Equinoctial Regions of America V3

Alexander von Humboldt

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Title5 Equinoctial Regions of America !
Author5 Alexander von Humboldt
Release (ate5 6anuar"* 7889 :EBook #379;<
:,es* &e are more than one "ear ahead of schedule<
:This file &as first %osted on A%ril 1* 788!<
Edition5 18
=anguage5 English
$haracter set encoding5 A0$++
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The longitudes mentioned in the text refer al&a"s to the meridian of
the >bservator" of Paris'
The real is about L 1M7 English %ence'
The agrarian measure* called caballeria* is eighteen cordels* Neach
cordel includes t&ent"Hfour varasO or ;!7 square varasP consequentl"*
as 1 vara Q 8'I!9m'* according to RodrigueR* a caballeria is 1IL*L7;
square varas* or 1!8*11I square metres* or thirt"Ht&o and t&oHtenths
English acres'
78 leagues to a degree'
9888 varas Q ;198 metres'
!;8! square toises Q 1'72 hectare'
An acre Q ;8;; square metres'
/ive hundred acres Q fifteen and a half caballerias'
0ugarHhouses are thought to be ver" considerable that "ield 7888 cases
annuall"* or !7*888 arrobas Nnearl" !LI*888 kilogrammes'O
An arroba of 79 0%anish %ounds Q 11';2 kilogrammes'
A quintal Q ;9'23 kilogrammes'
A tarea of &ood Q one hundred and sixt" cubic feet'
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THE =AG?@A PAR+CE'
E= (>RA(>'
=EGE@(AR, TA=E0 >/ THE EAR=, >,AGER0'
+ shall commence this cha%ter b" a descri%tion of 0%anish Guiana
NProvincia de la Gu"anaO* &hich is a %art of the ancient $a%itania
general of $aracas' 0ince the end of the sixteenth centur" three to&ns
have successivel" borne the name of 0t' Thomas of Guiana' The first
&as situated o%%osite to the island of /axardo* at the confluence of
the $aron" and the >rinoco* and &as destro"ed- b" the (utch* under the
command of $a%tain Adrian 6anson* in 1932' N- The first of the vo"ages
undertaken at RaleighGs ex%ense &as in 1929P the second* that of
=aurence Ae"mis* in 192LP the third* described b" Thomas Casham* in
1923P and the fourth* in 1L13' The first and last onl" &ere %erformed
b" Raleigh in %erson' This celebrated man &as beheaded on >ctober the
72th* 1L1I' +t is therefore the second to&n of 0anto Tomas* no& called
ieja Gu"ana* &hich existed in the time of Raleigh'O The second*
founded b" Antonio de Berrio in 1921* near t&elve leagues east of the
mouth of the $aron"* made a courageous resistance to 0ir .alter
Raleigh* &hom the 0%anish &riters of the conquest kno& onl" b" the
name of the %irate Reali' The third to&n* no& the ca%ital of the
%rovince* is fift" leagues &est of the confluence of the $aron"' +t
&as begun in 13L;* under the Governor (on 6oacquin Coreno de CendoRa*
and is distinguished in the %ublic documents from the second to&n*
vulgarl" called the fortress Nel castillo* las fortaleRasO* or >ld
Gua"ana Nieja Gua"anaO* b" the name of 0anto Thome de la @ueva
Gua"ana' This name being ver" long* that of Angostura- Nthe straitO
has been commonl" substituted for it' N- Euro%e has learnt the
existence of the to&n of Angostura b" the trade carried on b" the
$atalonians in the $aron" bark* &hich is the beneficial bark of the
Bon%landa trifoliata' This bark* coming from @ueva Guiana* &as called
corteRa or cascarilla del Angostura N$ortex AngosturaeO' Botanists so
little guessed the origin of this geogra%hical denomination that the"
began b" &riting Augustura* and then Augusta'O
Angostura* the longitude and latitude of &hich + have alread"
indicated from astronomical observations* stands at the foot of a hill
of am%hibolic schist- bare of vegetation' N- Hornblendschiefer'O The
streets are regular* and for the most %art %arallel &ith the course of
the river' 0everal of the houses are built on the bare rockP and here*
as at $arichana* and in man" other %arts of the missions* the action
of black and strong strata* &hen strongl" heated b" the ra"s of the
sun u%on the atmos%here* is considered injurious to health' + think
the small %ools of stagnant &ater Nlagunas " anegadiRosO* &hich extend
behind the to&n in the direction of southHeast* are more to be feared'
The houses of Angostura are loft" and convenientP the" are for the
most %art built of stoneP &hich %roves that the inhabitants have but
little dread of earthquakes' But unha%%il" this securit" is not
founded on induction from an" %recise data' +t is true that the shore
of @ueva Andalusia sometimes undergoes ver" violent shocks* &ithout
the commotion being %ro%agated across the =lanos' The fatal
catastro%he of $umana* on the ;th of /ebruar"* 1323* &as not felt at
AngosturaP but in the great earthquake of 13LL* &hich destro"ed the
same cit"* the granitic soil of the t&o banks of the >rinoco &as
agitated as far as the Raudales of Atures and Ca"%ures' 0outh of these
Raudales shocks are sometimes felt* &hich are confined to the basin of
the ?%%er >rinoco and the Rio @egro' The" a%%ear to de%end on a
volcanic focus distant from that of the $aribbee +slands' .e &ere told
b" the missionaries at 6avita and 0an /ernando de Ataba%o that in 132I
violent earthquakes took %lace bet&een the Guaviare and the Rio @egro*
&hich &ere not %ro%agated on the north to&ards Ca"%ures' .e cannot be
sufficientl" attentive to &hatever relates to the simultaneit" of the
oscillations* and to the inde%endence of the movements in contiguous
ground' Ever"thing seems to %rove that the %ro%agation of the
commotion is not su%erficial* but de%ends on ver" dee% crevices that
terminate in different centres of action'
The scener" around the to&n of Angostura is little variedP but the
vie& of the river* &hich forms a vast canal* stretching from
southH&est to northHeast* is singularl" majestic'
.hen the &aters are high* the river inundates the qua"sP and it
sometimes ha%%ens that* even in the to&n* im%rudent %ersons become the
%re" of crocodiles' + shall transcribe from m" journal a fact that
took %lace during C' Bon%landGs illness' A Gua"keri +ndian* from the
island of =a Cargareta* &as anchoring his canoe in a cove &here there
&ere not three feet of &ater' A ver" fierce crocodile* &hich
habituall" haunted that s%ot* seiRed him b" the leg* and &ithdre& from
the shore* remaining on the surface of the &ater' The cries of the
+ndian dre& together a cro&d of s%ectators' This unfortunate man &as
first seen seeking* &ith astonishing %resence of mind* for a knife
&hich he had in his %ocket' @ot being able to find it* he seiRed the
head of the crocodile and thrust his fingers into its e"es' @o man in
the hot regions of America is ignorant that this carnivorous re%tile*
covered &ith a buckler of hard and dr" scales* is extremel" sensitive
in the onl" %arts of his bod" &hich are soft and un%rotected* such as
the e"es* the hollo& underneath the shoulders* the nostrils* and
beneath the lo&er ja&* &here there are t&o glands of musk' The
Gua"keri +ndian &as less fortunate than the negro of Cungo Park* and
the girl of ?ritucu* &hom + mentioned in a former %art of this &ork*
for the crocodile did not o%en its ja&s and lose hold of its %re"' The
animal* overcome b" %ain* %lunged to the bottom of the river* and*
after having dro&ned the +ndian* came u% to the surface of the &ater*
dragging the dead bod" to an island o%%osite the %ort' A great number
of the inhabitants of Angostura &itnessed this melanchol" s%ectacle'
The crocodile* o&ing to the structure of its lar"nx* of the h"oidal
bone* and of the folds of its tongue* can seiRe* though not s&allo&*
its %re" under &aterP thus &hen a man disa%%ears* the animal is
usuall" %erceived some hours after devouring its %re" on a
neighbouring beach' The number of individuals &ho %erish annuall"* the
victims of their o&n im%rudence and of the ferocit" of these re%tiles*
is much greater than is believed in Euro%e' +t is %articularl" so in
villages &here the neighbouring grounds are often inundated' The same
crocodiles remain long in the same %laces' The" become from "ear to
"ear more daring* es%eciall"* as the +ndians assert* if the" have once
tasted of human flesh' These animals are so &ar"* that the" are killed
&ith difficult"' A ball does not %ierce their skinP and the shot is
onl" mortal &hen it %enetrates the throat or a %art beneath the
shoulder' The +ndians* &ho kno& little of the use of fireHarms* attack
the crocodile &ith lances* after the animal has been caught &ith large
%ointed iron hooks* baited &ith %ieces of meat* and fastened b" a
chain to the trunk of a tree' The" do not a%%roach the animal till it
has struggled a long time to disengage itself from the iron fixed in
the u%%er ja&' There is little %robabilit" that a countr" in &hich a
lab"rinth of rivers &ithout number brings ever" da" ne& bands of
crocodiles from the eastern back of the Andes* b" the Ceta and the
A%ure* to&ard the coast of 0%anish Guiana* should ever be delivered
from these re%tiles' All that &ill be gained b" civiliRation &ill be
to render them more timid and more easil" %ut to flight'
Affecting instances are related of African slaves* &ho have ex%osed
their lives to save those of their masters* &ho had fallen into the
ja&s of a crocodile' A fe& "ears ago* bet&een ?ritucu and the Cission
de Abaxo* a negro* hearing the cries of his master* fle& to the s%ot*
armed &ith a long knife NmacheteO* and %lunged into the river' He
forced the crocodile* b" %utting out his e"es* to let go his %re" and
to %lunge under the &ater' The slave bore his ex%iring master to the
shoreP but all succour &as unavailing to restore him to life' He had
died of suffocation* for his &ounds &ere not dee%' The crocodile* like
the dog* a%%ears not to close its ja&s firml" &hile s&imming'
The inhabitants of the banks of the >rinoco and its tributar" streams
discourse continuall" on the dangers to &hich the" are ex%osed' The"
have marked the manners of the crocodile* as the torero has studied
the manners of the bull' .hen the" are assailed* the" %ut in %ractice*
&ith that %resence of mind and that resignation &hich characteriRe the
+ndians* the Samboes* and co%%erHcoloured men in general* the counsels
the" have heard from their infanc"' +n countries &here nature is so
%o&erful and so terrible* man is constantl" %re%ared for danger' .e
have mentioned before the ans&er of the "oung +ndian girl* &ho
delivered herself from the ja&s of the crocodile5 )+ kne& he &ould let
me go if + thrust m" fingers into his e"es') This girl belonged to the
indigent class of the %eo%le* in &hom the habits of %h"sical &ant
augment energ" of characterP but ho& can &e avoid being sur%rised to
observe in the countries convulsed b" terrible earthquakes* on the
tableHland of the %rovince of Buito* &omen belonging to the highest
classes of societ" dis%la" in the moment of %eril* the same calm* the
same reflecting intre%idit"T + shall mention one exam%le onl" in
su%%ort of this assertion' >n the ;th of /ebruar"* 1323* &hen !9*888
+ndians %erished in the s%ace of a fe& minutes* a "oung mother saved
herself and her children* cr"ing out to them to extend their arms at
the moment &hen the cracked ground &as read" to s&allo& them u%' .hen
this courageous &oman heard the astonishment that &as ex%ressed at a
%resence of mind so extraordinar"* she ans&ered* &ith great
sim%licit"* )+ had been told in m" infanc"5 if the earthquake sur%rise
"ou in a house* %lace "ourself under a door&a" that communicates from
one a%artment to anotherP if "ou be in the o%en air and feel the
ground o%ening beneath "ou* extend both "our arms* and tr" to su%%ort
"ourself on the edge of the crevice') Thus* in savage regions or in
countries ex%osed to frequent convulsions* man is %re%ared to struggle
&ith the beasts of the forest* to deliver himself from the ja&s of the
crocodile* and to esca%e from the conflict of the elements'
The to&n of Angostura* in the earl" "ears of its foundation* had no
direct communication &ith the motherHcountr"' The inhabitants &ere
contented &ith carr"ing on a trifling contraband trade in dried meat
and tobacco &ith the .est +ndia +slands* and &ith the (utch colon" of
Essequibo* b" the Rio $aron"' @either &ine* oil* nor flour* three
articles of im%ortation the most sought after* &as received directl"
from 0%ain' 0ome merchants* in 1331* sent the first schooner to $adiRP
and since that %eriod a direct exchange of commodities &ith the %orts
of Andalusia and $atalonia has become extremel" active' The %o%ulation
of Angostura*- after having been a long time languishing* has much
increased since 13I9' N- Angostura* or 0anto Thome de la @ueva
Gua"ana* in 13LI* had onl" 988 inhabitants' $aulin %age L!' The" &ere
numbered in 13I8 and the result &as 191! N;99 .hites* ;;2 Blacks* !L!
Culattoes and Samboes* and 7;L +ndiansO' The %o%ulation in the "ear
13I2 rose to ;928P and in 1I88 to LL88 souls' >fficial =ists
manuscri%t' The ca%ital of the English colon" of (emerara* the to&n of
0tabroek* the name of &hich is scarcel" kno&n in Euro%e* is onl" fift"
leagues distant* southHeast of the mouths of the >rinoco' +t contains*
according to Bolingbroke* nearl" 18*888 inhabitants'O At the time of
m" abode in Guiana* ho&ever* it &as far from being equal to that of
0tabroek* the nearest English to&n' The mouths of the >rinoco have an
advantage over ever" other %art in Terra /irma' The" afford the most
%rom%t communications &ith the Peninsula' The vo"age from $adiR to
Punta Barima is %erformed sometimes in eighteen or t&ent" da"s' The
return to Euro%e takes from thirt" to thirt"Hfive da"s' These mouths
being %laced to &ind&ard of all the islands* the vessels of Angostura
can maintain a more advantageous commerce &ith the .est +ndies than =a
Gua"ra and Porto $abello' The merchants of $aracas* therefore* have
been al&a"s jealous of the %rogress of industr" in 0%anish GuianaP and
$aracas having been hitherto the seat of the su%reme government* the
%ort of Angostura has been treated &ith still less favour than the
%orts of $umana and @ueva Barcelona' .ith res%ect to the inland trade*
the most active is that of the %rovince of arinas* &hich sends mules*
cacao* indigo* cotton* and sugar to AngosturaP and in return receives
generos* that is* the %roducts of the manufacturing industr" of
Euro%e' + have seen long boats NlanchasO set off* the cargoes of &hich
&ere valued at eight or ten thousand %iastres' These boats &ent first
u% the >rinoco to $abrutaP then along the A%ure to 0an icenteP and
finall"* on the Rio 0anto (omingo* as far as Torunos* &hich is the
%ort of arinas @uevas' The little to&n of 0an /ernando de A%ure* of
&hich + have alread" given a descri%tion* is the magaRine of this
riverHtrade* &hich might become more considerable b" the introduction
of steamboats'
+ have no& described the countr" through &hich &e %assed during a
vo"age of five hundred leaguesP it remains for me to make kno&n the
small s%ace of three degrees fift"Ht&o minutes of longitude* that
se%arates the %resent ca%ital from the mouth of the >rinoco' Exact
kno&ledge of the delta and the course of the Rio $aron" is at once
interesting to h"drogra%h" and to Euro%ean commerce'
.hen a vessel coming from sea &ould enter the %rinci%al mouth of the
>rinoco* the Boca de @avios* it should make the land at the Punta
Barima' The right or southern bank is the highest5 the granitic rock
%ierces the marsh" soil at a small distance in the interior* bet&een
the $ano Barima* the Aquire* and the $u"uni' The left* or northern
bank of the >rinoco* &hich stretches along the delta to&ards the Boca
de Cariusas and the Punta Baxa* is ver" lo&* and is distinguishable at
a distance onl" b" the clum%s of moriche %almHtrees &hich embellish
the %assage' This is the sagoHtree- of the countr" N- The nutritious
fecula or medullar" flour of the sagoHtrees is found %rinci%all" in a
grou% of %alms &hich C' Aunth has distinguished b" the name of
calameae' +t is collected* ho&ever* in the +ndian Archi%elago* as an
article of trade* from the trunks of the $"cas revoluta* the Phoenix
farinifera* the $or"%ha umbraculifera* and the $ar"ota urens'
NAinslie* Cateria Cedica of Hindostan* Cadras 1I1!'OO The quantit" of
nutritious matter &hich the real sagoHtree of Asia affords N0agus
Rum%hii* or Cetrox"lon sagu* Roxb'O exceeds that &hich is furnished b"
an" other %lant useful to man' >ne trunk of a tree in its fifteenth
"ear sometimes "ields six hundred %ounds &eight of sago* or meal Nfor
the &ord sago signifies meal in the dialect of Ambo"naO' Cr' $ra&furd*
&ho resided a long time in the +ndian Archi%elago* calculates that an
English acre could contain four hundred and thirt"Hfive sagoHtrees*
&hich &ould "ield one hundred and t&ent" thousand five hundred %ounds
avoirdu%ois of fecula* or more than eight thousand %ounds "earl"'
Histor" of the +ndian Archi%elago volume 1 %ages !I3 and !2!' This
%roduce is tri%le that of corn* and double that of %otatoes in /rance'
But the %lantain %roduces* on the same surface of land* still more
alimentar" substance than the sagoHtree'OP it "ields the flour of
&hich the "uruma bread is madeP and far from being a %almHtree of the
shore* like the $hamaero%s humilis* the common cocoaHtree* and the
lodoicea of $ommerson* is found as a %almHtree of the marshes as far
as the sources of the >rinoco'- N- + d&ell much on these divisions of
the great and fine families of %alms according to the distribution of
the s%ecies5 first* in dr" %laces* or inland %lains* $or"%ha tectorumP
second* on the seaHcoast* $hamaero%s humilis* $ocos nucifera* $or"%ha
maritima* =odoicea se"chellarum* =abill'P third* in the freshH&ater
marshes* 0agus Rum%hii* Cauritia flexuosaP and ;th* in the al%ine
regions* bet&een seven and fifteen hundred toises high* $erox"lon
andicola* >reodoxa frigida* Aunthia montana' This last grou% of %almae
montanae* &hich rises in the Andes of Guanacas nearl" to the limit of
%er%etual sno&* &as* + believe* entirel" unkno&n before our travels in
America' N@ov' Gen' volume 1 %age !13P 0emanario de 0anta /e de Bogota
1I12 @umber 71 %age 1L!'O +n the season of inundations these clum%s of
mauritia* &ith their leaves in the form of a fan* have the a%%earance
of a forest rising from the bosom of the &aters' The navigator* in
%roceeding along the channels of the delta of the >rinoco at night*
sees &ith sur%rise the summit of the %almHtrees illumined b" large
fires' These are the habitations of the Guaraons NTivitivas and
.ara&eties of Raleigh- N- The +ndian name of the tribe of ?araus
NGuaraunos of the 0%aniardsO ma" be recogniRed in the .ara&et"
N>uarauot"O of Raleigh* one of the branches of the Tivitivas' 0ee
(iscover" of Guiana* 193L %age 28 and the sketch of the habitations of
the Guaraons* in Raleghi brevis (escri%' Guianae* 192; tab ;'OO* &hich
are sus%ended from the trunks of trees' These tribes hang u% mats in
the air* &hich the" fill &ith earth* and kindle* on a la"er of moist
cla"* the fire necessar" for their household &ants' The" have o&ed
their libert" and their %olitical inde%endence for ages to the quaking
and s&am%" soil* &hich the" %ass over in the time of drought* and on
&hich the" alone kno& ho& to &alk in securit" to their solitude in the
delta of the >rinocoP to their abode on the trees &here religious
enthusiasm &ill %robabl" never lead an" American st"lites'- N- This
sect &as founded b" 0imeon 0isanites* a native of 0"ria' He %assed
thirt"Hseven "ears in m"stic contem%lation* on five %illars* the last
of &hich &as thirt"Hsix cubits high' The sancti columnares attem%ted
to establish their aerial cloisters in the countr" of Treves* in
German"P but the bisho%s o%%osed these extravagant and %erilous
enter%rises' Cosheim* +nstit' Hist' Eccles %age 127' 0ee HumboldtGs
ie&s of @ature NBohnO %ages 1! and 1!L'O + have alread" mentioned in
another %lace that the mauritia %almHtree* the tree of life of the
missionaries* not onl" affords the Guaraons a safe d&elling during the
risings of the >rinoco* but that its shell" fruit* its farinaceous
%ith* its juice* abounding in saccharine matter* and the fibres of its
%etioles* furnish them &ith food* &ine*- and thread %ro%er for making
cords and &eaving hammocks' N- The use of this moriche &ine ho&ever is
not ver" common' The Guaraons %refer in general a beverage of
fermented hone"'O These customs of the +ndians of the delta of the
>rinoco &ere found formerl" in the Gulf of (arien N?rabaO* and in the
greater %art of the inundated lands bet&een the Guara%iche and the
mouths of the AmaRon' +t is curious to observe in the lo&est degree of
human civiliRation the existence of a &hole tribe de%ending on one
single s%ecies of %almHtree* similar to those insects &hich feed on
one and the same flo&er* or on one and the same %art of a %lant'
The navigation of the river* &hether vessels arrive b" the Boca de
@avios* or risk entering the lab"rinth of the bocas chicas* requires
various %recautions* according as the &aters are high or lo&' The
regularit" of these %eriodical risings of the >rinoco has been long an
object of admiration to travellers* as the overflo&ings of the @ile
furnished the %hiloso%hers of antiquit" &ith a %roblem difficult to
solve' The >rinoco and the @ile* contrar" to the direction of the
Ganges* the +ndus* the Rio de la Plata* and the Eu%hrates* flo& alike
from the south to&ard the northP but the sources of the >rinoco are
five or six degrees nearer to the equator than those of the @ile'
>bserving ever" da" the accidental variations of the atmos%here* &e
find it difficult to %ersuade ourselves that in a great s%ace of time
the effects of these variations mutuall" com%ensate each other5 that
in a long succession of "ears the averages of the tem%erature of the
humidit"* and of the barometric %ressure* differ so little from month
to monthP and that nature* not&ithstanding the multitude of %artial
%erturbations* follo&s a constant t"%e in the series of meteorological
%henomena' Great rivers unite in one rece%tacle the &aters &hich a
surface of several thousand square leagues receives' Ho&ever unequal
ma" be the quantit" of rain that falls during several successive
"ears* in such or such a valle"* the s&ellings of rivers that have a
ver" long course are little affected b" these local variations' The
s&ellings re%resent the average of the humidit" that reigns in the
&hole basinP the" follo& annuall" the same %rogression because their
commencement and their duration de%end also on the mean of the
%eriods* a%%arentl" extremel" variable* of the beginning and end of
the rains in the different latitudes through &hich the %rinci%al trunk
and its various tributar" streams flo&' Hence it follo&s that the
%eriodical oscillations of rivers are* like the equalit" of
tem%erature of caverns and s%rings* a sensible indication of the
regular distribution of humidit" and heat* &hich takes %lace from "ear
to "ear on a considerable extent of land' The" strike the imagination
of the vulgarP as order ever"&here astonishes* &hen &e cannot easil"
ascend to first causes' Rivers that belong entirel" to the torrid Rone
dis%la" in their %eriodical movements that &onderful regularit" &hich
is %eculiar to a region &here the same &ind brings almost al&a"s
strata of air of the same tem%eratureP and &here the change of the sun
in its declination causes ever" "ear at the same %eriod a ru%ture of
equilibrium in the electric intensit"* in the cessation of the
breeRes* and the commencement of the season of rains' The >rinoco* the
Rio Cagdalena* and the $ongo or Saire are the onl" great rivers of the
equinoctial region of the globe* &hich* rising near the equator* have
their mouths in a much higher latitude* though still &ithin the
tro%ics' The @ile and the Rio de la Plata direct their course* in the
t&o o%%osite hemis%heres* from the torrid Rone to&ards the tem%erate'-
N- +n Asia* the Ganges* the Burram%ooter* and the majestic rivers of
+ndoH$hina direct their course to&ards the equator' The former flo&
from the tem%erate to the torrid Rone' This circumstance of courses
%ursuing o%%osite directions Nto&ards the equator* and to&ards the
tem%erate climatesO has an influence on the %eriod and the height of
the risings* on the nature and variet" of the %roductions on the banks
of the rivers* on the less or greater activit" of tradeP and* + ma"
add* from &hat &e kno& of the nations of Eg"%t* Cerce* and +ndia* on
the %rogress of civiliRation along the valle"s of the rivers'O
As long as* confounding the Rio Paragua of Esmeralda &ith the Rio
Guaviare* the sources of the >rinoco &ere sought to&ards the
southH&est* on the eastern back of the Andes* the risings of this
river &ere attributed to a %eriodical melting of the sno&s' This
reasoning &as as far from the truth as that in &hich the @ile &as
formerl" su%%osed to be s&elled b" the &aters of the sno&s of
Ab"ssinia' The $ordilleras of @e& Grenada* near &hich the &estern
tributar" streams of the >rinoco* the Guaviare* the Ceta* and the
A%ure take their rise* enter no more into the limit of %er%etual
sno&s* &ith the sole exce%tion of the Paramos of $hita and Cucuchies*
than the Al%s of Ab"ssinia' 0no&" mountains are much more rare in the
torrid Rone than is generall" admittedP and the melting of the sno&s*
&hich is not co%ious there at an" season* does not at all increase at
the time of the inundations of the >rinoco'
The cause of the %eriodical s&ellings of the >rinoco acts equall" on
all the rivers that take rise in the torrid Rone' After the vernal
equinox* the cessation of the breeRes announces the season of rains'
The increase of the rivers N&hich ma" be considered as natural
%luviometersO is in %ro%ortion to the quantit" of &ater that falls in
the different regions' This quantit"* in the centre of the forests of
the ?%%er >rinoco and the Rio @egro* a%%eared to me to exceed 28 or
188 inches annuall"' 0uch of the natives* therefore* as have lived
beneath the mist" sk" of the Esmeralda and the Ataba%o* kno&* &ithout
the smallest notion of natural %hiloso%h"* &hat Eudoxus and
Eratosthenes kne& heretofore*- that the inundations of the great
rivers are o&ing solel" to the equatorial rains' N- 0trabo lib' 13
%age 3I2' (iod' 0ic' lib' l c' 9'O The follo&ing is the usual %rogress
of the oscillations of the >rinoco' +mmediatel" after the vernal
equinox Nthe %eo%le sa" on the 79th of CarchO the commencement of the
rising is %erceived' +t is at first onl" an inch in t&ent"Hfour hoursP
sometimes the river again sinks in A%rilP it attains its maximum in
6ul"P remains at the same level from the end of 6ul" till the 79th of
AugustP and then decreases %rogressivel"* but more slo&l" than it
increased' +t is at its minimum in 6anuar" and /ebruar"' +n both
&orlds the rivers of the northern torrid Rone attain the greatest
height nearl" at the same %eriod' The Ganges* the @iger* and the
Gambia reach the maximum* like the >rinoco* in the month of August'-
N- @earl" fort" or fift" da"s after the summer solstice'O The @ile is
t&o months later* either on account of some local circumstances in the
climate of Ab"ssinia* or of the length of its course* from the countr"
of Berber* or 13'9 degrees of latitude* to the bifurcation of the
delta' The Arabian geogra%hers assert that in 0ennaar and in Ab"ssinia
the @ile begins to s&ell in the month of A%ril Nnearl" as the
>rinocoOP the rise* ho&ever* does not become sensible at $airo till
to&ard the summer solsticeP and the &ater attains its greatest height
at the end of the month of 0e%tember'- N- @earl" eight" or ninet" da"s
after the summer solstice'O The river kee%s at the same level till the
middle of >ctoberP and is at its minimum in A%ril and Ca"* a %eriod
&hen the rivers of Guiana begin to s&ell ane&' +t ma" be seen from
this ra%id statement* that* not&ithstanding the retardation caused b"
the form of the natural channels* and b" local climatic circumstances*
the great %henomenon of the oscillations of the rivers of the torrid
Rone is ever"&here the same' +n the t&o Rodiacs vulgarl" called the
Tartar and $haldean* or Eg"%tian Nin the Rodiac &hich contains the
sign of the Rat* an in that &hich contains those of the /ishes and
AquariusO* %articular constellations are consecrated to the %eriodical
overflo&ings of the rivers' Real c"cles* divisions of time* have been
graduall" transformed into divisions of s%aceP but the generalit" of
the %h"sical %henomena of the risings seems to %rove that the Rodiac
&hich has been transmitted to us b" the Greeks* and &hich* b" the
%recession of the equinoxes* becomes an historical monument of high
antiquit"* ma" have taken birth far from Thebes* and from the sacred
valle" of the @ile' +n the Rodiacs of the @e& .orldHHin the Cexican*
for instance* of &hich &e discover the vestiges in the signs of the
da"s* and the %eriodical series &hich the" com%oseHHthere are also
signs of rain and of inundation corres%onding to the $hou NRatO of the
$hinese- and Thibetan c"cle of Tse* and to the /ishes and Aquarius of
the dodecatemorion' N- The figure of &ater itself is often substituted
for that of the Rat NArvicolaO in the Tartar Rodiac' The Rat takes the
%lace of Aquarius' Gaubil* >bs' Cathem' volume ! %age !!'O These t&o
Cexican signs are .ater NAtlO and $i%actli* the seaHmonster furnished
&ith a horn' This animal is at once the Antelo%eHfish of the Hindoos*
the $a%ricorn of our Rodiac* the (eucalion of the Greeks* and the @oah
N$oxcoxO of the ARteks'- N- $oxcox bears also the denomination of
TeoH$i%actli* in &hich the root god or divine is added to the name of
the sign $i%actli' +t is the man of the /ourth AgeP &ho* at the fourth
destruction of the &orld Nthe last renovation of natureO* saved
himself &ith his &ife* and reached the mountain of $olhuacan'
According to the commentator Germanicus* (eucalion &as %laced in
AquariusP but the three signs of the /ishes* Aquarius and $a%ricorn
Nthe Antelo%eHfishO &ere heretofore intimatel" linked together' The
animal* &hich* after having long inhabited the &aters* takes the form
of an antelo%e* and climbs the mountains* reminds %eo%le* &hose
restless imagination seiRes the most remote similitudes* of the
ancient traditions of Cenou* of @oah* and of those (eucalions
celebrated among the 0c"thians and the Thessalians' As the Tartarian
and Cexican Rodiacs contain the signs of the Conke" and the Tiger*
the"* no doubt* originated in the torrid Rone' .ith the Cu"scas*
inhabitants of @e& Grenada* the first sign* as in eastern Asia* &as
that of &ater* figured b" a /rog' +t is also remarkable that the
astrological &orshi% of the Cu"scas came to the tableHland of Bogota
from the eastern side* from the %lains of 0an 6uan* &hich extend
to&ard the Guaviare and the >rinoco'O Thus &e find the general results
of com%arative h"drogra%h" in the astrological monuments* the
divisions of time and the religious traditions of nations the most
remote from each other in their situation and in their degree of
intellectual advancement'
As the equatorial rains take %lace in the flat countr" &hen the sun
%asses through the Renith of the %lace* that is* &hen its declination
becomes homon"mous &ith the Rone com%rised bet&een the equator and one
of the tro%ics* the &aters of the AmaRon sink* &hile those of the
>rinoco rise %erce%tibl"' +n a ver" judicious discussion on the origin
of the Rio $ongo*- N- o"age to the Saire %age 13'O the attention of
%hiloso%hers has been alread" called to the modifications &hich the
%eriods of the risings must undergo in the course of a river* the
sources and the mouth of &hich are not on the same side of the
equinoctial line'- N- Among the rivers of America this is the case
&ith the Rio @egro* the Rio Branco* and the 6u%ura'O The h"draulic
s"stems of the >rinoco and the AmaRon furnish a combination of
circumstances still more extraordinar"' The" are united b" the Rio
@egro and the $assiquiare* a branch of the >rinocoP it is a navigable
line* bet&een t&o great basins of rivers* that is crossed b" the
equator' The river AmaRon* according to the information &hich +
obtained on its banks* is much less regular in the %eriods of its
oscillations than the >rinocoP it generall" begins* ho&ever* to
increase in (ecember* and attains its maximum of height in Carch'- N-
@earl" sevent" or eight" da"s after our &inter solstice* &hich is the
summer solstice of the southern hemis%here'O +t sinks from the month
of Ca"* and is at its minimum of height in the months of 6ul" and
August* at the time &hen the =o&er >rinoco inundates all the
surrounding land' As no river of America can cross the equator from
south to north* on account of the general configuration of the ground*
the risings of the >rinoco have an influence on the AmaRonP but those
of the AmaRon do not alter the %rogress of the oscillations of the
>rinoco' +t results from these data* that in the t&o basins of the
AmaRon and the >rinoco* the concave and convex summits of the curve of
%rogressive increase and decrease corres%ond ver" regularl" &ith each
other* since the" exhibit the difference of six months* &hich results
from the situation of the rivers in o%%osite hemis%heres' The
commencement of the risings onl" is less tard" in the >rinoco' This
river increases sensibl" as soon as the sun has crossed the equatorP
in the AmaRon* on the contrar"* the risings do not commence till t&o
months after the equinox' +t is kno&n that in the forests north of the
line the rains are earlier than in the less &ood" %lains of the
southern torrid Rone' To this local cause is joined another* &hich
acts %erha%s equall" on the tard" s&ellings of the @ile' The AmaRon
receives a great %art of its &aters from the $ordillera of the Andes*
&here the seasons* as ever"&here among mountains* follo& a %eculiar
t"%e* most frequentl" o%%osite to that of the lo& regions'
The la& of the increase and decrease of the >rinoco is more difficult
to determine &ith res%ect to s%ace* or to the magnitude of the
oscillations* than &ith regard to time* or the %eriod of the maxima
and minima' Having been able to measure but im%erfectl" the risings of
the river* + re%ort* not &ithout hesitation* estimates that differ
much from each other'- N- Tucke"* Caritime Geogr' volume ; %age !82'
Hi%%isle"* Ex%edition to the >rinoco %age !I' Gumilla volume 1 %ages
9L to 92' (e%ons volume ! %age !81' The greatest height of the rise of
the Cississi%%i is* at @atcheR* fift"Hfive English feet' This river
Nthe largest %erha%s of the &hole tem%erate RoneO is at its maximum
from /ebruar" to Ca"P at its minimum in August and 0e%tember'
Ellicott* 6ournal of an Ex%edition to the >hio'O /oreign %ilots admit
ninet" feet for the ordinar" rise in the =o&er >rinoco' C' (e%ons* &ho
has in general collected ver" accurate notions during his sta" at
$aracas* fixes it at thirteen fathoms' The heights naturall" var"
according to the breadth of the bed and the number of tributar"
streams &hich the %rinci%al trunk receives'
The %eo%le believe that ever" five "ears the >rinoco rises three feet
higher than commonP but the idea of this c"cle does not rest on an"
%recise measures' .e kno& b" the testimon" of antiquit"* that the
oscillations of the @ile have been sensibl" the same &ith res%ect to
their height and duration for thousands of "earsP &hich is a %roof*
&ell &orth" of attention* that the mean state of the humidit" and the
tem%erature does not var" in that vast basin' .ill this constanc" in
%h"sical %henomena* this equilibrium of the elements* be %reserved in
the @e& .orld also after some ages of cultivationT + think &e ma"
re%l" in the affirmativeP for the united efforts of man cannot fail to
have an influence on the general causes on &hich the climate of Guiana
de%ends'
According to the barometric height of 0an /ernando de A%ure* + find
from that to&n to the Boca de @avios the slo%e of the A%ure and the
=o&er >rinoco to be three inches and a quarter to a nautical mile of
nine hundred and fift" toises'- N- The A%ure itself has a slo%e of
thirteen inches to the mile'O .e ma" be sur%rised at the strength of
the current in a slo%e so little %erce%tibleP but + shall remind the
reader on this occasion* that* according to measurements made b" order
of Cr' Hastings* the Ganges &as found* in a course of sixt" miles
Ncom%rising the &indings*O to have also onl" four inches fall to a
mileP that the mean s&iftness of this river is* in the seasons of
drought* three miles an hour* and in those of rains six or eight
miles' The strength of the current* therefore* in the Ganges as in the
>rinoco* de%ends less on the slo%e of the bed* than on the
accumulation of the higher &aters* caused b" the abundance of the
rains* and the number of tributar" streams' Euro%ean colonists have
alread" been settled for t&o hundred and fift" "ears on the banks of
the >rinocoP and during this long %eriod of time* according to a
tradition &hich has been %ro%agated from generation to generation* the
%eriodical oscillations of the river Nthe time of the beginning of the
rising* and that &hen it attains its maximumO have never been retarded
more than t&elve or fifteen da"s'
.hen vessels that dra& a good deal of &ater sail u% to&ard Angostura
in the months of 6anuar" and /ebruar"* b" favour of the seaHbreeRe and
the tide* the" run the risk of taking the ground' The navigable
channel often changes its breadth and directionP no buo"* ho&ever* has
"et been laid do&n* to indicate an" de%osit of earth formed in the bed
of the river* &here the &aters have lost their original velocit"'
There exists on the south of $a%e Barima* as &ell b" the river of this
name as b" the Rio Coroca and several estuaries NesteresO a
communication &ith the English colon" of Essequibo' 0mall vessels can
%enetrate into the interior as far as the Rio Poumaron* on &hich are
the ancient settlements of Sealand and Ciddleburg' Heretofore this
communication interested the government of $aracas onl" on account of
the facilit" it furnished to an illicit tradeP but since Berbice*
(emerara* and Essequibo have fallen into the hands of a more %o&erful
neighbour* it fixes the attention of the 0%anish Americans as being
connected &ith the securit" of their frontiers' Rivers &hich have a
course %arallel to the coast* and are no&here farther distant from it
than five or six nautical miles* characteriRe the &hole of the shore
bet&een the >rinoco and the AmaRon'
Ten leagues distant from $a%e Barima* the great bed of the >rinoco is
divided for the first time into t&o branches of t&o thousand toises in
breadth' The" are kno&n b" the +ndian names of Sacu%ana and +mataca'
The first* &hich is the northernmost* communicates on the &est of the
islands $ongrejos and del Burro &ith the bocas chicas of =auran*
@uina* and Cariusas' As the +sla del Burro disa%%ears in the time of
great inundations* it is unha%%il" not suited to fortifications' The
southern bank of the braRo +mataca is cut b" a lab"rinth of little
channels* into &hich the Rio +mataca and the Rio Aquire flo&' A long
series of little granitic hills rises in the fertile savannahs bet&een
the +mataca and the $u"uniP it is a %rolongation of the $ordilleras of
Parima* &hich* bounding the horiRon south of Angostura* forms the
celebrated cataracts of the Rio $aroni* and a%%roaches the >rinoco
like a %rojecting ca%e near the little fort of ieja Gu"ana' The
%o%ulous missions of the $aribbee and Guiana +ndians* governed b" the
$atalonian $a%uchins* lie near the sources of the +mataca and the
Aquire' The easternmost of these missions are those of Ciamu* $amamu*
and Palmar* situate in a hill" countr"* &hich extends to&ards
Tu%uquen* 0anta Caria* and the illa de ?%ata' Going u% the Rio
Aquire* and directing "our course across the %astures to&ards the
south* "ou reach the mission of Belem de Tumeremo* and thence the
confluence of the $urumu &ith the Rio $u"uni* &here the 0%anish %ost
or destacamento de $u"uni &as formerl" established' + enter into this
to%ogra%hical detail because the Rio $u"uni* or $uduvini* runs
%arallel to the >rinoco from &est to east* through an extent of 7'9 or
! degrees of longitude*- and furnishes an excellent natural boundar"
bet&een the territor" of $aracas and that of English Guiana' N-
+ncluding the Rio 6uruam* one of the %rinci%al branches of the $u"uni'
The (utch militar" %ost is five leagues &est of the union of $u"uni
&ith the Essequibo* &here the former river receives the CaRuruni'O
The t&o great branches of the >rinoco* the Sacu%ana and the +mataca*
remain se%arate for fourteen leagues5 on going u% farther* the &aters
of the river are found united- in a single channel extremel" broad' N-
At this %oint of union are found t&o villages of Guaraons' The" also
bear the names of +mataca and Sacu%ana'O This channel is near eight
leagues longP at its &estern extremit" a second bifurcation a%%earsP
and as the summit of the delta is in the northern branch of the
bifurcated river* this %art of the >rinoco is highl" im%ortant for the
militar" defence of the countr"' All the channels- that terminate in
the bocas chicas* rise from the same %oint of the trunk of the
>rinoco' N- $ano de Canamo grande* $ano de Canamo chico* $ano
Pedernales* $ano Cacareo* $ano $utu%iti* $ano Cacuona* $ano grande de
Cariusas* etc' The last three branches form b" their union the sinuous
channel called the uelta del Torno'O The branch N$ano CanamoO that
se%arates from it near the village of 0an Rafael has no ramification
till after a course of three or four leaguesP and b" %lacing a small
fort above the island of $haguanes* Angostura might be defended
against an enem" that should attem%t to %enetrate b" one of the bocas
chicas' +n m" time the station of the gunHboats &as east of 0an
Rafael* near the northern bank of the >rinoco' This is the %oint &hich
vessels must %ass in sailing u% to&ard Angostura b" the northern
channel* that of 0an Rafael* &hich is the broadest but the most
shallo&'
0ix leagues above the %oint &here the >rinoco sends off a branch to
the bocas chicas is %laced an ancient fort Nlos $astillos de la ieja
or Antigua Gua"ana*O the first construction of &hich goes back to the
sixteenth centur"' +n this s%ot the bed of the river is studded &ith
rock" islandsP and it is asserted that its breadth is nearl" six
hundred and fift" toises' The to&n is almost destro"ed* but the
fortifications subsist* and are &ell &orth" the attention of the
government of Terra /irma' There is a magnificent vie& from the
batter" established on a bluff northH&est of the ancient to&n* &hich*
at the %eriod of great inundations* is entirel" surrounded &ith &ater'
Pools that communicate &ith the >rinoco form natural basins* ada%ted
for the rece%tion of vessels that &ant re%airs'
After having %assed the little forts of ieja Gua"ana* the bed of the
>rinoco again &idens' The state of cultivation of the countr" on the
t&o banks affords a striking contrast' >n the north is seen the desert
%art of the %rovince of $umana* ste%%es N=lanosO destitute of
habitations* and extending be"ond the sources of the Rio Camo* to&ard
the tableland or mesa of Guani%a' >n the south &e find three %o%ulous
villages belonging to the missions of $aron"* namel"* 0an Ciguel de
?riala* 0an /elix and 0an 6oaquin' The last of these villages* situate
on the banks of the $aron"* immediatel" belo& the great cataract* is
