activities: Align these with instructional goals and students' levels.
Activities should relate directly to the text and include tasks like listening with visuals,
following instructions, checking off items, searching for clues, or completing cloze exercises.
• Post-listening Activities: Ensure students can apply what they've learned to new tasks. These
activities help identify unclear areas and assess progress. Examples include peer checking of
answers, completing forms or charts, sequencing information, jigsaw listening, matching with
reading texts, summarizing, and analyzing the speaker's mood or attitude.
3.5 TEACHER’S ROLES IN THE LISTENING LESSON

Based on language learning strategy research, Rost (1991) provides useful principles for
teaching listening skills:

• Focus on Meaning: Emphasize understanding new and significant content in the target
language.
• Comprehension Activities: Set specific listening goals to allow learners to evaluate and
refine their skills. Well-defined activities help assess and improve comprehension.
• Accuracy and Analysis: Encourage accurate perception of sounds and words through
meaning-oriented activities. Improved accuracy builds learners' confidence and supports
steady progress in listening for meaning.

3.6 LISTENING DIFFICULTIES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

Listening difficulties for EFL learners can be categorized as follows:

1. Sound Issues: Problems with pronunciation, rhythm, intonation, and stress.

2. Skimming Abilities: Difficulty in quickly grasping the gist of what is heard.
3. Exposure and Practice: Lack of experience with various accents, colloquial vocabulary, and
different types of texts.
4. Contextual Linking: Struggles to connect words to context and difficulties in summarizing
information at both macro and micro levels.

Despite being an older classification, these challenges remain relevant and accurate in current
language learning contexts.

4. ORAL PRODUCTION. SPEAKING

Speaking is an interactive process of producing and processing information, influenced by

context and participants (Brown, 1994; Burns & Joyce, 1997). It requires both linguistic
competence (grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary) and sociolinguistic competence (knowing when
and how to use language appropriately). Effective speaking integrates these skills and adapts to both
spontaneous and patterned language use.

4.1 WHAT MAKES A GOOD SPEAKER?

A speaker’s skills and habits affect the success of communication. Effective speakers anticipate
and produce expected discourse patterns, manage elements like turn-taking and feedback, and use
appropriate vocabulary and expressions. Learners must be able to rephrase or clarify their
descriptions and use facial expressions to convey satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
4.2 SPEAKING PROCEDURES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

To develop speaking skills in an English class, follow these three stages:

• Pre-communicative Stage: Introduce the communicative function, key expressions, target

structures, necessary vocabulary, and interaction language.

• Practice Stage: Correct and encourage students as needed, discourage the use of monolingual
dictionaries, and focus on intelligibility.

• Communicative Interaction Stage: Promote language negotiation, address issues in

pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, allow students time to respond, provide feedback,
and ask students to repeat tasks if necessary.

4.3 DEVELOPING SPEAKING ACTIVITIES

Speaking lessons typically follow these steps:

1. Preparation: Establish the context for the speaking task (where, when, why, with whom) and
introduce the targeted speaking skill (e.g., asking for clarification, stressing key words).
2. Presentation: Provide a model for learners to observe and understand the language use.
3. Practice: Engage learners in reproducing the targeted structure with controlled support.
4. Evaluation: Focus on the skill being practiced, encouraging learners to monitor and assess
their own progress.
5. Extension: Apply the skill in different contexts or integrate it with previously learned skills.

4.4 SPEAKING ACTIVITIES

In language classrooms, speaking activities can vary beyond dialogues and conversations.
According to Brown (1994), six task categories include:

• Imitative: Repeating phrases or structures for accuracy (e.g., "Excuse me," "Can you help
me?").
• Intensive: Focused drills on specific phonological or grammatical points (e.g., minimal pairs,
imperative sentences).
• Responsive: Short replies to questions or comments (e.g., answers to yes/no questions).
• Transactional: Dialogues for information exchange (e.g., interviews, role plays, debates).
• Interpersonal: Dialogues to build or maintain social relationships (e.g., personal interviews,
casual conversations).
• Extensive: Extended monologues (e.g., speeches, oral reports, summaries).

These tasks can be used independently or combined, depending on learners' needs.

4.5 TEACHER ROLES DURING A SPEAKING LESSON

Teachers should monitor learners' speech to identify their skills and areas for improvement.
According to Bailey and Savage (1994) and Lewis (1997), teachers should take on several roles:

• Organizers: Engage students and set up activities.

• Prompters: Provide chunks of language rather than individual words.
• Observers: Identify causes of communication breakdowns.
• Participants: Join conversations without dominating.
• Assessors: Record and evaluate students' language use.
• Feedback Providers: Offer insights into students' performance.
• Resources: Supply tools for improving oral skills.