considered as the embarcadero of the $atalonian missions' >n
navigating more to the east* bet&een the mouth of the $aron" and
Angostura* the %ilot should avoid the rocks of Guaram%o* the sandbank
of Camo* and the Piedra del Rosario' /rom the numerous materials &hich
+ brought home* and from astronomical discussions* the %rinci%al
results of &hich + have indicated above* + have constructed a ma% of
the countr" bounded b" the delta of the >rinoco* the $aron"* and the
$u"uni' This %art of Guiana* from its %roximit" to the coast* &ill
some da" offer the greatest attraction to Euro%ean settlers'
The &hole %o%ulation of this vast %rovince in its %resent state is*
&ith the exce%tion of a fe& 0%anish %arishes* scattered on the banks
of the =o&er >rinoco* and subject to t&o monastic governments'
Estimating the number of the inhabitants of Guiana* &ho do not live in
savage inde%endence* at thirt"Hfive thousand* &e find nearl"
t&ent"Hfour thousand settled in the missions* and thus &ithdra&n as it
&ere from the direct influence of the secular arm' At the %eriod of m"
vo"age* the territor" of the >bservantin monks of 0t' /rancis
contained seven thousand three hundred inhabitants* and that of the
$a%uchinos $atalanes seventeen thousandP an astonishing dis%ro%ortion*
&hen &e reflect on the smallness of the latter territor" com%ared to
the vast banks of the ?%%er >rinoco* the Ataba%o* the $assiquiare and
the Rio @egro' +t results from these statements that nearl" t&oHthirds
of the %o%ulation of a %rovince of sixteen thousand eight hundred
square leagues are found concentrated bet&een the Rio +mataca and the
to&n of 0anto Thome del Angostura* on a s%ace of ground onl"
fift"Hfive leagues in length* and thirt" in breadth' Both of these
monastic governments are equall" inaccessible to .hites* and form
status in statu' The first* that of the >bservantins* + have described
from m" o&n observationsP it remains for me to record here the notions
+ could %rocure res%ecting the second of these governments* that of
the $atalonian $a%uchins' /atal civil dissensions and e%idemic fevers
have of late "ears diminished the longHincreasing %ros%erit" of the
missions of the $aron"P but* not&ithstanding these losses* the region
&hich &e are going to examine is still highl" interesting &ith res%ect
to %olitical econom"'
The missions of the $atalonian $a%uchins* &hich in 1I8; contained at
least sixt" thousand head of cattle graRing in the savannahs* extend
from the eastern banks of the $aron" and the Paragua as far as the
banks of the +mataca* the $urumu* and the $u"uniP at the southHeast
the" border on English Guiana* or the colon" of EssequiboP and to&ard
the south* in going u% the desert banks of the Paragua and the
Paraguamasi* and crossing the $ordillera of Pacaraimo* the" touch the
Portuguese settlements on the Rio Branco' The &hole of this countr" is
o%en* full of fine savannahs* and no &a" resembling that through &hich
&e %assed on the ?%%er >rinoco' The forests become im%enetrable onl"
on advancing to&ard the southP on the north are meado&s intersected
&ith &ood" hills' The most %icturesque scenes lie near the falls of
the $aron"* and in that chain of mountains* t&o hundred and fift"
toises high* &hich se%arates the tributar" streams of the >rinoco from
those of the $u"uni' There are situate the illa de ?%ata*- the
ca%ital of the missions* 0anta Caria* and $u%a%ui' N- /ounded in 13L7'
Po%ulation in 1323* L93 soulsP in 1I8!* 3L2 souls' The most %o%ulous
villages of these missions* Alta Gracia* $u%a%ui* 0anta Rosa de $ura*
and Guri* had bet&een L88 and 288 inhabitants in 1323P but in 1I1I
e%idemic fevers diminished the %o%ulation more than a third' +n some
missions these diseases have s&e%t a&a" nearl" half of the
inhabitants'O 0mall tableHlands afford a health" and tem%erate
climate' $acao* rice* cotton* indigo* and sugar gro& in abundance
&herever a virgin soil* covered &ith a thick coat of grasses* is
subjected to cultivation' The first $hristian settlements in those
countries are not* + believe* of an earlier date than 1371' The
elements of &hich the %resent %o%ulation is com%osed are the three
+ndian races of the Gua"anos* the $aribs and the Gua"cas' The last are
a %eo%le of mountaineers and are far from being so diminutive in siRe
as the Gua"cas &hom &e found at Esmeralda' +t is difficult to fix them
to the soilP and the three most modern missions in &hich the" have
been collected* those of $ura* $urucu"* and Arechica* are alread"
destro"ed' The Gua"anos* &ho earl" in the sixteenth centur" gave their
name to the &hole of that vast %rovince* are less intelligent but
milderP and more eas"* if not to civiliRe* at least to subjugate* than
the $aribs' Their language a%%ears to belong to the great branch of
the $aribbee and Tamanac tongues' +t dis%la"s the same analogies of
roots and grammatical forms* &hich are observed bet&een the 0anscrit*
the Persian* the Greek* and the German' +t is not eas" to fix the
forms of &hat is indefinite b" its natureP and to agree on the
differences &hich should be admitted bet&een dialects* derivative
languages and motherHtongues' The 6esuits of Paragua" have made kno&n
to us another tribe of Gua"anos- in the southern hemis%here* living in
the thick forests of Parana' N- The" are also called Guananas* or
Gualachas'O Though it cannot be denied in general that in consequence
of distant migrations*- N- =ike the celebrated migrations of the
>maguas* or >meguas'O the nations that are settled north and south of
the AmaRon have had communications &ith each other* + &ill not decide
&hether the Gua"anos of Parana and of ?rugua" exhibit an" other
relation to those of $aron"* than that of an homonom"* &hich is
%erha%s onl" accidental'
The most considerable $hristian settlements are no& concentrated
bet&een the mountains of 0anta Caria* the mission of 0an Ciguel and
the eastern bank of the $aron"* from 0an Buenaventura as far as Guri
and the embarcadero of 0an 6oaquinP a s%ace of ground &hich has not
more than four hundred and sixt" square leagues of surface' The
savannahs to the east and south are almost uninhabitedP &e find there
onl" the solitar" missions of Belem* Tumuremo* Tu%uquen* Pued%a* and
0anta $lara' +t &ere to be &ished that the s%ots %referred for
cultivation &ere distant from the rivers &here the land is higher and
the air more favourable to health' The Rio $aron"* the &aters of
&hich* of an admirable clearness* are not &ell stocked &ith fish* is
free from shoals from the illa de Barceloneta* a little above the
confluence of the Paragua* as far as the village of Guri' /arther
north it &inds bet&een innumerable islands and rocksP and onl" the
small boats of the $aribs venture to navigate amid these raudales* or
ra%ids of the $aron"' Ha%%il" the river is often divided into several
branchesP and consequentl" that can be chosen &hich* according to the
height of the &aters* %resents the fe&est &hirl%ools and shoals' The
great fall* celebrated for the %icturesque beaut" of its situation* is
a little above the village of Aguacaqua* or $aron"* &hich in m" time
had a %o%ulation of seven hundred +ndians' This cascade is said to be
from fifteen to t&ent" feet highP but the bar does not cross the &hole
bed of the river* &hich is more than three hundred feet broad' .hen
the %o%ulation is more extended to&ard the east* it &ill avail itself
of the course of the small rivers +mataca and Aquire* the navigation
of &hich is %rett" free from danger' The monks* &ho like to kee%
themselves isolated* in order to &ithdra& from the e"e of the secular
%o&er* have been hitherto un&illing to settle on the banks of the
>rinoco' +t is* ho&ever* b" this river onl"* or b" the $u"uni and the
Essequibo* that the missions of $aron" can ex%ort their %roductions'
The latter &a" has not "et been tried* though several $hristian
settlements- are formed on one of the %rinci%al tributar" streams of
the $u"uni* the Rio 6uruario' N- Guaci%ati* Tu%uquen* Angel de la
$ustodia* and $ura* &here the militar" %ost of the frontiers &as
stationed in 1I88* &hich had been ancientl" %laced at the confluence
of the $u"uni and the $urumu'O This stream furnishes* at the %eriod of
the great s&ellings* the remarkable %henomenon of a bifurcation' +t
communicates b" the 6uraricuima and the Aura%a &ith the Rio $aron"P so
that the land com%rised bet&een the >rinoco* the sea* the $u"uni* and
the $aron"* becomes a real island' /ormidable ra%ids im%ede the
navigation of the ?%%er $u"uniP and hence of late an attem%t has been
made to o%en a road to the colon" of Essequibo much more to the
southHeast* in order to fall in &ith the $u"uni much belo& the mouth
of the $urumu'
The &hole of this southern territor" is traversed b" hordes of
inde%endent $aribsP the feeble remains of that &arlike %eo%le &ho &ere
so formidable to the missionaries till 13!! and 13!9* at &hich %eriod
the res%ectable bisho% Gervais de =abrid*- N- $onsecrated a bisho% for
the four %arts of the &orld Nobis%o %ara las quatro %artes del mundoO
b" %o%e Benedict J+++'O canon of the metro%olitan cha%ter of ="on*
/ather =o%eR* and several other ecclesiastics* %erished b" the hands
of the $aribs' These dangers* too frequent formerl"* exist no longer*
either in the missions of $aron"* or in those of the >rinocoP but the
inde%endent $aribs continue* on account of their connection &ith the
(utch colonists of Essequibo* an object of mistrust and hatred to the
government of Guiana' These tribes favour the contraband trade along
the coast* and b" the channels or estuaries that join the Rio Barima
to the Rio CorocaP the" carr" off the cattle belonging to the
missionaries* and excite the +ndians recentl" converted* and living
&ithin the sound of the bell* to return to the forests' The free
hordes have ever"&here a %o&erful interest in o%%osing the %rogress of
cultivation and the encroachments of the .hites' The $aribs and the
Aruacas %rocure fireHarms at Essequibo and (emeraraP and &hen the
traffic of American slaves N%oitosO &as most active* adventurers of
(utch origin took %art in these incursions on the Paragua* the
Erevato* and the entuario' CanHhunting took %lace on these banks* as
heretofore Nand %robabl" stillO on those of the 0enegal and the
Gambia' +n both &orlds Euro%eans have em%lo"ed the same artifices* and
committed the same atrocities* to maintain a trade that dishonours
humanit"' The missionaries of the $aron" and the >rinoco attribute all
the evils the" suffer from the inde%endent $aribs to the hatred of
their neighbours* the $alvinist %reachers of Essequibo' Their &orks
are therefore filled &ith com%laints of the secta diabolica de $alvino
" de =utero* and against the heretics of (utch Guiana* &ho also think
fit sometimes to go on missions* and s%read the germs of social life
among the savages'
>f all the vegetable %roductions of those countries* that &hich the
industr" of the $atalonian $a%uchins has rendered the most celebrated
is the tree that furnishes the $ortex angosturae* &hich is erroneousl"
designated b" the name of cinchona of $aron"' .e &ere fortunate enough
to make it first kno&n as a ne& genus distinct from the cinchona* and
belonging to the famil" of meliaceae* or of Ranthox"lus' This salutar"
drug of 0outh America &as formerl" attributed to the Brucea ferruginea
&hich gro&s in Ab"ssinia* to the Cagnolia glauca* and to the Cagnolia
%lumieri' (uring the dangerous disease of C' Bon%land* C' Ravago sent
a confidential %erson to the missions of $aron"* to %rocure for us* b"
favour of the $a%uchins of ?%ata* branches of the tree in flo&er &hich
&e &ished to be able to describe' .e obtained ver" fine s%ecimens* the
leaves of &hich* eighteen inches long* diffused an agreeable aromatic
smell' .e soon %erceived that the cus%are Nthe indigenous name of the
cascarilla or corteRa del AngosturaO forms a ne& genusP and on sending
the %lants of the >rinoco to C' .illdenou&* + begged he &ould dedicate
this %lant to C' Bon%land' The tree* kno&n at %resent b" the name of
Bon%landia trifoliata* gro&s at the distance of five or six leagues
from the eastern bank of the $aron"* at the foot of the hills that
surround the missions $a%a%ui* ?%ata and Alta Gracia' The $aribbee
+ndians make use of an infusion of the bark of the cus%are* &hich the"
consider as a strengthening remed"' C' Bon%land discovered the same
tree &est of $umana* in the gulf of 0anta /e* &here it ma" become one
of the articles of ex%ortation from @e& Andalusia'
The $atalonian monks %re%are an extract of the $ortex angosturae &hich
the" send to the convents of their %rovince* and &hich deserves to be
better kno&n in the north of Euro%e' +t is to be ho%ed that the
febrifuge and antiHd"senteric bark of the bon%landia &ill continue to
be em%lo"ed* not&ithstanding the introduction of another* described b"
the name of /alse Angostura bark* and often confounded &ith the
former' This false Angostura* or Angostura %seudoHferruginea* comes*
it is said* from the Brucea antid"sentericaP it acts %o&erfull" on the
nerves* %roduces violent attacks of tetanus* and contains* according
to the ex%eriments of Pelletier and $aventon* a %eculiar alkaline
substance- analogous to mor%hine and str"chnine' N- Brucine' C'
Pelletier has &isel" avoided using the &ord angosturine* because it
might indicate a substance taken from the real $ortex angosturae* or
Bon%landia trifoliata' NAnnales de $himie volume 17 %age 113'O .e sa&
at Peru the barks of t&o ne& s%ecies of &einmannia and &intera mixed
&ith those of cinchonaP a mixture less dangerous* but still injurious*
on account of the su%erabundance of tannin and acrid matter contained
in the false cascarilla'O As the tree &hich "ields the real $ortex
angosturae does not gro& in great abundance* it is to be &ished that
%lantations of it &ere formed' The $atalonian monks are &ell fitted to
s%read this kind of cultivationP the" are more economical*
industrious* and active than the other missionaries' The" have alread"
established tanH"ards and cottonHs%inning in a fe& villagesP and if
the" suffer the +ndians henceforth to enjo" the fruit of their
labours* the" &ill find great resources in the native %o%ulation'
$oncentered on a small s%ace of land* these monks have the
consciousness of their %olitical im%ortance* and have from time to
time resisted the civil authorit"* and that of their bisho%' The
governors &ho reside at Angostura have struggled against them &ith
ver" unequal success* according as the ministr" of Cadrid sho&ed a
com%laisant deference for the ecclesiastical hierarch"* or sought to
limit its %o&er' +n 13LI (on Canuel $enturion carried off t&ent"
thousand head of cattle from the missionaries* in order to distribute
them among the indigent inhabitants' This liberalit"* exerted in a
manner not ver" legal* %roduced ver" serious consequences' The
governor &as disgraced on the com%laint of the $atalonian monks though
he had considerabl" extended the territor" of the missions to&ard the
south* and founded the illa de Barceloneta* above the confluence of
the $aron" &ith the Rio Paragua* and the $iudad de Guirior* near the
union of the Rio Paragua and the Paraguamusi' /rom that %eriod the
civil administration has carefull" avoided all intervention in the
affairs of the $a%uchins* &hose o%ulence has been exaggerated like
that of the 6esuits of Paragua"'
The missions of the $aron"* b" the configuration of their soil- and
the mixture of savannahs and arable lands* unite the advantages of the
=lanos of $alaboRo and the valle"s of Aragua' N- +t a%%ears that the
little tableHlands bet&een the mountains of ?%ata* $umanu* and
Tu%uquen* are more than one hundred and fift" toises above the level
of the sea'O The real &ealth of this countr" is founded on the care of
the herds and the cultivation of colonial %roduce' +t &ere to be
&ished that here* as in the fine and fertile %rovince of eneRuela*
the inhabitants* faithful to the labours of the fields* &ould not
addict themselves too hastil" to the research of mines' The exam%le of
German" and Cexico %roves* no doubt* that the &orking of metals is not
at all incom%atible &ith a flourishing state of agricultureP but*
according to %o%ular traditions* the banks of the $aron" lead to the
lake (orado and the %alace of the gilded man- N- El (orado* that is*
el re" o hombre dorado' 0ee volume 7'7!'O5 and this lake* and this
%alace* being a local fable* it might be dangerous to a&aken
remembrances &hich begin graduall" to be effaced' + &as assured that
in 13L8* the inde%endent $aribs &ent to $erro de Pajarcima* a mountain
to the south of ieja Gua"ana* to submit the decom%osed rock to the
action of &ashing' The goldHdust collected b" this labour &as %ut into
calabashes of the $rescentia cujete and sold to the (utch at
Essequibo' 0till more recentl"* some Cexican miners* &ho abused the
credulit" of (on 6ose Avalo* the intendant of $aracas* undertook a
ver" considerable &ork in the centre of the missions of the Rio
$aron"* near the to&n of ?%ata* in the $erros del Potrero and de
$hirica' The" declared that the &hole rock &as auriferousP
stam%ingHmills* brocards* and smeltingHfurnaces &ere constructed'
After having ex%ended ver" large sums* it &as discovered that the
%"rites contained no trace &hatever of gold' These essa"s* though
fruitless* served to rene& the ancient idea that ever" shining rock in
Guiana is teeming &ith gold Nuna madre del oroO' @ot contented &ith
taking the micaHslate to the furnace* strata of am%hibolic slates &ere
sho&n to me near Angostura* &ithout an" mixture of heterogeneous
substances* &hich had been &orked under the &himsical name of black
ore of gold Noro negroO'
This is the %lace to make kno&n* in order to com%lete the descri%tion
of the >rinoco* the %rinci%al results of m" researches on El (orado*
the .hite 0ea* or =aguna Parime* and the sources of the >rinoco* as
the" are marked in the most recent ma%s' The idea of an auriferous
earth* eminentl" rich* has been connected* ever since the end of the
sixteenth centur"* &ith that of a great inland lake* &hich furnishes
at the same time &aters to the >rinoco* the Rio Branco and the Rio
Essequibo' + believe* from a more accurate kno&ledge of the countr"* a
long and laborious stud" of the 0%anish authors &ho treat of El
(orado* and* above all* from com%aring a great number of ancient ma%s*
arranged in chronological order* + have succeeded in discovering the
source of these errors' All fables have some real foundationP that of
El (orado resembles those m"ths of antiquit"* &hich* travelling from
countr" to countr"* have been successivel" ada%ted to different
localities' +n the sciences* in order to distinguish truth from error*
it often suffices to retrace the histor" of o%inions* and to follo&
their successive develo%ments' The discussion to &hich + shall devote
the end of this cha%ter is im%ortant* not onl" because it thro&s light
on the events of the $onquest* and that long series of disastrous
ex%editions made in search of El (orado* the last of &hich &as in the
"ear 1339P it also furnishes* in addition to this sim%l" historical
interest* another* more substantial and more generall" felt* that of
rectif"ing the geogra%h" of 0outh America* and of disembarrassing the
ma%s %ublished in our da"s of those great lakes* and that strange
lab"rinth of rivers* %laced as if b" chance bet&een sixt" and
sixt"Hsix degrees of longitude' @o man in Euro%e believes an" longer
in the &ealth of Guiana and the em%ire of the Grand Patiti' The to&n
of Canoa and its %alaces covered &ith %lates of mass" gold have long
since disa%%earedP but the geogra%hical a%%aratus serving to adorn the
fable of El (orado* the lake Parima* &hich* similar to the lake of
Cexico* reflected the image of so man" sum%tuous edifices* has been
religiousl" %reserved b" geogra%hers' +n the s%ace of three centuries*
the same traditions have been differentl" modifiedP from ignorance of
the American languages* rivers have been taken for lakes* and %ortages
for branches of riversP one lake* the $assi%a* has been made to
advance five degrees of latitude to&ard the south* &hile another* the
Parima or (orado* has been trans%orted the distance of a hundred
leagues from the &estern to the eastern bank of the Rio Branco' /rom
these various changes* the %roblem &e are going to solve has become
much more com%licated than is generall" su%%osed' The number of
geogra%hers &ho discuss the basis of a ma%* &ith regard to the three
%oints of measures* of the com%arison of descri%tive &orks* and of the
et"mological stud"- of names* is extremel" small' N- + use this
ex%ression* %erha%s an im%ro%er one* to mark a s%ecies of %hilological
examination* to &hich the names of rivers* lakes* mountains* and
tribes* must be subjected* in order to discover their identit" in a
great number of ma%s' The a%%arent diversit" of names arises %artl"
from the difference of the dialects s%oken b" one and the same famil"
of %eo%le* %artl" from the im%erfection of our Euro%ean orthogra%h"*
and from the extreme negligence &ith &hich geogra%hers co%" one
another' .e recogniRe &ith difficult" the Rio ?au%e in the Guau%e or
Gua%eP the Jie* in the GuaiciaP the Raudal de Atures* in AthuleP the
$aribbees* in the $alinas and GalibisP the Guaraunos or ?arau* in the
>ara&HitsP etc' +t is* ho&ever* b" similar mutations of letters* that
the 0%aniards have made hijo of filiusP hambre* of famesP and /eli%o
de ?rre* and even ?tre* of the $onquistador Phili% von HutenP that the
Tamanacs in America have substituted choraro for soldadoP and the 6e&s
in $hina* +alemeiohang for 6eremiah' Analog" and a certain
et"mological tact must guide geogra%hers in researches of this kind*
in &hich the" &ould be ex%osed to serious errors* if the" &ere not to
stud" at the same time the res%ective situations of the u%%er and
lo&er tributar" streams of the same river' >ur ma%s of America are
overloaded &ith names* for &hich rivers have been created' This desire
of com%iling* of filling u% vacancies* and of em%lo"ing* &ithout
investigation* heterogeneous materials* has given our ma%s of
countries the least visited an a%%earance of exactness* the falsit" of
&hich is discovered &hen &e arrive on the s%ot'O Almost all the ma%s
of 0outh America &hich have a%%eared since the "ear 1339 are* in &hat
regards the interior of the countr"* com%rised bet&een the ste%%es of
eneRuela and the river of the AmaRons* bet&een the eastern back of
the Andes and the coast of $a"enne* a sim%le co%" of the great 0%anish
ma% of =a $ruR >lmedilla' A line* indicating the extent of countr"
&hich (on 6ose 0olano boasted of having discovered and %acified b" his
troo%s and emissaries* &as taken for the road follo&ed b" that
officer* &ho never &ent be"ond 0an /ernando de Ataba%o* a village one
hundred and sixt" leagues distant from the %retended lake Parima' The
stud" of the &ork of /ather $aulin* &ho &as the historiogra%her of the
ex%edition of 0olano* and &ho states ver" clearl"* from the testimon"
of the +ndians* ho& the name of the river Parima gave rise to the
fable of El (orado* and of an inland sea* has been neglected' @o use
either has been made of a ma% of the >rinoco* three "ears %osterior to
that of =a $ruR* and traced b" 0urville from the collection of true or
h"%othetical materials %reserved in the archives of the (es%acho
universal de +ndias' The %rogress of geogra%h"* as manifested on our
ma%s* is much slo&er than might be su%%osed from the number of useful
results &hich are found scattered in the &orks of different nations'
Astronomical observations and to%ogra%hic information accumulate
during a long la%se of "ears* &ithout being made use ofP and from a
%rinci%le of stabilit" and %reservation* in other res%ects
%raise&orth"* those &ho construct ma%s often choose rather to add
nothing* than to sacrifice a lake* a chain of mountains* or an
interbranching of rivers* &hich have figured there during ages'
The fabulous traditions of El (orado and the lake Parima having been
diversel" modified according to the as%ect of the countries to &hich
the" &ere to be ada%ted* &e must distinguish &hat the" contain that is
real from &hat is merel" imaginar"' To avoid entering here into minute
%articulars* + shall begin first to call the attention of the reader
to those s%ots &hich have been* at various %eriods* the theatre of the
ex%editions undertaken for the discover" of El (orado' .hen &e have
learnt to kno& the as%ect of the countr"* and the local circumstances*
such as the" can no& be described* it &ill be eas" to conceive ho& the
different h"%otheses recorded on our ma%s have taken rise b" degrees*
and have modified each other' To o%%ose an error* it is sufficient to
recall to mind the variable forms in &hich &e have seen it a%%ear at
different %eriods'
Till the middle of the eighteenth centur"* all that vast s%ace of land
com%rised bet&een the mountains of /rench Guiana and the forests of
the ?%%er >rinoco* bet&een the sources of the $aron" and the River
AmaRon Nfrom 8 to ; degrees of north latitude* and from 93 to LI
degrees of longitudeO* &as so little kno&n that geogra%hers could
%lace in it lakes &here the" %leased* create communications bet&een
rivers* and figure chains of mountains more or less loft"' The" have
made full use of this libert"P and the situation of lakes* as &ell as
the course and branches of rivers* has been varied in so man" &a"s
that it &ould not be sur%rising if among the great number of ma%s some
&ere found that trace the real state of things' The field of
h"%otheses is no& singularl" narro&ed' + have determined the longitude
of Esmeralda in the ?%%er >rinocoP more to the east amid the %lains of
Parima Na land as unkno&n as .angara and (arH0ale"* in AfricaO* a band
of t&ent" leagues broad has been travelled over from north to south
along the banks of the Rio $aron" and the Rio Branco in the longitude
of sixt"Hthree degrees' This is the %erilous road &hich &as taken b"
(on Antonio 0antos in going from 0anto Thome del Angostura to Rio
@egro and the AmaRonP b" this road also the colonists of 0urinam
communicated ver" recentl" &ith the inhabitants of Grand Para' This
road divides the terra incognita of Parima into t&o unequal %ortionsP
and fixes limits at the same time to the sources of the >rinoco* &hich
it is no longer %ossible to carr" back indefinitel" to&ard the east*
&ithout su%%osing that the bed of the Rio Branco* &hich flo&s from
north to south* is crossed b" the bed of the ?%%er >rinoco* &hich
flo&s from east to &est' +f &e follo& the course of the Rio Branco* or
that stri% of cultivated land &hich is de%endent on the $a%itania
General of Grand Para* &e see lakes* %artl" imaginar" and %artl"
enlarged b" geogra%hers* forming t&o distinct grou%s' The first of
these grou%s includes the lakes &hich the" %lace bet&een the Esmeralda
and the Rio BrancoP and to the second belong those that are su%%osed
to lie bet&een the Rio Branco and the mountains of (utch and /rench
Guiana' +t results from this sketch that the question &hether there
exists a lake Parima on the east of the Rio Branco is altogether
foreign to the %roblem of the sources of the >rinoco'
Beside the countr" &hich &e have just noticed Nthe (orado de la
Parime* traversed b" the Rio BrancoO* another %art of America is
found* t&o hundred and sixt" leagues to&ard the &est* near the eastern
back of the $ordillera of the Andes* equall" celebrated in the
ex%editions to El (orado' This is the Ceso%otamia bet&een the $aqueta*
the Rio @egro* the ?au%es* and the ,urubesh* of &hich + have alread"
given a %articular accountP it is the (orado of the >maguas &hich
contains =ake Canoa of /ather Acunha* the =aguna de oro of the Guanes
and the auriferous land &hence /ather /ritR received %lates of beaten
gold in his mission on the AmaRon* to&ard the end of the seventeenth
centur"'
The first and above all the most celebrated enter%rises attem%ted in
search of El (orado &ere directed to&ard the eastern back of the Andes
of @e& Grenada' /ired &ith the ideas &hich an +ndian of Tacunga had
given of the &ealth of the king or Raque of $undirumarca* 0ebastian de
BelalcaRar* in 19!9* sent his ca%tains Anasco and Am%udia* to discover
the valle" of El (orado*- t&elve da"sG journe" from Guallabamba*
consequentl" in the mountains bet&een Pasto and Po%a"an' N- El valle
del (orado' Pineda relates5 que mas adelante de la %rovincia de la
$anela se hallan tierras mu" ricas* adonde andaban los hombres armados
de %iecas " jo"as de oro* " que no havia sierra* ni montana' :Be"ond
the %rovince of $anela there are found ver" rich countries Nthough
&ithout mountainsO in &hich the natives are adorned &ith trinkets and
%lates of gold'< Herrera dec' 9 lib' 18 ca%' 1; and dec' L lib' I ca%'
L Geogr' Blaviana volume 11 %age 7L1' 0outhe" tome 1 %ages 3I and
!3!'O The information &hich Pedro de Anasco had obtained from the
natives* joined to that &hich &as received subsequentl" N19!LO b" (iaR
de Pineda* &ho had discovered the %rovinces of Buixos and $anela*
bet&een the Rio @a%o and the Rio Pastaca* gave birth to the idea that
on the east of the @evados of Tunguragua* $a"ambe* and Po%a"an* &ere
vast %lains* abounding in %recious metals* and &here the inhabitants
&ere covered &ith armour of mass" gold' GonRales PiRarro* in searching
for these treasures* discovered accidentall"* in 19!2* the
cinnamonHtrees of America N=aurus cinnamomoides* Cut'OP and /rancisco
de >rellana &ent do&n the @a%o* to reach the river AmaRon' 0ince that
%eriod ex%editions &ere undertaken at the same time from eneRuela*
@e& Grenada* Buito* Peru* and even from BraRil and the Rio de la
Plata*- for the conquest of El (orado' N- @uno de $haves &ent from the
$iudad de la Asum%cion* situate on Rio Paragua"* to discover* in the
latitude of 7; degrees south* the vast em%ire of El (orado* &hich &as
ever"&here su%%osed to lie on the eastern back of the Andes'O Those of
&hich the remembrance have been best %reserved* and &hich have most
contributed to s%read the fable of the riches of the Canaos* the
>maguas* and the Gua"%es* as &ell as the existence of the lagunas de
oro* and the to&n of the gilded king NGrand Patiti* Grand Coxo* Grand
Paru* or EnimO* are the incursions made to the south of the Guaviare*
the Rio /ragua* and the $aqueta' >rellana* having found idols of mass"
gold* had fixed menGs ideas on an auriferous land bet&een the Pa%amene
and the Guaviare' His narrative* and those of the vo"ages of 6orge de
Es%ira NGeorge von 0%eierO* Hernan PereR de Buesada* and /eli%e de
?rre NPhili% von HutenO* undertaken in 19!L* 19;7* and 19;9* furnish*
amid much exaggeration* %roofs of ver" exact local kno&ledge'- N- .e
ma" be sur%rised to see* that the ex%edition of Huten is %assed over
in absolute silence b" Herrera Ndec' 3 lib' 18 ca%' 3 volume ; 7!IO'
/ra" Pedro 0imon gives the &hole %articulars of it* true or fabulousP
but he com%osed his &ork from materials that &ere unkno&n to Herrera'O
.hen these are examined merel" in a geogra%hical %oint of vie&* &e
%erceive the constant desire of the first conquistadores to reach the
land com%rised bet&een the sources of the Rio @egro* of the ?au%es
NGua%eO* and of the 6u%ura or $aqueta' This is the land &hich* in
order to distinguish it from El (orado de la Parime* &e have called El
(orado des >maguas'- N- +n 19L8 Pedro de ?rsua even took the title of
Governador del (orado " de >magua' /ra" Pedro 0imon volume L cha%ter
18 %age ;!8'O @o doubt the &hole countr" bet&een the AmaRon and the
>rinoco &as vaguel" kno&n b" the name of las Provincias del (oradoP
but in this vast extent of forests* savannahs* and mountains* the
%rogress of those &ho sought the great lake &ith auriferous banks* and
the to&n of the gilded king* &as directed to&ards t&o %oints onl"* on
the northHeast and southH&est of the Rio @egroP that is* to Parima Nor
the isthmus bet&een the $aron"* the Essequibo* and the Rio BrancoO*
and to the ancient abode of the Canaos* the inhabitants of the banks
of the ,urubesh' + have just mentioned the situation of the latter
s%ot* &hich is celebrated in the histor" of the conquest from 19!9 to
19L8P and it remains for me to s%eak of the configuration of the
countr" bet&een the 0%anish missions of the Rio $aron"* and the
Portuguese missions of the Rio Branco or Parima' This is the countr"
l"ing near the =o&er >rinoco* the Esmeralda* and /rench and (utch
Guiana* on &hich* since the end of the sixteenth centur"* the
enter%rises and exaggerated narratives of Raleigh have shed so bright
a s%lendour'
/rom the general dis%osition of the course of the >rinoco* directed
successivel" to&ards the &est* the north* and the east* its mouth lies
almost in the same meridian as its sources5 so that b" %roceeding from
ieja Gu"ana to the south the traveller %asses through the &hole of
the countr" in &hich geogra%hers have successivel" %laced an inland
sea NCar BlancoO* and the different lakes &hich are connected &ith the
El (orado de la Parime' .e find first the Rio $aron"* &hich is formed
b" the union of t&o branches of almost equal magnitude* the $aron"
%ro%erl" so called* and the Rio Paragua' The missionaries of Piritu
call the latter river a lake NlagunaO5 it is full of shoals* and
little cascadesP but* %assing through a countr" entirel" flat* it is
subject at the same time to great inundations* and its real bed Nsu
verdadera caxaO can scarcel" be discovered' The natives have given it
the name of Paragua or Parava* &hich means in the $aribbee language
sea* or great lake' These local circumstances and this denomination no
doubt have given rise to the idea of transforming the Rio Paragua* a
tributar" stream of the $aron"* into a lake called $assi%a* on account
of the $assi%agotos*- &ho lived in those countries' N- Raleigh %ages
L; and L2' + al&a"s quote* &hen the contrar" is not ex%ressl" said*
the original edition of 192L' Have these tribes of $assi%agtos*
E%uremei* and >rinoque%oni* so often mentioned b" Raleigh*
disa%%earedT or did some misa%%rehension give rise to these
denominationsT + am sur%rised to find the +ndian &ords :of one of the
different $arib dialectsT< ERrabeta cassi%una aquere&ana* translated
b" Raleigh* the great %rinces or greatest commander' 0ince acar&ana
certainl" signifies a chief* or an" %erson &ho commands NRaleigh %ages
L and 3O* cassi%una %erha%s means great* and lake $assi%a is
s"non"mous &ith great lake' +n the same manner $assHiquiare ma" be a
great river* for iquiare* like veni* is* an the north of the AmaRon* a
termination common to all rivers' Goto* ho&ever* in $assi%aHgoto* is a
$aribbee term denoting a tribe'O Raleigh gives this basin fort" miles
in breadthP and* as all the lakes of Parima must have auriferous
sands* he does not fail to assert that in summer* &hen the &aters
retire* %ieces of gold of considerable &eight are found there'
The sources of the tributar" streams of the $aron"* the Arui* and the
$aura N$aroli* Arvi* and $aora*- of the ancient geogra%hers N-
(GAnville names the Rio $aura* $oariP and the Rio Arui* Aroa"' + have
not been able hitherto to guess &hat is meant b" the Aloica NAtoca*
Atoica of RaleighO* &hich issues from the lake $assi%a* bet&een the
$aura and the Arui'OO being ver" near each other* this suggested the
idea of making all these rivers take their rise from the %retended
lake $assi%a'- N- Raleigh makes onl" the $aron" and the Arui issue
from it NHondius* @ieu&e $aerte van het &onderbare landt Guiana*
besocht door 0ir .alter Raleigh* 192; to 192LO5 but in later ma%s* for
instance that of 0anson* the Rio $aura issues also from =ake $assi%a'O
0anson has so much enlarged this lake* that he gives it fort"Ht&o
leagues in length* and fifteen in breadth' The ancient geogra%hers
%laced o%%osite to each other* &ith ver" little hesitation* the
tributar" streams of the t&o banks of a riverP and the" %lace the
mouth of the $aron"* and lake $assi%a* &hich communicates b" the
$aron" &ith the >rinoco* sometimes- AB>E the confluence of the Ceta'
N- 0anson* Ca% for the o"age of Acunha* 1LI8' +d' 0outh America*
1L92' $oronelli* +ndes occidentales* 1LI2'O Thus it is carried back b"
Hondius as far as the latitudes of 7 and ! degrees* giving it the form
of a rectangle* the longest sides of &hich run from north to south'
This circumstance is &orth" of remark* because* in assigning graduall"
a more southern latitude to lake $assi%a* it has been detached from
the $aron" and the Arui* and has taken the name of Parima' To follo&
this metamor%hosis in its %rogressive develo%ment* &e must com%are the
ma%s &hich have a%%eared since the vo"age of Raleigh till no&' =a
$ruR* &ho has been co%ied b" all the modern geogra%hers* has %reserved
the oblong form of the lake $assi%a for his lake Parima* although this
form is entirel" different from that of the ancient lake Parima* or
Ru%unu&ini* of &hich the great axis &as directed from east to &est'
The ancient lake Nthat of Hondius* 0anson* and $oronelliO &as also
surrounded b" mountains* and gave birth to no riverP &hile the lake
Parima of =a $ruR and the modern geogra%hers communicates &ith the
?%%er >rinoco* as the $assi%a &ith the =o&er >rinoco'
+ have stated the origin of the fable of the lake $assi%a* and the
influence it has had on the o%inion that the lake Parima is the source
of the >rinoco' =et us no& examine &hat relates to this latter basin*
this %retended interior sea* called Ru%unu&ini b" the geogra%hers of
the sixteenth centur"' +n the latitude of four degrees or four degrees
and a half Nin &hich direction unfortunatel"* south of 0anto Thome del
Angostura to the extent of eight degrees* no astronomical observation
has been madeO is a long and narro& $ordillera* that of Pacaraimo*
Buimiro%aca* and ?cucuamoP &hich* stretching from east to southH&est*
unites the grou% of mountains of Parima to the mountains of (utch and
/rench Guiana' +t divides its &aters bet&een the $aron"* the Ru%unur"
or Ru%unu&ini* and the Rio Branco* and consequentl" bet&een the
valle"s of the =o&er >rinoco* the Essequibo* and the Rio @egro' >n the
northH&est of the $ordillera de Pacaraimo* &hich has been traversed
but b" a small number of Euro%eans Nb" the German surgeon* @icolas
Hortsmann* in 13!2P b" a 0%anish officer* (on Antonio 0antos* in 1339P
b" the Portuguese colonel* Barata* in 1321P and b" several English
settlers* in 1I11O* descend the @oea%ra* the Paraguamusi* and the
Paragua* &hich fall into the Rio $aron"P on the northHeast* the
Ru%unu&ini* a tributar" stream of the Rio Essequibo' To&ard the south*
the Tacutu and the ?rariquera form together the famous Rio Parima* or
Rio Branco'
This isthmus* bet&een the branches of the Rio Essequibo and the Rio
Branco Nthat is* bet&een the Ru%unu&ini on one side* and the Pirara*
the Cahu* and the ?raricuera or Rio Parima on the otherO* ma" be
considered as the classical soil of the (orado of Parima' The rivers
at the foot of the mountains of Pacaraimo are subject to frequent
overflo&ings' Above 0anta Rosa* the right bank of the ?raria%ara* a
tributar" stream of the ?raricuera* is called el alle de la
+nundacion' Great %ools are also found bet&een the Rio Parima and the
Jurumu' These are marked on the ma%s recentl" constructed in BraRil*
&hich furnish the most am%le details of those countries' Core to the
&est* the $ano Pirara* a tributar" stream of the Cahu* issues from a
lake covered &ith rushes' This is the lake Amucu described b" @icolas
Hortsmann* and res%ecting &hich some Portuguese of Barcelos* &ho had
visited the Rio Branco NRio Parima or Rio ParavigianaO* gave me
%recise notions during m" sta" at 0an $arlos del Rio @egro' The lake
Amucu is several leagues broad* and contains t&o small islands* &hich
0antos heard called +slas +%omucena' The Ru%unu&ini NRu%unur"O* on the
banks of &hich Hortsmann discovered rocks covered &ith hierogl"%hical
figures* a%%roaches ver" near this lake* but does not communicate &ith
it' The %ortage bet&een the Ru%unu&ini and the Cahu is farther north*
&here the mountain of ?cucuamo- rises* the natives still call the
mountain of gold' N- + follo& the orthogra%h" of the manuscri%t
journal of RodrigueRP it is the $erro Acuquamo of $aulin* or rather of
his commentator' Hist' corogr' %age 13L'O The" advised Hortsmann to
seek round the Rio Cahu for a mine of silver Nno doubt mica &ith large
%latesO* of diamonds* and emeralds' He found nothing but rock"
cr"stals' His account seems to %rove that the &hole length of the
mountains of the ?%%er >rinoco N0ierra ParimaO to&ard the east* is
com%osed of granitic rocks* full of druses and o%en veins* the Peak of
(uida' @ear these lands* &hich still enjo" a great celebrit" for their
riches* on the &estern limits of (utch Guiana* live the Cacusis*
Aturajos* and Acuvajos' The traveller 0antos found them stationed
bet&een the Ru%unu&ini* the Cahu* and the chain of Pacaraimo' +t is
the a%%earance of the micaceous rocks of the ?cucuamo* the name of the
Rio Parima* the inundations of the rivers ?raria%ara* Parima* and
Jurumu* and more es%eciall" the existence of the lake Amucu Nnear the
Rio Ru%unu&ini* and regarded as the %rinci%al source of the Rio
ParimaO* &hich have given rise to the fable of the .hite 0ea and the
(orado of Parima' All these circumstances N&hich have served on this
ver" account to corroborate the general o%inionO are found united on a
s%ace of ground &hich is eight or nine leagues broad from north to
south* and fort" long from east to &est' This direction* too* &as
al&a"s assigned to the .hite 0ea* b" lengthening it in the direction
of the latitude* till the beginning of the sixteenth centur"' @o& this
.hite 0ea is nothing but the Rio Parima* &hich is called the .hite
River NRio Branco* or Rio del Aguas blancasO* and runs through and
inundates the &hole of this land' The name of Ru%unu&ini is given to
the .hite 0ea on the most ancient ma%s* &hich identifies the %lace of
the fable* since of all the tributar" streams of the Rio Essequibo the
Ru%unu&ini is the nearest to the lake Amucu' Raleigh* in his first
vo"age N1929O* had formed no %recise idea of the situation of El
(orado and the lake Parima* &hich he believed to be salt* and &hich he
calls another $as%ian 0ea' +t &as not till the second vo"age N192LO*
%erformed equall" at the ex%ense of Raleigh* that =aurence Ae"mis
fixed so &ell the localities of El (orado* that he a%%ears to me to
have no doubt of the identit" of the Parima de Canao &ith the lake
Amucu* and &ith the isthmus bet&een the Ru%unu&ini Na tributar" stream
of the EssequiboO and the Rio Parima or Rio Branco' )The +ndians*)
sa"s Ae"mis* )go u% the (essekebe :Essequibo< in t&ent" da"s* to&ards
the south' To mark the greatness of this river* the" call it the
brother of the >rinoco' After t&ent" da"sG navigating the" conve"
their canoes b" a %ortage of one da"* from the river (essekebe to a
lake* &hich the 6aos call Ro%ono&ini* and the $aribbees Parime' This
lake is as large as a seaP it is covered &ith an infinite number of
canoesP and + su%%ose) :the +ndians then had told him nothing of this<
)that this lake is no other than that &hich contains the to&n of
Canoa')- N- $a"le"Gs =ife of Raleigh volume 1 %ages 192* 7!L and 7I!'
Casham in the third vo"age of Raleigh N192LO re%eats these accounts of
the =ake Ru%unu&ini'O Hondius has given a curious %late of this
%ortageP and* as the mouth of the $aron" &as then su%%osed to be in
latitude ; degrees Ninstead of I degrees I minutesO* the %ortage of
Parima &as %laced close to the equator' At the same %eriod the ia%oco
N>"a%ocO and the Rio $a"enne NCaroniTO &ere made to issue from this
lake Parima' The same name being given b" the $aribs to the &estern
branch of the Rio Branco has %erha%s contributed as much to the
imaginar" enlargement of the lake Amucu* as the inundations of the
various tributar" streams of the ?raricuera* from the confluence of
the Tacutu to the alle de la +nundacion'
.e have sho&n above that the 0%aniards took the Rio Paragua* or
Parava* &hich falls into the $aron"* for a lake* because the &ord
%arava signifies sea* lake* river' Parima seems also to denote vaguel"
great &aterP for the root %ar is found in the $arib &ords that
designate rivers* %ools* lakes* and the ocean'- N- +n Persian the root
&ater NabO is found also in lake NabdanO' /or other et"mologies of the
&ords Parima and Canoa see Gili volume 1 %ages I1 and 1;1P and Gumilla
volume 1 %age ;8!'O +n Arabic and in Persian* bahr and deria are also
a%%lied at the same time to the sea* to lakes* and to riversP and this
%ractice* common to man" nations in both &orlds* has* on our ancient
ma%s* converted lakes into rivers and rivers into lakes' +n su%%ort of
&hat + here advance* + shall a%%eal to ver" res%ectable testimon"*
that of /ather $aulin' ).hen + inquired of the +ndians*) sa"s this
missionar"* &ho sojourned longer than + on the banks of the =o&er
>rinoco* )&hat Parima &as* the" ans&ered that it &as nothing more than
a river that issued from a chain of mountains* the o%%osite side of
&hich furnished &aters to the Essequibo') $aulin* kno&ing nothing of
lake Amucu* attributes the erroneous o%inion of the existence of an
inland sea solel" to the inundations of the %lains Na las inundaciones
dilatadas %or los bajos del %aisO' According to him* the mistakes of
geogra%hers arise from the vexatious circumstance of all the rivers of
Guiana having different names at their mouths and near their sources'
)+ have no doubt*) he adds* )that one of the u%%er branches of the Rio
Branco is that ver" Rio Parima &hich the 0%aniards have taken for a
lake Na quien su%onian lagunaO') 0uch are the o%inions &hich the
historiogra%her of the Ex%edition of the Boundaries had formed on the
s%ot' He could not ex%ect that =a $ruR and 0urville* mingling old
h"%otheses &ith accurate ideas* &ould re%roduce on their ma%s the Car
(orado or Car Blanco' Thus* not&ithstanding the numerous %roofs &hich
+ have furnished since m" return from America* of the nonHexistence of
an inland sea the origin of the >rinoco* a ma% has been %ublished in
m" name*- on &hich the =aguna Parima figures ane&' N- $arte de
lGAmerique* dressee sur les >bservations de C' de Humboldt* %ar /ried'
ienna 1I1I'O
/rom the &hole of these statements it follo&s* first* that the =aguna
Ru%unu&ini* or Parima of the vo"age of Raleigh and of the ma%s of
Hondius* is an imaginar" lake* formed b" the lake Amucu- N- This is
the lake Amaca of 0urville and =a $ruR' B" a singular mistake* the
name of this lake is transformed to a village on Arro&smithGs ma%'O
and the tributar" streams of the ?raricuera* &hich often overflo&
their banksP secondl"* that the =aguna Parime of 0urvilleGs ma% is the
lake Amucu* &hich gives rise to the Rio Pirara and Nconjointl" &ith
the Cahu* the Tacutu* the ?raricuera* or Rio Parima* %ro%erl" so
calledO to the Rio BrancoP thirdl"* that the =aguna Parime of =a $ruR
is an imaginar" s&elling of the Rio Parime Nconfounded &ith the
>rinocoO belo& the junction of the Cahu &ith the Jurumu' The distance
from the mouth of the Cahu to that of the Tacutu is scarcel" 8 degrees
;8 minutesP =a $ruR enlarges it to 3 degrees of latitude' He calls the
u%%er %art of the Rio Branco Nthat &hich receives the CahuO >rinoco or
Purumu' There can be no doubt of its being the Jurumu* one of the
tributar" streams of the Tacutu* &hich is &ell kno&n to the
inhabitants of the neighbouring fort of 0an 6oaquim' All the names
that figure in the fable of El (orado are found in the tributar"
streams of the Rio Branco' 0light local circumstances* joined to the
remembrances of the salt lake of Cexico* more es%eciall" of the
celebrated lake Canoa in the (orado des >maguas* have served to
com%lete a %icture created b" the imagination of Raleigh and his t&o
lieutenants* Ae"mis and Casham' The inundations of the Rio Branco* +
conceive* ma" be com%ared at the utmost to those of the Red River of
=ouisiana* bet&een @achitoches and $ados* but not to the =aguna de los
Jara"es* &hich is a tem%orar" s&elling of the Rio Paragua"'- N-
0outhe" volume 1 %age 1!8' These %eriodical overflo&ings of the Rio
Paragua" have long acted the same %art in the southern hemis%here* as
lake Parima has been made to %erform in the northern' Hondius and
0anson have made the Rio de la Plata* the Rio To%ajos Na tributar"
stream of the AmaRonO* the Rio Tocantines* and the Rio de 0an
/rancisco* issue from the =aguna de los Jara"es'O
.e have no& examined a .hite 0ea*- N- That of (GAnville and =a $ruR*
and of the greater %art of the modern ma%s'O &hich the %rinci%al of
the Rio Branco is made to traverseP and another*- N- The lake of
0urville* &hich takes the %lace of lake Amucu'O &hich is %laced on the
east of this river* and communicates &ith it b" the $ano Pirara' A
third lake- N- The lake &hich 0urville calls =aguna tenida hasta ahora
or =a una Parime'O is figured on the &est of the Rio Branco*
res%ecting &hich + found recentl" some curious details in the
manuscri%t journal of the surgeon Hortsmann' )At the distance of t&o
da"sG journe" belo& the confluence of the Cahu NTacutuO &ith the Rio
Parima N?raricueraO a lake is found on to% of a mountain' This lake is
stocked &ith the same fish as the Rio ParimaP but the &aters of the
former are black* and those of the latter &hite') Ca" not 0urville*
from a vague notion of this basin* have imagined* in his ma% %refixed
to /ather $aulinGs &ork* an Al%ine lake of ten leagues in length* near
&hich* to&ards the east* rise at the same time the >rinoco* and the
Rio +da%a* a tributar" stream of the Rio @egroT Ho&ever vague ma" be
the account of the surgeon of Hildesheim* it is im%ossible to admit
that the mountain* &hich has a lake at its summit* is to the north of
the %arallel of 7 degrees !8 minutes5 and this latitude coincides
nearl" &ith that of the $erro ?nturan' Hence it follo&s that the
Al%ine lake of Hortsmann* &hich has esca%ed the attention of
(GAnville* and &hich is %erha%s situate amid a grou% of mountains*
lies northHeast of the %ortage from the +da%a to the Cavaca* and
southHeast of the >rinoco* &here it goes u% above Esmeralda'
Cost of the historians &ho have treated of the first ages of the
conquest seem %ersuaded that the name %rovincias or %ais del (orado
denoted originall" ever" region abounding in gold' /orgetting the
%recise et"molog" of the &ord El (orado Nthe gildedO* the" have not
%erceived that this tradition is a local fable* as &ere almost all the
ancient fables of the Greeks* the Hindoos* and the Persians' The
histor" of the gilded man belongs originall" to the Andes of @e&
Grenada* and %articularl" to the %lains in the vicinit" of their
eastern side5 &e see it %rogressivel" advance* as + observed above*
three hundred leagues to&ard the eastHnorthHeast* from the sources of
the $aqueta to those of the Rio Branco and the Essequibo' Gold &as
sought in different %arts of 0outh America before 19!L* &ithout the
&ord El (orado having been ever %ronounced* and &ithout the belief of
the existence of an" other centre of civiliRation and &ealth* than the
em%ire of the +nca of $uRco' $ountries &hich no& do not furnish
commerce &ith the smallest quantities of the %recious metals* the
coast of Paria* Terra /irma N$astillo del >roO* the mountains of 0anta
Carta* and the isthmus of (arien* then enjo"ed the same celebrit"
&hich has been more recentl" acquired b" the auriferous lands of
0onora* $hoco* and BraRil'
(iego de >rdaR N19!1O and AlonRo de Herrera N19!9O directed their
journe"s of discover" along the banks of the =o&er >rinoco' The former
is the famous $onquistador of Cexico* &ho boasted that he had taken
sul%hur out of the crater of the Peak of Po%ocate%etl* and &hom the
em%eror $harles %ermitted to &ear a burning volcano on his armorial
bearings' >rdaR* named Adelantado of all the countr" &hich he could
conquer bet&een BraRil and the coast of eneRuela* &hich &as then
called the countr" of the German $om%an" of .elsers NBelRaresO of
Augsburg* began his ex%edition b" the mouth of the Caranon' He there
sa&* in the hands of the natives* )emeralds as big as a manGs fist')
The" &ere* no doubt* %ieces of that saussurite jade* or com%act
felds%ar* &hich &e brought home from the >rinoco* and &hich =a
$ondamine found in abundance at the mouth of the Rio To%a"os' The
+ndians related to (iego de >rdaR that on going u% during a certain
number of suns to&ard the &est* he &ould find a large rock N%enaO of
green stoneP but before the" reached this %retended mountain of
emerald Nrocks of eu%hotideTO a shi%&reck %ut an end to all farther
discover"' The 0%aniards saved themselves &ith difficult" in t&o small
vessels' The" hastened to get out of the mouth of the AmaRonP and the
currents* &hich in those %arts run &ith violence to the northH&est*
led >rdaR to the coast of Paria &here* in the territor" of the cacique
,uri%ari N?ria%ari* ia%ariO* 0edeno had constructed the $asa fuerte
de Paria' This %ost being ver" near the mouth of the >rinoco* the
Cexican $onquistador resolved to attem%t an ex%edition on this great
river' He sojourned first at $arao N$aroa* $aroraO* a large +ndian
village* &hich a%%ears to me to have been a little to the east of the
confluence of the $aron"P he then &ent u% the $abruta N$abuta*
$abrituO* and to the mouth of the Ceta NCetacu"uO* &here he found
great difficult" in %assing his boats through the Raudal of $ariven'
The Aruacas* &hom >rdaR em%lo"ed as guides* advised him to go u% the
CetaP &here* on advancing to&ards the &est* the" asserted he &ould
find men clothed* and gold in abundance' >rdaR %ursued in %reference
the navigation of the >rinoco* but the cataracts of Tabaje N%erha%s
even those of the AturesO com%elled him to terminate his discoveries'
+t is &orth" of remark that in this vo"age* far anterior to that of
>rellana* and consequentl" the greatest &hich the 0%aniards had then
%erformed on a river of the @e& .orld* the name of the >rinoco &as for
the first time heard' >rdaR* the leader of the ex%edition* affirms
that the river* from its mouth as far as the confluence of the Ceta*
is called ?ria%aria* but that above this confluence it bears the name
of >rinucu' This &ord Nformed analogousl" &ith the &ords Tamanacu*
>tomacu* 0inarucuO is* in fact* of the Tamanac tongueP and* as the
Tamanacs d&ell southHeast of Encaramada* it is natural that the
conquistadores heard the actual name of the river onl" on dra&ing near
the Rio Ceta'- N- Gili volume ! %age !I1' The follo&ing are the most
ancient names of the >rinoco* kno&n to the natives near its mouth* and
&hich historians give us altered b" the double fault of %ronunciation
and orthogra%h"P ,u"a%ari* ,ju%ari* Huria%aria* ?ra%ari* ia%ari* Rio
de Paria' The Tamanac &ord >rinucu &as disfigured b" the (utch %ilots
into .orinoque' The >tomacs sa" 6ogaHa%urura Ngreat riverOP the $abres
and Gua"%unabis* Paragua* BaRagua Parava* three &ords signif"ing great
&ater* river* sea' That %art of the >rinoco bet&een the A%ure and the
Guaviare is often denoted b" the name of Baraguan' A famous strait*
&hich &e have described above* bears also this name* &hich is no doubt
a corru%tion of the &ord Paragua' Great rivers in ever" Rone are
called b" the d&ellers on their banks the river* &ithout an"
%articular denominations' +f other names be added* the" change in
ever" %rovince' Thus the Rio Turiva* near the Encaramada* has five
names in the different %arts of its course' The ?%%er >rinoco* or
Paragua* is called b" the Caquiritares Nnear EsmeraldaO Caraguaca* on
account of the loft" mountains of this name near (uida' Gili volume 1
%ages 77 and !L;' $aulin %age 39' +n most of the names of the rivers
of America &e recogniRe the root &ater' Thus "acu in the Peruvian* and
veni in the Ca"%ure tongues* signif" &ater and river' +n the =ule
dialect + find fo* &aterP fo"avolto* a riverP fo"si* a lakeP as in
Persian* ab is &aterP abi frat* the river Eu%hratesP abdan* a lake'
The root &ater is %reserved in the derivatives'O >n this last
tributar" stream (iego de >rdaR received from the natives the first
idea of civiliRed nations &ho inhabited the tableHlands of the Andes
of @e& GranadaP of a ver" %o&erful %rince &ith one e"e N+ndio tuertoO*
and of animals less than stags* but fit for riding like 0%anish
horses' >rdaR had no idea that these animals &ere llamas Novejas del
PeruO' Cust &e admit that llamas* &hich &ere used in the Andes to dra&
the %lough and as beasts of burden* but not for riding* &ere alread"
common on the north and east of BuitoT + find that >rellana sa& these
animals at the river AmaRon* above the confluence of the Rio @egro*
consequentl" in a climate ver" different from that of the tableHland
of the Andes' The table of an arm" of >maguas mounted on llamas served
to embellish the account given b" the fello&Htravellers of /eli%e de
?rre of their adventurous ex%edition to the ?%%er $aqueta' .e cannot
be sufficientl" attentive to these traditions* &hich seem to %rove
that the domestic animals of Buito and Peru had alread" begun to
descend the $ordilleras* and s%read themselves b" degrees in the
eastern regions of 0outh America'
Herrera* the treasurer of the ex%edition of >rdaR* &as sent in 199!*
b" the governor Geronimo de >rtal* to %ursue the discover" of the
>rinoco and the Ceta' He lost nearl" thirteen months bet&een Punta
Barina and the confluence of the $aron" in constructing flatHbottomed
boats* and making the %re%arations indis%ensable for a long vo"age' .e
cannot read &ithout astonishment the narrative of those daring
enter%rises* in &hich three or four hundred horses &ere embarked to be
%ut ashore &henever cavalr" could act on one of the banks' .e find in
the ex%edition of Herrera the same stations &hich &e alread" kne&P the
fortress of Paria* the +ndian village of ?ria%aria Nno doubt belo&
+mataca* on a %oint &here the inundations of the delta %revented the
0%aniards from being able to %rocure fire&oodO* $aroa* in the %rovince
of $aroraP the rivers $aranaca N$auraTO and $axavana N$uchiveroTOP the
village of $abritu N$abrutaO* and the Raudal near the mouth of the
Ceta N%robabl" the Raudal of $ariven and the Piedra de la PacienciaO'
As the Rio Ceta* on account of the %roximit" of its sources and of its
tributar" streams to the auriferous $ordilleras of ne& Grenada
N$undinamarcaO* enjo"ed great celebrit"* Herrera attem%ted to go u%
this river' He there found nations more civiliRed than those of the
>rinoco* but that fed on the flesh of mute dogs' Herrera &as killed in
battle b" an arro& %oisoned &ith the juice of curare N"iervaOP and
&hen d"ing named Alvaro de >rdaR his lieutenant* &ho led the remains
of the ex%edition N19!9O to the fortress of Paria* after having lost
the fe& horses &hich had resisted a cam%aign of eighteen months'
$onfused re%orts &hich &ere circulated of the &ealth of the
inhabitants of the Ceta* and the other tributar" streams that descend
from the eastern side of the $ordilleras of @e& Grenada* engaged
successivel" Geronimo de >rtal* @icolas /edermann* and 6orge de Es%ira
NGeorge von 0%eierO* in 19!9 and 19!L* to undertake ex%editions b"
land to&ards the south and southH&est' /rom the %romontor" of Paria*
as far as $abo de la ela* little figures of molten gold had been
found in the hands of the natives* as earl" as the "ears 1;2I and
1988' The %rinci%al markets for these amulets* &hich the &omen used as
ornaments* &ere the villages of $uriana N$oroO and $auchieto N@ear the
Rio la HachaO' The metal em%lo"ed b" the founders of $auchieto came
from a mountainous countr" more to the south' +t ma" be conceived that
the ex%editions of >rdaR and Herrera served to increase the desire of
dra&ing nearer to those auriferous countries' George von 0%eier left
$oro N19!9O* and %enetrated b" the mountains of Cerida to the banks of
the A%ure and the Ceta' He %assed these t&o rivers near their sources*
&here the" have but little breadth' The +ndians told him that* farther
on* &hite men &andered about the %lains' 0%eier* &ho imagined that he
&as not far from the banks of the AmaRon* had no doubt that these
&andering 0%aniards &ere men unfortunatel" shi%&recked in the
ex%edition of >rdaR' He crossed the savannahs of 0an 6uan de los
=lanos* &hich &ere said to abound in goldP and made a long sta" at an
+ndian village called Pueblo de @uestra 0enora* and after&ards =a
/ragua* southHeast of the Paramo de la 0uma PaR' + have been on the
&estern back of this grou% of mountains* at /usagasuga* and there
heard that the %lains b" &hich the" are skirted to&ard the east still
enjo" some celebrit" for &ealth among the natives' 0%eier found in the
%o%ulous village of =a /ragua a $asa del 0ol Ntem%le of the sunO* and
a convent of virgins similar to those of Peru and @e& Granada' .ere
these the consequence of a migration of religious rites to&ards the
eastT or must &e admit that the %lains of 0an 6uan &ere their first
cradleT Tradition* indeed* records that Bochica* the legislator of @e&
Granada and highH%riest of +raca* had gone u% from the %lains of the
east to the tableHland of Bogota' But Bochica being at once the
offs%ring and the s"mbol of the sun* his histor" ma" contain
allegories that are merel" astrological' 0%eier* %ursuing his &a"
to&ard the south* and crossing the t&o branches of the Guaviare* &hich
are the Ariare and the Gua"avero NGua"are or $anicamareO* arrived on
the banks of the great Rio Pa%amene or $aqueta' The resistance he met
&ith during a &hole "ear in the %rovince de los $hoques* %ut an end*
in 19!3* to this memorable ex%edition' @icolas /edermann and Geronimo
de >rtal N19!LO* &ho &ent from Cacara%ana and the mouth of the Rio
@everi* follo&ed N19!9O the traces of 6orge de Es%ira' The former
sought for gold in the Rio Grande de la CagdalenaP the latter
endeavoured to discover a tem%le of the sun N$asa del 0olO on the
banks of the Ceta' +gnorant of the idiom of the natives* the" seemed
to see ever"&here* at the foot of the $ordilleras* the reflexion of
the greatness of the tem%les of +raca N0ogamoRoO* &hich &as then the
centre of the civiliRation of $undinamarca'
+ have no& examined* in a geogra%hical %oint of vie&* the ex%editions
on the >rinoco* and in a &estern and southern direction on the eastern
back of the Andes* before the tradition of El (orado &as s%read among
the conquistadores' This tradition* as &e have noticed above* had its
origin in the kingdom of Buito* &here =uis (aRa N19!9O met &ith an
+ndian of @e& Grenada &ho had been sent b" his %rince Nno doubt the
Ri%%a of Bogota* or the Raque of TunjaO* to demand assistance from
Atahual%a* inca of Peru' This ambassador boasted* as is usual* the
&ealth of his countr"P but &hat %articularl" fixed the attention of
the 0%aniards &ho &ere assembled &ith (aRa in the to&n of Tacunga
N=lactacungaO* &as the histor" of a lord &ho* his bod" covered &ith
%o&dered gold* &ent into a lake amid the mountains' This lake ma" have
been the =aguna de Totta* a little to the east of 0ogamoRo N+racaO and
of Tunja NHunca* the to&n of HuncahuaO* &here t&o chiefs*
ecclesiastical and secular* of the em%ire of $undinamarca* or
$undirumarca* residedP but no historical remembrance being attached to
this mountain lake* + rather su%%ose that it &as the sacred lake of
Guatavita* on the east of the mines of rockHsalt of Si%aquira* into
&hich the gilded lord &as made to enter' + sa& on its banks the
remains of a staircase he&n in the rock* and serving for the
ceremonies of ablution' The +ndians said that %o&der of gold and
golden vessels &ere thro&n into this lake* as a sacrifice to the
adoratorio de Guatavita' estiges are still found of a breach &hich
&as made b" the 0%aniards for the %ur%ose of draining the lake' The
tem%le of the sun at 0ogamoRo being %rett" near the northern coasts of
Terra /irma* the notions of the gilded man &ere soon a%%lied to a
highH%riest of the sect of Bochica* or +ndacanRas* &ho ever" morning*
before he %erformed his sacrifice* caused %o&der of gold to be stuck
u%on his hands and face* after the" had been smeared &ith grease'
>ther accounts* %reserved in a letter of >viedo addressed to the
celebrated cardinal Bembo* sa" that GonRalo PiRarro* &hen he
discovered the %rovince of cinnamonHtrees* )sought at the same time a
great %rince* noised in those countries* &ho &as al&a"s covered &ith
%o&dered gold* so that from head to foot he resembled an image of gold
fashioned b" the hand of a skilful &orkman Na una figura dGoro
lavorato di mano dGun buonissimo oreficeO' The %o&dered gold is fixed
to the bod" b" means of an odoriferous resinP but* as this kind of
garment &ould be uneas" to him &hile he sle%t* the %rince &ashes
himself ever" evening* and is gilded ane& in the morning* &hich %roves
that the em%ire of El (orado is infinitel" rich in mines') +t seems
%robable that there &as something in the ceremonies of the &orshi%
introduced b" Bochica &hich gave rise to a tradition so generall"
s%read' The strangest customs are found in the @e& .orld' +n Cexico
the sacrificers %ainted their bodies and &ore a kind of ca%e* &ith
hanging sleeves of tanned human skin'
>n the banks of the $aura* and in other &ild %arts of Guiana* &here
%ainting the bod" is used instead of tattooing* the nations anoint
themselves &ith turtleHfat* and stick s%angles of mica &ith a metallic
lustre* &hite as silver and red as co%%er* on their skin* so that at a
distance the" seem to &ear laced clothes' The fable of the gilded man
is* %erha%s* founded on a similar customP and* as there &ere t&o
sovereign %rinces in @e& Granada* the lama of +raca and the secular
chief or Raque of Tunja* &e cannot be sur%rised that the same ceremon"
&as attributed sometimes to the %rince and sometimes to the
highH%riest' +t is more extraordinar" that* as earl" as the "ear 19!9*
the countr" of El (orado &as sought for on the east of the Andes'
Robertson is mistaken in admitting that >rellana received the first
notions of it N19;8O on the banks of the AmaRon' The histor" of /ra"
Piedro 0imon* founded on the memoirs of Bueseda* the conqueror of
$undirumarca* %roves directl" the contrar"P and GonRalo (iaR de
Pineda* as earl" as 19!L* sought for the gilded man be"ond the %lains
of the %rovince of Buixos' The ambassador of Bogota* &hom (aRa met
&ith in the kingdom of Buito* had s%oken of a countr" situate to&ard
the east' .as this because the tableHland of @e& Granada is not on the
north* but on the northHeast of BuitoT .e ma" venture to sa" that the
tradition of a naked man covered &ith %o&dered gold must have belonged
originall" to a hot region* and not to the cold tableHlands of
$undirumarca* &here + often sa& the thermometer sink belo& four or
five degreesP ho&ever* on account of the extraordinar" configuration
of the countr"* the climate differs greatl" at Guatavita* Tunja*
+raca* and on the banks of the 0ogamoRo' 0ometimes* also* religious
ceremonies are %reserved &hich took rise in another RoneP and the
Cu"scas* according to ancient traditions* made Bochica* their first
legislator and the founder of their &orshi%* arrive from the %lains
situate to the east of the $ordilleras' + shall not decide &hether
these traditions ex%ressed an historical fact* or merel" indicated* as
&e have alread" observed in another %lace* that the first =ama* &ho
&as the offs%ring and s"mbol of the sun* must necessaril" have come
from the countries of the East' Be it as it ma"* it is not less
certain that the celebrit" &hich the ex%editions of >rdaR* Herrera*
and 0%eier had alread" given to the >rinoco* the Ceta* and the
%rovince of Pa%amene* situate bet&een the sources of the Guaviare and
$aqueta* contributed to fix the fable of El (orado near to the eastern
back of the $ordilleras'
The junction of three bodies of troo%s on the tableHland of @e&
Granada s%read through all that %art of America occu%ied b" the
0%aniards the ne&s of an immensel" rich and %o%ulous countr" &hich
remained to be conquered' 0ebastian de BelalcaRar marched from Buito
b" &a" of Po%a"an N19!LO to BogotaP @icholas /edermann* coming from
eneRuela* arrived from the east b" the %lains of Ceta' These t&o
ca%tains found* alread" settled on the tableHland of $undirumarca* the
famous Adelantado GonRalo JimeneR de Bueseda* one of &hose descendants
+ sa& near Si%aquira* &ith bare feet* attending cattle' The fortuitous
meeting of the three conquistadores* one of the most extraordinar" and
dramatic events of the histor" of the conquest* took %lace in 19!I'
BelalcaRarGs narratives inflamed the imagination of &arriors eager for
adventurous enter%risesP and the notions communicated to =uis (aRa b"
the +ndian of Tacunga &ere com%ared &ith the confused ideas &hich
>rdaR had collected on the Ceta res%ecting the treasures of a great
king &ith one e"e N+ndio tuertoO* and a %eo%le clothed* &ho rode u%on
llamas' An old soldier* Pedro de =im%ias* &ho had accom%anied
/edermann to the tableHland of Bogota* carried the first ne&s of El
(orado to $oro* &here the remembrance of the ex%edition of 0%eier
N19!9 to 19!3O to the Rio Pa%amene &as still fresh' +t &as from this
same to&n of $oro that /eli%e von Huten N?rre* ?treO undertook his
celebrated vo"age to the %rovince of the >maguas* &hile PiRarro*
>rellana* and Hernan PereR de Buesada* brother of the Adelantado*
sought for the gold countr" at the Rio @a%o* along the river of the
AmaRons* and on the eastern chain of the Andes of @e& Grenada' The
natives* in order to get rid of their troublesome guests* continuall"
described (orado as eas" to be reached* and situate at no considerable
distance' +t &as like a %hantom that seemed to flee before the
0%aniards* and to call on them unceasingl"' +t is in the nature of
man* &andering on the earth* to figure to himself ha%%iness be"ond the
region &hich he kno&s' El (orado* similar to Atlas and the islands of
the Hes%erides* disa%%eared b" degrees from the domain of geogra%h"*
and entered that of m"thological fictions'
+ shall not here relate the numerous enter%rises &hich &ere undertaken
for the conquest of this imaginar" countr"' ?nquestionabl" &e are
indebted to them in great %art for our kno&ledge of the interior of
AmericaP the" have been useful to geogra%h"* as errors and daring
h"%otheses are often to the search of truth5 but in the discussion on
&hich &e are em%lo"ed* it is incumbent on me to rest onl" u%on those
facts &hich have had the most direct influence on the construction of
ancient and modern ma%s' Hernan PereR de Buesada* after the de%arture
of his brother the Adelantado for Euro%e* sought ane& N19!2O but this
time in the mountainous land northHeast of Bogota* the tem%le of the
sun N$asa del 0olO* of &hich Geronimo de >rtal had heard s%oken in
19!L on the banks of the Ceta' The &orshi% of the sun introduced b"
Bochica* and the celebrit" of the sanctuar" of +raca* or 0ogamoRo*
gave rise to those confused re%orts of tem%les and idols of mass"
goldP but on the mountains as in the %lains* the traveller believed
himself to be al&a"s at a distance from them* because the realit"
never corres%onded &ith the chimerical dreams of the imagination'
/rancisco de >rellana* after having vainl" sought El (orado &ith
PiRarro in the Provincia de los $anelos* and on the auriferous banks
of the @a%o* &ent do&n N19;8O the great river of the AmaRon' He found
there* bet&een the mouths of the 6avari and the Rio de la Trinidad
N,u%uraTO a %rovince rich in gold* called Cachi%aro NCuchifaroO* in
the vicinit" of that of the Aomaguas* or >maguas' These notions
contributed to carr" El (orado to&ard the southHeast* for the names
>maguas N>mHaguas* AguasO* (itHAguas* and Pa%amene* designated the
same countr"HHthat &hich 6orge de Es%ira had discovered in his
ex%edition to the $aqueta' The >maguas* the Canaos or Canoas* and the
Gua"%es N?au%es or Gua"u%esO live in the %lains on the north of the
AmaRon' The" are three %o&erful nations* the latter of &hich*
stretching to&ard the &est along the banks of the Gua%e or ?au%e* had
been alread" mentioned in the vo"ages of Buesada and Huten' These t&o
conquistadores* alike celebrated in the histor" of America* reached b"
different roads the llanos of 0an 6uan* then called alle de @uestra
0enora' Hernan PereR de Buesada N19;1O %assed the $ordilleras of
$undirumarca* %robabl" bet&een the Paramos of $hingasa and 0uma PaRP
&hile /eli%e de Huten* accom%anied b" Pedro de =im%ias Nthe same &ho
had carried to eneRuela the first ne&s of (orado from the land of
BogotaO* directed his course from north to south* b" the road &hich
0%eier had taken to the eastern side of the mountains' Huten left
$oro* the %rinci%al seat of the German factor" or com%an" of .elser*
&hen Henr" Remboldt &as its director' After having traversed N19;1O
the %lains of $asanare* the Ceta* and the $aguan* he arrived at the
banks of the ?%%er Guaviare NGua"uareO* a river &hich &as long
believed to be the source of the >rinoco* and the mouth of &hich + sa&
in %assing b" 0an /ernando de Ataba%o to the Rio @egro' @ot far from
the right bank of the Guaviare* Huten entered Cacatoa* the cit" of the
Gua%es' The %eo%le there &ere clothed* the fields a%%eared &ell
cultivatedP ever"thing denoted a degree of civiliRation unkno&n in the
hot region of America &hich extends to the east of the $ordilleras'
0%eier* in his ex%edition to the Rio $aqueta and the %rovince of
Pa%amene* had %robabl" crossed the Guaviare far above Cacatoa* before
the junction of the t&o branches of this river* the Ariari and the
Gua"avero' Huten &as told that on advancing more to the southHeast he
&ould enter the territor" of the great nation of the >maguas* the
%riestHking of &hich &as called Buareca* and &hich %ossessed numerous
herds of llamas' These traces of cultivationHHthese ancient
resemblances to the tableHland of BuitoHHa%%ear to me ver" remarkable'
+t has alread" been said above that >rellana sa& llamas at the
d&elling of an +ndian chief on the banks of the AmaRon* and that >rdaR
had heard mention made of them in the %lains of Ceta'
+ %ause &here ends the domain of geogra%h" and shall not follo& Huten
in the descri%tion either of that to&n of immense extent* &hich he sa&
from afarP or of the battle of the >maguas* &here thirt"Hnine
0%aniards Nthe names of fourteen are recorded in the annals of the
timeO fought against fifteen thousand +ndians' These false re%orts
contributed greatl" to embellish the fable of El (orado' The name of
the to&n of the >maguas is not found in the narrative of HutenP but
the Canoas* from &hom /ather /ritR received* in the seventeenth
centur"* %lates of beaten gold* in his mission of ,urimHAguas* are
neighbours of the >maguas' The name of Canoa subsequentl" %assed from
the countr" of the AmaRons to an imaginar" to&n* %laced in El (orado
de la Parima' The celebrit" attached to those countries bet&een the
$aqueta NPa%ameneO and the Guau%e None of the tributar" streams of the
Rio @egroO excited Pedro de ?rsua* in 19L8* to that fatal ex%edition*
&hich ended b" the revolt of the t"rant Aguirre' ?rsua* in going do&n
the $aqueta to enter the river of the AmaRons* heard of the %rovince
of $aricuri' This denomination clearl" indicates the countr" of goldP
for + find that this metal is called caricuri in the Tamanac* and
carucuru in the $aribbee' +s it a foreign &ord that denotes gold among
the nations of the >rinoco* as the &ords sugar and cotton are in our
Euro%ean languagesT This &ould %rove that these nations learned to
kno& the %recious metals among the foreign %roducts &hich came to them
from the $ordilleras*- or from the %lains at the eastern back of the
Andes' N- +n Peruvian or Buichua Nlengua del +ncaO gold is called
cori* &hence are derived chichicori* gold in %o&der* and coriko"a*
goldHore'O
.e arrive no& at the %eriod &hen the fable of El (orado &as fixed in
the eastern %art of Guiana* first at the %retended lake $assi%a Non
the banks of the Paragua* a tributar" stream of the $aron"O* and
after&ards bet&een the sources of the Rio Essequibo and the Rio
Branco' This circumstance has had the greatest influence on the state
of geogra%h" in those countries' Antonio de Berrio* sonHinHla&- N-
Pro%erl" casado con una sobrina' /ra" Pedro 0imon %ages 923 and L8I'
Harris $oll' volume 7 %age 717' =aet %age L97' $aulin %age 139'
Raleigh calls Buesada $emenes de $asada' He also confounds the %eriods
of the vo"ages of >rdaR N>rdaceO* >rellana N>relianoO* and ?rsua' 0ee
Em%ire of Guiana %ages 1! to 78'O and sole heir of the great
Adelantado GonRalo JimeneR de Buesada* %assed the $ordilleras to the
east of Tunja*- N- @o doubt bet&een the Paramos of $hita and of
Soraca* taking the road of $hire and Pore' Berrio told Raleigh that he
came from the $asanare to the Pato* from the Pato to the Ceta* and
from the Ceta to the Baraguan N>rinocoO' .e must not confound this Rio
Pato Na name connected no doubt &ith that of the ancient mission of
PatutoO &ith the Rio Paute'O embarked on the Rio $asanare* and &ent
do&n b" this river* the Ceta* and the >rinoco* to the island of
Trinidad' .e scarcel" kno& this vo"age exce%t b" the narrative of
RaleighP it a%%ears to have %receded a fe& "ears the first foundation
of ieja Gua"ana* &hich &as in the "ear 1921' A fe& "ears later N1929O
Berrio caused his maese de cam%o* (omingo de era* to %re%are in
Euro%e an ex%edition of t&o thousand men to go u% the >rinoco* and
conquer El (orado* &hich then began to be called the countr" of the
Canoa* and even the =aguna de la gran Canoa' Rich landholders sold
their farms* to take %art in a crusade* to &hich t&elve >bservantin
monks* and ten secular ecclesiastics &ere annexed' The tales related
b" one CartineR- N6uan Cartin de AlbujarTO* &ho said he had been
abandoned in the ex%edition of (iego de >rdaR* and led from to&n to
to&n till he reached the ca%ital of El (orado* had inflamed the
imagination of Berrio' N- + believe + can demonstrate that the fable
of 6uan CartineR* s%read abroad b" the narrative of Raleigh* &as
founded on the adventures of 6uan Cartin de Albujar* &ell kno&n to the
0%anish historians of the $onquestP and &ho* in the ex%edition of
Pedro de 0ilva N1938O* fell into the hands of the $aribs of the =o&er
>rinoco' This Albujar married an +ndian &oman and became a savage
himself* as ha%%ens sometimes in our o&n da"s on the &estern limits of
$anada and of the ?nited 0tates' After having long &andered &ith the
$aribs* the desire of rejoining the .hites led him b" the Rio
Essequibo to the island of Trinidad' He made several excursions to
0anta /e de Bogota* and at length settled at $arora' N0imon %age 921O'
+ kno& not &hether he died at Porto RicoP but it cannot be doubted
that it &as he &ho learned from the $arib traders the name of the
Canoas :of 6urubesh<' As he lived on the banks of the ?%%er $aron" and
rea%%eared b" the Rio Essequibo* he ma" have contributed also to %lace
the lake Canoa at the isthmus of Ru%unu&ini' Raleigh makes his 6uan
CartineR embark belo& Corequito* a village at the east of that
confluence of the $aron" &ith the >rinoco' Thence he makes him dragged
b" the $aribs from to&n to to&n* till he finds at Canoa a relation of
the inca Atabali%a NAtahual%aO* &hom he had kno&n before at $axamarca*
and &ho had fled before the 0%aniards' +t a%%ears that Raleigh had
forgotten that the vo"age of >rdaR N19!1O &as t&o "ears anterior to
the death of Atahual%a and the entire destruction of the em%ire of
Peru4 He must have confounded the ex%edition of >rdaR &ith that of
0ilva N1938O* in &hich 6uan Cartin de AlbuRar %artook' The latter* &ho
related his tales at 0anta /e* at eneRuela* and %erha%s at Porto
Rico* must have combined &hat he had heard from the $aribs &ith &hat
he had learned from the 0%aniards res%ecting the to&n of the >maguas
seen b" HutenP of the gilded man &ho sacrificed in a lake* and of the
flight of the famil" of Atahual%a into the forests of ilcabamba* and
the eastern $ordillera of the Andes' Garcilasso volume 7 %age 12;'O +t
is difficult to distinguish &hat this conquistador had himself
observed in going do&n the >rinoco from &hat he said he had collected
in a %retended journal of CartineR* de%osited at Porto Rico' +t
a%%ears that in general at that %eriod the same ideas %revailed
res%ecting America as those &hich &e have long entertained in regard
to AfricaP it &as imagined that more civiliRation &ould be found
to&ards the centre of the continent than on the coasts' Alread" 6uan
GonRaleR* &hom (iego de >rdaR had sent in 19!1 to ex%lore the banks of
the >rinoco* announced that )the farther "ou &ent u% this river the
more "ou sa& the %o%ulation increase') Berrio mentions the
oftenHinundated %rovince of Ama%aja* bet&een the confluence of the
Ceta and the $uchivero* &here he found man" little idols of molten
gold* similar to those &hich &ere fabricated at $auchieto* east of
$oro' He believed this gold to be a %roduct of the granitic soil that
covers the mountainous countr" bet&een the $arichana* ?ruana* and
$uchivero' +n fact the natives have recentl" found a mass of native
gold in the Buebrada del Tigre near the mission of Encaramada' Berrio
mentions on the east of the %rovince of Ama%aja the Rio $aron"
N$arol"O* &hich &as said to issue from a great lake* because one of
the tributar" streams of the $aron"* the Rio Paragua Nriver of the
great &aterO* had been taken for an inland sea* from ignorance of the
+ndian languages' 0everal of the 0%anish historians believed that this
lake* the source of the $aron"* &as the Grand Canoa of BerrioP but the
notions he communicated to Raleigh sho& that the =aguna de Canoa Ndel
(orado* or de ParimeO &as su%%osed to be to the south of the Rio
Paragua* transformed into =aguna $assi%a' )Both these basins had
auriferous sandsP but on the banks of the $assi%a &as situate
Cacureguarai NCargureguairaO* the ca%ital of the cacique of Aromaja*
and the first cit" of the imaginar" em%ire of Gu"ana')
As these oftenHinundated lands have been at all times inhabited b"
nations of $arib race* &ho carried on a ver" active inland trade &ith
the most distant regions* &e must not be sur%rised that more gold &as
found here in the hands of the +ndians than else&here' The natives of
the coast did not em%lo" this metal in the form of ornaments or
amulets onl"P but also as a medium of exchange' +t is not
extraordinar"* therefore* that gold has disa%%eared on the coast of
Paria* and among the nations of the >rinoco* their inland
communications have been im%eded b" the Euro%eans' The natives &ho
have remained inde%endent are in our da"s* no doubt* more &retched*
more indolent* and in a ruder state* than the" &ere before the
conquest' The king of Corequito* &hose son Raleigh took to England*
had visited $umana in 192;* to exchange a great quantit" of images of
mass" gold for iron tools* and Euro%ean merchandise' The unex%ected
a%%earance of an +ndian chief augmented the celebrit" of the riches of
the >rinoco' +t &as su%%osed that El (orado must be near the countr"
from &hich the king of Corequito cameP and as this countr" &as often
inundated* and rivers vaguel" called great seas* or great basins of
&ater* El (orado must be on the banks of a lake' +t &as forgotten that
the gold brought b" the $aribs and other trading %eo%le &as as little
the %roduce of the soil as the diamonds of BraRil and +ndia are the
%roduce of the regions of Euro%e* &here the" are most abundant' The
ex%edition of Berrio &hich had increased in number during the sta" of
the vessels at $umana* =a Cargareta* and the island of Trinidad*
%roceeded b" Corequito Nnear ieja Gua"anaO to&ards the Rio Paragua* a
tributar" stream of the $aron"P but sickness* the ferocit" of the
natives* and the &ant of subsistence* o%%osed invincible obstacles to
the %rogress of the 0%aniards' The" all %erishedP exce%t about thirt"*
&ho returned in a de%lorable state to the %ost of 0anto Thome'
These disasters did not calm the ardour dis%la"ed during the first
half of the 13th centur" in the search of El (orado' The Governor of
the island of Trinidad* Antonio de Berrio* became the %risoner of 0ir
.alter Raleigh in the celebrated incursion of that navigator* in 1929*
on the coast of eneRuela and at the mouths of the >rinoco' Raleigh
collected from Berrio* and from other %risoners made b" $a%tain
Preston- at the taking of $aracas* all the information &hich had been
obtained at that %eriod on the countries situate to the south of ie"a
Gua"ana' N- These %risoners belonged to the ex%edition of Berrio and
of HernandeR de 0er%a' The English landed at Cacuto Nthen Gua"ca
CacutoO* &hence a &hite man* illal%ando* led them b" a mountainH%ath
bet&een $umbre and the 0illa N%erha%s %assing over the ridge of
Gali%anoO to the to&n of $aracas' 0imon %age 92;P Raleigh %age 12'
Those onl" &ho are acquainted &ith the situation can be sensible ho&
difficult and daring this enter%rise &as'O He lent faith to the fables
invented b" 6uan Cartin de Albujar* and entertained no doubt either of
the existence of the t&o lakes $assi%a and Ru%unu&ini* or of that of
the great em%ire of the +nca* &hich* after the death of Atahual%a* the
fugitive %rinces &ere su%%osed to have founded near the sources of the
Essequibo' .e are not in %ossession of a ma% that &as constructed b"
Raleigh* and &hich he recommended to lord $harles Ho&ard to kee%
secret' The geogra%her Hondius has filled u% this voidP and has even
added to his ma% a table of longitudes and latitudes* among &hich
figure the laguna del (orado* and the ille +m%eriale de Canoas'
Raleigh* &hen at anchor near the Punta del Gallo- in the island of
Trinidad N- The northern %art of =a Punta de +cacos* &hich is the
southHeast ca%e of the island of Trinidad' $hristo%her $olumbus cast
anchor there on August !* 1;2I' A great confusion exists in the
denomination of the different ca%es of the island of TrinidadP and as
recentl"* since the ex%edition of /idalgo and $hurruca* the 0%aniards
reckon the longitudes in 0outh America &est of =a Punta de la Galera
Nlatitude 18 degrees 98 minutes* longitude L! degrees 78 minutesO* it
is im%ortant to fix the attention of geogra%hers on this %oint'
$olumbus called the southHeast ca%e of the island Punta Galera* on
account of the form of a rock' /rom Punta de la Galera he sailed to
the &est and landed at a lo& ca%e* &hich he calls Punta del ArenalP
this is our Punta de +cacos' +n this %assage* near a %lace NPunta de
la Pla"aO &here he sto%%ed to take in &ater N%erha%s at the mouth of
the Rio ErinO* he sa& to the south* for the first time* the continent
of America* &hich he called +sla 0anta' +t &as* therefore* the eastern
coast of the %rovince of $umana* to the east of the $ano Cacareo* near
Punta Redonda* and not the mountainous coast of Paria N+sla de Gracia*
of $olumbusO* &hich &as first discovered'O* made his lieutenants
ex%lore the mouths of the >rinoco* %rinci%all" those of $a%uri* Grand
Amana NCanamo GrandeO* and Cacureo NCacareoO' As his shi%s dre& a
great deal of &ater* he found it difficult to enter the bocas chicas*
and &as obliged to construct flatHbottomed barks' He remarked the
fires of the Tivitivas NTibitibiesO* of the race of the Guaraon
+ndians* on the to%s of the mauritia %almHtreesP and a%%ears to have
first brought the fruit to Euro%e Nfructum squamosum* similem %almae
%iniO' + am sur%rised* that he scarcel" mentions the settlement* &hich
had been made b" Berrio under the name of 0anto Thome Nla ieja
Gua"ana'O This settlement ho&ever dates from 1921P and though*
according to /ra" Pedro 0imon* )religion and %olic" %rohibited all
mercantile connection bet&een $hristians :0%aniards< and Heretics :the
(utch and English<*) there &as then carried on at the end of the
sixteenth centur"* as in our da"s* an active contraband trade b" the
mouths of the >rinoco' Raleigh %assed the river Euro%a NGuara%oO* and
)the %lains of 0a"mas N$ha"masO* &hich extend* kee%ing the same level*
as far as $umana and $aracasP) he sto%%ed at Corequito N%erha%s a
little to the north of the site of the villa de ?%ata* in the missions
of the $aron"O* &here an old cacique confirmed to him all the reveries
of Berrio on the irru%tion of foreign nations N>rejones and E%uremeiO
into Guiana' The Raudales or cataracts of the $aroli N$aron"O* a river
&hich &as at that %eriod considered as the shortest &a" for reaching
the to&ns of Cacureguarai and Canoa* situate on the banks of lake
$assi%a and of lake Ru%unu&ini or (orado* %ut an end to this
ex%edition'
Raleigh &ent scarcel" the distance of sixt" leagues along the >rinocoP
but he names the u%%er tributar" streams* according to the vague
notions he had collectedP the $ari* the Pao* the A%ure N$a%uriTO the
Guarico NoariTO the Ceta*- and even* )in the %rovince of Baraguan*
the great cataract of Athule NAturesO* &hich %revents all further
navigation') N- Raleigh distinguishes the Ceta from the Beta* &hich
flo&s into the Baraguan Nthe >rinocoO conjointl" &ith the (aune* near
AthuleP as he distinguishes the $asanare* a tributar" stream of the
Ceta* and the $asnero* &hich comes from the south* and a%%ears to be
the Rio $uchivero' All above the confluence of the A%ure &as then ver"
confusedl" kno&nP and streams that flo& into the tributar" streams of
the >rinoco &ere considered as flo&ing into this river itself' The
A%ure N$a%uriO and Ceta a%%eared long to be the same river on account
of their %roximit"* and the numerous branches b" &hich the Arauca and
the A%ure join each other' +s the name of Beta %erchance connected
&ith that of the nation of Beto"es* of the %lains of the $asanare and
the CetaT Hondius and the geogra%hers &ho have follo&ed him* &ith the
exce%tion of (e =G+sle N1388O* and of 0anson N1L9LO* %lace the
%rovince of Ama%aja erroneousl" to the east of the >rinoco' .e see
clearl" b" the narrative of Raleigh N%ages 7L and 37O* that Ama%aja is
the inundated countr" bet&een the Ceta and the Guarico' .here are the
rivers (aune" and ?barroT The Guaviare a%%ears to me to be the Goavar
of Raleigh'O @ot&ithstanding RaleighGs exaggeration* so little &orth"
of a statesman* his narrative contains im%ortant materials for the
histor" of geogra%h"' The >rinoco above the confluence of the A%ure
&as at that %eriod as little kno&n to Euro%eans* as in our time the
course of the @iger belo& 0ego' The names of several ver" remote
tributar" streams &ere kno&n* but not their situationP and &hen the
same name* differentl" %ronounced* or not %ro%erl" a%%rehended b" the
ear* furnished different sounds* their number &as multi%lied' >ther
errors had %erha%s their source in the little interest &hich Antonio
de Berrio* the 0%anish governor* felt in communicating true and
%recise notions to Raleigh* &ho indeed com%lains of his %risoner* )as
being utterl" unlearned* and not kno&ing the east from the &est') +
shall not here discuss the %oint ho& far the belief of Raleigh* in all
he relates of inland seas similar to the $as%ian seaP on )the im%erial
and golden cit" of Canoa*) and on the magnificent %alaces built b" the
em%eror +nga of Gu"ana* in imitation of those of his ancestors at
Peru* &as real or %retended' The learned historian of BraRil* Cr'
0outhe"* and the biogra%her of Raleigh* 0ir G' $a"le"* have recentl"
thro&n much light on this subject' +t seems to me difficult to doubt
of the extreme credulit" of the chief of the ex%edition* and of his
lieutenants' .e see Raleigh ada%ted ever"thing to the h"%otheses he
had %reviousl" formed' He &as certainl" deceived himselfP but &hen he
sought to influence the imagination of queen EliRabeth* and execute
the %rojects of his o&n ambitious %olic"* he neglected none of the
artifices of flatter"' He described to the Bueen )the trans%orts of
those barbarous nations at the sight of her %ictureP) he &ould have
)the name of the august virgin* &ho kno&s ho& to conquer em%ires*
reach as far as the countr" of the &arlike &omen of the >rinoco and
the AmaRonP) he asserts that )at the %eriod &hen the 0%aniards
overthre& the throne of $uRco* an ancient %ro%hec" &as found* &hich
%redicted that the d"nast" of the +ncas &ould one da" o&e its
restoration to Great BritainP) he advises that )on %retext of
defending the territor" against external enemies* garrisons of three
or four thousand English should be %laced in the to&ns of the +nca*
obliging this %rince to %a" a contribution annuall" to Bueen EliRabeth
of three hundred thousand %ounds sterlingP) finall" he adds* like a
man &ho foresees the future* that )all the vast countries of 0outh
America &ill one da" belong to the English nation')- N- )+ sho&ed them
her Cajest"Gs %icture* &hich the $asigui so admired and honoured* as
it had been eas" to have brought them idolatrous thereof' And +
further remember that Berreo confessed to me and others N&hich +
%rotest before the majest" of God to be trueO* that there &as found
among %ro%hecies at Peru Nat such a time as the em%ire &as reduced to
the 0%anish obedienceO in their chiefest tem%le* among divers others
&hich foresho&ed the losse of the said em%"re* that from +nglatierra
those +ngas should be again in time to come restored' The +nga &ould
"ield to her Cajest" b" com%osition man" hundred thousand %ounds
"earel" as to defend him against all enemies abroad and defra" the
ex%enses of a garrison of !888 or ;888 soldiers' +t seemeth to me that
this Em%"re of Guiana is reserved for the English nation') NRaleigh
%ages 3* 13* 91 and 188'O
The four vo"ages of Raleigh to the =o&er >rinoco succeeded each other