The success of a speaking lesson depends largely on the teacher's preparation, language support,
topic relevance, and motivation.

4.6 SPEAKING DIFFICULTIES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

Language teaching often attributes learners' difficulties to differences between their native
language (L1) and English. For instance, a native Chinese speaker might struggle more than a native
German speaker due to the greater linguistic distance between Chinese and English. Such
challenges can include syntax and pronunciation errors resulting from L1 transfer or "language
interference," where learners apply L1 patterns to English or mispronounce sounds. However, many
errors are not due to L1 transfer but are common across learners from various language
backgrounds, such as failing to use the third person singular -s (e.g., 'he make').

5. WRITING COMPREHENSION. READING

Traditionally, learning to read in a language was aimed at accessing its literature, with texts
chosen for their cultural and literary value. However, the communicative approach shifts this
perspective, emphasizing everyday materials like train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel
websites to develop communicative competence. Reading now plays a crucial role in language
instruction at all levels, serving various purposes such as gaining information, critiquing texts, or
reading for enjoyment. The purpose of reading guides the selection of texts and influences how
reading practice is integrated into language teaching.

5.1 WHAT MAKES A GOOD READER?

Research on reading indicates that good readers:

• Read extensively.
 • Integrate new information with existing knowledge.
• Adapt their reading style to different types of texts.
• Are motivated.
• Utilize a combination of skills, including perceptual processing, phonemic processing, and
recall.
• Read with a specific purpose, as reading serves a functional role.

5.2 READING SKILLS

Here is an overview of the four types of reading skills:

• Skimming: Quickly gather the main idea or gist of a text by noting key information without
focusing on every word. Examples include reading newspapers for general news or travel
brochures for basic details.
• Scanning: Find specific information within a text by searching for particular details. This skill
is used for locating information in schedules or meeting plans. Examples include checking the
"What's on TV" section or a train schedule.
• Extensive Reading: Read longer texts to gain a general understanding and for pleasure,
without needing to understand every word. This skill enhances overall knowledge and
enjoyment. Examples include reading novels or magazine articles.
• Intensive Reading: Carefully read shorter texts to extract detailed information. This involves
understanding every word and fact. Examples include reading an insurance claim or a contract.

5.3 READING PROCEDURES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

When teaching reading, follow these three basic stages:

• Pre-reading: Engage students' interest, provide or elicit background knowledge, and set the
stage for effective reading.
• While-reading: Focus on developing reading skills, applying strategies, and improving control
of English.
• Post-reading: Assess comprehension, deepen understanding, and guide students towards
follow-up activities.

The communicative approach emphasizes involving students emotionally and intellectually with
the text, similar to reading in their native language. Include tasks that encourage personal
responses to the text.

5.4 DEVELOPING READING ACTIVITIES

Developing effective reading activities involves more than selecting a suitable text and
comprehension questions. A comprehensive reading activity includes pre-reading, while-reading,
and post-reading stages to support students' reading development.

• Purpose and Planning: Construct activities around a meaningful purpose, define

instructional goals, and assess the text’s difficulty. Note that text difficulty differs from task
difficulty; students might grasp essential information even with limited vocabulary.
 • Pre-reading: Prepare students by engaging their interest and activating background
knowledge. Sample activities include predicting content from titles, examining visuals,
skimming for main ideas, reviewing vocabulary, and previewing comprehension questions. At
lower proficiency levels, more guided pre-reading is beneficial, but it can be reduced as
students improve.
• While-reading: Align activities with the reading purpose. For specific information, students
should verify they’ve found what they need. For pleasure, they should understand the
storyline or ideas. For thorough understanding, they should compare the text with their
predictions.
• Post-reading: Check comprehension and deepen understanding through discussions or other
activities.

Ensure reading activities build students' confidence and communicative competence by

focusing on purpose, strategy, and engagement.

5.5 TEACHER’S ROLES WHILE DEVELOPING READING IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

Teachers must understand the complexities of reading and effectively implement reading
instruction by:
• Using Prior Knowledge: Encourage students to draw on their existing knowledge and
provide necessary background information.
• Direct Instruction: Teach decoding, fluency, and comprehension skills directly.
• Monitoring and Support: Answer questions, monitor student performance, and provide
guidance.
• Purposeful Talk: Foster classroom discussions, as oral language supports reading and writing
development.
• Questioning: Help students ask and answer questions to explore and clarify information.
• Reflecting on Questions: Analyze student questions to understand their thinking, prior
knowledge, and identify gaps.
• Linking Reading and Writing: Integrate reading and writing instruction, recognizing their
interconnection and mutual reinforcement.