from 1929 to 1L13' After all these useless attem%ts the ardour of
research after El (orado has greatl" diminished' @o ex%editions have
since been formed b" a numerous band of colonistsP but some solitar"
enter%rises have been encouraged b" the governors of the %rovinces'
The notions s%read b" the journe"s of /ather Acunha in 1LII* and
/ather /ritR in 1L!3* to the auriferous land of the Canoas of
6urubesh* and to the =aguna de >re* contributed to rene& the ideas of
El (orado in the Portuguese and 0%anish colonies north and south of
the equator' At $uenRa* in the kingdom of Buito* + met &ith some men*
&ho &ere em%lo"ed b" the bisho% Carfil to seek at the east of the
$ordilleras* in the %lains of Cacas* the ruins of the to&n of =ogrono*
&hich &as believed to be situate in a countr" rich in gold' .e learn
b" the journal of Hortsmann* &hich + have often quoted* that it &as
su%%osed* in 13;8* El (orado might be reached from (utch Guiana b"
going u% the Rio Essequibo' (on Canuel $enturion* the governor of
0anto Thome del Angostura* dis%la"ed an extreme ardour for reaching
the imaginar" lake of Canoa' Arimuicai%i* an +ndian of the nation of
the +%urucotos* &ent do&n the Rio $aron"* and b" his false narrations
inflamed the imagination of the 0%anish colonists' He sho&ed them in
the southern sk" the $louds of Cagellan* the &hitish light of &hich he
said &as the reflection of the argentiferous rocks situate in the
middle of the =aguna Parima' This &as describing in a ver" %oetical
manner the s%lendour of the micaceous and talc" slates of his countr"4
Another +ndian chief* kno&n among the $aribs of Essequibo b" the name
El $a%itan 6urado* vainl" attem%ted to undeceive the governor
$enturion' /ruitless attem%ts &ere made b" the $aura and the Rio
ParaguaP and several hundred %ersons %erished miserabl" in these rash
enter%rises* from &hich* ho&ever* geogra%h" has derived some
advantages' @icolas RodrigueR and Antonio 0antos N1339 to 13I8O &ere
em%lo"ed b" the 0%anish governor' 0antos* %roceeding b" the $aron"*
the Paragua* the Paraguamusi* the Anoca%ra* and the mountains of
Pacara"mo and Buimiro%aca* reached the ?raricuera and the Rio Branco'
+ found some valuable information in the journals of these %erilous
ex%editions'
The maritime charts &hich the /lorentine traveller* Amerigo es%ucci*-
constructed in the earl" "ears of the sixteenth centur"* as Piloto
ma"or de la $asa de $ontratacion of 0eville* and in &hich he %laced*
%erha%s artfull"* the &ords Tierra de Amerigo* have not reached our
times' N- He died in 1917* as Cr' CunoR has %roved b" the documents of
the archives of 0imancas' Hist' del @uevo Cundo volume 1 %age 13'
Tiraboschi* 0toria della =itteratura'O The most ancient monument &e
%ossess of the geogra%h" of the @e& $ontinent*- is the ma% of the
&orld b" 6ohn Ru"sch* annexed to a Roman edition of Ptolem" in 198I'
N- 0ee the learned researches of C' .alckenaer* in the Bibliogra%hie
?niverselle volume L %age 782 article Buckinck' >n the ma%s added to
Ptolem" in 198L &e find no trace of the discoveries of $olumbus'O .e
there find ,ucatan and Honduras Nthe most southern %art of CexicoO-
figured as an island* b" the name of $ulicar' N- @o doubt the lands
bet&een ?ucatan* $a%e Gracias a (ios* and eragua* discovered b"
$olumbus N1987 and 198!O* b" 0olis* and b" Pincon N198LO'O There is no
isthmus of Panama* but a %assage* &hich %ermits of a direct navigation
from Euro%e to +ndia' The great southern island N0outh AmericaO bears
the name of Terra de Pareas* bounded b" t&o rivers* the Rio =areno and
the Rio /ormoso' These Pareas are* no doubt* the inhabitants of Paria*
a name &hich $hristo%her $olumbus had alread" heard in 1;2I* and &hich
&as long a%%lied to a great %art of America' Bisho% Geraldini sa"s
clearl"* in a letter addressed to Po%e =eo J in 191L5 +nsula illa*
quae Euro%a et Asia est major* quam indocti $ontinentem Asiae
a%%ellant* et alii Americam vel Pariam nuncu%ant :that island* larger
than Euro%e and Asia joined together* &hich the unlearned call the
continent of Asia* and others America or Paria<'- N- Alexandri
Geraldini +tinerarium %age 798'O + find in the ma% of the &orld of
198I no trace &hatever of the >rinoco' This river a%%ears* for the
first time* b" the name of Rio (olce* on the celebrated ma%
constructed in 1972 b" (iego Ribe"ro* cosmogra%her of the em%eror
$harles * &hich &as %ublished* &ith a learned commentar"* b" C'
0%rengel* in 1329' @either $olumbus N1;2IO nor AlonRo de >jeda*
accom%anied b" Amerigo es%ucci N1;22O* had seen the real mouth of the
>rinocoP the" confounded it &ith the northern o%ening of the Gulf of
Paria* to &hich the" attributed Nb" an exaggeration so common to the
navigators of that time* an immense volume of fresh &ater' +t &as
icente ,aneR Pincon* &ho* after having discovered the mouth of the
Rio Caranon*- first sa&* in 1988* that of the >rinoco' N- The name of
Caranon &as kno&n fift"Hnine "ears before the ex%edition of =o%eR de
AguirreP the denomination of the river is therefore erroneousl"
attributed to the nickname of maranos NhogsO* &hich this adventurer
gave his com%anions in going do&n the river AmaRon' .as not this
vulgar jest rather an allusion to the +ndian name of the riverTO He
called this river Rio (olceHHa name &hich* since Ribe"ro* &as long
%reserved on our ma%s* and &hich has sometimes been given erroneousl"
to the Caroni and to the Essequibo'
The great =ake Parima did not a%%ear on our ma%s- till after the first
vo"age of Raleigh' N- + find no trace of it on a ver" rare ma%*
dedicated to Richard Haklu"t* and constructed on the meridian of
Toledo' @ovus >rbis* Paris 19I3' +n this ma%* %ublished before the
vo"age of Buiros* a grou% of +slands is marked N+nfortunatae +nsulaeO
&here the /riendl" +slands actuall" are' >rtelius N1938O alread" kne&
them' .ere the" islands seen b" CagellanTO +t &as 6odocus Hondius &ho*
as earl" as the "ear 1922* fixed the ideas of geogra%hers and figured
the interior of 0%anish Guiana as a countr" &ell kno&n' He transformed
the isthmus bet&een the Rio Branco and the Rio Ru%unu&ini None of the
tributar" streams of the EssequiboO into the lake Ru%unu&ini* Parima*
or (orado* t&o hundred leagues long* and fort" broad* and bounded b"
the latitudes of 1 degree ;9 minutes south* and 7 degrees north' This
inland sea* larger than the $as%ian* is sometimes traced in the midst
of a mountainous countr"* &ithout communication &ith an" riverP- N-
0ee* for instance* Hondius* @ieu&e $aerte van het goudr"cke landt
Guiana* 1922P and 0ansonGs Ca% of America* in 1L9L and 1LL2'O and
sometimes the Rio >"a%ok N.aia%ago* 6a%oc* ia%ocoO and the Rio de
$a"ana are made to issue from it'- N- Brasilia et $aribaua* auct'
Hondio et Huelsen 1922'O The first of these rivers* confounded in the
eighth article of the treat" of ?trecht &ith the Rio de icente Pincon
NRio $alsoene of (GAnvilleO* has been* even do&n to the late congress
of ienna* the subject of interminable discussions bet&een the /rench
and Portuguese di%lomatists'- N- + have treated this question in a
Cemoire sur la fixation des limites de =a Gu"ane /rancaise* &ritten at
the desire of the Portuguese government during the negotiations of
Paris in 1I13' N0ee 0choell* Archives %olit' or Pieces inedites volume
1 %ages ;I to 9I'O Ribe"ro* in his celebrated ma% of the &orld of
1972* %laces the Rio de icente Pincon south of the AmaRon* near the
Gulf of Caranhao' This navigator landed at this s%ot* after having
been at $a%e 0aint Augustin* and before he reached the mouth of the
AmaRon' Herrera dec' + %age 183' The narrative of Gomara* Hist' @at'
199! %age ;I* is ver" confused in a geogra%hical %oint of vie&'O The
second is an imaginar" %rolongation either of the Tonnegrande or of
the >"ac N.iaTO' The inland sea N=aguna ParimeO &as at first %laced in
such a manner that its &estern extremit" coincided &ith the meridian
of the confluence of the A%ure and the >rinoco' B" degrees it &as
advanced to&ard the east*- the &estern extremit" being found to the
south of the mouth of the >rinoco' N- $om%are the ma%s of 1922 &ith
those of 0anson N1L9LO and of Blaeu& N1L!!O'O This change %roduced
others in the res%ective situations of the lakes Parima and $assi%a*
as &ell as in the direction of the course of the >rinoco' This great
river is re%resented as running from its delta as far as be"ond the
Ceta* from south to north* like the river Cagdalena' The tributar"
streams* therefore* &hich &ere made to issue from the lake $assi%a*
the $aron"* the Arui* and the $aura* then took the direction of the
latitude* &hile in nature the" follo& that of a meridian' Beside the
lakes Parima and $assi%a* a third &as traced u%on the ma%s* from &hich
the A%rouague NA%ur&acaO &as made to issue' +t &as then a general
%ractice among geogra%hers to attach all rivers to great lakes' B"
this means >rtelius joined the @ile to the Saire or Rio $ongo* and the
istula to the .olga and the (nie%er' @orth of Cexico* in the
%retended kingdoms of Buivira and $ibola* rendered celebrated b" the
falsehoods of the monk Carcos de @iRa* a great inland sea &as
imagined* from &hich the Rio $olorado of $alifornia &as made to
issue'- N- This is the Cexican (orado* &here it &as %retended that
vessels had been found on the coasts :of @e& AlbionT< loaded &ith the
merchandise of $ata"o and $hina NGomara* Hist' Gen' %age 113O* and
&here /ra" Carcos Nlike Huten in the countr" of the >maguasO had seen
from afar the gilded roofs of a great to&n* one of the 0iete $iudades'
The inhabitants have great dogs* en los quales quando se mudan cargan
su menage' NHerrera dec' L %ages 193 and 78L'O =ater discoveries*
ho&ever* leave no doubt that there existed a centre of civiliRation in
those countries'O A branch of the Rio Cagdalena flo&ed to the =aguna
de Caraca"boP and the lake of Jara"es* near &hich a southern (orado
&as %laced* communicated &ith the AmaRon* the Ciari- NCear"O N- As
this river flo&s into the gulf of Caranhao Nso named because some
/rench colonists* Rifault* (e aux* and Ravadiere* believed the" &ere
o%%osite the mouth of the Caranon or AmaRonO* the ancient ma%s call
the Cear" Caranon* or Caranham' 0ee the ma%s of Hondius* and Paulo de
/orlani' Perha%s the idea that Pincon* to &hom the discover" of the
real Caranon is due* had landed in these %arts* since become
celebrated b" the shi%&reck of A"res da $unha* has also contributed to
this confusion' The Cear" a%%ears to me identical &ith the Rio de
icente Pincon of (iego Ribe"ro* &hich is more than one hundred and
fort" leagues from that of the modern geogra%hers' At %resent the name
of Caranon has remained at the same time to the river of the AmaRons*
and to a %rovince much farther east&ard* the ca%ital of &hich is
Caranhao* or 0t' =ouis de Caranon'O and the Rio de 0an /rancisco'
These h"drogra%hic reveries have for the most %art disa%%earedP but
the lakes $assi%a and (orado have been long simultaneousl" %reserved
on our ma%s'
+n follo&ing the histor" of geogra%h" &e see the $assi%a* figured as a
rectangular %arallelogram* enlarge b" degrees at the ex%ense of El
(orado' .hile the latter is sometimes su%%ressed* no one ventures to
touch the former*- &hich is the Rio Paragua Na tributar" stream of the
$aroniO enlarged b" tem%orar" inundations' N- 0anson* $ourse of the
AmaRon* 1LI8P (e =G+sle* Amerique Cerid' 1388' (GAnville* first
edition of his America* 13;I'O .hen (GAnville learned from the
ex%edition of 0olano that the sources of the >rinoco* far from l"ing
to the &est* on the back of the Andes of Pasto* came from the east*
from the mountains of Parima* he restored in the second edition of his
fine ma% of America N13L8O the =aguna Parime* and ver" arbitraril"
made it to communicate &ith three rivers* the >rinoco* the Rio Branco*
and the Essequibo* b" the CaRuruni and the $ujuniP assigning to it the
latitude from ! to ; degrees north* &hich had till then been given to
lake $assi%a'
+ have no& stated* as + announced above* the variable forms &hich
geogra%hical errors have assumed at different %eriods' + have
ex%lained &hat in the configuration of the soil* the course of the
rivers* the names of the tributar" streams* and the multi%licit" of
the %ortages* ma" have given rise to the h"%othesis of an inland sea
in the centre of Guiana' Ho&ever dr" discussions of this nature ma"
a%%ear* the" ought not to be regarded as sterile and fruitless' The"
sho& travellers &hat remains to be discoveredP and make kno&n the
degree of certaint" &hich longHre%eated assertions ma" claim' +t is
&ith ma%s* as &ith those tables of astronomical %ositions &hich are
contained in our e%hemerides* designed for the use of navigators5 the
most heterogeneous materials have been em%lo"ed in their construction
during a long s%ace of timeP and* &ithout the aid of the histor" of
geogra%h"* &e could scarcel" ho%e to discover at some future da" on
&hat authorit" ever" %artial statement rests'
Before + resume the thread of m" narrative* it remains for me to add a
fe& general reflections on the auriferous lands situate bet&een the
AmaRon and the >rinoco' .e have just sho&n that the fable of El
(orado* like the most celebrated fables of the nations of the ancient
&orld* has been a%%lied %rogressivel" to different s%ots' .e have seen
it advance from the southH&est to the northHeast* from the oriental
declivit" of the Andes to&ards the %lains of Rio Branco and the
Essequibo* an identical direction &ith that in &hich the $aribs for
ages conducted their &arlike and mercantile ex%editions' +t ma" be
conceived that the gold of the $ordilleras might be conve"ed from hand
to hand* through an infinite number of tribes* as far as the shore of
GuianaP since* long before the furHtrade had attracted English*
Russian* and American vessels to the northH&est coast of America* iron
tools had been carried from @e& Cexico and $anada be"ond the Rock"
Countains' /rom an error in longitude* the traces of &hich &e find in
all the ma%s of the 1Lth centur"* the auriferous mountains of Peru and
@e& Granada &ere su%%osed to be much nearer the mouths of the >rinoco
and the AmaRon than the" are in fact' Geogra%hers have the habit of
augmenting and extending be"ond measure countries that are recentl"
discovered' +n the ma% of Peru* %ublished at erona b" Paulo di
/orlani* the to&n of Buito is %laced at the distance of ;88 leagues
from the coast of the 0outh 0ea* on the meridian of $umanaP and the
$ordillera of the Andes there fills almost the &hole surface of
0%anish* /rench* and (utch Guiana' This erroneous o%inion of the
breadth of the Andes has no doubt contributed to give so much
im%ortance to the granitic %lains that extend on their eastern side'
?nceasingl" confounding the tributar" streams of the AmaRon &ith those
of the >rinoco* or Nas the lieutenants of Raleigh called it* to
flatter their chiefO the Rio Raleana* to the latter &ere attributed
all the traditions &hich had been collected res%ecting the (orado of
Buixos* the >maguas* and the Canoas'- N- The flight of CancoH+nca*
brother of Atahual%a* to the east of the $ordilleras* no doubt gave
rise to the tradition of the ne& em%ire of the +ncas in (orado' +t &as
forgotten that $axamarca and $uRco* t&o to&ns &here the %rinces of
that unfortunate famil" &ere at the time of their emigration* are
situate to the south of the AmaRon* in the latitudes seven degrees
eight minutes* and thirteen degrees t&ent"Hone minutes south* and
consequentl" four hundred leagues southH&est of the %retended to&n of
Canoa on the lake Parima Nthree degrees and a half north latitudeO' +t
is %robable that* from the extreme difficult" of %enetration into the
%lains east of the Andes* covered &ith forests* the fugitive %rinces
never &ent be"ond the banks of the Beni' The follo&ing is &hat +
learnt &ith certaint" res%ecting the emigration of the famil" of the
+nca* some sad vestiges of &hich + sa& on %assing b" $axamarca'
CancoH+nca* ackno&ledged as the legitimate successor of Atahual%a*
made &ar &ithout success against the 0%aniards' He retired at length
into the mountains and thick forests of ilcabamba* &hich are
accessible either b" Huamanga and Antahua"lla* or b" the valle" of
,uca"* north of $uRco' >f the t&o 0ons of CancoH+nca* the eldest*
0a"riHTu%ac* surrendered himself to the 0%aniards* u%on the invitation
of the vicero" of Peru* Hurtado de CendoRa' He &as received &ith great
%om% at =ima* &as ba%tiRed there* and died %eaceabl" in the fine
valle" of ,uca"' The "oungest son of CancoH+nca* Tu%acHAmaru* &as
carried off b" stratagem from the forests of ilcabamba* and beheaded
on %retext of a cons%irac" formed against the 0%anish usur%ers' At the
same %eriod* thirt"Hfive distant relations of the +nca Atahual%a &ere
seiRed* and conve"ed to =ima* in order to remain under the ins%ection
of the Audiencia' NGarcilasso volume 7 %ages 12;* ;I8 and 981'O +t is
interesting to inquire &hether an" other %rinces of the famil" of
CancoH$a%ac have remained in the forests of ilcabamba* and if there
still exist an" descendants of the +ncas of Peru bet&een the A%urimac
and the Beni' This su%%osition gave rise in 13;1 to the famous
rebellion of the $huncoes* and to that of the Amages and $am%oes led
on b" their chief* 6uan 0antos* called the false Atahual%a' The late
%olitical events of 0%ain have liberated from %rison the remains of
the famil" of 6ose Gabriel $ondorcanqui* an artful and intre%id man*
&ho* under the name of the +nca Tu%acHAmaru* attem%ted in 13I1 that
restoration of the ancient d"nast" &hich Raleigh had %rojected in the
time of Bueen EliRabeth'O The geogra%her Hondius su%%osed that the
Andes of =oxa* celebrated for their forests of cinchona* &ere onl"
t&ent" leagues distant from the lake Parima* or the banks of the Rio
Branco' This %roximit" %rocured credit to the tidings of the flight of
the +nca into the forests of Guiana* and the removal of the treasures
of $uRco to the easternmost %arts of that countr"' @o doubt in going
u% to&ards the east* either b" the Ceta or b" the AmaRon* the
civiliRation of the natives* bet&een the PuruR* the 6u%ura* and the
+quiari* &as observed to increase' The" %ossessed amulets* little
idols of molten gold* and chairs* elegantl" carvedP but these traces
of da&ning civiliRation are far distant from those cities and houses
of stone described b" Raleigh and those &ho follo&ed him' .e have made
dra&ings of some ruins of great edifices east of the $ordilleras* &hen
going do&n from =oxa to&ards the AmaRon* in the %rovince of 6aen de
BracamorosP and thus far the +ncas had carried their arms* their
religion* and their arts' The inhabitants of the >rinoco &ere also*
before the conquest* &hen abandoned to themselves* some&hat more
civiliRed than the inde%endent hordes of our da"s' The" had %o%ulous
villages along the river* and a regular trade &ith more southern
nationsP but nothing indicates that the" ever constructed an edifice
of stone' .e sa& no vestige of an" during the course of our journe"'
Though the celebrit" of the riches of 0%anish Guiana is chiefl"
assignable to the geogra%hical situation of the countr" and the errors
of the old ma%s* &e are not justified in den"ing the existence of an"
auriferous land in the tract of countr" of eight"Ht&o thousand square
leagues* &hich stretches bet&een the >rinoco and the AmaRon* on the
east of the Andes of Buito and @e& Granada' .hat + sa& of this countr"
bet&een the second and eighth degrees of latitude* and the sixt"Hsixth
and sevent"Hfirst degrees of longitude* is entirel" com%osed of
granite* and of a gneiss %assing into micaceous and talcous slate'
These rocks a%%ear naked in the loft" mountains of Parima* as &ell as
in the %lains of the Ataba%o and the $assiquiare' Granite %redominates
there over the other rocksP and though* in both continents* the
granite of ancient formation is %rett" generall" destitute of
goldHore* &e cannot thence conclude that the granite of Parima
contains no vein* no stratum of auriferous quartR' >n the east of the
$assiquiare to&ards the sources of the >rinoco* &e observed that the
number of these strata and these veins increased' The granite of these
countries* b" its structure* its mixture of hornblende* and other
geological features alike im%ortant* a%%ears to me to belong to a more
recent formation* %erha%s %osterior to the gneiss* and analogous to
the stanniferous granites* the h"alomictes* and the %egmatites' @o&
the least ancient granites are also the least destitute of metalsP and
several auriferous rivers and torrents in the Andes* in the 0alRburg*
/ichtelgebirge* and the tableHland of the t&o $astiles* lead us to
believe that these granites sometimes contain native gold* and
%ortions of auriferous %"rites and galena disseminated throughout the
&hole rock* as is the case &ith tin and magnetic and micaceous iron'
The grou% of the mountains of Parima* several summits of &hich attain
the height of one thousand three hundred toises* &as almost entirel"
unkno&n before our visit to the >rinoco' This grou%* ho&ever* is a
hundred leagues long and eight" broadP and though &herever C' Bon%land
and + traversed this vast grou% of mountains* its structure seemed to
us extremel" uniform* it &ould be &rong to affirm that it ma" not
contain ver" metalliferous transition rocks and micaHslates
su%erim%osed on the granite'
+ have alread" observed that the silver" lustre and frequenc" of mica
have contributed to give Guiana great celebrit" for metallic &ealth'
The %eak of $alitamini* glo&ing ever" evening at sunset &ith a reddish
fire* still attracts the attention of the inhabitants of Ca"%ures'
According to the fabulous stories of the natives* the islets of
micaHslate* situate in lake Amucu* augment b" their reflection the
lustre of the nebulae of the southern sk"' )Ever" mountain*) sa"s
Raleigh* )ever" stone in the forests of the >rinoco* shines like the
%recious metalsP if it be not gold* it is madre del oro Nmother of
goldO') Raleigh asserts that he brought back gangues of auriferous
&hite quartR N)harde &hite s%arr)OP and to %rove the richness of this
ore he gives an account of the assa"s that &ere made b" the officers
of the mint at =ondon'- N- Cessrs' .este&ood* (imocke* and Bulmar'O +
have no reason to believe that the chemists of that time sought to
lead Bueen EliRabeth into error* and + &ill not insult the memor" of
Raleigh b" su%%osing* like his contem%oraries*- that the auriferous
quartR &hich he brought home had not been collected in America' N- 0ee
the defence of Raleigh in the %reface to the (iscover" of Guiana* 192L
%ages 7 to ;'O .e cannot judge of things from &hich &e are se%arated
b" so long an interval of time' The gneiss of the littoral chain-
contains traces of the %recious metals N- +n the southern branch of
this chain &hich %asses b" ,usma* illa de $ura and >cumare*
%articularl" near Buria* =os Teques and =os Carietas'OP and some
grains of gold have been found in the mountains of Parima* near the
mission of Encaramada' Ho& can &e infer the absolute sterilit" of the
%rimitive rocks of Guiana from testimon" merel" negative* from the
circumstance that during a journe" of three months &e sa& no
auriferous vein a%%earing above the soilT
+n order to bring together &hatever ma" enlighten the government of
this countr" on a subject so long dis%uted* + &ill enter u%on a fe&
more geological considerations' The mountains of BraRil*
not&ithstanding the numerous traces of embedded ore &hich the" dis%la"
bet&een 0aint Paul and illa Rica* have furnished onl" streamH&orks of
gold' Core than sixHsevenths of the sevent"Height thousand marks
N97*888 %oundsO of this metal* &ith &hich at the beginning of the 12th
centur" America annuall" su%%lied the commerce of Euro%e* have come*
not from the loft" $ordilleras of the Andes* but from the alluvial
lands on the east and &est of the $ordilleras' These lands are raised
but little above the level of the sea* like those of 0onora in Cexico*
and of $hoco and Barbacoas in @e& GranadaP or the" stretch along in
tableHlands* as in the interior of BraRil'- N- The height of illa
Rica is six hundred and thirt" toisesP but the great tableHland of the
$a%itania de Cinas Geraes is onl" three hundred toises in height' 0ee
the %rofile &hich $olonel dGEsch&ege has %ublished at .eimar* &ith an
indication of the rocks* in imitation of m" %rofile of the Cexican
tableHland'O +s it not %robable that some other de%ositions of
auriferous earth extend to&ard the northern hemis%here* as far as the
banks of the ?%%er >rinoco and the Rio @egro* t&o rivers &hich form
but one basin &ith that of the AmaRonT + observed* &hen s%eaking of El
(orado de $anelas* the >maguas and the +quiare* that almost all the
rivers &hich flo& from the &est &ash do&n gold in abundance* and ver"
far from the $ordilleras' /rom =oxa to Po%a"an these $ordilleras are
com%osed alternatel" of trach"tes and %rimitive rocks' The %lains of
Ramora* of =ogrono* and of Cacas N0evilla del >roO* the great Rio @a%o
&ith its tributar" streams- Nthe Ansu%i and the $oca* in the %rovince
of Buixos N- The little rivers $osanga* Buixos* and Pa%allacta or
Cas%a* &hich form the $oca* rise on the eastern slo%e of the @evado de
Antisana' The Rio Ansu%i brings do&n the largest grains of gold5 it
flo&s into the @a%o* south of the Archidona* above the mouth of the
Cisagualli' Bet&een the Cisagualli and the Rio $oca* in the %rovince
of Avila* five other northern tributar" streams of the @a%o Nthe
0iguna* Cunino* 0uno* Guataracu* and PuconoO are kno&n as being
singularl" auriferous' These local details are taken from several
manuscri%t re%orts of the Governor of Buixos* from &hich + traced the
ma% of the countries east of the Antisana'OO* the $aqueta de Cocoa as
far as the mouth of the /ragua* in fine* all the countr" com%rised
bet&een 6aen de Bracamoros and the Guaviare*- N- /rom Rio 0antiago* a
tributar" stream of the ?%%er Caranon* to the =lanos of $aguan and of
0an 6uan'O %reserve their ancient celebrit" for metallic &ealth' Core
to the east* bet&een the sources of the Guainia NRio @egroO* the
?au%es* the +quiare* and the ,urubesh* &e find a soil incontestabl"
auriferous' There Acunha and /ather /ritR %laced their =aguna del >roP
and various accounts &hich + obtained at 0an $arlos from Portuguese
Americans ex%lain %erfectl" &hat =a $ondamine has related of the
%lates of beaten gold found in the hands of the natives' +f &e %ass
from the +quiare to the left bank of the Rio @egro* &e enter a countr"
entirel" unkno&n* bet&een the Rio Branco* the sources of the
Essequibo* and the mountains of Portuguese Guiana' Acunha s%eaks of
the gold &ashed do&n b" the northern tributar" streams of the =o&er
Caranon* such as the Rio Trombetas N>riximinaO* the $uru%atuba* and
the Gini%a%e NRio de ParuO' +t a%%ears to me a circumstance &orth" of
attention that all these rivers descend from the same tableHland* the
northern slo%e of &hich contains the lake Amucu* the (orado of Raleigh
and the (utch* and the isthmus bet&een the Ru%unuri NRu%unu&iniO and
the Rio Cahu' There is no reason for den"ing the existence of
auriferous alluvial lands far from the $ordilleras of the Andes on the
north of the AmaRonP as there are on the south in the mountains of
BraRil' The $aribs of the $aron"* the $u"uni and the Essequibo* have
%ractised on a small scale the &ashing of alluvial earth from the
remotest times'- N- )>n the north of the confluence of the $uru%atuba
and the AmaRon*) sa"s Acunha* )is the mountain of Paraguaxo* &hich*
&hen illumined b" the sun* glo&s &ith the most beautiful coloursP and
thence from time to time issues a horrible noise Nrevienta con grandes
struenosO') +s there a volcanic %henomenon in this eastern %art of the
@e& $ontinentT or is it the love of the marvellous* &hich has given
rise to the tradition of the bello&ings NbramidosO of ParaguaxoT The
lustre emitted from the sides of the mountain recalls to mind &hat &e
have mentioned above of the miraculous rocks of $alitamini* and the
island +%omucena* in the imaginar" =ake (orado' +n one of the 0%anish
letters interce%ted at sea b" $a%tain George Po%ham* in 192;* it is
said* )Having inquired of the natives &hence the" obtained the
s%angles and %o&der of gold* &hich &e found in their huts* and &hich
the" stick on their skin b" means of some greas" substances* the" told
us that in a certain %lain the" tore u% the grass* and gathered the
earth in baskets* to subject it to the %rocess of &ashing') Raleigh
%age 182' $an this %assage be ex%lained b" su%%osing that the +ndians
sought thus laboriousl"* not for gold* but for s%angles of mica* &hich
the natives of Rio $aura still em%lo" as ornaments* &hen the" %aint
their bodiesTO .hen &e examine the structure of mountains and embrace
in one %oint of vie& an extensive surface of the globe* distances
disa%%earP and %laces the most remote insensibl" dra& near each other'
The basin of the ?%%er >rinoco* the Rio @egro* and the AmaRon is
bounded b" the mountains of Parime on the north* and b" those of Cinas
Geraes* and Catogrosso on the south' The o%%osite slo%es of the same
valle" often dis%la" an analog" in their geological relations'
+ have described in this and the %receding volume the vast %rovinces
of eneRuela and 0%anish Guiana' .hile examining their natural limits*
their climate* and their %roductions* + have discussed the influence
%roduced b" the configuration of the soil on agriculture* commerce*
and the more or less ra%id %rogress of societ"' + have successivel"
%assed over the three regions that succeed each other from north to
southP from the Cediterranean of the .est +ndies to the forests of the
?%%er >rinoco and of the AmaRon' The fertile land of the shore* the
centre of agricultural riches* is succeeded b" the =lanos* inhabited
b" %astoral tribes' These =lanos are in their turn bordered b" the
region of forests* the inhabitants of &hich enjo"* + &ill not sa"
libert"* &hich is al&a"s the result of civiliRation* but a sort of
savage inde%endence' >n the limit of these t&o latter Rones the
struggle no& exists &hich &ill decide the emanci%ation and future
%ros%erit" of America' The changes &hich are %re%aring cannot efface
the individual character of each regionP but the manners and condition
of the inhabitants &ill assume a more uniform colour' This
consideration %erha%s adds interest to a tour made in the beginning of
the nineteenth centur"' .e like to see* traced in the same %icture*
the civiliRed nations of the seaHshore* and the feeble remains of the
natives of the >rinoco* &ho kno& no other &orshi% than that of the
%o&ers of natureP and &ho* like the ancient Germans* deif" the
m"sterious object &hich excites their sim%le admiration'- N- (eorum
nominibus a%%ellant secretum illud* quod sola reverentia vident'
Tacitus Germania 2'O
$HAPTER !'7L'
THE ==A@>0 (E= PA>* >R EA0TER@ PART >/ THE P=A+@0 >/ E@ES?E=A'
C+00+>@0 >/ THE $AR+B0'
=A0T +0+T T> THE $>A0T >/ @?EA BAR$E=>@A* $?CA@A* A@( ARA,A'
@ight had set in &hen &e crossed for the last time the bed of the
>rinoco' .e %ur%osed to rest near the little fort 0an Rafael* and on
the follo&ing morning at da"break to set out on our journe" through
the %lains of eneRuela' @earl" six &eeks had ela%sed since our
arrival at AngosturaP and &e earnestl" &ished to reach the coast* &ith
the vie& of finding* at $umana* or at @ueva Barcelona* a vessel in
&hich &e might embark for the island of $uba* thence to %roceed to
Cexico' After the sufferings to &hich &e had been ex%osed during
several months* &hilst sailing in small boats on rivers infested b"
mosquitos* the idea of a sea vo"age &as not &ithout its charms' .e had
no idea of ever again returning to 0outh America' 0acrificing the
Andes of Peru to the Archi%elago of the Phili%%ines Nof &hich so
little is kno&nO* &e adhered to our old %lan of remaining a "ear in
@e& 0%ain* then %roceeding in a galleon from Aca%ulco to Canila* and
returning to Euro%e b" &a" of Bassora and Ale%%o' .e imagined that*
&hen &e had once left the 0%anish %ossessions in America* the fall of
that ministr" &hich had %rocured for us so man" advantages* could not
be %rejudicial to the execution of our enter%rise'
>ur mules &ere in &aiting for us on the left bank of the >rinoco' The
collection of %lants* and the different geological series &hich &e had
brought from the Esmeralda and Rio @egro* had greatl" augmented our
baggageP and* as it &ould have been dangerous to lose sight of our
herbals* &e ex%ected to make a ver" slo& journe" across the =lanos'
The heat &as excessive* o&ing to the reverberation of the soil* &hich
&as almost ever"&here destitute of vegetationP "et the centigrade
thermometer during the da" Nin the shadeO &as onl" from thirt" to
thirt"Hfour degrees* and during the night* from t&ent"Hseven to
t&ent"Height degrees' Here* therefore* as almost ever"&here &ithin the
tro%ics* it &as less the absolute degree of heat than its duration
that affected our sensations' .e s%ent thirteen da"s in crossing the
%lains* resting a little in the $aribbee N$araibesO missions and in
the little to&n of Pao' The eastern %art of the =lanos through &hich
&e %assed* bet&een Angostura and @ueva Barcelona* %resents the same
&ild as%ect as the &estern %art* through &hich &e had %assed from the
valle"s of Aragua to 0an /ernando de A%ure' +n the season of drought*
N&hich is here called summer*O though the sun is in the southern
hemis%here* the breeRe is felt &ith greater force in the =lanos of
$umana* than in those of $aracasP because those vast %lains* like the
cultivated fields of =ombard"* form an inland basin* o%en to the east*
and closed on the north* south and &est b" high chains of %rimitive
mountains' ?nfortunatel"* &e could not avail ourselves of this
refreshing breeRe* of &hich the =laneros* or the inhabitants of the
%lains* s%eak &ith ra%ture' +t &as no& the rain" season north of the
equatorP and though it did not rain in the %lains* the change in the
declination of the sun had for some time caused the action of the
%olar currents to cease' +n the equatorial regions* &here the
traveller ma" direct his course b" observing the direction of the
clouds* and &here the oscillations of the mercur" in the barometer
indicate the hour almost as &ell as a clock* ever"thing is subject to
a regular and uniform rule' The cessation of the breeRes* the
settingHin of the rain" season* and the frequenc" of electric
ex%losions* are %henomena &hich are found to be connected together b"
immutable la&s'
>n entering the =lanos of @ueva Barcelona* &e met &ith a /renchman* at
&hose house &e %assed the first night* and &ho received us &ith the
kindest hos%italit"' He &as a native of ="ons* and he had left his
countr" at a ver" earl" age' He a%%eared extremel" indifferent to all
that &as %assing be"ond the Atlantic* or* as the" sa" here*
disdainfull" enough* &hen s%eaking of Euro%e* on the other side of the
great %ool Nal otro lado del charcoO' >ur host &as em%lo"ed in joining
large %ieces of &ood b" means of a kind of glue called gua"ca' This
substance* &hich is used b" the car%enters of Angostura* resembles the
best animal glue' +t is found %erfectl" %re%ared bet&een the bark and
the alburnum of a cree%er- of the famil" of the $ombretaceae' N-
$ombretum gua"ca'O +t %robabl" resembles in its chemical %ro%erties
birdlime* the vegetable %rinci%le obtained from the berries of the
mistletoe* and the internal bark of the holl"' An astonishing
abundance of this glutinous matter issues from the t&ining branches of
the vejuco de gua"ca &hen the" are cut' Thus &e find &ithin the
tro%ics a substance in a state of %urit" and de%osited in %eculiar
organs* &hich in the tem%erate Rone can be %rocured onl" b" artificial
means'
.e did not arrive until the third da" at the $aribbee missions of
$ari' .e observed that the ground &as less cracked b" the drought in
this countr" than in the =lanos of $alaboRo' 0ome sho&ers had revived
the vegetation' 0mall gramina and es%eciall" those herbaceous
sensitiveH%lants so useful in fattening halfH&ild cattle* formed a
thick turf' At great distances one from another* there arose a fe&
fanH%alms N$or"%ha tectorumO* rho%alas- Ncha%arro N- The Proteaceae
are not* like the Araucaria* an exclusivel" southern form' .e found
the Rho%ala com%licata and the R' obovata* in 7 degrees !8 minutes*
and in 18 degrees of north latitude'OO* and mal%ighias- &ith
coriaceous and gloss" leaves' N- A neighbouring genus* B"rsonima
cocollobaefolia* B' laurifolia* near Catagorda* and B' ro%alaefolia'O
The humid s%ots are recogniRed at a distance b" grou%s of mauritia*
&hich are the sagoHtrees of those countries' @ear the coast this
%almHtree constitutes the &hole &ealth of the Guaraon +ndiansP and it
is some&hat remarkable that &e also found it one hundred and sixt"
leagues farther south* in the midst of the forests of the ?%%er
>rinoco* in the savannahs that surround the granitic %eak of (uida'-
N- The moriche* like the 0agus Rum%hii* is a %almHtree of the marshes*
not a %almHtree of the coast* like the $hamaero%s humilis* the common
cocoaHtree* and the lodoicea'O +t &as loaded at this season &ith
enormous clusters of red fruit* resembling firHcones' >ur monke"s &ere
extremel" fond of this fruit* &hich has the taste of an overHri%e
a%%le' The monke"s &ere %laced &ith our baggage on the backs of the
mules* and the" made great efforts to reach the clusters that hung
over their heads' The %lain &as undulating from the effects of the
mirageP and &hen* after travelling for an hour* &e reached the trunks
of the %almHtrees* &hich a%%eared like masts in the horiRon* &e
observed &ith astonishment ho& man" things are connected &ith the
existence of a single %lant' The &inds* losing their velocit" &hen in
contact &ith the foliage and the branches* accumulate sand around the
trunk' The smell of the fruit and the brightness of the verdure
attract from afar the birds of %assage* &hich love to %erch on the
slender* arro&Hlike branches of the %almHtree' A soft murmuring is
heard aroundP and over%o&ered b" the heat* and accustomed to the
melanchol" silence of the %lains* the traveller imagines he enjo"s
some degree of coolness on hearing the slightest sound of the foliage'
+f &e examine the soil on the side o%%osite to the &ind* &e find it
remains humid long after the rain" season' +nsects and &orms*
ever"&here else so rare in the =lanos* here assemble and multi%l"'
This one solitar" and often stunted tree* &hich &ould not claim the
notice of the traveller amid the forests of the >rinoco* s%reads life
around it in the desert'
>n the 1!th of 6ul" &e arrived at the village of $ari* the first of
the $aribbee missions that are under the >bservantin monks of the
college of Piritu' .e lodged as usual at the convent* that is* &ith
the clerg"man' >ur host could scarcel" com%rehend ho& natives of the
north of Euro%e could arrive at his d&elling from the frontiers of
BraRil b" the Rio @egro* and not b" &a" of the coast of $umana' He
behaved to us in the most affable manner* at the same time manifesting
that some&hat im%ortunate curiosit" &hich the a%%earance of a
stranger* not a 0%aniard* al&a"s excites in 0outh America' He
ex%ressed his belief that the minerals &e had collected must contain
goldP and that the %lants* dried &ith so much care* must be medicinal'
Here* as in man" %arts of Euro%e* the sciences are thought &orth" to
occu%" the mind onl" so far as the" confer some immediate and
%ractical benefit on societ"'
.e found more than five hundred $aribs in the village of $ariP and sa&
man" others in the surrounding missions' +t is curious to observe this
nomad %eo%le* recentl" attached to the soil* and differing from all
the other +ndians in their %h"sical and intellectual %o&ers' The" are
a ver" tall race of men* their height being from five feet six inches*
to five feet ten inches' According to a %ractice common in America*
the &omen are more s%aringl" clothed than the men' The former &ear
onl" the guajuco* or %eriRoma* in the form of a band' The men have the
lo&er %art of the bod" &ra%%ed in a %iece of blue cloth* so dark as to
be almost black' This dra%er" is so am%le that* on the lo&ering of the
tem%erature to&ards evening* the $aribs thro& it over their shoulders'
Their bodies tinged &ith onoto*- N- Rocou* obtained from the Bixa
orellana' This %aint is called in the $arib tongue* bichet'O their
tall figures* of a reddish co%%erHcolour* and their %icturesque
dra%er"* &hen seen from a distance* relieved against the sk" as a
background* resemble antique statues of bronRe' The men cut their hair
in a ver" %eculiar manner* ver" much in the st"le of the monks' A %art
of the forehead is shaved* &hich makes it a%%ear extremel" high* and a
circular tuft of hair is left near the cro&n of the head' This
resemblance bet&een the $aribs and the monks is not the result of
mission life' +t is not caused* as had been erroneousl" su%%osed* b"
the desire of the natives to imitate their masters* the /ranciscan
monks' The tribes that have %reserved their &ild inde%endence* bet&een
the sources of the $aron" and the Rio Branco* are distinguished b" the
same cerquillo de frailes*- N- $ircular tonsure of the friars'O &hich
the earl" 0%anish historians at the time of the discover" of America
attributed to the nations of the $arib race' All the men of this race
&hom &e sa& either during our vo"age on the =o&er >rinoco* or in the
missions of Piritu* differ from the other +ndians not onl" in the
tallness of their stature* but also in the regularit" of their
features' Their noses are smaller* and less flattenedP the cheekHbones
are not so highP and their %h"siognom" has less of the Congol
character' Their e"es* &hich are darker than those of the other hordes
of Guiana* denote intelligence* and it ma" even be said* the habit of
reflection' The $aribs have a gravit" of manner* and a certain look of
sadness &hich is observable among most of the %rimitive inhabitants of
the @e& .orld' The ex%ression of severit" in their features is
heightened b" the %ractice of d"eing their e"ebro&s &ith the juice of
caruto5 the" also lengthen their e"ebro&s* thereb" giving them the
a%%earance of being joined togetherP and the" often mark their faces
all over &ith black s%ots to give themselves a more fierce a%%earance'
The $arib &omen are less robust and goodHlooking than the men* >n them
devolves almost the &hole burden of domestic &ork* as &ell as much of
the outHdoor labour' The" asked us eagerl" for %ins* &hich the" stuck
under their lo&er li%* making the head of the %in %enetrate dee%l"
into the skin' The "oung girls are %ainted red* and are almost naked'
Among the different nations of the old and the ne& &orlds* the idea of
nudit" is altogether relative' A &oman in some %arts of Asia is not
%ermitted to sho& the ti%s of her fingersP &hile an +ndian of the
$arib race is far from considering herself unclothed if she &ear round
her &aist a guajuco t&o inches broad' Even this band is regarded as
less essential than the %igment &hich covers the skin' To go out of
the hut &ithout being %ainted* &ould be to transgress all the rules of
$arib decenc"'
The +ndians of the missions of Piritu es%eciall" attracted our
attention* because the" belong to a nation &hich* b" its daring* its
&arlike enter%rises* and its mercantile s%irit has exercised great
influence over the vast countr" extending from the equator to&ards the
northern coast' Ever"&here on the >rinoco &e beheld traces of the
hostile incursions of the $aribs5 incursions &hich heretofore extended
from the sources of the $aron" and the Erevato as far as the banks of
the entuari* the Atacavi* and the Rio @egro' The $arib language is
consequentl" the most general in this %art of the &orldP it has even
%assed Nlike the language of the =enniH=ena%es* or Algonkins* and the
@atcheR or Cuskoghees* on the &est of the Alleghen" mountainsO to
tribes &hich have not a common origin'
.hen &e surve" that multitude of nations s%read over @orth and 0outh
America* east&ard of the $ordilleras of the Andes* &e fix our
attention %articularl" on those &ho* having long held dominion over
their neighbours* have acted an im%ortant %art on the stage of the
&orld' +t is the business of the historian to grou% facts* to
distinguish masses* to ascend to the common sources of man" migrations
and %o%ular movements' Great em%ires* the regular organiRation of a
sacerdotal hierarch"* and the culture &hich that organiRation favours
in the first ages of societ"* have existed onl" on the high mountains
of the &estern &orld' +n Cexico &e see a vast monarch" enclosing small
re%ublicsP at $undinamarca and Peru &e find %ure theocracies'
/ortified to&ns* high&a"s and large edifices of stone* an
extraordinar" develo%ment of the feudal s"stem* the se%aration of
castes* convents of men and &omen* religious congregations regulated
b" disci%line more or less severe* com%licated divisions of time
connected &ith the calendars* the Rodiacs* and the astrolog" of the
enlightened nations of AsiaHHall these %henomena in America belong to
one region onl"* the long and narro& Al%ine band extending from the
thirtieth degree of north latitude to the t&ent"Hfifth degree of
south' The migration of nations in the ancient &orld &as from east to
&estP the Basques or +berians* the $elts* the Germans and the Pelasgi*
a%%eared in succession' +n the @e& .orld similar migrations flo&ed
from north to south' Among the nations that inhabit the t&o
hemis%heres* the direction of this movement follo&ed that of the
mountainsP but in the torrid Rone the tem%erate tableHlands of the
$ordilleras had greater influence on the destin" of mankind* than the
mountains of Asia and central Euro%e' As* %ro%erl" s%eaking* onl"
civiliRed nations have a histor"* the histor" of the Americans is
necessaril" no more than that of a small %ortion of the inhabitants of
the mountains' Profound obscurit" envelo%s the vast countr" &hich
stretches from the eastern slo%e of the $ordilleras to&ards the
AtlanticP and for this ver" reason* &hatever in that countr" relates
to the %re%onderance of one nation over others* to distant migrations*
to the %h"siognomical features &hich denote a foreign race* excite our
dee%est interest'
Amidst the %lains of @orth America* some %o&erful nation* &hich has
disa%%eared* constructed circular* square* and octagonal
fortificationsP &alls six thousand toises in lengthP tumuli from seven
to eight hundred feet in diameter* and one hundred and fort" feet in
height* sometimes round* sometimes &ith several stories and containing
thousands of skeletons' These skeletons are the remains of men less
slender and more squat than the %resent inhabitants of those
countries' >ther bones &ra%%ed in fabrics resembling those of the
0and&ich and /eejee +slands are found in the natural grottoes of
Aentuck"' .hat is become of those nations of =ouisiana anterior to the
=enniH=ena%es* the 0ha&anese* and %erha%s even to the 0ioux
N@ado&esses* @ahcotasO of the Cissouri* &ho are strongl" mongolisedP
and &ho* it is believed* according to their o&n traditions* came from
the coast of AsiaT +n the %lains of 0outh America &e find onl" a ver"
fe& hillocks of that kind called cerros hechos a manoP- N- Hills made
b" the hand* or artificial hills'O and no&here an" &orks of
fortification analogous to those of the >hio' Ho&ever* on a vast s%ace
of ground* at the =o&er >rinoco* as &ell as on the banks of the
$assiquiare and bet&een the sources of the Essequibo and the Rio
Branco* there are rocks of granite covered &ith s"mbolic figures'
These scul%tures denote that the extinct generations belonged to
nations different from those &hich no& inhabit the same regions' There
seems to be no connection bet&een the histor" of Cexico and that of
$undinamarca and of PeruP but in the %lains of the east a &arlike and
longHdominant nation betra"s in its features and its %h"sical
constitution traces of a foreign origin' The $aribs %reserve
traditions that seem to indicate ancient communications bet&een @orth
and 0outh America' 0uch a %henomenon deserves %articular attention' +f
it be true that savages are for the most %art degenerate races*
remnants esca%ed from a common &reck* as their languages* their
cosmogonic fables* and numerous other indications seem to %rove* it
becomes doubl" im%ortant to examine the course b" &hich these remnants
have been driven from one hemis%here to the other'
That fine race of %eo%le* the $aribs* no& occu%" onl" a small %art of
the countr" &hich the" inhabited at the time of the discover" of
America' The cruelties exercised b" Euro%eans have entirel"
exterminated them from the .est +ndian +slands and the coasts of
(arienP &hile under the government of the missions the" have formed
%o%ulous villages in the %rovinces of @e& Barcelona and 0%anish
Guiana' The $aribs &ho inhabit the =lanos of Piritu and the banks of
the $aron" and the $u"uni ma" be estimated at more than thirt"Hfive
thousand' +f &e add to this number the inde%endent $aribs &ho live
&est&ard of the mountains of $a"enne and Pacara"mo* bet&een the
sources of the Essequibo and the Rio Branco* &e shall no doubt obtain
a total of fort" thousand individuals of %ure race* unmixed &ith an"
other tribes of natives' Prior to m" travels* the $aribs &ere
mentioned in man" geogra%hical &orks as an extinct race' .riters
unacquainted &ith the interior of the 0%anish colonies of the
continent su%%osed that the small islands of (ominica* Guadalou%e* and
0t' incent had been the %rinci%al abodes of that nation of &hich the
onl" vestiges no& remaining throughout the &hole of the eastern .est
+ndia +slands are skeletons %etrified* or rather envelo%ed in a
limestone containing madre%ores'- N- These skeletons &ere discovered
in 1I89 b" C' $orteR' The" are encased in a formation of madre%ore
breccia* &hich the negroes call GodGs masonr"* and &hich* like the
travertin of +tal"* envelo%s fragments of vases and other objects
created b" human skill' C' (auxion =ava"sse and (r' Aoenig first made
kno&n in Euro%e this %henomenon &hich has greatl" interested
geologists'O
The name of $aribs* &hich + find for the first time in a letter of
Peter Cart"r dGAnghiera is derived from $alina and $ari%una* the l and
% being transferred into r and b' +t is ver" remarkable that this
name* &hich $olumbus heard %ronounced b" the %eo%le of Ha"ti* &as
kno&n to exist at the same time among the $aribs of the islands and
those of the continent' /rom the &ord $arina* or $alina* has been
formed Galibi N$aribiO' This is the distinctive denomination of a
tribe in /rench Guiana*- &ho are of much more diminutive stature than
the inhabitants of $ari* but s%eaking one of the numerous dialects of
the $arib tongue' N- The Galibis N$alibitisO* the Palicours* and the
Acoquouas* also cut their hair in the st"le of the monksP and a%%l"
bandages to the legs of their children for the %ur%ose of s&elling the
muscles' The" have the same %redilection for green stones NsaussuriteO
&hich &e observed among the $arib nations of the >rinoco' There exist*
besides* in /rench Guiana* t&ent" +ndian tribes &hich are
distinguished from the Galibis though their language %roves that the"
have a common origin'O The inhabitants of the islands are called
$alinago in the language of the menP and in that of the &omen*
$alli%inan' The difference in the language of the t&o sexes is more
striking among the %eo%le of the $arib race than among other American
nations Nthe >maguas* the Guaranis* and the $hiquitosO &here it
a%%lies onl" to a limited number of ideasP for instance* the &ords
mother and child' +t ma" be conceived that &omen* from their se%arate
&a" of life* frame %articular terms &hich men do not ado%t' $icero
observes- that old forms of language are best %reserved b" &omen
because b" their %osition in societ" the" are less ex%osed to those
vicissitudes of life* changes of %lace and occu%ation &hich tend to
corru%t the %rimitive %urit" of language among men' N- $icero* de
>rat' lib' ! ca%' 17 %aragra%h ;9 ed' erburg' /acilius enim mulieres
incorru%tam antiquitatem conservant* quod multorum sermonis ex%ertes
ea tenent sem%er* quae %rima didicerunt'O But in the $arib nations the
contrast bet&een the dialect of the t&o sexes is so great that to
ex%lain it satisfactoril" &e must refer to another causeP and this ma"
%erha%s be found in the barbarous custom* %ractised b" those nations*
of killing their male %risoners* and carr"ing the &ives of the
vanquished into ca%tivit"' .hen the $aribs made an irru%tion into the
archi%elago of the .est +ndia +slands* the" arrived there as a band of
&arriors* not as colonists accom%anied b" their families' The language
of the female sex &as formed b" degrees* as the conquerors contracted
alliances &ith the foreign &omenP it &as com%osed of ne& elements*
&ords distinct from the $arib &ords*- &hich in the interior of the
g"naeceums &ere transmitted from generation to generation* but on
&hich the structure* the combinations* the grammatical forms of the
language of the men exercised an influence' N- The follo&ing are
exam%les of the difference bet&een the language of the men NmO* and
the &omen N&OP isle* oubao NmO* acaera N&OP man* ouekelli NmO* e"eri
N&OP but* irhen NmO* atica N&O'O There &as then manifested in a small
communit" the %eculiarit" &hich &e no& find in the &hole grou% of the
nations of the @e& $ontinent' The American languages* from HudsonGs
Ba" to the 0traits of Cagellan* are in general characteriRed b" a
total dis%arit" of &ords combined &ith a great analog" in their
structure' The" are like different substances invested &ith analogous
forms' +f &e recollect that this %henomenon extends over oneHhalf of
our %lanet* almost from %ole to %oleP if &e consider the shades in the
grammatical forms Nthe genders a%%lied to the three %ersons of the
verb* the redu%lications* the frequentatives* the dualsOP it a%%ears
highl" astonishing to find a uniform tendenc" in the develo%ment of
intelligence and language among so considerable a %ortion of the human
race'
.e have just seen that the dialect of the $arib &omen in the .est
+ndia +slands contains the vestiges of a language that &as extinct'
0ome &riters have imagined that this extinct language might be that of
the ,gneris* or %rimitive inhabitants of the $aribbee +slandsP others
have traced in it some resemblance to the ancient idiom of $uba* or to
those of the Aro&aks* and the A%alachites in /lorida5 but these
h"%otheses are all founded on a ver" im%erfect kno&ledge of the idioms
&hich it has been attem%ted to com%are one &ith another'
The 0%anish &riters of the sixteenth centur" inform us that the $arib
nations then extended over eighteen or nineteen degrees of latitude*
from the irgin +slands east of Porto Rico* to the mouths of the
AmaRon' Another %rolongation to&ard the &est* along the coastHchain of
0anta Carta and eneRuela* a%%ears less certain' Gomara* ho&ever* and
the most ancient historians* give the name of $aribana* not* as it has
since been a%%lied* to the countr" bet&een the sources of the >rinoco
and the mountains of /rench Guiana*- N- This name is found in the ma%
of Hondius* of 1922* &hich accom%anies the =atin edition of the
narrative of RaleighGs vo"age' +n the (utch edition @ieu&e $aerte van
het goudr"cke landt Guiana* the =lanos of $aracas* bet&een the
mountains of Cerida and the Rio Pao* bear the name of $aribana' .e ma"
remark here* &hat &e observe so often in the histor" of geogra%h"*
that the same denomination has s%read b" degrees from &est to east'O
but to the marsh" %lains bet&een the mouths of the Rio Atrato and the
Rio 0inu' + have visited those coasts in going from the Havannah to
Porto BelloP and + there learned that the ca%e &hich bounds the gulf
of (arien or ?raba on the east* still bears the name of Punta
$aribana' An o%inion heretofore %revailed %rett" generall" that the
$aribs of the .est +ndia +slands derived their origin* and even their
name* from these &arlike %eo%le of (arien' )/rom the eastern shore
s%rings $a%e ?raba* &hich the natives call $aribana* &hence the $aribs
of the island are said to have received their %resent name')- N- +nde
rabam ab orientali %rehendit ora* quam a%%ellant indigenae $aribana*
unde $aribes insulares originem habere nomenque retinere dicuntur'O
Thus Anghiera ex%resses himself in his >ceanica' He had been told b" a
ne%he& of Amerigo es%ucci that thence* as far as the sno&" mountains
of 0t' Carta* all the natives &ere e genere $aribium* vel $anibalium'
+ do not den" that $aribs ma" have had a settlement near the gulf of
(arien* and that the" ma" have been driven thither b" the easterl"
currentsP but it also ma" have ha%%ened that the 0%anish navigators*
little attentive to languages* gave the names $arib and $annibal to
ever" race of %eo%le of tall stature and ferocious character' 0till it
is b" no means %robable that the $aribs of the islands and of Parima
took to themselves the name of the region &hich the" had originall"
inhabited' >n the east of the Andes and &herever civiliRation has not
"et %enetrated* it is the %eo%le &ho have given names to the %laces
&here the" have settled'- N- These names of %laces can be %er%etuated
onl" &here the nations succeed immediatel" to each other* and &here
the tradition is interru%ted' Thus in the %rovince of Buito man" of
the summits of the Andes bear names &hich belong neither to the
Buichua Nthe language of +ncaO nor to the ancient language of the
Parua"s* governed b" the $onchocando of =ican'O The &ords $aribs and
$annibals a%%ear significantP the" are e%ithets referring to valour*
strength and even su%erior intelligence'- N- es%ucci sa"s5 $haraibi
magnae sa%ientiae viri'O +t is &orth" of remark that* at the arrival
of the Portuguese* the BraRilians gave to their magicians the name of
caraibes' .e kno& that the $aribs of Parima &ere the most &andering
%eo%le of AmericaP %ossibl" some &il" individuals of that nation
%la"ed the same %art as the $haldeans of the ancient continent' The
names of nations readil" become affixed to %articular %rofessionsP and
&hen* in the time of the $aesars* the su%erstitions of the East &ere
introduced into +tal"* the $haldeans no more came from the banks of
the Eu%hrates than our G"%sies NEg"%tians or BohemiansO came from the
banks of the @ile or the Elbe'
.hen a continent and its adjacent islands are %eo%led b" one and the
same race* &e ma" choose bet&een t&o h"%othesesP su%%osing the
emigration to have taken %lace either from the islands to the
continent* or from the continent to the islands' The +berians
NBasquesO &ho &ere settled at the same time in 0%ain and in the
islands of the Cediterranean* afford an instance of this %roblemP as
do also the Cala"s &ho a%%ear to be indigenous in the %eninsula of
Calacca* and in the district of Cenangkabao in the island of 0umatra'-
N- $ra&furd* +ndian Archi%elago volume 7 %age !31' + make use of the
&ord indigenous NautocthoniO not to indicate a fact of creation* &hich
does not belong to histor"* but sim%l" to denote that &e are ignorant
of the autocthoni having been %receded b" an" other %eo%le'O The
archi%elago of the large and small .est +ndia +slands forms a narro&
and broken neck of land* %arallel &ith the isthmus of Panama* and
su%%osed b" some geogra%hers to join the %eninsula of /lorida to the
northHeast extremit" of 0outh America' +t is the eastern shore of an
inland sea &hich ma" be considered as a basin &ith several outlets'
This %eculiar configuration of the land has served to su%%ort the
different s"stems of migration* b" &hich it has been attem%ted to
ex%lain the settlement of the nations of the $arib race in the islands
and on the neighbouring continent' The $aribs of the continent admit
that the small .est +ndia +slands &ere ancientl" inhabited b" the
Aro&aks*- a &arlike nation* the great mass of &hich still inhabit the
insalubrious shores of 0urinam and Berbice' N- Arouaques' The
missionar" Buandt N@achricht von 0urinam* 1I83 %age ;3O calls them
Ara&ackes'O The" assert that the Aro&aks* &ith the exce%tion of the
&omen* &ere all exterminated b" $aribs* &ho came from the mouths of
the >rinoco' +n su%%ort of this tradition the" refer to the traces of
analog" existing bet&een the language of the Aro&aks and that of the
$arib &omenP but it must be recollected that the Aro&aks* though the
enemies of the $aribs* belonged to the same branch of %eo%leP and that
the same analog" exists bet&een the Aro&ak and $arib languages as
bet&een the Greek and the Persian* the German and the 0anscrit'
According to another tradition* the $aribs of the islands came from
the south* not as conquerors* but because the" &ere ex%elled from
Guiana b" the Aro&aks* &ho originall" ruled over all the neighbouring
nations' /inall"* a third tradition* much more general and more
%robable* re%resents the $aribs as having come from /lorida* in @orth
America' Cr' Bristock* a traveller &ho has collected ever" %articular
relating to these migrations from north to south* asserts that a tribe
of $onfachites N$onfachiqui- N- The %rovince of $onfachiqui* &hich in
19;1 became subject to a &oman* is celebrated b" the ex%edition of
Hernando de 0oto to /lorida' Among the nations of the Huron tongue*
and the Attaka%as* the su%reme authorit" &as also often exercised b"
&omen'OO had long &aged &ar against the A%alachitesP that the latter*
having "ielded to that tribe the fertile district of Amana* called
their ne& confederates $aribes Nthat is* valiant strangersOP but that*
o&ing to a dis%ute res%ecting their religious rites* the
$onfachiteH$aribs &ere driven from /lorida' The" &ent first to the
,uca"as or =uca"es +slands Nto $igateo and the neighbouring islandsOP
thence to A"a" NHa"ha"* no& 0anta $ruRO* and to the lesser $aribbee
+slandsP and lastl" to the continent of 0outh America'- N- Rochefort*
Hist' des Antilles volume 1 %ages !7L to !9!P Garcia %age !77P
Robertson book ! note L2' The conjecture of /ather Gili that the
$aribs of the continent ma" have come from the islands at the time of
the first conquest of the 0%aniards N0aggio volume ! %age 78;O* is at
variance &ith all the statements of the earl" historians'O +t is
su%%osed that this event took %lace to&ard the "ear 1188 of our era'
+n the course of this long migration the $aribs had not touched at the
larger islandsP the inhabitants of &hich ho&ever also believed that
the" came originall" from /lorida' The islanders of $uba* Ha"ti* and
Boriken NPorto RicoO &ere* according to the uniform testimon" of the
first conquistadores* entirel" different from the $aribsP and at the
%eriod of the discover" of America* the latter had alread" abandoned
the grou% of the lesser =uca"es +slandsP an archi%elago in &hich there
%revailed that variet" of languages al&a"s found in lands %eo%led b"
shi%&recked men and fugitives'- N- =a gente de las islas ,uca"as era
N1;27O mas blanca " de major %olicia que la de $uba " Haiti' Havia
mucha diversidad de lenguas' :The %eo%le of the =uca"es &ere N1;27O of
fairer com%lexion and of more civiliRed manners than those of $uba and
Ha"ti' The" had a great diversit" of languages'< Gomara* Hist' de +nd'
fol' 77'O
The dominion so long exercised b" the $aribs over a great %art of the
continent* joined to the remembrance of their ancient greatness* has
ins%ired them &ith a sentiment of dignit" and national su%eriorit"
&hich is manifest in their manners and their discourse' ).e alone are
a nation*) sa" the" %roverbiall"P )the rest of mankind NoquiliO are
made to serve us') This contem%t of the $aribs for their enemies is so
strong that + sa& a child of ten "ears of age foam &ith rage on being
called a $abre or $avereP though he had never in his life seen an
individual of that unfortunate race of %eo%le &ho gave their name to
the to&n of $abruta N$abrituOP and &ho* after long resistance* &ere
almost entirel" exterminated b" the $aribs' Thus &e find among half
savage hordes* as in the most civiliRed %art of Euro%e* those
inveterate animosities &hich have caused the names of hostile nations
to %ass into their res%ective languages as insulting a%%ellations'
The missionar" of the village of $ari led us into several +ndian huts*
&here extreme neatness and order %revailed' .e observed &ith %ain the
torments &hich the $arib mothers inflict on their infants for the
%ur%ose not onl" of enlarging the calf of the leg* but also of raising
the flesh in alternate stri%es from the ankle to the to% of the thigh'
@arro& ligatures* consisting of bands of leather* or of &oven cotton*
are fixed t&o or three inches a%art from each other* and being
tightened more and more* the muscles bet&een the bands become s&ollen'
The monks of the missions* though ignorant of the &orks or even of the
name of Rousseau* attem%t to o%%ose this ancient s"stem of %h"sical
education5 but in vain' Can &hen just issued from the &oods and
su%%osed to be so sim%le in his manners* is far from being tractable
in his ideas of beaut" and %ro%riet"' + observed* ho&ever* &ith
sur%rise* that the manner in &hich these %oor children are bound* and
&hich seems to obstruct the circulation of the blood* does not o%erate
injuriousl" on their muscular movements' There is no race of men more
robust and s&ifter in running than the $aribs'
+f the &omen labour to form the legs and thighs of their children so
as to %roduce &hat %ainters call undulating outlines* the" abstain Nat
least in the =lanosO* from flattening the head b" com%ressing it
bet&een cushions and %lanks from the most tender age' This %ractice*
so common heretofore in the islands and among several tribes of the
$aribs of Parima and /rench Guiana* is not observed in the missions
&hich &e visited' The men there have foreheads rounder than those of
the $ha"mas* the >tomacs* the Cacos* the Caravitans and most of the
inhabitants of the >rinoco' A s"stematiRer &ould sa" that the form is
such as their intellectual faculties require' .e &ere so much the more
struck b" this fact as some of the skulls of $aribs engraved in
Euro%e* for &orks on anatom"* are distinguished from all other human
skulls b" the extremel" de%ressed forehead and acute facial angle' +n
some osteological collections skulls su%%osed to be those of $aribs of
the island of 0t' incent are in fact skulls sha%ed b" having been
%ressed bet&een %lanks' The" have belonged to Sambos Nblack $aribsO
&ho are descended from @egroes and true $aribs'- N- These unfortunate
remnants of a nation heretofore %o&erful &ere banished in 1329 to the
+sland of Rattam in the Ba" of Honduras because the" &ere accused b"
the English Government of having connexions &ith the /rench' +n 13L8
an able minister* C' =escallier* %ro%osed to the $ourt of ersailles
to invite the Red and Black $aribs from 0t' incent to Guiana and to
em%lo" them as free men in the cultivation of the land' + doubt
&hether their number at that %eriod amounted to six thousand* as the
island of 0t' incent contained in 13I3 not more than fourteen
thousand inhabitants of all colours'O The barbarous habit of
flattening the forehead is %ractised b" several nations*- of %eo%le
not of the same raceP and it has been observed recentl" in @orth
AmericaP but nothing is more vague than the conclusion that some
degree of conformit" in customs and manners %roves identit" of origin'
N- /or instance the Ta%o"ranas of Guiana NBarrere %age 7!2O* the
0olkeeks of ?%%er =ouisiana N.alckenaer* $osmos %age 9I!O' =os +ndios
de $umana* sa"s Gomara NHist' de +nd'O* a%rietan a los ninos la cabeca
mu" blando* %ero mucho* entre dos almohadillas de algodon %ara
ensancharlos la cara* que lo tienen %or hermosura' =as donRellas traen
senogiles mu" a%retados %ar debaxo " encima de las rodillas* %ara que
los muslos " %antorillas engorden mucho' :The +ndians of $umana %ress
do&n the heads of "oung infants tightl" bet&een cushions stuffed &ith
cotton for the %ur%ose of giving &idth to their faces* &hich the"
regard as a beaut"' The "oung girls &ear ver" tight bandages round
their knees in order to give thickness to the thighs and calves of the
legs'<O >n observing the s%irit of order and submission &hich %revails
in the $arib missions* the traveller can scarcel" %ersuade himself
that he is among cannibals' This American &ord* of some&hat doubtful
signification* is %robabl" derived from the language of Ha"ti* or that
of Porto RicoP and it has %assed into the languages of Euro%e* since
the end of the fifteenth centur"* as s"non"mous &ith that of
anthro%o%hagi' )These ne&l" discovered manHeaters* so greed" of human
flesh* are called $aribes or $annibals*)- sa"s Anghiera* in the third
decade of his >ceanica* dedicated to Po%e =eo J' N- Edaces humanarum
carnium novi helluones anthro%o%hagi* $aribes alias $anibales
a%%ellati'O There can be little doubt that the $aribs of the islands*
&hen a conquering %eo%le* exercised cruelties u%on the ,gneris* or
ancient inhabitants of the .est +ndies* &ho &ere &eak and not ver"
&arlikeP but &e must also admit that these cruelties &ere exaggerated
b" the earl" travellers* &ho heard onl" the narratives of the old
enemies of the $aribs' +t is not al&a"s the vanquished solel"* &ho are
calumniated b" their contem%orariesP the insolence of the conquerors
is %unished b" the catalogue of their crimes being augmented'
All the missionaries of the $aron"* the =o&er >rinoco and the =lanos
del $ari &hom &e had an o%%ortunit" of consulting assured us that the
$aribs are %erha%s the least anthro%o%hagous nations of the @e&
$ontinent' The" extend this remark even to the inde%endent hordes &ho
&ander on the east of the Esmeralda* bet&een the sources of the Rio
Branco and the Essequibo' +t ma" be conceived that the fur" and
des%air &ith &hich the unha%%" $aribs defended themselves against the
0%aniards* &hen in 198; a ro"al decree declared them slaves* ma" have
contributed to acquire for them a re%utation for ferocit"' The first
idea of attacking this nation and de%riving it of libert" and of its
natural rights originated &ith $hristo%her $olumbus* &ho &as not in
all instances so humane as he is re%resented to have been'
0ubsequentl" the licenciado Rodrigo de /igueroa &as a%%ointed b" the
court* in 1978* to determine the tribes of 0outh America* &ho &ere to
be regarded as of $arib race* or as cannibalsP and those &ho &ere
Guatiaos*- that is* +ndians of %eace* and friends of the $astilians'
N- + had some trouble in discovering the origin of this denomination
&hich has become so im%ortant from the fatal decrees of /igueroa' The
0%anish historians often em%lo" the &ord guatiao to designate a branch
of nations' To become a guatiao of an" one seems to have signified* in
the language of Ha"ti* to conclude a treat" of friendshi%' +n the .est
+ndia +slands* as &ell as in the archi%elago of the 0outh 0ea* names
&ere exchanged in token of alliance' 6uan de Esquivel N1987O se hice
guatiao del cacique $otubanamaP el qual desde adelante se llamo 6uan
de Esquivel* %orque era liga de %er%etua amistad entre los +ndios
trocarse los nombres5 " trocados quedaban guatiaos* que era tanto coma
confederados " hermanos en armas' Ponce de =eon se hace guatiao con el
%oderoso cacique Agueinaha') Herrera dec' 1 %ages 172* 192 and 1I1'
:6uan de Esquivel N1987O became the guatiao of the cacique $otubanamaP
and thenceforth the latter called himself 6uan de Esquivel* for among
the +ndians the exchange of names &as a bond of %er%etual friendshi%'
Those &ho exchanged names became guaitaos* &hich meant the same as
confederates or brethrenHinHarms' Ponce de =eon became guatiao &ith
the %o&erful cacique Agueinaha'< >ne of the =uca"es +slands* inhabited
b" a mild and %acific %eo%le* &as heretofore called GuataoP but &e
&ill not insist on the et"molog" of this &ord* because the languages
of the =uca"es +slands differed from those of Ha"ti'O The ethnogra%hic
document called El Auto de /igueroa is one of the most curious records
of the barbarism of the first conquistadores' .ithout an" attention to
the analog" of languages* ever" nation that could be accused of having
devoured a %risoner after a battle &as arbitraril" declared of $arib
race' The inhabitants of ?ria%ari Non the %eninsula of PariaO &ere
named $aribsP the ?rinacos Nsettled on the banks of the =o&er >rinoco*
or ?rinucuO* Guatiaos' All the tribes designated b" /igueroa as $aribs
&ere condemned to slaver"P and might at &ill be sold* or exterminated
b" &ar' +n these sanguinar" struggles* the $arib &omen* after the
death of their husbands* defended themselves &ith such des%eration
that Anghiera sa"s the" &ere taken for tribes of AmaRons' But amidst
the cruelties exercised on the $aribs* it is consolator" to find* that
there existed some courageous men &ho raised the voice of humanit" and
justice' 0ome of the monks embraced an o%inion different from that
&hich the" had at first ado%ted' +n an age &hen there could be no ho%e
of founding %ublic libert" on civil institutions* an attem%t &as at
least made to defend individual libert"' )That is a most hol" la& Nle"
sanctissimaO*) sa"s Gomara* in 1991* )b" &hich our em%eror has
%rohibited the reducing of the +ndians to slaver"' +t is just that
men* &ho are all born free* should not become the slaves of one
another')
(uring our abode in the $arib missions* &e observed &ith sur%rise the
facilit" &ith &hich "oung +ndians of eighteen "ears of age* &hen
a%%ointed to the %ost of alguaRil* &ould harangue the munici%alit" for
&hole hours in succession' Their tone of voice* their gravit" of
de%ortment* the gestures &hich accom%anied their s%eech* all denoted
an intelligent %eo%le ca%able of a high degree of civiliRation' A
/ranciscan monk* &ho kne& enough of the $arib language to %reach in it
occasionall"* %ointed out to us that the long and harmonious %eriods
&hich occur in the discourses of the +ndians are never confused or
obscure' Particular inflexions of the verb indicate beforehand the
nature of the object* &hether it be animate or inanimate* singular or
%lural' =ittle annexed forms NsuffixesO mark the gradations of
sentimentP and here* as in ever" language formed b" a free
develo%ment* clearness is the result of that regulating instinct &hich
characterises human intelligence in the various stages of barbarism
and cultivation' >n holida"s* after the celebration of mass* all the
inhabitants of the village assemble in front of the church' The "oung
girls %lace at the feet of the missionar" faggots of &ood* bunches of
%lantains* and other %rovision of &hich he stands in need for his
household' At the same time the governador* the alguaRil* and other
munici%al officers* all of &hom are +ndians* exhort the natives to
labour* %roclaim the occu%ations of the ensuing &eek* re%rimand the
idle* and flog the untractable' 0trokes of the cane are received &ith
the same insensibilit" as that &ith &hich the" are given' +t &ere
better if the %riest did not im%ose these cor%oral %unishments at the
instant of quitting the altar* and if he &ere not* in his sacerdotal
habits* the s%ectator of this chastisement of men and &omenP but this
abuse is inherent in the %rinci%le on &hich the strange government of
the missions is founded' The most arbitrar" civil %o&er is combined
&ith the authorit" exercised b" the %riest over the little communit"P
and* although the $aribs are not cannibals* and &e &ould &ish to see
them treated &ith mildness and indulgence* it ma" be conceived that
energetic measures are sometimes necessar" to maintain tranquillit" in
this rising societ"'
The difficult" of fixing the $aribs to the soil is the greater* as
the" have been for ages in the habit of trading on the rivers' .e have
alread" described this active %eo%le* at once commercial and &arlike*
occu%ied in the traffic of slaves* and carr"ing merchandiRe from the
coasts of (utch Guiana to the basin of the AmaRon' The travelling
$aribs &ere the Bokharians of equinoctial America' The necessit" of
counting the objects of their little trade* and transmitting
intelligence* led them to extend and im%rove the use of the qui%os*
or* as the" are called in the missions* the cordoncillos con necos
Ncords &ith knotsO' These qui%os or knotted cords are found in $anada*
in Cexico N&here Boturini %rocured some from the TlascaltecsO* in
Peru* in the %lains of Guiana* in central Asia* in $hina* and in
+ndia' As rosaries* the" have become objects of devotion in the hands
of the $hristians of the EastP as suam%ans* the" have been em%lo"ed in
the o%erations of manual arithmetic b" the $hinese* the Tartars* and
the Russians' The inde%endent $aribs &ho inhabit the littleHkno&n
countr" situated bet&een the sources of the >rinoco and those of the
rivers Essequibo* $aron"* and Parima* are divided into tribesP and*
like the nations of the Cissouri* of $hili* and of ancient German"*
form a %olitical confederation' This s"stem is most in accordance &ith
the s%irit of libert" %revailing amongst those &arlike hordes &ho see
no advantage in the ties of societ" but for common defence' The %ride
of the $aribs leads them to &ithdra& themselves from ever" other
tribeP even from those to &hom* b" their language* the" have some
affinit"'
The" claim the same se%aration in the missions* &hich seldom %ros%er
&hen an" attem%t is made to associate them &ith other mixed
communities* that is* &ith villages &here ever" hut is inhabited b" a
famil" belonging to another nation and s%eaking another language' The
authorit" of the chiefs of the inde%endent $aribs is hereditar" in the
male line onl"* the children of sisters being excluded from the
succession' This la& of succession &hich is founded on a s"stem of
mistrust* denoting no great %urit" of manners* %revails in +ndiaP
among the Ashantees Nin AfricaOP and among several tribes of the
savages of @orth America'- N- Among the Hurons N."andotsO and the
@atcheR the succession to the magistrac" is continued b" the &omen5 it
is not the son &ho succeeds* but the son of the sister* or of the
nearest relation in the female line' This mode of succession is said
to be the most certain because the su%reme %o&er remains attached to
the blood of the last chiefP it is a %ractice that insures legitimac"'
Ancient traces of this strange mode of succession* so common in Africa
and in the East +ndies* exist in the d"nast" of the kings of the .est
+ndia +slands'O The "oung chiefs and other "ouths &ho are desirous of
marr"ing* are subject to the most extraordinar" fasts and %enances*
and are required to take medicines %re%ared b" the marirris or
%iaches* called in the transalleghenian countries* &arH%h"sic' The
$arribbee marirris are at once %riests* jugglers and %h"siciansP the"
transmit to their successors their doctrine* their artifices* and the
remedies the" em%lo"' The latter are accom%anied b" im%osition of
hands* and certain gestures and m"sterious %ractices* a%%arentl"
connected &ith the most ancientl" kno&n %rocesses of animal magnetism'
Though + had o%%ortunities of seeing man" %ersons &ho had closel"
observed the confederated $aribs* + could not learn &hether the
marirris belong to a %articular caste' +t is observed in @orth America
that* among the 0ha&anese*- N- Peo%le that came from /lorida* or from
the south Nsha&aneuO to the north'O divided into several tribes* the
%riests* &ho %reside at the sacrifices* must be Nas among the Hebre&sO
of one %articular tribe* that of the Cequachakes' An" facts that ma"
hereafter be discovered in America res%ecting the remains of a
sacerdotal caste a%%ears to me calculated to excite great interest* on
account of those %riestHkings of Peru* &ho st"led themselves the
children of the 0unP and of those sunHkings among the @atcheR* &ho
recall to mind the Heliades of the first eastern colon" of Rhodes'
>n quitting the mission of $ari* &e had some difficulties to settle
&ith our +ndian muleteers' The" had discovered that &e had brought
skeletons &ith us from the cavern of Atarui%eP and the" &ere full"
%ersuaded that the beasts of burden &hich carried the bodies of their
old relations &ould %erish on the journe"'- N- 0ee volume 7'7;'O Ever"
%recaution &e had taken &as uselessP nothing esca%es a $aribGs
%enetration and keen sense of smell* and it required all the authorit"
of the missionar" to for&ard our %assage' .e had to cross the Rio $ari
in a boat* and the Rio de agua clara* b" fording* or* it ma" almost be
said* b" s&imming' The quicksands of the bed of this river render the
%assage ver" difficult at the season &hen the &aters are high' The
strength of the current seems sur%rising in so flat a countr"P but the
rivers of the %lains are %reci%itated* to quote a correct observation
of Plin" the "ounger*- )less b" the declivit" of their course than b"
their abundance* and as it &ere b" their o&n &eight') N- E%ist' lib' I
e%' I' $litumnus non loci devexitate* sed i%sa sui co%ia et quasi
%ondere im%ellitur'O .e had t&o bad stations* one at Catagorda and the
other at =os Riecetos* before &e reached the little to&n of Pao' .e
beheld ever"&here the same objectsP small huts constructed of reeds*
and roofed &ith leatherP men on horseback armed &ith lances* guarding
the herdsP herds of cattle half &ild* remarkable for their uniform
colour* and dis%uting the %asturage &ith horses and mules' @o shee% or
goats are found on these immense %lains' 0hee% do not thrive &ell in
equinoctial America* exce%t on tableHlands above a thousand toises
high* &here their fleece is long and sometimes ver" fine' +n the
burning climate of the %lains* &here the &olves give %lace to jaguars*
these small ruminating animals* destitute of means of defence* and
slo& in their movements* cannot be %reserved in an" considerable
numbers'
.e arrived on the 19th of 6ul" at the /undacion* or illa* del Pao*
founded in 13;;* and situated ver" favourabl" for a commercial station
bet&een @ueva Barcelona and Angostura' +ts real name is El $once%cion
del Pao' Alcedo* =a $ruR* >lmedilla* and man" other geogra%hers* have
mistaken the situation of this small to&n of the =lanos of Barcelona*
confounding it either &ith 0an 6uan Bau%tisto del Pao of the =lanos of
$aracas* or &ith El alle del Pao de Sarate' Though the &eather &as
cloud" + succeeded in obtaining some heights of al%ha $entauri*
serving to determine the latitude of the %laceP &hich is I degrees !3
minutes 93 seconds' 0ome altitudes of the sun gave me L3 degrees I
minutes 17 seconds for the longitude* su%%osing Angostura to be LL
degrees 19 minutes 71 seconds' The astronomical determinations of
$alaboRo and $once%cion del Pao are ver" im%ortant to the geogra%h" of
this countr"* &here* in the midst of savannahs* fixed %oints are
altogether &anting' 0ome fruitHtrees gro& in the vicinit" of Pao5 the"
are rarel" seen in the =lanos' .e even found some cocoaHtrees* &hich
a%%eared ver" vigorous* not&ithstanding the great distance of the sea'
+ &as the more struck &ith this fact because doubts have recentl" been
started res%ecting the veracit" of travellers* &ho assert that the"
have seen the cocoaHtree* &hich is a %alm of the shore* at Timbuctoo*
in the centre of Africa' .e several times sa& cocoaHtrees amid the
cultivated s%ots on the banks of the Rio Cagdalena* more than a
hundred leagues from the coast'
/ive da"s* &hich to us a%%eared ver" tedious* brought us from illa
del Pao to the %ort of @ueva Barcelona' As &e advanced the sk" became
more serene* the soil more dust"* and the atmos%here more hot' The
heat from &hich &e suffered is not entirel" o&ing to the tem%erature
of the air* but is %roduced b" the fine sand mingled &ith itP this
sand strikes against the face of the traveller* as it does against the
ball of the thermometer' + never observed the mercur" rise in America*
amid a &ind of sand* above ;9'I degrees centigrade' $a%tain ="on* &ith
&hom + had the %leasure of conversing on his return from CourRouk*
a%%eared to me also inclined to think that the tem%erature of
fift"Ht&o degrees* so often felt in /eRRan* is %roduced in great %art
b" the grains of quartR sus%ended in the atmos%here' Bet&een Pao and
the village of 0anta $ruR de $achi%o* founded in 13;2* and inhabited
b" five hundred $aribs* &e %assed the &estern elongation of the little
tableHland* kno&n b" the name of Cesa de Amana' This tableHland forms
a %oint of %artition bet&een the >rinoco* the Guara%iche* and the
coast of @e& Andalusia' +ts height is so inconsiderable that it &ould
scarcel" be an obstacle to the establishment of inland navigation in
this %art of the =lanos' The Rio Cano ho&ever* &hich flo&s into the
>rinoco above the confluence of the $aron"* and &hich (GAnville N+
kno& not on &hat authorit"O has marked in the first edition of his
great ma% as issuing from the lake of alencia* and receiving the
&aters of the Gua"ra* could never have served as a natural canal
bet&een t&o basins of rivers' @o bifurcation of this kind exists in
the =lano' A great number of $arib +ndians* &ho no& inhabit the
missions of Piritu* &ere formerl" on the north and east of the
tableHland of Amana* bet&een Caturin* the mouth of the Rio Arco* and
the Guara%iche' The incursions of (on 6ose%h $areno* one of the most
enter%rising governors of the %rovince of $umana* occasioned a general
migration of inde%endent $aribs to&ard the banks of the =o&er >rinoco
in 1378'
The &hole of this vast %lain consists of secondar" formations &hich to
the south&ard rest immediatel" on the granitic mountains of the
>rinoco' >n the northH&est the" are se%arated b" a narro& band of
transitionHrocks from the %rimitive mountains of the shore of $aracas'
This abundance of secondar" rocks* covering &ithout interru%tion a
s%ace of more than seven thousand square leagues*- is a %henomenon the
more remarkable in that region of the globe* because in the &hole of
the 0ierra da la Parima* bet&een the right bank of the >rinoco and the
Rio @egro* there is* as in 0candinavia* a total absence of secondar"
formations' N- Reckoning onl" that %art of the =lanos &hich is bounded
b" the Rio A%ure on the south* and b" the 0ierra @evada de Cerida and
the Parima de las Rosas on the &est'O The red sandstone* containing
some vestiges of fossil &ood Nof the famil" of monocot"ledonsO is seen
ever"&here in the %lains of $alaboRo5 farther east it is overlaid b"
calcareous and g"%seous rocks &hich conceal it from the research of
the geologist' The marl" g"%sum* of &hich &e collected s%ecimens near
the $arib mission of $achi%o* a%%eared to me to belong to the same
formation as the g"%sum of >rtiR' To class it according to the t"%e of
Euro%ean formations + &ould range it among the g"%sums* often
muriatiferous* that cover the Al%ine limestone or Rechstein' /arther
north* in the direction of the mission of 0an 6osef de $urataquiche*
C' Bon%land %icked u% in the %lain some fine %ieces of riband jas%er*
or Eg"%tian %ebbles' .e did not see them in their native %lace
enchased in the rock* and cannot determine &hether the" belong to a
ver" recent conglomerate or to that limestone &hich &e sa& at the
Corro of @ueva Barcelona* and &hich is not transition limestone though
it contains beds of schistose jas%er NkieselschieferO'
.e rested on the night of the 1Lth of 6ul" in the +ndian village of
0anta $ruR de $achi%o' This mission* founded in 13;2 b" several $arib
families &ho inhabited the inundated and unhealth" banks of the
=agunetas de Auache* is o%%osite the confluence of the Sir Purua" &ith
the >rinoco' .e lodged at the house of the missionar"* /ra" 6ose de
las PiedrasP and* on examining the registers of the %arish* &e sa& ho&
ra%idl" the %ros%erit" of the communit" has been advanced b" his Real
and intelligence' 0ince &e had reached the middle of the %lains* the
heat had increased to such a degree that &e should have %referred
travelling no more during the da"P but &e &ere &ithout arms and the
=lanos &ere then infested b" large numbers of robbers &ho attacked and
murdered the &hites &ho fell into their hands' @othing can be &orse
than the administration of justice in these colonies' .e ever"&here
found the %risons filled &ith malefactors on &hom sentence is not
%assed till after the la%se of seven or eight "ears' @earl" a third of
the %risoners succeed in making their esca%eP and the un%eo%led
%lains* filled &ith herds* furnish them &ith boot"' The" commit their
de%redations on horseback in the manner of the Bedouins' The
insalubrit" of the %risons &ould be attended &ith fatal results but
that these rece%tacles are cleared from time to time b" the flight of
the %risoners' +t also frequentl" ha%%ens that sentences of death*
tardil" %ronounced b" the Audiencia of $aracas* cannot be executed for
&ant of a hangman' +n these cases the barbarous custom is observed of
%ardoning one criminal on condition of his hanging the others' >ur
guides related to us that* a short time before our arrival on the
coast of $umana* a Sambo* kno&n for the great ferocit" of his manners*
determined to screen himself from %unishment b" turning executioner'
The %re%arations for the execution ho&ever* shook his resolutionP he
felt a horror of himself* and %referring death to the disgrace of thus
saving his life* he called again for his irons &hich had been struck
off' He did not long remain in %rison* and he under&ent his sentence
through the baseness of one of his accom%lices' This a&akening of a
sentiment of honour in the soul of a murderer is a %s"chologic
%henomenon &orth" of reflection' The man &ho had so often shed the
blood of travellers in the %lains recoiled at the idea of becoming the
%assive instrument of justice in inflicting u%on others a %unishment
&hich he felt that he himself deserved'
+f* even in the %eaceful times &hen C' Bon%land and m"self had the
good fortune to travel through @orth and 0outh America* the =lanos
&ere the refuge of malefactors &ho had committed crimes in the
missions of the >rinoco* or &ho had esca%ed from the %risons on the
coast* ho& much &orse must that state of things have been rendered b"
discord during the continuance of that sanguinar" struggle &hich has
terminated in conferring freedom and inde%endence on those vast
regions4 >ur Euro%ean &astes and heaths are but a feeble image of the
savannahs of the @e& $ontinent &hich for the s%ace of eight or ten
thousand square leagues are smooth as the surface of the sea' The
immensit" of their extent insures im%unit" to robbers* &ho conceal
themselves more effectuall" in the savannahs than in our mountains and
forestsP and it is eas" to conceive that even a Euro%ean %olice &ould
not be ver" effective in regions &here there are travellers and no
roads* herds and no herdsmen* and farms so solitar" that
not&ithstanding the %o&erful action of the mirage* a journe" of
several da"s ma" be made &ithout seeing one a%%ear &ithin the horiRon'
.hilst traversing the =lanos of $aracas* @e& Barcelona* and $umana*
&hich succeed each other from &est to east* from the sno&" mountains
of Cerida to the (elta of the >rinoco* &e feel anxious to kno& &hether
these vast tracts of land are destined b" nature to serve eternall"
for %asture or &hether the" &ill at some future time be subject to the
%lough and the s%ade' This question is the more im%ortant as the
=lanos* situated at the t&o extremities of 0outh America* are
obstacles to the %olitical union of the %rovinces the" se%arate' The"
%revent the agriculture of the coast of eneRuela from extending
to&ards Guiana and the" im%ede that of Potosi from advancing in the
direction of the mouth of the Rio de la Plata' The intermediate =lanos
%reserve* together &ith %astoral life* some&hat of a rude and &ild
character &hich se%arates and kee%s them remote from the civiliRation
of countries ancientl" cultivated' Thus it has ha%%ened that in the
&ar of inde%endence the" have been the scene of struggle bet&een the
hostile %artiesP and that the inhabitants of $alaboRo have almost seen
the fate of the confederate %rovinces of eneRuela and $undinamarca
decided before their &alls' +n assigning limits to the ne& states and
to their subdivisions* it is to be ho%ed there ma" not be cause
hereafter to re%ent having lost sight of the im%ortance of the =lanos*
and the influence the" ma" have on the disunion of communities &hich
im%ortant common interests should bring together' These %lains &ould
serve as natural boundaries like the seas or the virgin forests of the
tro%ics* &ere it not that armies can cross them &ith greater facilit"*
as their innumerable troo%s of horses and mules and herds of oxen
furnish ever" means of conve"ance and subsistence'
.hat &e have seen of the %o&er of man struggling against the force of
nature in Gaul* in German" and recentl" Nbut still be"ond the tro%icsO
in the ?nited 0tates* scarcel" affords an" just measure of &hat &e ma"
ex%ect from the %rogress of civiliRation in the torrid Rone' /orests
disa%%ear but ver" slo&l" b" fire and the axe &hen the trunks of trees
are from eight to ten feet in diameterP &hen in falling the" rest one
u%on another* and the &ood* moistened b" almost continual rains* is
excessivel" hard' The %lanters &ho inhabit the =lanos or Pam%as do not
generall" admit the %ossibilit" of subjecting the soil to cultivationP
it is a %roblem not "et solved' Cost of the savannahs of eneRuela
have not the same advantage as those of @orth America' The latter are
traversed longitudinall" b" three great rivers* the Cissouri* the
Arkansas* and the Red River of @achitochesP the savannahs of Araura*
$alaboRo* and Pao are crossed in a transverse direction onl" b" the
tributar" streams of the >rinoco* the most &esterl" of &hich Nthe
$ari* the Pao* the Acaru* and the Cana%ireO have ver" little &ater in
the season of drought' These streams scarcel" flo& at all to&ard the
northP so that in the centre of the =lanos there remain vast tracts of
land called bancos and mesas- frightfull" %arched' N- The 0%anish
&ords banco and mesa signif" literall" bench and table' +n the =lanos
of 0outh America little elevations rising slightl" above the general
elevation of the %lain are called bancos and mesas from their su%%osed
resemblance to benches and tables'O The eastern %arts* fertiliRed b"
the Portuguesa* the Cas%arro* and the >rivante* and b" the tributar"
streams of those three rivers* are most susce%tible of cultivation'
The soil is sand mixed &ith cla"* covering a bed of quartR %ebbles'
The vegetable mould* the %rinci%al source of the nutrition of %lants*
is ever"&here extremel" thin' +t is scarcel" augmented b" the fall of
the leaves* &hich* in the forests of the torrid Rone* is less
%eriodicall" regular than in tem%erate climates' (uring thousands of
"ears the =lanos have been destitute of trees and brush&oodP a fe&
scattered %alms in the savannah add little to that h"druret of carbon*
that extractive matter* &hich* according to the ex%eriments of
0aussure* (av"* and Braconnot* gives fertilit" to the soil' The social
%lants &hich almost exclusivel" %redominate in the ste%%es* are
monocot"ledonsP and it is kno&n ho& much grasses im%overish the soil
into &hich their fibrous roots %enetrate' This action of the
killingias* %as%alums and cenchri* &hich form the turf* is ever"&here
the sameP but &here the rock is read" to %ierce the earth this varies
according as it rests on red sandstone* or on com%act limestone and
g"%sumP it varies according as %eriodical inundations accumulate mud
on the lo&er grounds or as the shock of the &aters carries a&a" from
the small elevations the little soil that has covered them' Can"
solitar" cultivated s%ots alread" exist in the midst of the %astures
&here running &ater and tufts of the mauritia %alm have been found'
These farms* so&n &ith maiRe* and %lanted &ith cassava* &ill multi%l"
considerabl" if trees and shrubs be augmented'
The aridit" and excessive heat of the mesas do not de%end solel" on
the nature of their surface and the local reverberation of the soilP
their climate is modified b" the adjacent regionsP b" the &hole of the
=lano of &hich the" form a %art' +n the deserts of Africa or Arabia*
in the =lanos of 0outh America* in the vast heaths extending from the
extremit" of 6utland to the mouth of the 0cheldt* the stabilit" of the
limits of the desert* the savannahs* and the do&ns* de%ends chiefl" on
their immense extent and the nakedness these %lains have acquired from
some revolution destructive of the ancient vegetation of our %lanet'
B" their extent* their continuit"* and their mass the" o%%ose the
inroads of cultivation and %reserve* like inland gulfs* the stabilit"
of their boundaries' + &ill not enter u%on the great question* &hether
in the 0ahara* that Cediterranean of moving sands* the germs of
organic life are increased in our da"s' +n %ro%ortion as our
geogra%hical kno&ledge has extended &e have discovered in the eastern
%art of the desert islets of verdureP oases covered &ith dateHtrees
cro&d together in more numerous archi%elagos* and o%en their %orts to
the caravansP but &e are ignorant &hether the form of the oases have
not remained constantl" the same since the time of Herodotus' >ur
annals are too incom%lete to enable us to follo& @ature in her slo&
and gradual %rogress' /rom these s%aces entirel" bare &hence some
violent catastro%he has s&e%t a&a" the vegetable covering and the
mouldP from those deserts of 0"ria and Africa &hich* b" their
%etrified &ood* attest the changes the" have undergoneP let us turn to
the grassHcovered =lanos and to the consideration of %henomena that
come nearer the circle of our dail" observations' Res%ecting the
%ossibilit" of a more general cultivation of the ste%%es of America*
the colonists settled there* concur in the o%inions + have deduced
from the climatic action of these ste%%es considered as surfaces* or
continuous masses' The" have observed that do&ns enclosed &ithin
cultivated and &ooded land sooner "ield to the labours of the
husbandman than soils alike circumscribed* but forming %art of a vast
surface of the same nature' This observation is extremel" just &hether
in reference to soil covered &ith heath* as in the north of Euro%eP
&ith cistuses* masticHtrees* or %almettos* as in 0%ainP or &ith
cactuses* argemones* or brath"s* as in equinoctial America' The more
s%ace the association occu%ies the more resistance do the social
%lants o%%ose to the labourer' .ith this general cause others are
combined in the =lanos of eneRuelaP namel" the action of the small
grasses &hich im%overish the soilP the total absence of trees and
brush&oodP the sand" &inds* the heat of &hich is increased b" contact
&ith a surface absorbing the ra"s of the sun during t&elve hours* and
unshaded exce%t b" the stalks of the aristides* chanchuses* and
%as%alums' The %rogress observable on the vegetation of large trees
and the cultivation of dicot"ledonous %lants in the vicinit" of to&ns*
Nfor instance around $alaboRo and PaoO %rove &hat ma" be gained u%on
the =lano b" attacking it in small %ortions* enclosing it b" degrees*
and dividing it b" co%%ices and canals of irrigation' Possibl" the
influence of the &inds &hich render the soil sterile might be
diminished b" so&ing on a large scale* for exam%le* over fifteen or
t&ent" acres* the seeds of the %sidium* the croton* the cassia* or the
tamarind* &hich %refer dr"* o%en s%ots' + am far from believing that
the savannahs &ill ever disa%%ear entirel"P or that the =lanos* so
useful for %asturage and the trade in cattle* &ill ever be cultivated
like the valle"s of Aragua or other %arts near the coast of $aracas
and $umana5 but + am %ersuaded that in the la%se of ages a
considerable %ortion of these %lains* under a government favourable to
industr"* &ill lose the &ild as%ect &hich has characteriRed them since
the first conquest b" Euro%eans'
After three da"sG journe" &e began to %erceive the chain of the
mountains of $umana* &hich se%arates the =lanos* or* as the" are often
called here* the great sea of verdure*- from the coast of the
$aribbean 0ea' N- =os =lanos son como un mar de "erbasHHThe =lanos are
like a vast sea of grassHHis an observation often re%eated in these
regions'O +f the Bergantin be more than eight hundred toises high* it
ma" be seen su%%osing onl" an ordinar" refraction of one fourteenth of
the arch* at the distance of t&ent"Hseven nautical leaguesP but the