5.6 READING DIFFICULTIES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

Reading comprehension issues can stem from several causes. Students should work with a
facilitator if needed to pinpoint the issue and select appropriate strategies to address it.

Five common reasons for poor comprehension include:

• Misunderstanding Words or Sentences: Difficulty grasping specific words or sentences.
• Difficulty with Sentence Relationships: Trouble understanding how sentences connect.
 • Poor Organization Understanding: Inability to see how information is structured
meaningfully.
• Lack of Interest or Focus: Insufficient engagement or concentration.
• Insufficient Practice Time: Not enough regular practice opportunities for all students.

6. WRITING PRODUCTION
Academic writing poses significant challenges for EFL learners, who must address personal
hurdles like generating ideas, organizing content, and mastering mechanics to produce coherent and
readable essays that meet genre-specific standards.

6.1 WRITING STRATEGIES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

In English classes, writing should be a communicative task where students express ideas and
feelings. Mastery requires extensive practice and develops slowly. In primary education, EFL
students should focus on:
• Correct Writing: Accurate spelling and use of basic linguistic forms.
• Contextual Appropriateness: Writing that suits the context.
• Coherence: Creating logically connected text.

Students advance from writing individual words and phrases to composing short paragraphs
about familiar topics such as family, home, hobbies, and food.

6.2 WRITING PROCEDURES

Teaching writing involves progressing through stages that build from simple to more complex
tasks:

1. Copying: An initial activity to reinforce spelling, sentence structure, and word retention,
though not communicative.
2. Controlled Practice: Guided tasks where the teacher directs what is written, such as ordering
sentences or dictations.
3. Production: In primary education, written production remains guided. Teachers assist
students in organizing ideas and selecting appropriate vocabulary and structures.

6.3 ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP WRITING

Writing is a problem-solving activity involving idea generation and structuring content to meet
reader needs and situational context. The focus is on the effectiveness of the message, including
linguistic strategies, lexical choices, and writer’s perspective, rather than strict grammar accuracy.
Effective writing should clearly address the topic, develop it logically, and consider the reader's
needs. Classroom activities to enhance writing skills include:

• Letters: To the teacher or classmates, and sending letters abroad.

• E-mails: Crafting effective messages.
• Creative Writing: Providing alternative endings or writing short stories.

6.4 TEACHER’S ROLES IN THE WRITING CLASS

At this level, students often lack the language and intellectual skills to write independently, so
activities should use parallel texts and provide guided support with simple cues. These activities
usually occur towards the end of a unit, ensuring students have practiced the necessary structures
and vocabulary. Teachers should handle corrections sensitively, avoiding excessive marking to
prevent discouragement. Encouraging self-correction and decorating/displaying their work can be
motivating for students.

6.5 WRITING DIFFICULTIES IN THE ENGLISH CLASS

Students often struggle with writing in a foreign language due to L1 interference (e.g., word
order, false friends) and a lack of linguistic input (vocabulary, structures). A significant issue is the
lack of perceived purpose in writing, as real-life writing is rarely used for communication. To
address this, integrating new technologies can provide meaningful writing opportunities, such as
online chatting or emailing friends, which align with students' real-world experiences and increase
their interest in writing.

7. CONCLUSION
Language skills are interrelated and should be taught as a unified whole rather than in isolation.
Listening, as the foundational skill, plays a crucial role in supporting the development of speaking,
reading, and writing. Achieving communicative competence ideally involves mastering all four
skills, but primary teachers must adapt their approaches to suit the age, interests, and motivations of
their students. This means creating activities with clear objectives, using diverse and engaging
materials, and focusing on active student participation. Additionally, teachers should provide
appropriate learning strategies and be mindful of the challenges students may face, offering the
necessary support to facilitate effective language learning. Continuous assessment and feedback are
also essential to monitor progress and adjust teaching methods, ensuring that each student can
achieve their full potential in language acquisition.
8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

8.1. SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY

▪ Brown, H. D. (2020). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy

(5th ed.). Pearson Education.
▪ Harmer, J. (2015). The practice of English language teaching (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
▪ Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching
(3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
▪ Nation, I. S. P., & Macalister, J. (2020). Language curriculum design (2nd ed.). Routledge.
▪ Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (2021). How languages are learned (5th ed.). Oxford
University Press.

8.2. LEGISLATIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY

▪ Ley Orgánica 3/2020, de 29 de septiembre.

▪ Real Decreto 157/2022, de 1 de marzo.

8.3. WEB RESOURCES

▪ https://schools.duolingo.com/
▪ https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/
▪ https://kahoot.com/