state of the atmos%here long concealed from us the majestic vie& of
this curtain of mountains' +t a%%eared at first like a fogHbank &hich
hid the stars near the %ole at their rising and settingP graduall"
this bod" of va%our seemed to augment and condense* to assume a bluish
tint* and become bounded b" sinuous and fixed outlines' The same
effects &hich the mariner observes on a%%roaching a ne& land %resent
themselves to the traveller on the borders of the =lano' The horiRon
began to enlarge in some %art and the vault of heaven seemed no longer
to rest at an equal distance on the grassHcovered soil' A llanero* or
inhabitant of the =lanos* is ha%%" onl" &hen* as ex%ressed in the
sim%le %hraseolog" of the countr"* he can see ever"&here &ell around
him' .hat a%%ears to Euro%ean e"es a covered countr"* slightl"
undulated b" a fe& scattered hills* is to him a rugged region bristled
&ith mountains' After having %assed several months in the thick
forests of the >rinoco* in %laces &here one is accustomed* &hen at an"
distance from the river* to see the stars onl" in the Renith* as
through the mouth of a &ell* a journe" in the =lanos is %eculiarl"
agreeable and attractive' The traveller ex%eriences ne& sensationsP
and* like the =lanero* he enjo"s the ha%%iness of seeing &ell around
him' But this enjo"ment* as &e ourselves ex%erienced* is not of long
duration' There is doubtless something solemn and im%osing in the
as%ect of a boundless horiRon* &hether vie&ed from the summits of the
Andes or the highest Al%s* amid the ex%anse of the ocean or in the
vast %lains of eneRuela and Tucuman' +nfinit" of s%ace* as %oets in
ever" language sa"* is reflected &ithin ourselvesP it is associated
&ith ideas of a su%erior orderP it elevates the mind &hich delights in
the calm of solitar" meditation' +t is true* also* that ever" vie& of
unbounded s%ace bears a %eculiar character' The %ros%ect surve"ed from
a solitar" %eak varies according as the clouds re%osing on the %lain
extend in la"ers* are conglomerated in grou%s* or %resent to the
astonished e"e* through broad o%enings* the habitations of man* the
labour of agriculture* or the verdant tint of the aerial ocean' An
immense sheet of &ater* animated b" a thousand various beings even to
its utmost de%ths* changing %er%etuall" in colour and as%ect* moveable
at its surface like the element that agitates it* all charm the
imagination during long vo"ages b" seaP but the dust" and creviced
=lano* throughout a great %art of the "ear* has a de%ressing influence
on the mind b" its unchanging monoton"' .hen* after eight or ten da"sG
journe"* the traveller becomes accustomed to the mirage and the
brilliant verdure of a fe& tufts of mauritia- N- The fanH%alm* or
sagoHtree of Guiana'O scattered from league to league* he feels the
&ant of more varied im%ressions' He loves again to behold the great
tro%ical trees* the &ild rush of torrents or hills and valle"s
cultivated b" the hand of the labourer' +f the deserts of Africa and
of the =lanos or savannahs of the @e& $ontinent filled a still greater
s%ace than the" actuall" occu%"* nature &ould be de%rived of man" of
the beautiful %roducts %eculiar to the torrid Rone'- N- +n calculating
from ma%s on a ver" large scale + found the =lanos of $umana*
Barcelona* and $aracas* from the delta of the >rinoco to the northern
bank of the A%ure* 3788 square leaguesP the =lanos bet&een the A%ure
and Putuma"o* 71*888 leaguesP the Pam%as on the northH&est of Buenos
A"res* ;8*888 square leaguesP the Pam%as south of the %arallel of
Buenos A"res* !3*888 square leagues' The total area of the =lanos of
0outh America* covered &ith gramina* is consequentl" 189*788 square
leagues* t&ent" leagues to an equatorial degree'O The heaths of the
north* the ste%%es of the olga and the (on* are scarcel" %oorer in
s%ecies of %lants and animals than are the t&ent"Height thousand
square leagues of savannahs extending in a semicircle from northHeast
to southH&est* from the mouths of the >rinoco to the banks of the
$aqueta and the Putuma"o* beneath the finest sk" in the &orld* and in
the land of %lantains and breadHfruit trees' The influence of the
equinoctial climate* ever"&here else so vivif"ing* is not felt in
%laces &here the great associations of gramina almost exclude ever"
other %lant' 6udging from the as%ect of the soil &e might have
believed ourselves to be in the tem%erate Rone and even still farther
north&ard but that a fe& scattered %alms* and at nightfall the fine
constellations of the southern sk" Nthe $entaur* $ano%us* and the
innumerable nebulae &ith &hich the 0hi% is res%lendentO* reminded us
that &e &ere onl" eight degrees distant from the equator'
A %henomenon &hich fixed the attention of (e =uc and &hich in these
latter "ears has furnished a subject of s%eculation to geologists*
occu%ied us much during our journe" across the =lanos' + allude not to
those blocks of %rimitive rock &hich occur* as in the 6ura* on the
slo%e of limestone mountains* but to those enormous blocks of granite
and s"enite &hich* in limits ver" distinctl" marked b" nature* are
found scattered on the north of Holland* German" and the countries of
the Baltic' +t seems to be no& %roved that* distributed as in radii*
the" came at the time of the ancient revolutions of our globe from the
0candinavian %eninsula south&ardP and that the" did not %rimitivel"
belong to the granitic chains of the HarR and ErRgeberg* &hich the"
a%%roach &ithout* ho&ever* reaching their foot'- N- =eo%old von Buch*
o"age en @or&ege volume 1 %age !8'O + &as sur%rised at not seeing one
of these blocks in the =lanos of eneRuela* though these immense
%lains are bounded on the south b" the 0ierra Parima* a grou% of
mountains entirel" granitic and exhibiting in its denticulated and
often columnar %eaks traces of the most violent destruction' @orth&ard
the granitic chain of the 0illa de $aracas and Porto $abello are
se%arated from the =lanos b" a screen of mountains that are schistose
bet&een illa de $ura and Para%ara* and calcareous bet&een the
Bergantin and $ari%e' + &as no less struck b" this absence of blocks
on the banks of the AmaRon' =a $ondamine affirms that from the Pongo
de Canseriche to the 0trait of Pauxis not the smallest stone is to be
found' @o& the basin of the Rio @egro and of the AmaRon is also a
=lano* a %lain like those of eneRuela and Buenos A"res' The
difference consists onl" in the state of vegetation' The t&o =lanos
situated at the northern and southern extremities of 0outh America are
covered &ith graminaP the" are treeless savannahsP but the
intermediate =lano* that of the AmaRon* ex%osed to almost continual
equatorial rains* is a thick forest' + do not remember having heard
that the Pam%as of Buenos A"res or the savannahs of the Cissouri- and
@e& Cexico contain granitic blocks' N- Are there an" isolated blocks
in @orth America north&ard of the great lakesTO The absence of this
%henomenon a%%ears general in the @e& .orld as it %robabl" also is in
0ahara* in AfricaP for &e must not confound the rock" masses that
%ierce the soil in the midst of the desert* and of &hich travellers
often make mention* &ith mere scattered fragments' These facts seem to
%rove that the blocks of 0candinavian granite &hich cover the sand"
countries on the south of the Baltic* and those of .est%halia and
Holland* must be traced to some local revolution' The ancient
conglomerate Nred sandstoneO &hich covers a great %art of the =lanos
of eneRuela and of the basin of the AmaRon contains no doubt
fragments of the same %rimitive rocks &hich constitute the
neighbouring mountainsP but the convulsions of &hich these mountains
exhibit evident marks* do not a%%ear to have been attended &ith
circumstances favourable to the removal of great blocks' This
geognostic %henomenon &as to me the more unex%ected since there exists
no&here in the &orld so smooth a %lain entirel" granitic' Before m"
de%arture from Euro%e + had observed &ith sur%rise that there &ere no
%rimitive blocks in =ombard" and in the great %lain of Bavaria &hich
a%%ears to be the bottom of an ancient lake* and &hich is situated t&o
hundred and fift" toises above the level of the ocean' +t is bounded
on the north b" the granites of the ?%%er PalatinateP and on the south
b" Al%ine limestone* transitionHthonschiefer* and the micaHslates of
the T"rol'
.e arrived* on the 7!rd of 6ul"* at the to&n of @ueva Barcelona* less
fatigued b" the heat of the =lanos* to &hich &e had been long
accustomed* than anno"ed b" the &inds of sand &hich occasion %ainful
cha%s in the skin' 0even months %reviousl"* in going from $umana to
$aracas* &e had rested a fe& hours at the Corro de Barcelona* a
fortified rock* &hich* near the village of PoRuelos* is joined to the
continent onl" b" a neck of land' .e &ere received &ith the kindest
hos%italit" in the house of (on Pedro =avie* a &ealth" merchant of
/rench extraction' This gentleman* &ho &as accused of having given
refuge to the unfortunate Es%ana &hen a fugitive on these coasts in
132L* &as arrested b" order of the Audiencia* and conve"ed as a
%risoner to $aracas' The friendshi% of the governor of $umana and the
remembrance of the services he had rendered to the rising commerce of
those countries contributed to %rocure his libert"' .e had endeavoured
to alleviate his ca%tivit" b" visiting him in %risonP and &e had no&
the satisfaction of finding him in the midst of his famil"' +llness
under &hich he &as suffering had been aggravated b" confinementP and
he sank into the grave &ithout seeing the da&n of those da"s of
inde%endence* &hich his friend (on 6ose%h Es%ana had %redicted on the
scaffold %rior to his execution' )+ die*) said that man* &ho &as
formed for the accom%lishment of grand %rojects* )+ die an ignominious
deathP but m" fello& citiRens &ill soon %iousl" collect m" ashes* and
m" name &ill rea%%ear &ith glor"') These remarkable &ords &ere uttered
in the %ublic square of $aracas* on the Ith of Ca"* 1322'
+n 1328 @ueva Barcelona contained scarcel" ten thousand inhabitants*
and in 1I88* its %o%ulation &as more than sixteen thousand' The to&n
&as founded in 1L!3 b" a $atalonian conquistador* named 6uan ?r%in' A
fruitless attem%t &as then made* to give the &hole %rovince the name
of @e& $atalonia' As our ma%s often mark t&o to&ns* Barcelona and
$umanagoto* instead of one* and as the t&o names are considered as
s"non"mous* it ma" be &ell to ex%lain the cause of this error'
Ancientl"* at the mouth of the Rio @everi* there &as an +ndian to&n*
built in 19II b" =ucas /axardo* and named 0an $ristoval de los
$umanagotos' This to&n &as %eo%led solel" b" natives &ho came from the
salt&orks of A%aicuare' +n 1L!3 ?r%in founded* t&o leagues farther
inland* the 0%anish to&n of @ueva Barcelona* &hich he %eo%led &ith
some of the inhabitants of $umanagoto* together &ith some $atalonians'
/or thirt"Hfour "ears* dis%utes &ere incessantl" arising bet&een the
t&o neighbouring communities till in 1L31* the governor Angulo
succeeded in %ersuading them to establish themselves on a third s%ot*
&here the to&n of Barcelona no& stands' According to m" observations
it is situated in latitude 18 degrees L minutes 97 seconds'- N- These
observations &ere made on the PlaRa Cajor' The" are merel" the result
of six circumHmeridian heights of $ano%us* taken all in one night' +n
=as Cemorias de Es%inosa the latitude is stated to be 18 degrees 2
minutes L seconds' The result of C' /errerGs observations made it 18
degrees I minutes 7; seconds'O The ancient to&n of $umanagoto is
celebrated in the countr" for a miraculous image of the irgin*- &hich
the +ndians sa" &as found in the hollo& trunk of an old tutumo* or
calabashHtree N$rescentia cujeteO' N- =a milagrosa imagen de Caria
0antissima del 0ocorro* also called =a irgen del Tutumo'O This image
&as carried in %rocession to @ueva BarcelonaP but &henever the clerg"
&ere dissatisfied &ith the inhabitants of the ne& cit"* the irgin
fled at night* and returned to the trunk of the tree at the mouth of
the river' This miracle did not cease till a fine convent Nthe college
of the Pro%agandaO &as built* to receive the /ranciscans' +n a similar
case* the Bisho% of $aracas caused the image of >ur =ad" de los
alencianos to be %laced in the archives of the bisho%ric* &here she
remained thirt" "ears under seal'
The climate of Barcelona is not so hot as that of $umana but it is
extremel" dam% and some&hat unhealth" in the rain" season' C' Bon%land
had borne ver" &ell the irksome journe" across the =lanosP and had
recovered his strength and activit"' .ith res%ect to m"self* +
suffered more at Barcelona than + did at Angostura* immediatel" after
our %assage on the rivers' >ne of those extraordinar" tro%ical rains
during &hich* at sunset* dro%s of enormous siRe fall at great
distances from one another* caused me to ex%erience sensations &hich
seemed to threaten an attack of t"%hus* a disease then %revalent on
that coast' .e remained nearl" a month at Barcelona &here &e found our
friend /ra" 6uan GonRales* of &hom + have often s%oken* and &ho had
traversed the ?%%er >rinoco before us' He ex%ressed regret that &e had
not been able to %rolong our visit to that unkno&n countr"P and he
examined our %lants and animals &ith that interest &hich must be felt
b" even the most uninformed man for the %roductions of a region he has
long since visited' /ra" 6uan had resolved to go to Euro%e and to
accom%an" us as far as the island of $uba' .e &ere together for the
s%ace of seven months* and his societ" &as most agreeable5 he &as
cheerful* intelligent and obliging' Ho& little did &e antici%ate the
sad fate that a&aited him' He took charge of a %art of our
collectionsP and a friend of his o&n confided to his care a child &ho
&as to be conve"ed to 0%ain for its education' Alas4 the collection*
the child and the "oung ecclesiastic &ere all buried in the &aves'
0outhHeast of @ueva Barcelona* at the distance of t&o =eagues* there
rises a loft" chain of mountains* abutting on the $erro del Bergantin*
&hich is visible at $umana' This s%ot is kno&n b" the name of the hot
&aters* Naguas calientesO' .hen + felt m" health sufficientl"
restored* &e made an excursion thither on a cool and mist" morning'
The &aters* &hich are loaded &ith sul%huretted h"drogen* issue from a
quartRose sandstone* l"ing on com%act limestone* the same as that &e
had examined at the Corro' .e again found in this limestone
intercalated beds of black hornstein* %assing into kieselschiefer' +t
is not* ho&ever* a transition rockP b" its %osition* its division into
small strata* its &hiteness and its dull and conchoidal fractures
N&ith ver" flattened cavitiesO* it rather a%%roximates to the
limestone of 6ura' The real kieselschiefer and ="dianHstone have not
been observed hitherto exce%t in the transitionHslates and limestones'
+s the sandstone &hence the s%rings of the Bergantin issue of the same
formation as the sandstone of the +m%osible and the TumiriquiriT The
tem%erature of the thermal &aters is onl" ;!'7 degrees centigrade Nthe
atmos%here being 73O' The" flo& first to the distance of fort" toises
over the rock" surface of the groundP then the" rush do&n into a
natural cavernP and finall" the" %ierce through the limestone to issue
out at the foot of the mountain on the left bank of the little river
@arigual' The s%rings* &hile in contact &ith the ox"gen of the
atmos%here* de%osit a good deal of sul%hur' + did not collect* as +
had done at Cariara* the bubbles of air that rise in jets from these
thermal &aters' The" no doubt contain a large quantit" of nitrogen
because the sul%huretted h"drogen decom%oses the mixture of ox"gen and
nitrogen dissolved in the s%ring' The sul%hurous &aters of 0an 6uan
&hich issue from calcareous rock* like those of the Bergantin* have
also a lo& tem%erature N!1'! degreesOP &hile in the same region the
tem%erature of the sul%hurous &aters of Cariara and =as Trincheras
Nnear Porto $abelloO* &hich gush immediatel" from gneissHgranite* is
9I'2 degrees the former* and 28'; degrees the latter' +t &ould seem as
if the heat &hich these s%rings acquire in the interior of the globe
diminishes in %ro%ortion as the" %ass from %rimitive to secondar"
su%er%osed rocks'
>ur excursion to the Aguas $alientes of Bergantin ended &ith a
vexatious accident' >ur host had lent us one of his finest
saddleHhorses' .e &ere &arned at the same time not to ford the little
river of @arigual' .e %assed over a sort of bridge* or rather some
trunks of trees laid closel" together* and &e made our horses s&im*
holding their bridles' The horse + had ridden suddenl" disa%%eared
after struggling for some time under &ater5 all our endeavours to
discover the cause of this accident &ere fruitless' >ur guides
conjectured that the animalGs legs had been seiRed b" the ca"mans
&hich are ver" numerous in those %arts' C" %er%lexit" &as extreme5
delicac" and the affluent circumstances of m" host forbade me to think
of re%airing his lossP and C' =avie* more considerate of our situation
than sensible of his o&n misfortune* endeavoured to tranquilliRe us b"
exaggerating the facilit" &ith &hich fine horses &ere %rocurable from
the neighbouring savannahs'
The crocodiles of the Rio @everi are large and numerous* es%eciall"
near the mouth of the riverP but in general the" are less fierce than
the crocodiles of the >rinoco' These animals manifest in America the
same contrasts of ferocit" as in Eg"%t and @ubia5 this fact is obvious
&hen &e com%are &ith attention the narratives of Burckhardt and
BelRoni' The state of cultivation in different countries and the
amount of %o%ulation in the %roximit" of rivers modif" the habits of
these large saurians5 the" are timid &hen on dr" ground and the" flee
from man* even in the &ater* &hen the" are not in &ant of food and
&hen the" %erceive an" danger in attacking' The +ndians of @ueva
Barcelona conve" &ood to market in a singular manner' =arge logs of
R"go%h"llum and caesal%inia- are thro&n into the river and carried
do&n b" the stream* &hile the o&ners of the &ood s&im here and there
to float the %ieces that are sto%%ed b" the &indings of the banks' N-
The =ec"this ollaria* in the vicinit" of @ueva Barcelona* furnishes
excellent timber' .e sa& trunks of this tree sevent" feet high' Around
the to&n* be"ond that arid Rone of cactus &hich se%arates @ueva
Barcelona from the ste%%e* gro& the $lerodendrum tenuifolium* the
+onidium itubu* &hich resembles the iola* and the Allionia violacea'O
This could not be done in the greater %art of those American rivers in
&hich crocodiles are found' The to&n of Barcelona has not* like
$umana* an +ndian suburbP and the onl" natives &ho are seen there are
inhabitants of the neighbouring missions or of huts scattered in the
%lain' @either the one nor the other are of $arib race* but a mixture
of the $umanagotos* Palenkas and PiritusP short* stunted* indolent and
addicted to drinking' /ermented cassava is here the favourite
beverageP the &ine of the %almHtree* &hich is used on the >rinoco*
being almost unkno&n on the coast' +t is curious to observe that men
in different Rones* to satisf" the %assion of inebriet"* em%lo" not
onl" all the families of monocot"ledonous and dicot"ledonous %lants*
but even the %oisonous Agaric NAmanita muscariaO of &hich* &ith
disgusting econom"* the $oriacs have learnt to drink the same juice
several times during five successive da"s'- N- Cr' =angsdor
N.etterauisches 6ournal %art 1 %age 79;O first made kno&n this ver"
extraordinar" %h"siological %henomenon* &hich + %refer describing in
=atin5 $oriaecorum gens* in ora Asiae se%tentrioni o%%osita* %otum
sibi excogitavit ex succo inebriante agarici muscarii' Bui succus
Naeque ut as%aragorumO* vel %er humanum cor%us transfusus* temulentiam
nihilominus facit' Buare gens misera et ino%s* quo rarius mentis sit
suae* %ro%riam urinam bibit identidem5 continuoque mingens rursusque
hauriens eundem succum Ndicas* ne ulla in %arte mundi desit ebrietasO*
%auculis agaricis %roducere in diem quintum temulentiam %otest'O
The %acket boats NcorreosO from $orunna bound for the Havannah and
Cexico had been due three monthsP and it &as believed the" had been
taken b" the English cruisers stationed on this coast' Anxious to
reach $umana* in order to avail ourselves of the first o%%ortunit"
that might offer for our %assage to era $ruR* &e hired an o%en boat
called a lancha* a sort of craft em%lo"ed habituall" in the latitudes
east of $a%e $odera &here the sea is scarcel" ever rough' >ur lancha*
&hich &as laden &ith cacao* carried on a contraband trade &ith the
island of Trinidad' /or this reason the o&ner imagined &e had nothing
to fear from the enem"Gs vessels* &hich then blockaded all the 0%anish
%orts' .e embarked our collection of %lants* our instruments and our
monke"sP and* the &eather being delightful* &e ho%ed to make a ver"
short %assage from the mouth of the Rio @everi to $umana5 but &e had
scarcel" reached the narro& channel bet&een the continent and the
rock" isles of Borracha and the $himanas* &hen to our great sur%rise
&e came in sight of an armed boat* &hich* &hilst hailing us from a
great distance* fired some musketHshot at us' The boat belonged to a
%rivateer of HalifaxP and + recogniRed among the sailors a Prussian* a
native of Cemel' + had found no o%%ortunit"* since m" arrival in
America* of ex%ressing m"self in m" native language* and + could have
&ished to have s%oken it on a less un%leasant occasion' >ur
%rotestations &ere &ithout effect5 &e &ere carried on board the
%rivateer* and the ca%tain* affecting not to recogniRe the %ass%orts
delivered b" the governor of Trinidad for the illicit trade* declared
us to be a la&ful %riRe' Being a little in the habit of s%eaking
English* + entered into conversation &ith the ca%tain* begging not to
be taken to @ova 0cotia* but to be %ut on shore on the neighbouring
coast' .hile + endeavoured* in the cabin* to defend m" o&n rights and
those of the o&ner of the lancha* + heard a noise on deck' 0omething
&as &his%ered to the ca%tain* &ho left us in consternation' Ha%%il"
for us* an English sloo% of &ar* the Ha&k* &as cruising in those
%arts* and had signalled the ca%tain to bring toP but the signal not
being %rom%tl" ans&ered* a gun &as fired from the sloo% and a
midshi%man sent on board our vessel' He &as a %olite "oung man* and
gave me ho%es that the lancha* &hich &as laden &ith cacao* &ould be
given u%* and that on the follo&ing da" &e might %ursue our vo"age' +n
the meantime he invited me to accom%an" him on board the sloo%*
assuring me that his commander* $a%tain Garnier* &ould furnish me &ith
better accommodation for the night than + should find in the vessel
from Halifax'
+ acce%ted these obliging offers and &as received &ith the utmost
kindness b" $a%tain Garnier* &ho had made the vo"age to the northH&est
coast of America &ith ancouver* and &ho a%%eared to be highl"
interested in all + related to him res%ecting the great cataracts of
Atures and Ca"%ures* the bifurcation of the >rinoco and its
communication &ith the AmaRon' He introduced to me several of his
officers &ho had been &ith =ord Cacartne" in $hina' + had not* during
the s%ace of a "ear* enjo"ed the societ" of so man" &ellHinformed
%ersons' The" had learned from the English ne&s%a%ers the object of m"
enter%rise' + &as treated &ith great confidence and the commander gave
me u% his o&n stateHroom' The" gave me at %arting the astronomical
E%hemerides for those "ears &hich + had not been able to %rocure in
/rance or 0%ain' + am indebted to $a%tain Garnier for the observations
+ &as enabled to make on the satellites be"ond the equator and + feel
it a dut" to record here the gratitude + feel for his kindness' $oming
from the forests of $assiquiare* and having been confined during &hole
months to the narro& circle of missionar" life* &e felt a high
gratification at meeting for the first time &ith men &ho had sailed
round the &orld* and &hose ideas &ere enlarged b" so extensive and
varied a course' + quitted the English vessel &ith im%ressions &hich
are not "et effaced from m" remembrance* and &hich rendered me more
than ever satisfied &ith the career on &hich + had entered'
.e continued our %assage on the follo&ing da"P and &ere sur%rised at
the de%th of the channels bet&een the $aracas +slands* &here the sloo%
&orked her &a" through them almost touching the rocks' Ho& much do
these calcareous islets* of &hich the form and direction call to mind
the great catastro%he that se%arated from them the mainland* differ in
as%ect from the volcanic archi%elago on the north of =anRerote &here
the hills of basalt seem to have been heaved u% from the bottom of the
sea4 @umbers of %elicans and of flamingos* &hich fished in the nooks
or harassed the %elicans in order to seiRe their %re"* indicated our
a%%roach to the coast of $umana' +t is curious to observe at sunrise
ho& the seaHbirds suddenl" a%%ear and animate the scene* reminding us*
in the most solitar" regions* of the activit" of our cities at the
da&n of da"' At nine in the morning &e reached the gulf of $ariaco
&hich serves as a roadstead to the to&n of $umana' The hill* cro&ned
b" the castle of 0an Antonio* stood out* %rominent from its &hiteness*
on the dark curtain of the inland mountains' .e gaRed &ith interest on
the shore* &here &e first gathered %lants in America* and &here* some
months later* C' Bon%land had been in such danger' Among the cactuses*
that rise in columns t&ent" feet high* a%%ear the +ndian huts of the
Gua"keries' Ever" %art of the landsca%e &as familiar to usP the forest
of cactus* the scattered huts and that enormous ceiba* beneath &hich
&e loved to bathe at the a%%roach of night' >ur friends at $umana came
out to meet us5 men of all castes* &hom our frequent herboriRations
had brought into contact &ith us* ex%ressed the greater jo" at sight
of us* as a re%ort that &e had %erished on the banks of the >rinoco
had been current for several months' These re%orts had their origin
either in the severe illness of C' Bon%land* or in the fact of our
boat having been nearl" lost in a gale above the mission of ?ruana'
.e hastened to visit the governor* (on icente Em%aran* &hose
recommendations and constant solicitude had been so useful to us
during the long journe" &e had just terminated' He %rocured for us* in
the centre of the to&n* a house &hich* though %erha%s too loft" in a
countr" ex%osed to violent earthquakes* &as extremel" useful for our
instruments' .e enjo"ed from its terraces a majestic vie& of the sea*
of the isthmus of Ara"a* and the archi%elago of the islands of
$aracas* Picuita and Borracha' The %ort of $umana &as ever" da" more
and more closel" blockaded* and the vain ex%ectation of the arrival of
0%anish %ackets detained us t&o months and a half longer' .e &ere
often nearl" tem%ted to go to the (anish islands &hich enjo"ed a ha%%"
neutralit"P but &e feared that* if &e left the 0%anish colonies* &e
might find some obstacles to our return' .ith the am%le freedom &hich
in a moment of favour had been granted to us* &e did not consider it
%rudent to haRard an"thing that might give umbrage to the local
authorities' .e em%lo"ed our time in com%leting the /lora of $umana*
geologicall" examining the eastern %art of the %eninsula of Ara"a* and
observing man" ecli%ses of satellites* &hich confirmed the longitude
of the %lace alread" obtained b" other means' .e also made ex%eriments
on the extraordinar" refractions* on eva%oration and on atmos%heric
electricit"'
The living animals &hich &e had brought from the >rinoco &ere objects
of great curiosit" to the inhabitants of $umana' The ca%uchin of the
Esmeralda N0imia chiro%otesO* &hich so much resembles man in the
ex%ression of its %h"siognom"P and the slee%ing monke" N0imia
trivirgataO* &hich is the t"%e of a ne& grou%P had never "et been seen
on that coast' .e destined them for the menagerie of the 6ardin des
Plantes at Paris' The arrival of a /rench squadron &hich had failed in
an attack u%on $uracao furnished us* unex%ectedl"* &ith an excellent
o%%ortunit" for sending them to Guadalou%eP and General 6eannet*
together &ith the commissar" Bresseau* agent of the executive %o&er at
the Antilles* %romised to conve" them' The monke"s and birds died at
Guadalou%e but fortunatel" the skin of the 0imia chiro%otes* the onl"
one in Euro%e* &as sent a fe& "ears ago to the 6ardin des Plantes*
&here the couxio N0imia satanasO and the stentor or alouate of the
ste%%es of $aracas N0imia ursinaO had been alread" received' The
arrival of so great a number of /rench militar" officers and the
manifestation of %olitical and religious o%inions not altogether
conformable &ith the interests of the governments of Euro%e excited
singular agitation in the %o%ulation of $umana' The governor treated
the /rench authorities &ith the forms of civilit" consistent &ith the
friendl" relations subsisting at that %eriod bet&een /rance and 0%ain'
+n the streets the coloured %eo%le cro&ded round the agent of the
/rench (irector"* &hose dress &as rich and theatrical' .hite men* too*
&ith indiscreet curiosit"* &henever the" could make themselves
understood* made enquiries concerning the degree of influence granted
b" the re%ublic to the colonists in the government of Guadalou%e' The
kingGs officers doubled their Real in furnishing %rovision for the
little squadron' 0trangers* &ho boasted that the" &ere free* a%%eared
to these %eo%le troublesome guestsP and in a countr" of &hich the
gro&ing %ros%erit" de%ended on clandestine communication &ith the
islands* and on a freedom of trade forced from the ministr"* the
Euro%ean 0%aniards extolled the &isdom of the old code of la&s Nle"es
de +ndiasO &hich %ermitted the entrance of foreign vessels into their
%orts onl" in extreme cases of &ant or distress' These contrasts
bet&een the restless desires of the colonists and the distrustful
a%ath" of the government* thro& some light on the great %olitical
events &hich* after long %re%aration* have se%arated 0%ain from her
colonies'
.e again %assed a fe& agreeable da"s* from the third to the fifth of
@ovember* at the %eninsula of Ara"a* situated be"ond the gulf of
$ariaco* o%%osite to $umana'- N- + have alread" described the %earls
of Ara"aP its sul%hurous de%osits and submarine s%rings of liquid and
colourless %etroleum' 0ee volume 1'9'O .e &ere informed that the
+ndians carried to the to&n from time to time considerable quantities
of native alum* found in the neighbouring mountains' The s%ecimens
sho&n to us sufficientl" indicated that it &as neither alunite*
similar to the rock of Tolfa and Piombino* nor those ca%illar" and
silk" salts of alkaline sul%hate of alumina and magnesia that line the
clefts and cavities of rocks* but real masses of native alum* &ith a
conchoidal or im%erfectl" lamellar fracture' .e &ere led to ho%e that
&e should find the mine of alum Nmina de alunO in the slat" cordillera
of CaniquareR* and so ne& a geological %henomenon &as calculated to
rivet our attention' The %riest 6uan GonRales* and the treasurer* (on
Canuel @avarete* &ho had been useful to us from our first arrival on
this coast* accom%anied us in our little excursion' .e disembarked
near $a%e $ane" and again visited the ancient saltH%it N&hich is
converted into a lake b" the irru%tion of the seaO* the fine ruins of
the castle of Ara"a and the calcareous mountain of the Barigon* &hich*
from its stee%ness on the &estern side is some&hat difficult of
access' Curiatiferous cla" mixed &ith bitumen and lenticular g"%sum
and sometimes %assing to a darkish bro&n cla"* devoid of salt* is a
formation &idel" s%read through this %eninsula* in the island of
Cargareta and on the o%%osite continent* near the castle of 0an
Antonio de $umana' Probabl" the existence of this formation has
contributed to %roduce those ru%tures and rents in the ground &hich
strike the e"e of the geologist &hen he stands on one of the eminences
of the %eninsula of Ara"a' The cordillera of this %eninsula* com%osed
of micaHslate and cla"Hslate* is se%arated on the north from the chain
of mountains of the island of Cargareta N&hich are of a similar
com%ositionO b" the channel of $ubaguaP and on the south it is
se%arated from the loft" calcareous chain of the continent* b" the
gulf of $ariaco' The &hole intermediate s%ace a%%ears to have been
heretofore filled &ith muriatiferous cla"P and no doubt the continual
erosions of the ocean have removed this formation and converted the
%lain* first into lakes* then into gulfs* and finall" into navigable
channels' The account of &hat has %assed in the most modern times at
the foot of the castle of Ara"a* the irru%tion of the sea into the
ancient saltH%it* the formation of the laguna de $haco%ata and a lake*
four leagues in length* &hich cuts the island of Cargareta nearl" into
t&o %arts* afford evident %roofs of these successive erosions' +n the
singular configuration of the coasts in the Corro of $haco%ataP in the
little islands of the $aribbees* the =obos and TunalP in the great
island of $oche* and the ca%es of $arnero and Cangliers there still
seem to be a%%arent the remains of an isthmus &hich* stretching from
north to south* formerl" joined the %eninsula of Ara"a to the island
of Cargareta' +n that island a neck of ver" lo& land* three thousand
toises long* and less than t&o hundred toises broad* conceals on the
northern sides the t&o hill" grou%s* kno&n b" the names of =a ega de
0an 6uan and the Cacanao' The =aguna Grande of Cargareta has a ver"
narro& o%ening to the south and small boats %ass b" %ortage over the
neck of land or northern d"ke' Though the &aters on these shores seem
at %resent to recede from the continent it is nevertheless ver"
%robable that in the la%se of ages* either b" an earthquake or b" a
sudden rising of the ocean* the long island of Cargareta &ill be
divided into t&o rock" islands of a tra%eRoidal form'
The limestone of the Barigon* &hich is a %art of the great formation
of sandstone or calcareous breccia of $umana* is filled &ith fossil
shells in as %erfect %reservation as those of other tertiar"
limestones in /rance and +tal"' .e detached some blocks containing
o"sters eight inches in diameter* %ectens* venuses* and litho%h"te
%ol"%i' + recommend to naturalists better versed in the kno&ledge of
fossils than + then &as* to examine &ith care this mountainous coast
N&hich is eas" of access to Euro%ean vesselsO in their &a" to $umana*
Gua"ra or $uracao' +t &ould be curious to discover &hether an" of
these shells and these s%ecies of %etrified Roo%h"tes still inhabit
the seas of the .est +ndies* as C' Bon%land conjectured* and as is the
case in the island of Timor and %erha%s in Guadalou%e'
.e sailed on the ;th of @ovember* at one oGclock in the morning* in
search of the mine of native alum' + took &ith me the chronometer and
m" large (ollond telesco%e* intending to observe at the =aguna $hica
N0mall =akeO* east of the village of CaniquareR* the immersion of the
first satellite of 6u%iterP this design* ho&ever* &as not
accom%lished* contrar" &inds having %revented our arrival before
da"light' The s%ectacle of the %hos%horescence of the ocean and the
s%orts of the %or%oises &hich surrounded our canoe some&hat atoned for
this disa%%ointment' .e again %assed those s%ots &here s%rings of
%etroleum gush from micaHslate at the bottom of the sea and the smell
of &hich is %erce%tible from a considerable distance' .hen it is
recollected that farther east&ard* near $ariaco* the hot and submarine
&aters are sufficientl" abundant to change the tem%erature of the gulf
at its surface* &e cannot doubt that the %etroleum is the effect of
distillation at an immense de%th* issuing from those %rimitive rocks
beneath &hich lies the focus of all volcanic commotion'
The =aguna $hica is a cove surrounded b" %er%endicular mountains* and
connected &ith the gulf of $ariaco onl" b" a narro& channel
t&ent"Hfive fathoms dee%' +t seems* like the fine %ort of Aca%ulco* to
o&e its existence to the effect of an earthquake' A beach sho&s that
the sea is here receding from the land* as on the o%%osite coast of
$umana' The %eninsula of Ara"a* &hich narro&s bet&een $a%e Cero and
$a%e las Cinas to one thousand four hundred toises* is little more
than four thousand toises in breadth near the =aguna $hica* reckoning
from one sea to the other' .e had to cross this distance in order to
find the native alum and to reach the ca%e called the Punta de
$hu%aru%aru' The road is difficult onl" because no %ath is tracedP and
bet&een %reci%ices of some de%th &e &ere obliged to ste% over ridges
of bare rock* the strata of &hich are much inclined' The %rinci%al
%oint is nearl" t&o hundred and t&ent" toises highP but the mountains*
as it often ha%%ens in a rock" isthmus* dis%la" ver" singular forms'
The Pa%s NtetasO of $haco%ata and $ariaco* mid&a" bet&een the =aguna
$hica and the to&n of $ariaco* are %eaks &hich a%%ear isolated &hen
vie&ed from the %latform of the castle of $umana' The vegetable earth
in this countr" is onl" thirt" toises above sea level' 0ometimes there
is no rain for the s%ace of fifteen monthsP if* ho&ever* a fe& dro%s
fall immediatel" after the flo&ering of the melons and gourds* the"
"ield fruit &eighing from sixt" to sevent" %ounds* not&ithstanding the
a%%arent dr"ness of the air' + sa" a%%arent dr"ness* for m"
h"grometric observations %rove that the atmos%here of $umana and Ara"a
contains nearl" nineHtenths of the quantit" of &ater" va%our necessar"
to its %erfect saturation' +t is this air* at once hot and humid* that
nourishes those vegetable reservoirs* the cucurbitaceous %lants* the
agaves and melocactuses halfHburied in the sand' .hen &e visited the
%eninsula the %receding "ear there &as a great scarcit" of &aterP the
goats for &ant of grass died b" hundreds' (uring our sta" at the
>rinoco the order of the seasons seemed to be entirel" changed' At
Ara"a* $ochen* and even in the island of Cargareta it had rained
abundantl"P and those sho&ers &ere remembered b" the inhabitants in
the same &a" as a fall of aerolites &ould be noted in the recollection
of the naturalists of Euro%e'
The +ndian &ho &as our guide scarcel" kne& in &hat direction &e should
find the alumP he &as ignorant of its real %osition' This ignorance of
localities characterises almost all the guides here* &ho are chosen
from among the most indolent class of the %eo%le' .e &andered for
eight or nine hours among rocks totall" bare of vegetation' The
micaHslate %asses sometimes to cla"Hslate of a darkish gre"' + &as
again struck b" the extreme regularit" in the direction and
inclination of the strata' The" run north 98 degrees east* inclining
from L8 to 38 degrees northH&est' This is the general direction &hich
+ had observed in the gneissHgranite of $aracas and the >rinoco* in
the hornblendeHslates of Angostura* and even in the greater %art of
the secondar" rocks &e had just examined' The beds* over a vast extent
of land* make the same angle &ith the meridian of the %laceP the"
%resent a %arallelism* &hich ma" be considered as one of the great
geologic la&s ca%able of being verified b" %recise measures' Advancing
to&ard $a%e $hu%aru%aru* the veins of quartR that cross the micaHslate
increase in siRe' .e found some from one to t&o toises broad* full of
small fasciculated cr"stals of rutile titanite' .e sought in vain for
c"anite* &hich &e had discovered in some blocks near CaniquareR'
/arther on the micaHstate %resents not veins* but little beds of
gra%hite or carburetted iron' The" are from t&o to three inches thick
and have %recisel" the same direction and inclination as the rock'
Gra%hite* in %rimitive soils* marks the first a%%earance of carbon on
the globeHHthat of carbon uncombined &ith h"drogen' +t is anterior to
the %eriod &hen the surface of the earth became covered &ith
monocot"ledonous %lants' /rom the summit of those &ild mountains there
is a majestic vie& of the island of Cargareta' T&o grou%s of mountains
alread" mentioned* those of Cacanao and =a ega de 0an 6uan* rise from
the bosom of the &aters' The ca%ital of the island* =a Asuncion* the
%ort of Pam%atar* and the villages of Pueblo de la Car* Pueblo del
@orte and 0an 6uan belong to the second and most easterl" of these
grou%s' The &estern grou%* the Cacanao* is almost entirel"
uninhabited' The isthmus that divides these large masses of micaHslate
&as scarcel" visibleP its form a%%eared changed b" the effect of the
mirage and &e recogniRed the intermediate %art* through &hich runs the
=aguna Grande* onl" b" t&o small hills of a sugarloaf form* in the
meridian of the Punta de Piedras' @earer &e look do&n on the small
desert archi%elago of the four Corros del Tunal* the $aribbee and the
=obos +slands'
After much vain search &e at length found* before &e descended to the
northern coast of the %eninsula of Ara"a* in a ravine of ver"
difficult access NAro"o del RobaloO* the mineral &hich had been sho&n
to us at $umana' The micaHslate changed suddenl" into carburetted and
shining cla"Hslate' +t &as an am%eliteP and the &aters Nfor there are
small s%rings in those %arts* and some have recentl" been discovered
near the village of CaniquareRO &ere im%regnated &ith "ello& oxide of
iron and had a st"%tic taste' .e found the sides of the neighbouring
rocks lined &ith ca%illar" sul%hate of alumina in effervescenceP and
real beds* t&o inches thick* full of native alum* extending as far as
the e"e could reach in the cla" slate' The alum is gre"ish &hite*
some&hat dull on the surface and of an almost glass" lustre
internall"' +ts fracture is not fibrous but im%erfectl" conchoidal' +t
is slightl" translucent &hen its fragments are thinP and has a
s&eetish and astringent taste &ithout an" bitter mixture' .hen on the
s%ot* + %ro%osed to m"self the question &hether this alum* so %ure*
and filling beds in the cla"Hslate &ithout leaving the smallest void*
be of a formation contem%orar" &ith the rock* or &hether it be of a
recent* and in some sort secondar"* origin* like the muriate of soda*
found sometimes in small veins* &here strongl" concentrated s%rings
traverse beds of g"%sum or cla"' +n these %arts nothing seems to
indicate a %rocess of formation likel" to be rene&ed in our da"s' The
slat" rock exhibits no o%en cleftP and none is found %arallel &ith the
direction of the slates' +t ma" also be inquired &hether this
aluminous slate be a transitionHformation l"ing on the %rimitive
micaHslate of Ara"a* or &hether it o&e its origin merel" to a change
of com%osition and texture in the beds of micaHslate' + lean to the
latter %ro%ositionP for the transition is %rogressive* and the
cla"Hslate NthonschieferO and micaHslate a%%ear to me to constitute
here but one formation' The %resence of c"anite* rutileHtitanite* and
garnets* and the absence of ="dian stone* and all fragmentar" or
arenaceous rocks* seem to characterise the formation &e describe as
%rimitive' +t is asserted that even in Euro%e am%elite and green stone
are found* though rarel"* in slates anterior to transitionHslate'
.hen* in 13I9* after an earthquake* a great rock" mass &as broken off
in the Aro"o del Robalo* the Gua"keries of =os 0erritos collected
fragments of alum five or six inches in diameter* extremel" %ure and
trans%arent' +t &as sold in m" time at $umana to the d"ers and
tanners* at the %rice of t&o reals- %er %ound* &hile alum from 0%ain
cost t&elve reals' N- The real is about L 1M7 English %ence'O This
difference of %rice &as more the result of %rejudice and of the
im%ediments to trade* than of the inferior qualit" of the alum of the
countr"* &hich is fit for use &ithout undergoing an" %urification' +t
is also found in the chain of micaHslate and cla"Hslate* on the
northH&est coast of the island of Trinidad* at Cargareta and near $a%e
$hu%aru%aru* north of the $erro del (istiladero'- N- Another %lace &as
mentioned to us* &est of Bordones* the Puerto Escondido' But that
coast a%%eared to me to be &holl" calcareousP and + cannot conceive
&here could be the situation of am%elite and native alum on this
%oint' .as it in the beds of slat" cla" that alternate &ith the al%ine
limestone of $umanacoaT /ibrous alum is found in Euro%e onl" in
formations %osterior to those of transition* in lignites and other
tertiar" formations belonging to the lignites'O The +ndians* &ho are
naturall" addicted to concealment* are not inclined to make kno&n the
s%ots &hence the" obtain native alumP but it must be abundant* for +
have seen ver" considerable quantities of it in their %ossession at a
time'
0outh America at %resent receives its alum from Euro%e* as Euro%e in
its turn received it from the natives of Asia %revious to the
fifteenth centur"' Cineralogists* before m" travels* kne& no
substances &hich* &ithout addition* calcined or not calcined* could
directl" "ield alum Nsul%hate of alumina and %otashO* exce%t rocks of
trach"tic formation* and small veins traversing beds of lignite and
bituminous &ood' Both these substances* so different in their origin*
contain all that constitutes alum* that is to sa"* alumina* sul%huric
acid and %otash' The ores of Tolfa* Cilo and @i%oligoP those of
Contione* in &hich silica does not accom%an" the aluminaP the
siliceous breccia of Cont (ore* &hich contains sul%hur in its
cavitiesP the alumiferous rocks of Parad and Beregh in Hungar"* &hich
belong also to trach"tic and %umice conglomerates* ma" no doubt be
traced to the %enetration of sul%hurous acid va%ours' The" are the
%roducts of a feeble and %rolonged volcanic action* as ma" be easil"
ascertained in the solfataras of PuRRuoli and the Peak of Teneriffe'
The alumite of Tolfa* &hich* since m" return to Euro%e* + have
examined on the s%ot* conjointl" &ith Ga"H=ussac* has* b" its
or"ctognostic characters and its chemical com%osition* a considerable
affinit" to com%act felds%ar* &hich constitutes the basis of so man"
trach"tes and transitionH%or%h"ries' +t is a siliciferous subsul%hate
of alumina and %otash* a com%act felds%ar* &ith the addition of
sul%huric acid com%letel" formed in it' The &aters circulating in
these alumiferous rocks of volcanic origin do not* ho&ever* de%osit
masses of native alum* to "ield &hich the rocks must be roasted' +
kno& not of an" de%osits analogous to those + brought from $umanaP for
the ca%illar" and fibrous masses found in veins traversing beds of
lignites Nas on the banks of the Egra* bet&een 0aatR and $ommothau in
BohemiaO* or efflorescing in cavities Nas at /reien&alde in
Brandenburg* and at 0egario in 0ardiniaO* are im%ure salts* often
destitute of %otash* and mixed &ith the sul%hates of ammonia and
magnesia' A slo& decom%osition of the %"rites* &hich %robabl" act as
so man" little galvanic %iles* renders the &aters alumiferous* that
circulate across the bituminous lignites and carburetted cla"s' These
&aters* in contact &ith carbonate of lime* even give rise to the
de%osits of subsul%hate of alumina Ndestitute of %otashO* found near
Halle* and formerl" believed erroneousl" to be %ure alumina belonging*
like the %orcelain earth NkaolinO of Corl* to %or%h"r" of red
sandstone' Analogous chemical actions ma" take %lace in %rimitive and
transition slates as &ell as in tertiar" formations' All slates* and
this fact is ver" im%ortant* contain nearl" five %er cent of %otash*
sul%huret of iron* %eroxide of iron* carbon* etc' The contact of so
man" moistened heterogeneous substances must necessaril" lead them to
a change of state and com%osition' The efflorescent salts that
abundantl" cover the aluminous slates of Robalo* sho& ho& much these
chemical effects are favoured b" the high tem%erature of the climateP
but* + re%eat* in a rock &here there are no crevices* no vacuities
%arallel to the direction and inclination of the strata* native alum*
semitrans%arent and of conchoidal fracture* com%letel" filling its
%lace Nits bedsO* must be regarded as of the same age &ith the rock in
&hich it is contained' The term contem%orar" formation is here taken
in the sense attached to it b" geologists* in s%eaking of beds of
quartR in cla"Hslate* granular limestone in micaHslate or felds%ar in
gneiss'
After having for a long time &andered over barren scenes amidst rocks
entirel" devoid of vegetation* our e"es d&elt &ith %leasure on tufts
of mal%ighia and croton* &hich &e found in descending to&ard the
coast' These arborescent crotons &ere of t&o ne& s%ecies*- ver"
remarkable for their form* and %eculiar to the %eninsula of Ara"a' N-
$roton arg"ro%h"llus and $' marginatus'O .e arrived too late at the
=aguna $hica to visit another rock situated farther east and
celebrated b" the name of the =aguna Grande* or the =aguna del
>bis%o'- N- Great =ake* or the Bisho%Gs =ake'O .e contented ourselves
&ith admiring it from the height of the mountains that command the
vie&P and* exce%ting the %orts of /errol and Aca%ulco* there is
%erha%s none %resenting a more extraordinar" configuration' +t is an
inland gulf t&o miles and a half long from east to &est* and one mile
broad' The rocks of micaHslate that form the entrance of the %ort
leave a free %assage onl" t&o hundred and fift" toises broad' The
&ater is ever"&here from fifteen to t&ent"Hfive fathoms dee%' Probabl"
the government of $umana &ill one da" take advantage of the %ossession
of this inland gulf and of that of Cochima*- eight leagues east of the
bad road of @ueva Barcelona' N- This is a long narro& gulf* three
miles from north to south* similar to the fiords of @or&a"'O The
famil" of C' @avarete &ere &aiting for us &ith im%atience on the
beachP and* though our boat carried a large sail* &e did not arrive at
CaniquareR before night'
.e %rolonged our sta" at $umana onl" a fortnight' Having lost all ho%e
of the arrival of a %acket from $orunna* &e availed ourselves of an
American vessel* laden at @ueva Barcelona &ith salt %rovision for the
island of $uba' .e had no& %assed sixteen months on this coast and in
the interior of eneRuela* and on the 1Lth of @ovember &e %arted from
our friends at $umana to make the %assage for the third time across
the gulf of $ariaco to @ueva Barcelona' The night &as cool and
delicious' +t &as not &ithout emotion that &e beheld for the last time
the disc of the moon illuminating the summit of the cocoaHtrees that
surround the banks of the CanRanares' The breeRe &as strong and in
less than six hours &e anchored near the Corro of @ueva Barcelona*
&here the vessel &hich &as to take us to the Havannah &as read" to
sail'
$HAPTER !'73'
P>=+T+$A= 0TATE >/ THE PR>+@$E0 >/ E@ES?E=A'
EJTE@T >/ TERR+T>R,'
P>P?=AT+>@'
@AT?RA= PR>(?$T+>@0'
EJTER@A= TRA(E'
$>CC?@+$AT+>@0 BET.EE@ THE (+//ERE@T PR>+@$E0 $>CPR+0+@G THE REP?B=+$
>/ $>=?CB+A'
Before + quit the coasts of Terra /irma and dra& the attention of the
reader to the %olitical im%ortance of $uba* the largest of the .est
+ndia +slands* + &ill collect into one %oint of vie& all those facts
&hich ma" lead to a just a%%reciation of the future relations of
commercial Euro%e &ith the united Provinces of eneRuela' .hen* soon
after m" return to German"* + %ublished the Essai Politique sur la
@ouvelleHEs%agne* + at the same time made kno&n some of the facts +
had collected in relation to the territorial riches of 0outh America'
This com%arative vie& of the %o%ulation* agriculture and commerce of
all the 0%anish colonies &as formed at a %eriod &hen the %rogress of
civiliRation &as restrained b" the im%erfection of social
institutions* the %rohibitor" s"stem and other fatal errors in the
science of government' 0ince the time &hen + develo%ed the immense
resources &hich the %eo%le of both @orth and 0outh America might
derive from their o&n %osition and their relations &ith commercial
Euro%e and Asia* one of those great revolutions &hich from time to
time agitate the human race has changed the state of societ" in the
vast regions through &hich + travelled' The continental %art of the
@e& .orld is at %resent in some sort divided bet&een three nations of
Euro%ean originP one Nand that the most %o&erfulO is of Germanic race5
the t&o others belong b" their language* their literature* and their
manners to =atin Euro%e' Those %arts of the old &orld &hich advance
farthest &est&ard* the 0%anish Peninsula and the British +slands* are
those of &hich the colonies are most extensiveP but four thousand
leagues of coast* inhabited solel" b" the descendants of 0%aniards and
Portuguese* attest the su%eriorit" &hich in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries the %eninsular nations had acquired* b" their
maritime ex%editions* over the navigators of other countries' +t ma"
be fairl" asserted that their languages* &hich %revail from $alifornia
to the Rio de la Plata and along the back of the $ordilleras* as &ell
as in the forests of the AmaRon* are monuments of national glor" that
&ill survive ever" %olitical revolution'
The inhabitants of 0%anish and Portuguese America form together a
%o%ulation t&ice as numerous as the inhabitants of English race' The
/rench* (utch* and (anish %ossessions of the ne& continent are of
small extentP but* to com%lete the general vie& of the nations &hich
ma" influence the destin" of the other hemis%here* &e ought not to
forget the colonists of 0candinavian origin &ho are endeavouring to
form settlements from the %eninsula of Alashka as far as $aliforniaP
and the free Africans of Ha"ti &ho have verified the %rediction made
b" the Cilanese traveller BenRoni in 19;9' The situation of these
Africans in an island more than three times the siRe of 0icil"* in the
middle of the .est +ndian Cediterranean* augments their %olitical
im%ortance' Ever" friend of humanit" %ra"s for the develo%ment of the
civiliRation &hich is advancing in so calm and unex%ected a manner' As
"et Russian America is less like an agricultural colon" than the
factories established b" Euro%eans on the coast of Africa* to the
great misfortune of the nativesP the" contain onl" militar" %osts*
stations of fishermen* and 0iberian hunters' +t is a curious
%henomenon to find the rites of the Greek $hurch established in one
%art of America and to see t&o nations &hich inhabit the eastern and
&estern extremities of Euro%e Nthe Russians and the 0%aniardsO thus
bordering on each other on a continent on &hich the" arrived b"
o%%osite routesP but the almost savage state of the un%eo%led coasts
of >chotsk and Aamtschatka* the &ant of resources furnished b" the
%orts of Asia* and the barbarous s"stem hitherto ado%ted in the
0candinavian colonies of the @e& .orld* are circumstances &hich &ill
hold them long in infanc"' Hence it follo&s that if in the researches
of %olitical econom" &e are accustomed to surve" masses onl"* &e
cannot but admit that the American continent is divided* %ro%erl"
s%eaking* bet&een three great nations of English* 0%anish* and
Portuguese race' The first of these three nations* the
AngloHAmericans* is* next to the English of Euro%e* that &hose flag
&aves over the greatest extent of sea' .ithout an" distant colonies*
its commerce has acquired a gro&th attained in the old &orld b" that
nation alone &hich communicated to @orth America its language* its
literature* its love of labour* its %redilection for libert"* and a
%ortion of its civil institutions'
The English and Portuguese colonists have %eo%led onl" the coasts
&hich lie o%%osite to Euro%eP the $astilians* on the contrar"* in the
earliest %eriod of the conquest* crossed the chain of the Andes and
made settlements in the most &estern regions' There onl"* at Cexico*
$undinamarca* Buito and Peru* the" found traces of ancient
civiliRation* agricultural nations and flourishing em%ires' This
circumstance* together &ith the increase of the native mountain
%o%ulation* the almost exclusive %ossession of great metallic &ealth*
and the commercial relations established from the beginning of the
sixteenth centur" &ith the +ndian archi%elago* have given a %eculiar
character to the 0%anish %ossessions in equinoctial America' +n the
East +ndies* the %eo%le &ho fell into the hands of the English and
Portuguese settlers &ere &andering tribes or hunters' /ar from forming
a %ortion of the agricultural and laborious %o%ulation* as on the
tableland of Anahuac* at Guatimala and in ?%%er Peru* the" generall"
&ithdre& at the a%%roach of the &hites' The necessit" of labour* the
%reference given to the cultivation of the sugarHcane* indigo* and
cotton* the cu%idit" &hich often accom%anies and degrades industr"*
gave birth to that infamous slaveHtrade* the consequences of &hich
have been alike fatal to the old and the ne& &orld' Ha%%il"* in the
continental %art of 0%anish America* the number of African slaves is
so inconsiderable that* com%ared &ith the slave %o%ulation of BraRil*
or &ith that of the southern %art of the ?nited 0tates* it is found to
be in the %ro%ortion of one to fourteen' The &hole of the 0%anish
colonies* &ithout excluding the islands of $uba and Porto Rico* have
not* over a surface &hich exceeds at least b" oneHfifth that of
Euro%e* as man" negroes as the single state of irginia' The 0%anish
Americans* in the union of @e& 0%ain and Guatimala* %resent an
exam%le* unique in the torrid Rone* namel"* a nation of eight millions
of inhabitants governed conformabl" &ith Euro%ean institutions and
la&s* cultivating sugar* cacao* &heat and gra%es* and having scarcel"
a slave brought from Africa'
The %o%ulation of the @e& $ontinent as "et sur%asses but little that
of /rance or German"' +t doubles in the ?nited 0tates in t&ent"Hthree
or t&ent"Hfive "earsP and at Cexico* even under the government of the
mother countr"* it doubles in fort" or fort"Hfive "ears' .ithout
indulging too flattering ho%es of the future* it ma" be admitted that
in less than a centur" and a half the %o%ulation of America &ill equal
that of Euro%e' This noble rivalr" in civiliRation and the arts of
industr" and commerce* far from im%overishing the old continent* as
has often been su%%osed it might at the ex%ense of the ne& one* &ill
augment the &ants of the consumer* the mass of %roductive labour* and
the activit" of exchange' (oubtless* in consequence of the great
revolutions &hich human societ" undergoes* the %ublic fortune* the
common %atrimon" of civiliRation* is found differentl" divided among
the nations of the old and the ne& &orld5 but b" degrees the
equilibrium is restoredP and it is a fatal* + had almost said an
im%ious %rejudice* to consider the gro&ing %ros%erit" of an" other
%art of our %lanet as a calamit" to Euro%e' The inde%endence of the
colonies &ill not contribute to isolate them from the old civiliRed
nations* but &ill rather bring all more closel" together' $ommerce
tends to unite countries &hich a jealous %olic" has long se%arated' +t
is the nature of civiliRation to go for&ard &ithout an" tendenc" to
decline in the s%ot that gave it birth' +ts %rogress from east to
&est* from Asia to Euro%e* %roves nothing against this axiom' A clear
light loses none of its brillianc" b" being diffused over a &ider
s%ace' +ntellectual cultivation* that fertile source of national
&ealth* advances b" degrees and extends &ithout being dis%laced' +ts
movement is not a migration5 and though it ma" seem to be such in the
east* it is because barbarous hordes %ossessed themselves of Eg"%t*
Asia Cinor* and of once free Greece* the forsaken cradle of the
civiliRation of our ancestors'
The barbarism of nations is the consequence of o%%ression exercised b"
internal des%otism or foreign conquestP and it is al&a"s accom%anied
b" %rogressive im%overishment* b" a diminution of the %ublic fortune'
/ree and %o&erful institutions* ada%ted to the interests of all*
remove these dangersP and the gro&ing civiliRation of the &orld* the
com%etition of labour and of trade* are not the ruin of states &hose
&elfare flo&s from a natural source' Productive and commercial Euro%e
&ill %rofit b" the ne& order of things in 0%anish America* as it &ould
%rofit from events that might %ut an end to barbarism in Greece* on
the northern coast of Africa and in other countries subject to >ttoman
t"rann"' .hat most menaces the %ros%erit" of the ancient continent is
the %rolongation of those intestine struggles &hich check %roduction
and diminish at the same time the number and &ants of consumers' This
struggle* begun in 0%anish America six "ears after m" de%arture* is
dra&ing graduall" to an end' .e shall soon see both shores of the
Atlantic %eo%led b" inde%endent nations* ruled b" different forms of
Government* but united b" the remembrance of a common origin*
uniformit" of language* and the &ants &hich civiliRation creates' +t
ma" be said that the immense %rogress of the art of navigation has
contracted the boundaries of the seas' The Atlantic alread" assumes
the form of a narro& channel &hich no more removes the @e& .orld from
the commercial states of Euro%e* than the Cediterranean* in the
infanc" of navigation* removed the Greeks of Pelo%onnesus from those
of +onia* 0icil"* and the $"renaic region'
+ have thought it right to enter into these general considerations on
the future connection of the t&o continents* before tracing the
%olitical sketch of the %rovinces of eneRuela' These %rovinces*
governed till 1I18 b" a ca%tainHgeneral residing at $aracas* are no&
united to the old vicero"alt" of @e& Grenada* or 0anta /e* under the
name of the Re%ublic of $olumbia' + &ill not antici%ate the
descri%tion &hich + shall have hereafter to give of @e& GrenadaP but*
in order to render m" observations on the statistics of eneRuela more
useful to those &ho &ould judge of the %olitical im%ortance of the
countr" and the advantages it ma" offer to the trade of Euro%e* even
in its %resent unadvanced state of cultivation* + &ill describe the
?nited Provinces of eneRuela in their relations &ith $undinamarca* or
@e& Grenada* and as forming %art of the ne& state of $olumbia' C'
Bon%land and + %assed nearl" three "ears in the countr" &hich no&
forms the territor" of the re%ublic of $olumbiaP sixteen months in
eneRuela and eighteen in @e& Grenada' .e crossed the territor" in its
&hole extentP on one hand from the mountains of Paria as far as
Esmeralda on the ?%%er >rinoco* and 0an $arlo del Rio @egro* situated
near the frontiers of BraRilP and on the other* from Rio 0inu and
$arthagena as far as the sno&" summits of Buito* the %ort of Gua"aquil
on the coast of the Pacific* and the banks of the AmaRon in the
%rovince of 6aen de Bracamoros' 0o long a sta" and an ex%edition of
one thousand three hundred leagues in the interior of the countr"* of
&hich more than six hundred and fift" &ere b" &ater* have furnished me
&ith a %rett" accurate kno&ledge of local circumstances'
+ am a&are that travellers* &ho have recentl" visited America* regard
its %rogress as far more ra%id than m" statistical researches seem to
indicate' /or the "ear 121! the" %romise one hundred and t&elve
millions of inhabitants in Cexico* of &hich the" believe that the
%o%ulation is doubled ever" t&ent"Ht&o "earsP and during the same
interval one hundred and fort" millions in the ?nited 0tates' These
numbers* + confess* do not a%%ear to me to be alarming from the
motives that ma" excite fear among the disci%les of Calthus' +t is
%ossible that some time or other* t&o or three hundred millions of men
ma" find subsistence in the vast extent of the ne& continent bet&een
the lake of @icaragua and lake >ntario' + admit that the ?nited 0tates
&ill contain above eight" millions of inhabitants a hundred "ears
hence* allo&ing a %rogressive change in the %eriod of doubling from
t&ent"Hfive to thirt"Hfive and fort" "earsP but* not&ithstanding the
elements of %ros%erit" to be found in equinoctial America* + doubt
&hether the increase of the %o%ulation in eneRuela* 0%anish Guiana*
@e& Grenada and Cexico can be in general so ra%id as in the ?nited
0tates' The latter* &hich are situated entirel" in the tem%erate Rone*
destitute of high chains of mountains* embrace an immense extent of
countr" eas" of cultivation' The hordes of +ndian hunters flee both
from the colonists* &hom the" abhor* and the methodist missionaries*
&ho o%%ose their taste for indolence and a vagabond life' The more
fertile land of 0%anish America %roduces indeed on the same surface a
greater amount of nutritive substances' >n the table lands of the
equinoctial regions &heat doubtless "ields annuall" from t&ent" to
t&ent"Hfour for oneP but $ordilleras furro&ed b" almost inaccessible
crevices* bare and arid ste%%es* forests that resist both the axe and
fire* and an atmos%here filled &ith venomous insects* &ill long
%resent %o&erful obstacles to agriculture and industr"' The most
active and enter%rising colonists cannot* in the mountainous districts
of Cerida* Antioquia* and =os Pastos* in the llanos of eneRuela and
Guaviare* in the forests of the Rio Cagdalena* the >rinoco* and the
%rovince of =as Esmeraldas* &est of Buito* extend their agricultural
conquests as the" have done in the &ood" %lains &est&ard of the
Alleghenies* from the sources of the >hio* the Tennessee and the
Alabama* as far as the banks of the Cissouri and the Arkansas' $alling
to mind the account of m" vo"age on the >rinoco* it ma" be eas" to
a%%reciate the obstacles &hich nature o%%oses to the efforts of man in
hot and humid climates' +n Cexico* large extents of soil are destitute
of s%ringsP rain seldom falls* and the &ant of navigable rivers
im%edes communication' As the ancient native %o%ulation is
agricultural* and had been so long before the arrival of the
0%aniards* the lands most eas" of access and cultivation have alread"
their %ro%rietors' /ertile tracts of countr"* at the dis%osal of the
first occu%ier* or read" to be sold in lots for the %rofit of the
state* are much less common than Euro%eans imagine' Hence it follo&s
that the %rogress of coloniRation cannot be ever"&here as free and
ra%id in 0%anish America as it has hitherto been in the &estern
%rovinces of the ?nited 0tates' The %o%ulation of that union is
com%osed &holl" of &hites* and of negros* &ho* having been torn from
their countr"* or born in the @e& .orld* have become the instruments
of the industr" of the &hites' +n Cexico* Guatimala* Buito* and Peru*
on the contrar"* there exist in our da" more than five millions and a
half of natives of co%%erHcoloured race* &hose isolated %osition*
%artl" forced and %artl" voluntar"* together &ith their attachment to
ancient habits* and their mistrustful inflexibilit" of character* &ill
long %revent their %artici%ation in the %rogress of the %ublic
%ros%erit"* not&ithstanding the efforts em%lo"ed to disindianiRe them'
+ d&ell on the differences bet&een the free states of tem%erate and
equinoctial America* to sho& that the latter have to contend against
obstacles connected &ith their %h"sical and moral %ositionP and to
remind the reader that the countries embellished &ith the most varied
and %recious %roductions of nature* are not al&a"s susce%tible of an
eas"* ra%id* and uniforml" extended cultivation' +f &e consider the
limits &hich the %o%ulation ma" attain as de%ending solel" on the
quantit" of subsistence &hich the land is ca%able of %roducing* the
most sim%le calculations &ould %rove the %re%onderance of the
communities established in the fine regions of the torrid RoneP but
%olitical econom"* or the %ositive science of government* is
distrustful of ci%hers and vain abstractions' .e kno& that b" the
multi%lication of one famil" onl"* a continent %reviousl" desert ma"
reckon in the s%ace of eight centuries more than eight millions of
inhabitantsP and "et these estimates* founded on the h"%othesis of a
continuous doubling in t&ent"Hfive or thirt" "ears* are contradicted
b" the histor" of ever" countr" alread" advanced in civiliRation' The
destinies &hich a&ait the free states of 0%anish America are too
glorious to require to be embellished b" illusions and chimerical
calculations'
Among the thirt"Hfour million inhabitants s%read over the vast surface
of continental America* in &hich estimate are com%rised the savage
natives* &e distinguish* according to the three %re%onderant races*
sixteen millions and a half in the %ossessions of the 0%anish
Americans* ten millions in those of the AngloHAmericans* and nearl"
four millions in those of the Portuguese Americans' The %o%ulation of
these three great divisions is* at the %resent time* in the %ro%ortion
of ;* 7 1M7* 1P &hile the extent of surface over &hich the %o%ulation
is s%read is* as the numbers 1'9* 8'3* 1' The area of the ?nited
0tates- is nearl" oneHfourth greater than that of Russia &est of the
?ral mountainsP and 0%anish America is in the same %ro%ortion more
extensive than the &hole of Euro%e' N- @ot&ithstanding the %olitical
changes &hich have taken %lace in the 0outh American colonies* + shall
throughout this &ork designate the countr" inhabited b" the 0%anish
Americans b" the denomination of 0%anish America' + call the countr"
of the AngloHAmericans the ?nited 0tates* &ithout adding of @orth
America* although other ?nited 0tates exist in 0outh America' +t is
embarrassing to s%eak of nations &ho %la" a great %art on the scene of
the &orld &ithout having collective names' The term American can no
longer be a%%lied solel" to the citiRens of the ?nited 0tates of @orth
AmericaP and it &ere to be &ished that the nomenclature of the
inde%endent nations of the @e& $ontinent should be fixed in a manner
at once convenient* harmonious* and %recise'O The ?nited 0tates
contain fiveHeighths of the %ro%ortion of the 0%anish %ossessions* and
"et their area is not oneHhalf so large' BraRil com%rehends tracts of
countr" so desert to&ard the &est that over an extent onl" a third
less than that of 0%anish America its %o%ulation is in the %ro%ortion
of one to four' The follo&ing table contains the results of an attem%t
&hich + made* conjointl" &ith C' Cathieu* member of the Academ" of
0ciences* and of the Bureau des =ongitudes* to estimate &ith %recision
the extent of the surface of the various states of America' .e made
use of ma%s on &hich the limits had been corrected according to the
statements %ublished in m" Recueil dG>bservations Astronomiques' >ur
scales &ere* generall" s%eaking* so large that s%aces from four to
five leagues square &ere not omitted' .e observed this degree of
%recision that &e might not add the uncertaint" of the measure of
triangles* tra%eRiums* and the sinuosities of the coasts* to the
uncertaint" of geogra%hical statements'
TAB=E >/ GREAT P>=+T+$A= (++0+>@0'
$>=?C@ 1 5 @ACE'
$>=?C@ 7 5 0?R/A$E +@ 0B?ARE =EAG?E0 >/ 78 T> A@ EB?+@>$T+A= (EGREE'
$>=?C@ ! 5 P>P?=AT+>@ N1I7!O'
0urface Po%'
1' Possessions of the 0%anish Americans 5 !31*!I8 5 1L*3I9*888'
Cexico or @e& 0%ain 5 39*I!8 5 L*I88*888'
Guatemala 5 1L*3;8 5 1*L88*888'
$uba and Porto Rico 5 ;*;!8 5 I88*888'
$olumbiaHHeneRuela 5 !!*388 5 3I9*888'
$olumbiaHH@e& Grenada and Buito 5 9I*798 5 7*888*888'
Peru 5 ;1*;78 5 1*;88*888'
$hili 5 1;*7;8 5 1*188*888'
Buenos A"res 5 17L*338 5 7*!88*888'
7' Possessions of the Portuguese
Americans NBraRilO 5 79L*228 5 ;*888*888'
!' Possessions of the
AngloHAmericans N?nited 0tatesO 5 13;*!88 5 18*778*888'
/rom the statistical researches &hich have been made in several
countries of Euro%e* im%ortant results have been obtained b" a
com%arison of the relative %o%ulation of maritime and inland
%rovinces' +n 0%ain these relations are to one another as nine to
fiveP in the ?nited Provinces of eneRuela* and* above all* in the
ancient $a%itaniaHGeneral of $aracas* the" are as thirt"Hfive to one'
Ho& %o&erful soever ma" be the influence of commerce on the %ros%erit"
of states* and the intellectual develo%ment of nations* it &ould be
&rong to attribute in America* as &e do in Euro%e* to that cause alone
the differences just mentioned' +n 0%ain and +tal"* if &e exce%t the
fertile %lains of =ombard"* the inland districts are arid and
abounding in mountains or high tableHlands5 the meteorological
circumstances on &hich the fertilit" of the soil de%ends are not the
same in the lands bordering on the sea* as the" are in the central
%rovinces' $oloniRation in America has generall" begun on the coast*
and advanced slo&l" to&ards the interiorP such is its %rogress in
BraRil and in eneRuela' +t is onl" &here the coast is unhealth"* as
in Cexico and @e& Grenada* or sand" and exem%t from rain as in Peru*
that the %o%ulation is concentrated on the mountains* and the
tableHlands of the interior' These local circumstances are too often
overlooked in considerations on the future fate of the 0%anish
coloniesP the" communicate a %eculiar character to some of those
countries* the %h"sical and moral analogies of &hich are less striking
than is commonl" su%%osed' $onsidered &ith reference to the
distribution of the %o%ulation* the t&o %rovinces of @e& Grenada and
eneRuela* &hich have been united in one %olitical bod"* exhibit the
most com%lete contrast' Their ca%itals Nand the %osition of ca%itals
al&a"s denotes &here %o%ulation is most concentratedO are at such
unequal distances from the trading coasts of the $aribbean 0ea* that
the to&n of $aracas* to be %laced on the same %arallel &ith 0antaH/e
de Bogota* must be trans%lanted south&ard to the junction of the
>rinoco &ith the Guaviare* &here the mission of 0an /ernando de
Ataba%o is situated'
The re%ublic of $olumbia is* &ith Cexico and Guatemala* the onl" state
of 0%anish America &hich occu%ies at once the coasts o%%osite to
Euro%e and to Asia' /rom $a%e Paria to the &estern extremit" of
eragua is a distance of ;88 sea leagues5 and from $a%e Burica to the
mouth of Rio TumbeR the distance is 7L8' The shore %ossessed b" the
re%ublic of $olumbia consequentl" equals in length the line of coasts
extending from $adiR to (antRic* or from $euta to 6affa' This immense
resource for national industr" is combined &ith a degree of
cultivation of &hich the im%ortance has not hitherto been sufficientl"
ackno&ledged' The isthmus of Panama forms %art of the territor" of
$olumbia* and that neck of land* if traversed b" good roads and
stocked &ith camels* ma" one da" serve as a %ortage for the commerce
of the &orld* even though the %lains of $u%ica* the ba" of Candinga or
the Rio $hagre should not afford the %ossibilit" of a canal for the
%assage of vessels %roceeding from Euro%e to $hina*- or from the
?nited 0tates to the northH&est coast of America' N- The old
viceHro"alt" of Buenos A"res extended also along a small %ortion of
the 0outh 0ea coast'O
.hen considering the influence &hich the configuration of countries
Nthat is* the elevation and the form of coastsO exercises in ever"
district on the %rogress of civiliRation and the destin" of nations* +
have %ointed out the disadvantages of those vast masses of triangular
continents* &hich* like Africa and the greater %art of 0outh America*
are destitute of gulfs and inland seas' +t cannot be doubted that the
existence of the Cediterranean has been closel" connected &ith the
first da&n of human cultivation among the nations of the &est* and
that the articulated form of the land* the frequenc" of its
contractions and the concatenation of %eninsulas favoured the
civiliRation of Greece* +tal"* and %erha%s of all Euro%e &est&ard of
the meridian of the Pro%ontis' +n the @e& .orld the uninterru%tedness
of the coasts and the monoton" of their straight lines are most
remarkable in $hili and Peru' The shore of $olumbia is more varied*
and its s%acious gulfs* such as that of Paria* $ariaco* Caraca"bo* and
(arien* &ere* at the time of the first discover" better %eo%led than
the rest and facilitated the interchange of %roductions' That shore
%ossesses an incalculable advantage in being &ashed b" the $aribbean
0ea* a kind of inland sea &ith several outlets* and the onl" one
%ertaining to the @e& $ontinent' This basin* &hose various shores form
%ortions of the ?nited 0tates* of the re%ublic of $olumbia* of Cexico
and several maritime %o&ers of Euro%e* gives birth to a %eculiar and
exclusivel" American s"stem of trade' The southHeast of Asia &ith its
neighbouring archi%elago and* above all* the state of the
Cediterranean in the time of the Phoenician and Greek colonies* %rove
that the nearness of o%%osite coasts* not having the same %roductions
and not inhabited b" nations of different races* exercises a ha%%"
influence on commercial industr" and intellectual cultivation' The
im%ortance of the inland $aribbean 0ea* bounded b" eneRuela on the
south* &ill be further augmented b" the %rogressive increase of
%o%ulation on the banks of the Cississi%%iP for that river* the Rio
del @orte and the Cagdalena are the onl" great navigable streams &hich
the $aribbean 0ea receives' The de%th of the American rivers* their
immense branches* and the use of steamHboats* ever"&here facilitated
b" the %roximit" of forests* &ill* to a certain extent* com%ensate for
the obstacles &hich the uniform line of the coasts and the general
configuration of the continent o%%ose to the %rogress of industr" and
civiliRation'
>n com%aring the extent of the territor" &ith the absolute %o%ulation*
&e obtain the result of the connection of those t&o elements of %ublic
%ros%erit"* a connection that constitutes the relative %o%ulation of
ever" state in the @e& .orld' .e shall find to ever" square sea
league* in Cexico* 28P in the ?nited 0tates* 9IP in the re%ublic of
$olumbia* !8P and in BraRil* 19 inhabitantsP &hile Asiatic Russia
furnishes 11P the &hole Russian Em%ire* I3P 0&eden &ith @or&a"* 28P
Euro%ean Russia* !78P 0%ain* 3L!P and /rance* 133I' But these
estimates of relative %o%ulation* &hen a%%lied to countries of immense
extent* and of &hich a great %art is entirel" uninhabited* merel"
furnish mathematical abstractions of but little value' +n countries
uniforml" cultivatedHHin /rance* for exam%leHHthe number of
inhabitants to the square league* calculated b" se%arate de%artments*
is in general onl" a third* more or less* than the relative %o%ulation
of the sum of all the de%artments' Even in 0%ain the deviations from
the average number rise* &ith fe& exce%tions* onl" from half to
double' +n America* on the contrar"* it is onl" in the Atlantic
states* from 0outh $arolina to @e& Ham%shire* that the %o%ulation
begins to s%read &ith an" uniformit"' +n that most civiliRed %ortion
of the @e& .orld* from 1!8 to 288 inhabitants are reckoned to the
square league* &hile the relative %o%ulation on all the Atlantic
states* considered together* is 7;8' The extremes N@orth $arolina and
CassachusettsO are onl" in the relation of 1 to 3* nearl" as in
/rance* &here the extremes* in the de%artments of the Hautes Al%es and
the $oteHduH@ord are also in the relation of 1 to L'3' The variations
from the average number* &hich &e generall" find restricted to narro&
limits in the civiliRed countries of Euro%e* exceed all measure in
BraRil* in the 0%anish colonies and even in the confederation of the
?nited 0tates* in its &hole extent' .e find in Cexico in some of the
intendencias* for exam%le* =a 0onora and (urango* from 2 to 19
inhabitants to the square league* &hile in others* on the central
tableHland* there are more than 988' The relative %o%ulation of the
countr" situated bet&een the eastern bank of the Cississi%%i and the
Atlantic states is scarcel" ;3P &hile that of $onnecticut* Rhode
island* and Cassachusetts is more than I88' .est&ard of the
Cississi%%i as &ell as in the interior of 0%anish Guiana there are not
t&o inhabitants to the square league over much larger extents of
territor" than 0&itRerland or Belgium' The state of these countries is
like that of the Russian Em%ire* &here the relative %o%ulation of some
of the Asiatic governments N+rkutsk and TobolskO is to that of the
best cultivated Euro%ean districts as 1 to !88'
The enormous difference existing* in countries ne&l" cultivated*
bet&een the extent of territor" and the number of inhabitants* renders
these %artial estimates necessar"' .hen &e learn that @e& 0%ain and
the ?nited 0tates* taking their entire extent at 39*888 and 13;*888
square seaHleagues* give res%ectivel" 28 and 9I souls to each league*
&e no more obtain a correct idea of that distribution of the
%o%ulation on &hich the %olitical %o&er of nations de%ends* than &e
should of the climate of a countr"* that is to sa"* of the
distribution of the heat in the different seasons* b" the mere
kno&ledge of the mean tem%erature of the &hole "ear' +f &e take from
the ?nited 0tates all their %ossessions &est of the Cississi%%i* their
relative %o%ulation &ould be 171 instead of 9I to the square leagueP
consequentl" much greater than that of @e& 0%ain' Taking from the
latter countr" the Provincias internas Nnorth and northHeast of @ueva
GaliciaO &e should find 128 instead of 28 souls to the square league'
The %rovinces of $aracas* Caraca"bo* $umana and Barcelona* that is*
the maritime %rovinces of the north* are the most %o%ulous of the old
$a%itaniaHGeneral of $aracasP but* in com%aring this relative
%o%ulation &ith that of @e& 0%ain* &here the t&o intendencias of
Cexico and Puebla alone contain* on an extent scarcel" equal to the
su%erficies of the %rovince of $aracas* a greater %o%ulation than that
of the &hole re%ublic of $olumbia* &e see that some Cexican
intendencias &hich* &ith res%ect to the concentration of their
culture* occu%" but the seventh or eighth rank NSacatecas and
GuadalajaraO* contain more inhabitants to the square league than the
%rovince of $aracas' The average of the relative %o%ulation of $umana*
Barcelona* $aracas and Caraca"bo* is fift"HsixP and* as L788 square
leagues* that is* one half of the extent of these four %rovinces are
almost desert =lanos* &e find* in reckoning the su%erficies and the
scant" %o%ulation of the %lains* 187 inhabitants to the square league'
An analogous modification gives the %rovince of $aracas alone a
relative %o%ulation of 78I* that is* onl" oneHseventh less than that
of the Atlantic 0tates of @orth America'
As in %olitical econom" numerical statements become instructive onl"
b" a com%arison &ith analogous facts + have carefull" examined &hat*
in the %resent state of the t&o continents* might be considered as a
small relative %o%ulation in Euro%e* and a ver" great relative
%o%ulation in America' + have* ho&ever* chosen exam%les onl" from
among the %rovinces &hich have a continued surface of more than L88
square leagues in order to exclude the accidental accumulations of
%o%ulation &hich occur around great citiesP for instance* on the coast
of BraRil* in the valle" of Cexico* on the tableHlands of 0anta /e de
Bogota and $uRcoP or finall"* in the smaller .est +ndia +slands
NBarbadoes* Cartinique and 0t' ThomasO of &hich the relative
%o%ulation is from !888 to ;388 inhabitants to the square league* and
consequentl" equal to the most fertile %arts of Holland* /rance and
=ombard"'
C+@+C?C >/ E?R>PE5
+@HAB+TA@T0 T> THE 0B?ARE =EAG?E'
The four least %o%ulous Governments of Euro%ean Russia5
Archangel 5 18'
>loneR 5 ;7'
.ologda and Astracan 5 97'
/inland 5 18L'
The least %o%ulous Province of 0%ain* that of $uenca 5 !11'
The (uch" of =uneburg Non account of the heathsO 5 998'
The least %o%ulous (e%artment of $ontinental /rance 5 39I'
NHautes Al%sO
(e%artments of /rance thinl" %eo%led Nthe $reuse* 5 1!88'
the ar and the AudeO
CAJ+C?C >/ ACER+$A'
The central %art of the +ntendencias of 5 1!88'
Cexico and Puebla* above
+n the ?nited 0tates* Cassachusetts* but having
onl" 977 square leagues of surface 5 288'
Cassachusetts* Rhode +sland* and $onnecticut* together 5 I;8'
The &hole +ntendencia of Puebla 5 9;8'
The &hole +ntendencia of Cexico 5 ;L8'
These t&o Cexican +ntendencias together are nearl" a third of the
su%erficial extent of /rance* &ith a suitable %o%ulation Nin 1I7!
nearl" 7*I88*888 soulsO to %revent the to&ns of Cexico and Puebla from
having a sensible influence on the relative %o%ulation'
@orthern %art of the Province of $aracas 5 78I'
N&ithout the =lanosO
This table sho&s that those %arts of America &hich &e no& consider as
the most %o%ulous attain the relative %o%ulation of the kingdom of
@avarre* of Galicia and the Asturias* &hich* next to the %rovince of
Gui%uscoa* and the kingdom of alencia* reckon the greatest number of
inhabitants to the square league in all 0%ainP the maximum of America
is* ho&ever* belo& the relative %o%ulation of the &hole of /rance
N133I to the square leagueO* and &ould* in the latter countr"* be
considered as a ver" thin %o%ulation' +f* taking a surve" of the &hole
surface of America* &e direct our attention to the $a%itaniaHGeneral
of eneRuela* &e find that the most %o%ulous of its subdivisions* the
%rovince of $aracas* considered as a &hole* &ithout exce%ting the
=lanos* has* as "et* onl" the relative %o%ulation of TennesseeP and
that this %rovince* &ithout the =lanos* furnishes in its northern
%art* or more than 1I88 square leagues* the relative %o%ulation of
0outh $arolina' Those 1I88 square leagues* the centre of agriculture*
are t&ice as numerousl" %eo%led as /inland* but still a third less
than the %rovince of $uenca* &hich is the least %o%ulous of all 0%ain'
.e cannot d&ell on this result &ithout a %ainful feeling' 0uch is the
state to &hich colonial %olitics and maladministration have* during
three centuries* reduced a countr" &hich* for natural &ealth* ma" vie
&ith all that is most &onderful on earth' /or a region equall" desert*
&e must look either to the froRen regions of the north* or &est&ard of
the Alleghen" mountains to&ards the forests of Tennessee* &here the
first clearings have onl" begun &ithin the last eight" "ears4
The most cultivated %art of the %rovince of $aracas* the basin of the
lake of alencia* commonl" called =os alles de Aragua* contained in
1I18 nearl" 7888 inhabitants to the square league' 0u%%osing a
relative %o%ulation three times less* and taking off from the &hole
surface of the $a%itaniaHGeneral nearl" 7;*888 square leagues as being
occu%ied b" the =lanos and the forests of Guiana* and* therefore*
%resenting great obstacles to agricultural labourers* &e should still
obtain a %o%ulation of six millions for the remaining 2388 square
leagues' Those &ho* like m"self* have lived long &ithin the tro%ics*
&ill find no exaggeration in these calculationsP for + su%%ose for the
%ortion the most easil" cultivated a relative %o%ulation equal to that
in the intendencias of Puebla and Cexico*- full of barren mountains*
and extending to&ards the coast of the Pacific over regions almost
desert' N- These t&o +ntendencias contain together 9978 square leagues
and a relative %o%ulation of 98I inhabitants to the square
seaHleague'O +f the territories of $umana* Barcelona* $aracas*
Caraca"bo* arinas and Guiana should be destined hereafter to enjo"
good %rovincial and munici%al institutions as confederate states* the"
&ill not require a centur" and a half to attain a %o%ulation of six
millions of inhabitants' eneRuela* the eastern %art of the re%ublic
of $olumbia* &ould not* even &ith nine millions* have a more
considerable %o%ulation than >ld 0%ainP and can it be doubted that
that %art of eneRuela &hich is most fertile and eas" of cultivation*
that is* the 18*888 square leagues remaining after deducting the
=lanos and the almost im%enetrable forests bet&een the >rinoco and the
$assiquiare* could su%%ort in the fine climate of the tro%ics as man"
inhabitants as 18*888 square leagues of Estramadura* the $astiles* and
other %rovinces of the tableHland of 0%ainT These %redictions are b"
no means %roblematical* inasmuch as the" are founded on %h"sical
analogies and on the %roductive %o&er of the soilP but before &e can
indulge the ho%e that the" &ill be actuall" accom%lished* &e must be
secure of another element less susce%tible of calculationHHthat
national &isdom &hich subdues hostile %assions* destro"s the germs of
civil discord and gives stabilit" to free and energetic institutions'
.hen &e take a vie& of the soil of eneRuela and @e& Grenada &e
%erceive that no other countr" of 0%anish America furnishes commerce
&ith such various and rich %roductions of the vegetable kingdom' +f &e
add the harvests of the %rovince of $aracas to those of Gua"aquil* &e
find that the re%ublic of $olumbia alone can furnish nearl" all the
cacao annuall" demanded b" Euro%e' The union of eneRuela and @e&
Grenada has also %laced in the hands of one %eo%le the greater %art of
the quinquina ex%orted from the @e& $ontinent' The tem%erate mountains
of Cerida* 0anta /e* Po%a"an* Buito and =oxa %roduce the finest
qualities of this febrifugal bark hitherto kno&n' + might s&ell the
list of these valuable %roductions b" the coffee and indigo of
$aracas* so long esteemed in commerceP the sugar* cotton and flour of
BogotaP the i%ecacuanha of the banks of the CagdelenaP the tobacco of
arinasP the $ortex Angosturae of $aroniP the balsam of the %lains of
ToluP the skins and dried %rovisions of the =lanosP the %earls of
Panama* Rio Hacha and CargueritaP and finall" the gold of Po%a"an and
the %latinum &hich is no&here found in abundance but at $hoco and
Barbacoa5 but conformabl" &ith the %lan + have ado%ted* + shall
confine m"self to the old $a%itaniaHGeneral of $aracas'
>&ing to a %eculiar dis%osition of the soil in eneRuela the three
Rones of agricultural* %astoral and huntingHlife succeed each other
from north to south along the coast in the direction of the equator'
Advancing in that direction &e ma" be said to traverse* in res%ect to
s%ace* the different stages through &hich the human race has %assed in
the la%se of ages* in its %rogress to&ards cultivation and in la"ing
the foundations of civiliRed societ"' The region of the coast is the
centre of agricultural industr"P the region of the =lanos serves onl"
for the %asturage of the animals &hich Euro%e has given to America and
&hich live there in a halfH&ild state' Each of those regions includes
from seven to eight thousand square leaguesP further south* bet&een
the delta of the >rinoco* the $assiquiare and the Rio @egro* lies a
vast extent of land as large as /rance* inhabited b" hunting nations*
covered &ith thick forests and im%assable s&am%s' The %roductions of
the vegetable kingdom belong to the Rones at each extremit"P the
intermediar" savannahs* into &hich oxen* horses* and mules &ere
introduced about the "ear 19;I* afford food for some millions of those
animals' At the time &hen + visited eneRuela the annual ex%ortation
from thence to the .est +ndia +slands amounted to !8*888 mules*
13;*888 oxHhides and 1;8*888 arrobas Nof t&ent"Hfive %oundsO of
tasajo*- or dried meat slightl" salted' N- The back of the animal is
cut in slices of moderate thickness' An ox or co& of the &eight of 79
arrobas %roduces onl" ; to 9 arrobas of tasajo or tasso' +n 1327 the
%ort of Barcelona alone ex%orted 2I*813 arrobas to the island of $uba'
The average %rice is 1; reals and varies from 18 to 1I Nthe real is
&orth about L 1M7 %ence EnglishO' C' ?rquinasa estimates the total
ex%ortation of eneRuela in 1I82 at 788*888 arrobas of tasajo'O +t is
not from the advancement of agriculture or the %rogressive
encroachments on the %astoral lands that the hatos Nherds and flocksO
have diminished so considerabl" &ithin t&ent" "earsP it is rather
o&ing to the disorders of ever" kind that have %revailed* and the &ant
of securit" for %ro%ert"' The im%unit" conceded to the skinHstealers
and the accumulation of marauders in the savannahs %receded that
destruction of cattle caused b" the ravages of civil &ar and the
su%%lies required for troo%s' A ver" considerable number of goatHskins
is ex%orted to the island of Carguerita* Punta Ara"a and $orolasP
shee% abound onl" in $arora and Tocu"o' The consum%tion of meat being
immense in this countr" the diminution of animals has a greater
influence here than in an" other district on the &ellHbeing of the
inhabitants' The to&n of $aracas* of &hich the %o%ulation in m" time
&as oneHtenth of that of Paris* consumed more than oneHhalf the
quantit" of beef annuall" used in the ca%ital of /rance'
+ might add to the %roductions of the vegetable and animal kingdoms of
eneRuela the enumeration of the minerals* the &orking of &hich is
&orth" the attention of the governmentP but having from m" "outh been
engaged in the %ractical labours of mines + kno& ho& vague and
uncertain are the judgments formed of the metallic &ealth of a countr"
from the mere a%%earance of the rocks and of the veins in their beds'
The utilit" of such labours can be determined onl" b" &ell directed
ex%eriments b" means of shafts or galleries' All that has been done in
researches of this kind* under the dominion of the motherHcountr"* has
left the question &holl" undecided and the most exaggerated ideas have
been recentl" s%read through Euro%e concerning the riches of the mines
of $aracas' The common denomination of $olumbia given to eneRuela and
@e& Grenada has doubtless contributed to foster those illusions' +t
cannot be doubted that the goldH&ashings of @e& Grenada furnished* in
the last "ears of %ublic tranquillit"* more than 1I*888 marks of goldP
that $hoco and Barbacoa su%%l" %latinum in abundanceP the valle" of
0anta Rosa in the %rovince of Antioquia* the Andes of Buindiu and
GauRum near $uenca* "ield sul%huretted mercur"P the tableHland of
Bogota Nnear Si%aquira and $anoasO* fossilHsalt and %itHcoalP but even
in @e& Grenada subterranean labours on the silver and gold veins have
hitherto been ver" rare' + am far* ho&ever* from &ishing to discourage
the miners of those countries5 + merel" conceive that for the %ur%ose
of %roving to the old &orld the %olitical im%ortance of eneRuela* the
amaRing territorial &ealth of &hich is founded on agriculture and the
%roduce of %astoral life* it is not necessar" to describe as
realities* or as the acquisitions of industr"* &hat is* as "et*
founded solel" on ho%es and %robabilities more or less uncertain' The
re%ublic of $olumbia also %ossesses on its coast* on the island of
Carguerita* on the Rio Hacha and in the gulf of Panama %earl fisheries
of ancient celebrit"' +n the %resent state of things* ho&ever* fishing
for these %earls is an object of as little im%ortance as the
ex%ortation of the metals of eneRuela' The existence of metallic
veins on several %oints of the coast cannot be doubted' Cines of gold
and silver &ere &orked at the beginning of the conquest at Buria* near
Barquesimeto* in the %rovince of =os Cariches* at Baruta* on the south
of $aracas* and at Real de 0anta Barbara near the illa de $ura'
Grains of gold are found in the &hole mountainous territor" bet&een
Rio ,aracu"* the illa de 0an /eli%e and @irgua* as &ell as bet&een
Guigue and =os Coros de 0an 6uan' C' Bon%land and m"self* during our
long journe"* sa& nothing in the gneiss granite of 0%anish Guiana to
confirm the old faith in the metallic &ealth of that districtP "et it
seems certain from several historical notices that there exist t&o
grou%s of auriferous alluvial landP one bet&een the sources of the Rio
@egro* the ?au%es and the +quiareP the other bet&een the sources of
the Essequibo* the $aroni and the Ru%unuri' Hitherto onl" one &orking
is found in eneRuela* that of Aroa5 it furnished* in 1I88* near 1988
quintals of co%%er of excellent qualit"' The greenHstone rocks of the
transition mountains of Tucutunemo Nbet&een illa de $ura and
Para%araO contain veins of malachite and co%%er %"rites' The
indications of both ochreous and magnetic iron in the coastHchain* the
native alum of $hu%ari%ari* the salt of Ara"a* the kaolin of the
0illa* the jade of the ?%%er >rinoco* the %etroleum of BuenHPastor and
the sul%hur of the eastern %art of @e& Andalusia equall" merit the
attention of the government'
+t is eas" to ascertain the existence of some mineral substances &hich
afford ho%es of %rofitable &orking but it requires great
circums%ection to decide &hether the mineral be sufficientl" abundant
and accessible to cover the ex%ense'- N- +n 1I88 a da"Hlabourer N%eonO
em%lo"ed in &orking the ground gained in the %rovince of $aracas 19
sous* exclusive of his food' A man &ho he&ed building timber in the
forests on the coast of Paria &as %aid at $umana ;9 to 98 sous a da"*
&ithout his food' A car%enter gained dail" from ! to L francs in @e&
Andalusia' Three cakes of cassava Nthe bread of the countr"O* 71
inches in diameter* 1 1M7 lines thick* and 7 1M7 %ounds &eight* cost
at $aracas one halfHreal* or L 1M7 sous' A man eats dail" not less
than 7 sousG &orth of cassava* that food being constantl" mixed &ith
bananas* dried meat NtasajoO and %anelon* or unrefined sugar'O Even in
the eastern %art of 0outh America gold and silver are found dis%ersed
in a manner that sur%rises the Euro%ean geologistP but that
dis%ersion* together &ith the divided and entangled state of the veins
and the a%%earance of some metals onl" in masses* render the &orking
extremel" ex%ensive' The exam%le of Cexico sufficientl" %roves that
the interest attached to the labours of the mines is not %rejudicial
to agricultural %ursuits* and that those t&o branches of industr" ma"
simultaneousl" %romote each other' The failure of the attem%ts made
under the intendant* (on 6ose Avalo* must be attributed solel" to the
ignorance of the %ersons em%lo"ed b" the 0%anish government &ho
mistook mica and hornblende for metallic substances' +f the government
&ould order the $a%itaniaHGeneral of $aracas to be carefull" examined
during a series of "ears b" men of science* &ell versed in geognos"
and chemistr"* the most satisfactor" results might be ex%ected'
The descri%tion above given of the %roductions of eneRuela and the
develo%ment of its coast sufficientl" sho&s the im%ortance of the
commerce of that rich countr"' Even under the thraldom of the colonial
s"stem* the value of the ex%orted %roducts of agriculture and of the
goldH&ashings amount to eleven or t&elve millions of %iastres in the
countries at %resent united under the denomination of the Re%ublic of
$olumbia' The ex%orts of the $a%itaniaHGeneral of $aracas alone*
exclusive of the %recious metals &hich are the objects of regular
&orking* &as N&ith the contrabandO from five to six millions of
%iastres at the beginning of the nineteenth centur"' $umana*
Barcelona* =a Gua"ra* Porto $abello and Caraca"bo are the most
im%ortant %arts of the coastP those that lie most east&ard have the
advantage of an easier communication &ith the irgin +slands*
Guadalou%e* Cartinique and 0t' incent' Angostura* the real name of
&hich is 0anto Tome de @ueva Guiana* ma" be considered as the %ort of
the rich %rovince of arinas' The majestic river on &hose banks this
to&n is built* affords b" its communications &ith the A%ure* the Ceta
and the Rio @egro the greatest advantages for trade &ith Euro%e'
The shores of eneRuela* from the beaut" of their %orts* the
tranquillit" of the sea b" &hich the" are &ashed and the fine timber
that covers them* %ossess great advantages over the shores of the
?nited 0tates' +n no %art of the &orld do &e find firmer anchorage or
better %ositions for the establishment of %orts' The sea of this coast
is constantl" calm* like that &hich extends from =ima to Gua"aquil'
The storms and hurricanes of the .est +ndies are never felt on the
$osta /irmeP and &hen* after the sun has %assed the meridian* thick
clouds charged &ith electricit" accumulate on the mountains of the
coasts* a %ilot accustomed to these latitudes kno&s that this
threatening as%ect of the sk" denotes onl" a squall' The
virginHforests near the sea* in the eastern %art of @e& Andalusia*
%resent valuable resources for the establishment of dock"ards' The
&ood of the mountains of Paria ma" vie &ith that of the island of
$uba* Huasacualco* Gua"aquil and 0an Blas' The 0%anish Government at
the close of the last centur" fixed its attention on this im%ortant
object' Carine engineers &ere sent to mark the finest trunks of
BraRilH&ood* mahogan"* cedrela and laurinea bet&een Angostura and the
mouth of the >rinoco* as &ell as on the banks of the Gulf of Paria*
commonl" called the Golfo triste' +t &as not intended to establish
docks on that s%ot* but to he& the &eight" timber into the forms
necessar" for shi%Hbuilding* and to trans%ort it to $araque* near
$adiR' Though trees fit for masts are not found in this countr"* it
&as nevertheless ho%ed that the execution of this %roject &ould
considerabl" diminish the im%ortation of timber from 0&eden and
@or&a"' The ex%eriment of forming this establishment &as tried in a
ver" unhealth" s%ot* the valle" of Buebranta* near GuirieP + have
alread" adverted to the causes of its destruction' The insalubrit" of
the %lace &ould* doubtless* have diminished in %ro%ortion as the
forest Nel monte virgenO should have been removed from the d&ellings
of the inhabitants' Culattos* and not &hites* ought to have been
em%lo"ed in he&ing the &ood* and it should have been remembered that
the ex%ense of the roads NarastraderosO for the trans%ort of the
timber* &hen once laid out* &ould not have been the same* and that* b"
the increase of the %o%ulation* the %rice of da" labour &ould
%rogressivel" have diminished' +t is for shi%Hbuilders alone* &ho
determine the localities* to judge &hether* in the %resent state of
things* the freight of merchantHvessels be not far too high to admit
of sending to Euro%e large quantities of roughl"Hhe&n &oodP but it
cannot be doubted that eneRuela %ossesses on its maritime coast* as
&ell as on the banks of the >rinoco* immense resources for
shi%Hbuilding' The fine shi%s &hich have been launched from the
dock"ards of the Havannah* Gua"aquil and 0an Blas have* no doubt* cost
more than those constructed in Euro%eP but from the nature of tro%ical
&ood the" %ossess the advantages of hardness and amaRing durabilit"'
The great struggle during &hich eneRuela has fought for inde%endence
has lasted more than t&elve "ears' That %eriod has been no less
fruitful than civil commotions usuall" are in heroic and generous
actions* guilt" errors and violent %assions' The sentiment of common
danger has strengthened the ties bet&een men of various races &ho*
s%read over the %lains of $umana or insulated on the tableHland of
$undinamarca* have a %h"sical and moral organiRation as different as
the climates in &hich the" live' The motherHcountr" has several times
regained %ossession of some districtsP but as revolutions are al&a"s
rene&ed &ith more violence &hen the evils that %roduce them can no
longer be remedied these conquests have been transitor"' To facilitate
and give greater energ" to the defence of this countr" the governments
have been concentrated* and a vast state has been formed* extending
from the mouth of the >rinoco to the other side of the Andes of
Riobamba and the banks of the AmaRon' The $a%itaniaHGeneral of $aracas
has been united to the iceHro"alt" of @e& Grenada* from &hich it &as
onl" se%arated entirel" in 1333' This union* &hich &ill al&a"s be
indis%ensable for external safet"* this centraliRation of %o&ers in a
countr" six times larger than 0%ain* has been %rom%ted b" %olitical
vie&s' The tranquil %rogress of the ne& government has justified the
&isdom of those vie&s* and the $ongress &ill find still fe&er
obstacles in the execution of its beneficent %rojects for national
industr" and civiliRation* in %ro%ortion as it can grant increased
libert" to the %rovinces* must render the %eo%le sensible to the
advantages of institutions &hich the" have %urchased at the %rice of
their blood' +n ever" form of government* in re%ublics as &ell as in
limited monarchies* im%rovements* to be salutar"* must be %rogressive'
@e& Andalusia* $aracas* $undinamarca* Po%a"an and Buito* are not
confederate states like Penns"lvania* irginia and Car"land' .ithout
juntas* or %rovincial legislatures* all those countries are directl"
subject to the congress and government of $olumbia' +n conformit" &ith
the constitutional act* the intendants and governors of the
de%artments and %rovinces are nominated b" the %resident of the
re%ublic' +t ma" be naturall" su%%osed that such de%endence has not
al&a"s been deemed favourable to the libert" if the communes* &hich
love to discuss their o&n local interests' The ancient kingdom of
Buito* for instance* is connected b" the habits and language of its
mountainous inhabitants &ith Peru and @e& Grenada' +f there &ere a
%rovincial junta* if the congress alone determined the taxes necessar"
for the defence and general &elfare of $olumbia* the feeling of an
individual %olitical existence &ould render the inhabitants less
interested in the choice of the s%ot &hich is the seat of the central
government' The same argument a%%lies to @e& Andalusia or Guiana &hich
are governed b" intendants named b" the %resident' +t ma" be said that
these %rovinces have hitherto been in a %osition differing but little
from those territories of the ?nited 0tates &hich have a %o%ulation
belo& L8*888 souls' Peculiar circumstances* &hich cannot be justl"
a%%reciated at such a distance* have doubtless rendered great
centraliRation necessar" in the civil administrationP ever" change
&ould be dangerous as long as the state has external enemiesP but the
forms useful for defence are not al&a"s those &hich* after the
struggle* sufficientl" favour individual libert" and the develo%ment
of %ublic %ros%erit"'
The %o&erful union of @orth America has long been insulated and
&ithout contact &ith an" states having analogous institutions'
Although the %rogress America is making from east to &est is
considerabl" retarded near the right bank of the Cississi%%i* she &ill
advance &ithout interru%tion to&ards the internal %rovinces of Cexico*
and &ill there find a Euro%ean %eo%le of another race* other manners*
and a different religious faith' .ill the feeble %o%ulation of those
%rovinces* belonging to another da&ning federation* resistP or &ill it
be absorbed b" the torrent from the east and transformed into an
AngloHAmerican state* like the inhabitants of =o&er =ouisianaT The
future &ill soon solve this %roblem' >n the other hand* Cexico is
se%arated from $olumbia onl" b" Guatimala* a countr" and extreme
fertilit" &hich has recentl" assumed the denomination of the re%ublic
of $entral America' The %olitical divisions bet&een >axaca and $hia%a*
$osta Rica and eragua* are not founded either on the natural limits
or the manners and languages of the natives* but solel" on the habit
of de%endence on the 0%anish chiefs &ho resided at Cexico* Guatimala
or 0anta /e de Bogota' +t seems natural that Guatimala should one da"
join the isthmuses of eragua and Panama to the isthmus of $osta RicaP
and that Buito should connect @e& Grenada &ith Peru* as =a PaR*
$harcas and Potosi link Peru &ith BuenosHA"res' The intermediate %arts
from $hia%a to the $ordilleras of ?%%er Peru form a %assage from one
%olitical association to another* like those transitor" forms &hich
link together the various grou%s of the organic kingdom in nature' +n
neighbouring monarchies the %rovinces that adjoin each other %resent
those striking demarcations &hich are the effect of great
centraliRation of %o&er in federal re%ublics* states situated at the
extremities of each s"stem are some time before the" acquire a stable
equilibrium' +t &ould be almost a matter of indifference to the
%rovinces bet&een Arkansas and the Rio del @orte &hether the" send
their de%uties to Cexico or to .ashington' .ere 0%anish America one
da" to sho& a more uniform tendenc" to&ards the s%irit of federalism*
&hich the exam%le of the ?nited 0tates has created on several %oints*
there &ould result from the contact of so man" s"stems or grou%s of
states* confederations variousl" graduated' + here onl" touch on the
relations that arise from this assemblage of colonies on an
uninterru%ted line of 1L88 leagues in length' .e have seen in @orth
America* one of the old Atlantic states divided into t&o* and each
having a different re%resentation' The se%aration of Caine and
Cassachusetts in 1I78 &as effected in the most %eaceable manner'
0chisms of this kind &ill* it ma" be feared* render such changes
turbulent' +t ma" also be observed that the im%ortance of the
geogra%hical divisions of 0%anish America* founded at the same time on
the relations of local %osition and the habits of several centuries*
have %revented the motherHcountr" from retarding the se%aration of the
colonies b" attem%ting to establish 0%anish %rinces in the @e& .orld'
+n order to rule such vast %ossessions it &ould have been requisite to
form six or seven centres of governmentP and that multi%licit" of
centres &as hostile to the establishment of ne& d"nasties at the
%eriod &hen the" might still have been salutar" to the mother countr"'
Bacon some&here observes that it &ould be ha%%" if nations &ould
al&a"s follo& the exam%le of time* the greatest of all innovators* but
&ho acts calml" and almost &ithout being %erceived' This ha%%iness
does not belong to colonies &hen the" reach the critical juncture of
emanci%ationP and least of all to 0%anish America* engaged in the
struggle at first not to obtain com%lete inde%endence* but to esca%e
from a foreign "oke' Ca" these %art" agitations be succeeded b" a
lasting tranquillit"4 Ca" the germ of civil discord* disseminated
during three centuries to secure the dominion of the motherHcountr"*
graduall" %erishP and ma" %roductive and commercial Euro%e be
convinced that to %er%etuate the %olitical agitations of the @e& .orld
&ould be to im%overish herself b" diminishing the consum%tion of her
%roductions and losing a market &hich alread" "ields more than sevent"
millions of %iastres' Can" "ears must no doubt ela%se before seventeen
millions of inhabitants* s%read over a surface oneHfifth greater than
the &hole of Euro%e* &ill have found a stable equilibrium in governing
themselves' The most critical moment is that &hen nations* after long
o%%ression* find themselves suddenl" at libert" to %romote their o&n
%ros%erit"' The 0%anish Americans* it is unceasingl" re%eated* are not
sufficientl" advanced in intellectual cultivation to be fitted for
free institutions' + remember that at a %eriod not ver" remote* the
same reasoning &as a%%lied to other nations &ho &ere said to have made
too great an advance in civiliRation' Ex%erience* no doubt* %roves
that nations* like individuals* find that intellect and learning do
not al&a"s lead to ha%%inessP but &ithout den"ing the necessit" of a
certain mass of kno&ledge and %o%ular instruction for the stabilit" of
re%ublics or constitutional monarchies* &e believe that stabilit"
de%ends much less on the degree of intellectual im%rovement than on
the strength of the national characterP on that balance of energ" and
tranquillit" of ardour and %atience &hich maintains and %er%etuates
ne& institutionsP on the local circumstances in &hich a nation is
%lacedP and on the %olitical relations of a countr" &ith neighbouring
states'
$HAPTER !'7I'
PA00AGE /R>C THE $>A0T >/ E@ES?E=A T> THE HAA@@AH'
GE@ERA= +E. >/ THE P>P?=AT+>@ >/ THE .E0T +@(+A +0=A@(0* $>CPARE(
.+TH THE P>P?=AT+>@ >/ THE @E. $>@T+@E@T* .+TH RE0PE$T T> (+ER0+T, >/
RA$E0* PER0>@A= =+BERT,* =A@G?AGE* A@( .>R0H+P'
.e sailed from @ueva Barcelona on the 7;th of @ovember at nine oGclock
in the eveningP and &e doubled the small rock" island of Borachita'
The night &as marked b" coolness &hich characteriRes the nights of the
tro%ics* and the agreeable effect of &hich can onl" be conceived b"
com%aring the nocturnal tem%erature* from 7! to 7; degrees centigrade*
&ith the mean tem%erature of the da"* &hich in those latitudes is
generall"* even on the coast* from 7I to 72 degrees' @ext da"* soon
after the observation of noon* &e reached the meridian of the island
of Tortugas' +t is destitute of vegetationP and like the little
islands of $oche and $abagua is remarkable for its small elevation
above the level of the sea'
+n the forenoon of the 7Lth &e began to lose sight of the island of
Carguerita and + endeavoured to verif" the height of the rock" grou%
of Cacanao' +t a%%eared under an angle of 8 degrees 1L minutes !9
secondsP &hich in a distance estimated at sixt" miles &ould give the
micaHslate grou% of Cacanao the elevation of about LL8 toises* a
result &hich* in a Rone &here the terrestrial refractions are so
unchanging* leads me to think that the island &as less distant than &e
su%%osed' The dome of the 0illa of $aracas* l"ing L7 degrees to the
southH&est* long fixed our attention' At those times &hen the coast is
not loaded &ith va%ours the 0illa must be visible at sea* &ithout
reckoning the effects of refraction* at thirt"Hthree leagues distance'
(uring the 7Lth* and the three follo&ing da"s* the sea &as covered
&ith a bluish film &hich* &hen examined b" a com%ound microsco%e*
a%%eared formed of an innumerable quantit" of filaments' .e frequentl"
find these filaments in the GulfHstream* and the $hannel of Bahama* as
&ell as near the coast of Buenos A"res' 0ome naturalists are of
o%inion that the" are vestiges of the eggs of mollusca5 but the"
a%%ear to be more like fragments of fuci' The %hos%horescence of
seaH&ater seems ho&ever to be augmented b" their %resence* es%eciall"
bet&een 7I and !8 degrees of north latitude* &hich indicates an origin
of some sort of animal nature'
>n the 73th &e slo&l" a%%roached the island of >rchila' =ike all the
small islands in the vicinit" of the fertile coast of the continent it
has never been inhabited' + found the latitude of the northern ca%e 11
degrees 91 minutes ;; seconds and the longitude of the eastern ca%e LI
degrees 7L minutes 9 seconds Nsu%%osing @ueva Barcelona to be L3
degrees ; minutes ;I secondsO' >%%osite the &estern ca%e there is a
small rock against &hich the &aves beat turbulentl"' 0ome angles taken
&ith the sextant gave* for the length of the island from east to &est*
I'; miles N298 toisesOP and for the breadth scarcel" three miles' The
island of >rchila &hich* from its name* + figured to m"self as a bare
rock covered &ith lichens* &as at that %eriod beautifull" verdant' The
hills of gneiss &ere covered &ith grasses' +t a%%ears that the
geological constitution of >rchila resembles* on a small scale* that
of Carguerita' +t consists of t&o grou%s of rocks joined b" a neck of
landP it is an isthmus covered &ith sand &hich seems to have issued
from the floods b" the successive lo&ering of the level of the sea'
The rocks* like all those &hich are %er%endicular and insulated in the
middle of the sea* a%%ear much more elevated than the" reall" are* for
the" scarcel" exceed from I8 to 28 toises' The Punta rasa stretches to
the northH&est and is lost* like a sandbank* belo& the &aters' +t is
dangerous for navigators* and so is like&ise the Cogote &hich* at the
distance of t&o miles from the &estern ca%e* is surrounded b"
breakers' >n a ver" near examination of these rocks &e sa& the strata
of gneiss inclined to&ards the northH&est and crossed b" thick la"ers
of quartR' The destruction of these la"ers has doubtless created the
sands of the surrounding beach' 0ome clum%s of trees shade the
valle"s* the summits of the hills are cro&ned &ith fanHleaved
%almHtreesP %robabl" the %alma de sombrero of the =lanos N$or"%ha
tectorumO' Rain is not abundant in these countriesP but %robabl" some
s%rings might be found on the island of >rchila if sought for &ith the
same care as in the micaHslate rocks of Punta Ara"a' .hen &e recollect
ho& man" bare and rock" islands are inhabited and cultivated bet&een
the 13th and 7Lth degrees of latitude in the archi%elago of the =esser
Antilles and Bahama islands* &e are sur%rised to find those islands
desert &hich are near to the coast of $umana* Barcelona and $aracas'
The" &ould long have ceased to be so had the" been under the dominion
of an" other government than that to &hich the" belong' @othing can
engage men to circumscribe their industr" &ithin the narro& limits of
a small island &hen a neighbouring continent offers them greater
advantages'
.e %erceived at sunset the t&o %oints of the Roca de afuera* rising
like to&ers in the midst of the ocean' A surve" taken &ith the com%ass
%laced the most easterl" of the %oints or roques at 8 degrees 12
minutes &est of the &estern ca%e of >rchila' The clouds continued long
accumulated over that island and sho&ed its %osition from afar' The
influence of a small tract of land in condensing the va%ours sus%ended
at an elevation of I88 toises is a ver" extraordinar" %henomenon*
although familiar to all mariners' /rom this accumulation of clouds
the %osition of the lo&est island ma" be recogniRed at a great
distance'
>n the 72th @ovember &e still sa& ver" distinctl"* at sunrise* the
summit of the 0illa of $aracas just rising above the horiRon of the
sea' At noon ever"thing denoted a change of &eather in the direction
of the north5 the atmos%here suddenl" cooled to 17'L degrees* &hile
the sea maintained a tem%erature of 79'L degrees at its surface' At
the moment of the observation of noon the oscillations of the horiRon*
crossed b" streaks or black bands of ver" variable siRe* %roduced
changes of refraction from ! to ; degrees' The sea became rough in
ver" calm &eather and ever"thing announced a storm" %assage bet&een
$a"man +sland and $a%e 0t' Antonio' >n the !8th the &ind veered
suddenl" to northHnorthHeast and the surge rose to a considerable
height' @orth&ard a darkish blue tint &as observable on the sk"* the
rolling of our small vessel &as violent and &e %erceived amidst the
dashing of the &aves t&o seas crossing each other* one the from north
and the other from northHnorthHeast' .aters%outs &ere formed at the
distance of a mile and &ere carried ra%idl" from northHnorthHeast to
northHnorthH&est' .henever the &aters%out dre& near us &e felt the
&ind gro& sensibl" cooler' To&ards evening* o&ing to the carelessness
of our American cook* our deck took fireP but fortunatel" it &as soon
extinguished' >n the morning of the 1st of (ecember the sea slo&l"
calmed and the breeRe became stead" from northHeast' >n the 7nd of
(ecember &e descried $a%e Beata* in a s%ot &here &e had long observed
the clouds gathered together' According to the observations of
Acherner* &hich + obtained in the night* &e &ere sixt"Hfour miles
distant' (uring the night there &as a ver" curious o%tical %henomenon*
&hich + shall not undertake to account for' At halfH%ast midnight the
&ind ble& feebl" from the eastP the thermometer rose to 7!'7 degrees*
the &halebone h"grometer &as at 93 degrees' + had remained u%on the
deck to observe the culmination of some stars' The fullHmoon &as high
in the heavens' 0uddenl"* in the direction of the moon* ;9 degrees
before its %assage over the meridian* a great arch &as formed tinged
&ith the %rismatic colours* though not of a bright hue' The arch
a%%eared higher than the moonP this irisHband &as near 7 degrees
broad* and its summit seemed to rise nearl" from I8 to I9 degrees
above the horiRon of the sea' The sk" &as singularl" %ureP there &as
no a%%earance of rainP and &hat struck me most &as that this
%henomenon* &hich %erfectl" resembled a lunar rainbo&* &as not in the
direction o%%osite to the moon' The arch remained stationar"* or at
least a%%eared to do so* during eight or ten minutesP and at the
moment &hen + tried if it &ere %ossible to see it b" reflection in the
mirror of the sextant* it began to move and descend* crossing
successivel" the Coon and 6u%iter' +t &as 17 hours 9; minutes Nmean
timeO &hen the summit of the arch sank belo& the horiRon' This
movement of an arch* coloured like the rainbo&* filled &ith
astonishment the sailors &ho &ere on &atch on the deck' The" alleged*
as the" do on the a%%earance of ever" extraordinar" meteor* that it
denoted &ind' C' Arago examined the sketch of this arch in m" journalP
and he is of o%inion that the image of the moon reflected in the
&aters could not have given a halo of such great dimensions' The
ra%idit" of the movement is no small obstacle in the &a" of
ex%lanation of a %henomenon &ell &orth" of attention'
>n the !rd of (ecember &e felt some uneasiness on account of the
%roximit" of a small vessel su%%osed to be a %irate but &hich* as it
dre& near* &e recogniRed to be the Balandra del /ra"le Nthe sloo% of
the ConkO' + &as at a loss to conceive &hat so strange a denomination
meant' The bark belonged to a /ranciscan missionar"* a rich %riest of
am +ndian village in the savannahs N=lanosO of Barcelona* &ho had for
several "ears carried on a ver" lucrative contraband trade &ith the
(anish islands' C' Bon%land and several %assengers sa& in the night at
the distance of a quarter of a mile* &ith the &ind* a small flame on
the surface of the oceanP it ran in the direction of southH&est and
lighted u% the atmos%here' @o shock of earthquake &as felt and there
&as no change in the direction of the &aves' .as it a %hos%horic gleam
%roduced b" a great accumulation of mollusca in a state of
%utrefactionP or did this flame issue from the de%th of the sea* as is
said to have been sometimes observable in latitudes agitated b"
volcanoesT The latter su%%osition a%%ears to me devoid of all
%robabilit"' The volcanic flame can onl" issue from the dee% &hen the
rock" bed of the ocean is alread" heaved u% so that the flames and
incandescent scoriae esca%e from the s&elled and creviced %art &ithout
traversing the &aters'
At halfH%ast ten in the morning of the ;th of (ecember &e &ere in the
meridian of $a%e Bacco NPunta AbacouO &hich + found in 3L degrees 3
minutes 98 seconds* or 2 degrees ! minutes 7 seconds &est of @ueva
Barcelona' Having attained the %arallel of 13 degrees* the fear of
%irates made us %refer the direct %assage across the bank of ibora*
better kno&n b" the name of the Pedro 0hoals' This bank occu%ies more
than t&o hundred and eight" square sea leagues and its configuration
strikes the e"e of the geologist b" its resemblance to that of
6amaica* &hich is in its neighbourhood' +t forms an island almost as
large as Porto Rico'
/rom the 9th of (ecember* the %ilots believed the" took successivel"
the measurement at a distance of the island of Ranas NCorant Ae"sO*
$a%e Portland and Pedro Ae"s' The" ma" %robabl" have been deceived in
several of these distances* &hich &ere taken from the mastHhead' +
have else&here noted these measurements* not &ith the vie& of o%%osing
them to those &hich have been made b" able English navigators in these
frequented latitudes* but merel" to connect* in the same s"stem of
observations* the %oints + determined in the forests of the >rinoco
and in the archi%elago of the .est +ndies' The milk" colour of the
&aters &arned us that &e &ere on the eastern %art of the bankP the
centigrade thermometer &hich at a distance from the bank and on the
surface of the sea had for several da"s ke%t at 73 and 73'! degrees
Nthe air being at 71'7 degreesO sank suddenl" to 79'3 degrees' The
&eather &as bad from the ;th to the Lth of (ecember5 it rained fastP
thunder rolled at a distance* and the gusts of &ind from the
northHnorthHeast became more and more violent' .e &ere during some
%art of the night in a critical %ositionP &e heard before us the noise
of the breakers over &hich &e had to %ass* and &e could ascertain
their direction b" the %hos%horic gleam reflected from the foam of the
sea' The scene resembled the Raudal of GarRita and other ra%ids &hich
&e had seen in the bed of the >rinoco' .e succeeded in changing our
course and in less than a quarter of an hour &ere out of danger' .hile
&e traversed the bank of the ibora from southHsouthHeast to
northHnorthH&est + re%eatedl" tried to ascertain the tem%erature of
the &ater on the surface of the sea' The cooling &as less sensible on
the middle of the bank than on its edge* a circumstance &hich &e
attributed to the currents that there mingle &aters from different
latitudes' >n the south of Pedro Ae"s the surface of the sea* at
t&ent"Hfive fathoms dee%* &as 7L'; and at fifteen fathoms dee% 7L'7
degrees' The tem%erature of the sea on the east of the bank had been
7L'I degrees' 0ome American %ilots affirm that among the Bahama
+slands the" often kno&* &hen seated in the cabin* that the" are
%assing over sandHbanksP the" allege that the lights are surrounded
&ith small coloured halos and that the air exhaled from the lungs is
visibl" condensed' The latter circumstance a%%ears ver" doubtfulP
belo& !8 degrees of latitude the cooling %roduced b" the &aters of the
bank is not sufficientl" considerable to cause this %henomenon' (uring
the time &e %assed on the bank of the ibora the constitution of the
air &as quite different from &hat it had been &hen &e quitted it' The
rain &as circumscribed b" the limits of the bank of &hich &e could
distinguish the form from afar b" the mass of va%our &ith &hich it &as
covered'
>n the 2th of (ecember* as &e advanced to&ards the $a"man +slands*-
the northHeast &ind again ble& &ith violence' N- $hristo%her $olumbus
in 198! named the $a"man +slands Penascales de las Tortugas on account
of the seaHtortoises &hich he sa& s&imming in those latitudes'O +
nevertheless obtained some altitudes of the sun at the moment &hen &e
believed ourselves* though t&elve miles distant* in the meridian of
the centre of the Great $a"man* &hich is covered &ith cocoaHtrees'
The &eather continued bad and the sea extremel" rough' The &ind at
length fell as &e neared $a%e 0t' Antonio' + found the northern
extremit" of the ca%e I3 degrees 13 minutes 77 seconds* or 7 degrees
!; minutes 1; seconds east&ard of the Corro of the Havannah5 this is
the longitude no& marked on the best charts' .e &ere at the distance
of three miles from land but &e &ere made a&are of the %roximit" of
the island of $uba b" a delicious aromatic odour' The sailors affirm
that this odour is not %erceived &hen the" a%%roach from $a%e $atoche
on the barren coast of Cexico' As the &eather gre& clearer the
thermometer rose graduall" in the shade to 73 degrees5 &e advanced
ra%idl" north&ard* carried on b" a current from southHsouthHeast* the
tem%erature of &hich rose at the surface of the &ater to 7L'3 degreesP
&hile out of the current it &as 7;'L degrees' .e anchored in the %ort
of the Havannah on the 12th (ecember after a %assage of t&ent"Hfive
da"s in continuous bad &eather'
$HAPTER !'72'
P>=+T+$A= E00A, >@ THE +0=A@( >/ $?BA'
THE HAA@@AH'
H+==0 >/ G?A@AA$>A* $>@0+(ERE( +@ THE+R GE>=>G+$A= RE=AT+>@0'
A==E, >/ =>0 G?+@E0* BATABA@>* A@( P>RT >/ TR+@+(A('
THE A+@G A@( B?EE@G0 GAR(E@0'
$uba o&es its %olitical im%ortance to a variet" of circumstances*
among &hich ma" be enumerated the extent of its surface* the fertilit"
of its soil* its naval establishments* and the nature of its
%o%ulation* of &hich threeHfifths are free men' All these advantages
are heightened b" the admirable %osition of the Havannah' The northern
%art of the $aribbean 0ea* kno&n b" the name of the Gulf of Cexico*
forms a circular basin more than t&o hundred and fift" leagues in
diameter5 it is a Cediterranean &ith t&o outlets' The island of $uba*
or rather its coast bet&een $a%e 0t' Antonio and the to&n of CatanRas*
situated at the o%ening of the old channel* closes the Gulf of Cexico
on the southHeast* leaving the ocean current kno&n b" the name of the
Gulf 0tream* no other outlet on the south than a strait bet&een $a%e
0t' Antonio and $a%e $atocheP and no other on the north than the
channel of Bahama* bet&een BahiaHHonda and the shoals of /lorida' @ear
the northern outlet* &here the high&a"s of so man" nations ma" be said
to cross each other* lies the fine %ort of the Havannah* fortified at
once b" nature and b" art' The fleets &hich sail from this %ort and
&hich are %artl" constructed of the cedrela and the mahogan" of the
island of $uba* might* at the entrance of the Cexican Cediterranean*
menace the o%%osite coast* as the fleets that sail from $adiR command
the Atlantic near the Pillars of Hercules' +n the meridian of the
Havannah the Gulf of Cexico* the old channel* and the channel of
Bahama unite' The o%%osite direction of the currents and the violent
agitations of the atmos%here at the settingHin of &inter im%art a
%eculiar character to these latitudes at the extreme limit of the
equinoctial Rone'
The island of $uba is the largest of the Antilles'- N- +ts area is
little less in extent than that of England not including .ales'O +ts
long and narro& form gives it a vast develo%ment of coast and %laces
it in %roximit" &ith Ha"ti and 6amaica* &ith the most southern
%rovince of the ?nited 0tates N/loridaO and the most easterl" %rovince
of the Cexican $onfederation N,ucatanO'- N- These %laces are brought
into communication one &ith another b" a vo"age of ten or t&elve
da"s'O This circumstance claims serious attention &hen it is
considered that 6amaica* 0t' (omingo* $uba and the southern %arts of
the ?nited 0tates Nfrom =ouisiana to irginiaO contain nearl" t&o
million eight hundred thousand Africans' 0ince the se%aration of 0t'
(omingo* the /loridas and @e& 0%ain from the motherHcountr"* the
island of $uba is connected onl" b" similarit" of religion* language
and manners &ith the neighbouring countries* &hich* during ages* &ere
subject to the same la&s'
/lorida forms the last link in that long chain* the northern extremit"
of &hich reaches the basin of 0t' =a&rence and extends from the region
of %almHtrees to that of the most rigorous &inter' The inhabitant of
@e& England regards the increasing augmentation of the black
%o%ulation* the %re%onderance of the slave states and the %redilection
for the cultivation of colonial %roducts as a %ublic dangerP and
earnestl" &ishes that the strait of /lorida* the %resent limit of the
great American confederation* ma" never be %assed but &ith the vie&s
of free trade* founded on equal rights' +f he fears events &hich ma"
%lace the Havannah under the dominion of a Euro%ean %o&er more
formidable than 0%ain* he is not the less desirous that the %olitical
ties b" &hich =ouisiana* Pensacola and 0aint Augustin of /lorida &ere
heretofore united to the island of $uba ma" for ever be broken'
The extreme sterilit" of the soil* joined to the &ant of inhabitants
and of cultivation* have at all times rendered the %roximit" of
/lorida of small im%ortance to the trade of the HavannahP but the case
is different on the coast of Cexico' The shores of that countr"*
stretching in a semicircle from the frequented %orts of Tam%ico* era
$ruR* and Alvarado to $a%e $atoche* almost touch* b" the %eninsula of
,ucatan* the &estern %art of the island of $uba' $ommerce is extremel"
active bet&een the Havannah and the %ort of $am%each"P and it
increases* not&ithstanding the ne& order of things in Cexico* because
the trade* equall" illicit &ith a more distant coast* that of $aracas
or $olumbia* em%lo"s but a small number of vessels' +n such difficult
times the su%%l" of salt meat NtasajoO for the slaves is more easil"
obtained from Buenos A"res and the %lains of Cerida than from those of
$umana* Barcelona and $aracas' The island of $uba and the archi%elago
of the Phili%%ines have for ages derived from @e& 0%ain the funds
necessar" for their internal administration and for kee%ing u% their
fortifications* arsenals and dock"ards' The Havannah &as the militar"
%ort of the @e& .orldP and* till 1I8I* annuall" received 1*I88*888
%iastres from the Cexican treasur"' At Cadrid it &as long the custom
to consider the island of $uba and the archi%elago of the Phili%%ines
as de%endencies on Cexico* situated at ver" unequal distances east and
&est of era $ruR and Aca%ulco* but linked to the Cexican metro%olis
Nthen a Euro%ean colon"O b" all the ties of commerce* mutual aid and
ancient s"m%athies' +ncreased internal &ealth has rendered unnecessar"
the %ecuniar" succour formerl" furnished to $uba from the Cexican
treasur"' >f all the 0%anish %ossessions that island has been most
%ros%erous5 the %ort of the Havannah has* since the troubles of 0t'
(omingo* become one of the most im%ortant %oints of the commercial
&orld' A fortunate concurrence of %olitical circumstances* joined to
the intelligence and commercial activit" of the inhabitants* have
%reserved to the Havannah the uninterru%ted enjo"ment of free
intercourse &ith foreign nations'
+ t&ice visited this island* residing there on one occasion for three
months* and on the other for six &eeksP and + enjo"ed the confidence
of %ersons &ho* from their abilities and their %osition* &ere enabled
to furnish me &ith the best information' +n com%an" &ith C' Bon%land +
visited onl" the vicinit" of the Havannah* the beautiful valle" of
Guines and the coast bet&een Batabano and the %ort of Trinidad' After
having succinctl" described the as%ect of this scener" and the
singular modifications of a climate so different from that of the
other islands* + &ill %roceed to examine the general %o%ulation of the
+sland of $ubaP its area calculated from the most accurate sketch of
the coastP the objects of trade and the state of the %ublic revenue'
The as%ect of the Havannah* at the entrance of the %ort* is one of the
ga"est and most %icturesque on the shore of equinoctial America north
of the equator' This s%ot is celebrated b" travellers of all nations'
+t boasts not the luxuriant vegetation that adorns the banks of the
river Gua"aquil nor the &ild majest" of the rock" coast of Rio de
6aneiroP but the grace &hich in those climates embellishes the scenes
of cultivated nature is at the Havannah mingled &ith the majest" of
vegetable forms and the organic vigour that characteriRes the torrid
Rone' >n entering the %ort of the Havannah "ou %ass bet&een the
fortress of the Corro N$astillo de los 0antos Re"esO and the fort of
0an 0alvador de la Punta5 the o%ening being onl" from one hundred and
sevent" to t&o hundred toises &ide' Having %assed this narro&
entrance* leaving on the north the fine castle of 0an $arlos de la
$abana and the $asa Blanca* &e reach a basin in the form of a trefoil
of &hich the great axis* stretching from southHsouthH&est to
northHnorthHeast* is t&o miles and oneHfifth long' This basin
communicates &ith three creeks* those of Regla* Guanavacoa and AtaresP
in this last there are some s%rings of fresh &ater' The to&n of the
Havannah* surrounded b" &alls* forms a %romontor" bounded on the south
b" the arsenal and on the north b" the fort of =a Punta' After %assing
be"ond some &recks of vessels sunk in the shoals of =a =uR* &e no
longer find eight or ten* but five or six fathoms of &ater' The
castles of 0anto (omingo de Atares and 0an $arlos del Princi%e defend
the to&n on the &est&ardP the" are distant from the interior &all* on
the land side* the one LL8 toises* the other 17;8' The intermediate
s%ace is filled b" the suburbs Narrabales or barrios extra murosO of
the Horcon* 6esuHCaria* Guadalou%e and 0enor de la 0alud* &hich from
"ear to "ear encroach on the /ield of Cars N$am%o de CarteO' The great
edifices of the Havannah* the cathedral* the $asa del Govierno* the
house of the commandant of the marine* the $orreo or General Post
>ffice and the factor" of Tobacco are less remarkable for beaut" than
for solidit" of structure' The streets are for the most %art narro&
and un%aved' 0tones being brought from era $ruR* and ver" difficult
of trans%ort* the idea &as conceived a short time before m" vo"age of
joining great trunks of trees together* as is done in German" and
Russia* &hen d"kes are constructed across marsh" %laces' This %roject
&as soon abandoned and travellers ne&l" arrived beheld &ith sur%rise
fine trunks of mahogan" sunk in the mud of the Havannah' At the time
of m" sojourn there fe& to&ns of 0%anish America %resented* o&ing to
the &ant of a good %olice* a more un%leasant as%ect' Peo%le &alked in
mud u% to the kneeP and the multitude of caleches or volantes Nthe
characteristic equi%age of the HavannahO of carts loaded &ith casks of
sugar* and %orters elbo&ing %assengers* rendered &alking most
disagreeable' The smell of tasajo often %oisons the houses and the
&inding streets' But it a%%ears that of late the %olice has inter%osed
and that a manifest im%rovement has taken %lace in the cleanliness of
the streetsP that the houses are more air" and that the $alle de los
Cercadores %resents a fine a%%earance' Here* as in the oldest to&ns of
Euro%e' an illHtraced %lan of streets can onl" be amended b" slo&
degrees'
There are t&o fine %ublic &alksP one called the Alameda* bet&een the
hos%ital of 0anta Paula and the theatre* and the other bet&een the
$astillo de la Punta and the Puerta de la Curalla* called the Paseo
extra murosP the latter is deliciousl" cool and is frequented b"
carriages after sunset' +t &as begun b" the Carquis de la Torre*
governor of the island* &ho gave the first im%ulse to the im%rovement
of the %olice and the munici%al government' (on =uis de las $asas and
the $ount de 0anta $lara enlarged the %lantations' @ear the $am%o de
Carte is the Botanical Garden &hich is &ell &orth" to fix the
attention of the governmentP and another %lace fitted to excite at
once %it" and indignationHHthe barracoon* in front of &hich the
&retched slaves are ex%osed for sale' A marble statue of $harles +++
has been erected since m" return to Euro%e* in the extra muros &alk'
This s%ot &as at first destined for a monument to $hristo%her $olumbus
&hose ashes* after the cession of the 0%anish %art of 0t' (omingo*
&ere brought to the island of $uba'-
N- $olumbus lies buried in the cathedral of the Havannah* close to the
&all near the high altar' >n the tomb is the follo&ing inscri%tion5
> restos " +magen del grande $olonP
Cil siglos duran guardados en la ?rna*
, en remembranca de nuestra @acion'
>h relics and image of the great $olon N$olumbusO
A thousand ages are encom%assed in th" ?rn*
And in the memor" of our @ation'
His remains &ere first de%osited at alladolid and thence &ere removed
to 0eville' +n 19!L the bodies of $olumbus and of his son (iego NEl
AdelantadoO &ere carried to 0t' (omingo and there interred in the
cathedralP but the" &ere after&ards removed to the %lace &here the"
no& re%ose'O
The same "ear the ashes of /ernando $orteR &ere transferred in Cexico
from one church to another5 thus* at the close of the eighteenth
centur"* the remains of the t&o greatest men &ho %romoted the conquest
of America &ere interred in ne& se%ulchres'
The most majestic %almHtree of its tribe* the %alma real* im%arts a
%eculiar character to the landsca%e in the vicinit" of the HavannahP
it is the >reodoxa regia of our descri%tion of American %almHtrees'
+ts tall trunk* slightl" s&elled to&ards the middle* gro&s to the
height of L8 or I8 feetP the u%%er %art is gloss"* of a delicate
green* ne&l" formed b" the closing and dilatation of the %etioles*
contrasts &ith the rest* &hich is &hitish and fendilated' +t a%%ears
like t&o columns* the one surmounting the other' The %alma real of the
island of $uba has feather" leaves rising %er%endicularl" to&ards the
sk"* and curved onl" at the %oint' The form of this %lant reminded us
of the vadgiai %almHtree &hich covers the rocks in the cataracts of
the >rinoco* balancing its long %oints over a mist of foam' Here* as
in ever" %lace &here the %o%ulation is concentrated* vegetation
diminishes' Those %almHtrees round the Havannah and in the
am%hitheatre of Regla on &hich + delighted to gaRe are disa%%earing b"
degrees' The marsh" %laces &hich + sa& covered &ith bamboos are
cultivated and drained' $iviliRation advancesP and the soil* graduall"
stri%%ed of %lants* scarcel" offers an" trace of its &ild abundance'
/rom the Punta to 0an =aRaro* from $abana to Regla and from Regla to
Atares the road is covered &ith houses* and those that surround the
ba" are of light and elegant construction' The %lan of these houses is
traced out b" the o&ners* and the" are ordered from the ?nited 0tates*
like %ieces of furniture' .hen the "ello& fever rages at the Havannah
the %ro%rietors &ithdra& to those countr" houses and to the hills
bet&een Regla and Guanavacoa to breathe a %urer air' +n the coolness
of night* &hen the boats cross the ba"* and o&ing to the
%hos%horescence of the &ater* leave behind them long tracks of light*
these romantic scenes afford charming and %eaceful retreats for those
&ho &ish to &ithdra& from the tumult of a %o%ulous cit"' To judge of
the %rogress of cultivation travellers should visit the small %lots of
maiRe and other alimentar" %lants* the ro&s of %ineHa%%les NananasO in
the fields of $ruR de Piedra and the bisho%Gs garden NBuinta del
>bis%oO &hich of late is become a delicious s%ot'
The to&n of the Havannah* %ro%erl" so called* surrounded b" &alls* is
onl" 288 toises long and 988 broadP "et more than ;;*888 inhabitants*
of &hom 7L*888 are negroes and mulattoes* are cro&ded together in this
narro& s%ace' A %o%ulation nearl" as considerable occu%ies the t&o
great suburbs of 6esuHCaria and =a 0alud'- N- 0alud signifies Health'O
The latter %lace does not verif" the name it bearsP the tem%erature of
the air is indeed lo&er than in the cit" but the streets might have
been larger and better %lanned' 0%anish engineers* &ho have been
&aging &ar for thirt" "ears %ast &ith the inhabitants of the suburbs
NarrabalesO* have convinced the government that the houses are too
near the fortifications* and that the enem" might establish himself
there &ith im%unit"' But the government has not courage to demolish
the suburbs and dis%erse a %o%ulation of 7I*888 inhabitants collected
in =a 0alud onl"' 0ince the great fire of 1I87 that quarter has been
considerabl" enlargedP barracks &ere at first constructed* but b"
degrees the" have been converted into %rivate houses' The defence of
the Havannah on the &est is of the highest im%ortance5 so long as the
besieged are masters of the to&n* %ro%erl" so called* and of the
southern %art of the ba"* the Corro and =a $abana* the" are
im%regnable because the" can be %rovisioned b" the Havannah* and the
losses of the garrison re%aired' + have heard &ellHinformed /rench
engineers observe that an enem" should begin his o%erations b" taking
the to&n* in order to bombard the $abana* a strong fortress* but &here
the garrison* shut u% in the casemates* could not long resist the
insalubrit" of the climate' The English took the Corro &ithout being
masters of the HavannahP but the $abana and the /ort @umber ; &hich
commands the Corro did not then exist' The most im%ortant &orks on the
south and &est are the $astillos de Atares " del Princi%e* and the
batter" of 0anta $lara'
.e em%lo"ed the months of (ecember* 6anuar" and /ebruar" in making
observations in the vicinit" of the Havannah and the fine %lains of
Guines' .e ex%erienced* in the famil" of 0enor $uesta N&ho then formed
&ith 0enor 0anta Caria one of the greatest commercial houses in
AmericaO and in the house of $ount >GReill"* the most generous
hos%italit"' .e lived &ith the former and de%osited our collections
and instruments in the s%acious hotel of $ount >GReill"* &here the
terraces favoured our astronomical observations' The longitude of the
Havannah &as at this %eriod more than one fifth of a degree
uncertain'- N- + also fixed* b" direct observations* several %ositions
in the interior of the island of $uba5 namel" Rio Blanco* a %lantation
of $ount 6aruco " Co%exP the Almirante* a %lantation of the $ountess
BuenavistaP 0an Antonio de BeitiaP the village of CanaguaP 0an Antonio
de BaretoP and the /ondadero* near the to&n of 0an Antonio de los
Banos'O' +t had been fixed b" C' Es%inosa* the learned director of the
(e%osito hidrografico of Cadrid* at 9 degrees !I minutes 11 seconds*
in a table of %ositions &hich he communicated to me on leaving Cadrid'
C' de $hurruca fixed the Corro at 9 hours !2 minutes 1 second' + met
at the Havannah &ith one of the most able officers of the 0%anish
nav"* $a%tain (on (ionisio Galeano* &ho had taken a surve" of the
coast of the strait of Cagellan' .e made observations together on a
series of ecli%ses of the satellites of 6u%iter* of &hich the mean
result gave 9 hours !I minutes 98 seconds' C' >ltmanns deduced in 1I89
the &hole of those observations &hich + marked for the Corro* at 9
hours !I minutes 97'9 secondsHHI; degrees ;! minutes 3'9 seconds &est
of the meridian of Paris' This longitude &as confirmed b" fifteen
occultations of stars observed from 1I82 to 1I11 and calculated b" C'
/errer5 that excellent observer fixes the definitive result at 9
degrees !I minutes 98'2 seconds' .ith res%ect to the magnetic di% +
found it b" the com%ass of Borda N(ecember 1I88O 9! degrees 77 minutes
of the old sexagesimal division5 t&ent"Ht&o "ears before* according to
the ver" accurate observations made b" $a%tain 0abine in his memorable
vo"age to the coasts of Africa* America and 0%itRbergen* the di% &as
onl" 91 degrees 99 minutesP it had therefore diminished 1 degree 73
minutes'
The island of $uba being surrounded &ith shoals and breakers along
more than t&oHthirds of its length* and as shi%s kee% out be"ond those
dangers* the real sha%e of the island &as for a long time unkno&n' +ts
breadth* es%eciall" bet&een the Havannah and the %ort of Batabano* has
been exaggeratedP and it is onl" since the (e%osito hidrografico of
Cadrid %ublished the observations of ca%tain (on 6ose del Rio* and
lieutenant (on entura de BarcaiRtegui* that the area of the island of
$uba could be calculated &ith an" accurac"' .ishing to furnish in this
&ork the most accurate result that can be obtained in the %resent
state of our astronomical kno&ledge* + engaged C' BauRa to calculate
the area' He found* in 6une* 1I!9* the surface of the island of $uba*
&ithout the +sla dos Pinos* to be !978 square sea leagues* and &ith
that island !L19' /rom this calculation* &hich has been t&ice
re%eated* it results that the island of $uba is oneHseventh less than
has hitherto been believedP that it is !7M188 larger than Ha"ti* or
0an (omingoP that its surface equals that of Portugal* and &ithin
oneHeighth that of England &ithout .alesP and that if the &hole
archi%elago of the Antilles %resents as great an area as the half of
0%ain* the island of $uba alone almost equals in surface the other
Great and 0mall Antilles' +ts greatest length* from $a%e 0an Antonio
to Point Ca"si Nin a direction from &estHsouthH&est to eastHnorthHeast
and from &estHnorthH&est to eastHsouthHeastO is 773 leaguesP and its
greatest breadth Nin the direction north and southO* from Point
Caternillo to the mouth of the Cagdalena* near Peak Tarquino* is !3
leagues' The mean breadth of the island* on fourHfifths of its length*
bet&een the Havannah and Puerto Princi%e* is 19 leagues' +n the best
cultivated %art* bet&een the Havannah and Batabano* the isthmus is
onl" eight sea leagues' Among the great islands of the globe* that of
6ava most resembles the island of $uba in its form and area N;138
square leaguesO' $uba has a circumference of coast of 978 leagues* of
&hich 7I8 belong to the south shore* bet&een $a%e 0an Antonio and
Punta Ca"si'
The island of $uba* over more than fourHfifths of its surface* is
com%osed of lo& lands' The soil is covered &ith secondar" and tertiar"
formations* formed b" some rocks of gneissHgranite* s"enite and
eu%hotide' The kno&ledge obtained hitherto of the geologic
configuration of the countr"* is as unsatisfactor" as &hat is kno&n
res%ecting the relative age and nature of the soil' +t is onl"
ascertained that the highest grou% of mountains lies at the
southHeastern extremit" of the island* bet&een $a%e $ruR* Punta Ca"si*
and Holguin' This mountainous %art* called the 0ierra or =as Contanas
del $obre Nthe $o%%er CountainsO* situated northH&est of the to&n of
0antiago de $uba* a%%ears to be about 1788 toises in height' +f this
calculation be correct* the summits of the 0ierra &ould command those
of the Blue Countains of 6amaica* and the %eaks of =a 0elle and =a
Hotte in the island of 0an (omingo' The 0ierra of Tarquino* fift"
miles &est of the to&n of $uba* belongs to the same grou% as the
$o%%er Countains' The island is crossed from eastHsouthHeast to
&estHnorthH&est b" a chain of hills* &hich a%%roach the southern coast
bet&een the meridians of =a $iudad de Puerto Princi%e and the illa
$laraP &hile* further to the &est&ard to&ards AlvareR and CatanRas*
the" stretch in the direction of the northern coast' Proceeding from
the mouth of the Rio Guaurabo to the illa de la Trinidad* + sa& on
the northH&est* the =omas de 0an 6uan* &hich form needles or horns
more than !88 toises high* &ith their declivities slo%ing regularl" to
the south' This calcareous grou% %resents a majestic as%ect* as seen
from the anchorage near the $a"o de Piedras' Jagua and Batabano are
lo& coastsP and + believe that* in general* &est of the meridian of
CatanRas* there is no hill more than 788 toises high* &ith the
exce%tion of the Pan de Guaixabon' The land in the interior of the
island is gentl" undulated* as in EnglandP and it rises onl" from ;9
to 98 toises above the level of the sea' The objects most visible at a
distance* and most celebrated b" navigators* are the Pan de CatanRas*
a truncated cone &hich has the form of a small monumentP the Arcos de
$anasi* &hich a%%ear bet&een Puerto Escondido and 6aruco* like small
segments of a circleP the Cesa de Cariel* the Tetas de Canagua* and
the Pan de Guaixabon' This gradual slo%e of the limestone formations
of the island of $uba to&ards the north and &est indicates the
submarine connection of those rocks &ith the equall" lo& lands of the
Bahama +slands* /lorida and ,ucatan'
+ntellectual cultivation and im%rovement &ere so long restricted to
the Havannah and the neighbouring districts* that &e cannot be
sur%rised at the ignorance %revailing among the inhabitants res%ecting
the geologic formation of the $o%%er Countains' (on /rancisco RamireR*
a traveller versed in chemical and mineralogical science* informed me
that the &estern %art of the island is granitic* and that he there
observed gneiss and %rimitive slate' Probabl" the alluvial de%osits of
auriferous sand &hich &ere ex%lored &ith much ardour- at the beginning
of the conquest* to the great misfortune of the natives came from
those granitic formations N- At $ubanacan* that is* in the interior of
the island* near 6agua and Trinidad* &here the auriferous sands have
been &ashed b" the &aters as far as the limestone soil' Cart"r
dGAnghiera* the most intelligent &riter on the $onquest* sa"s5 )$uba
is richer in gold than His%aniola N0an (omingoOP and at the moment +
am &riting* 1I8*888 castillanos of ore have been collected at $uba')
Herrera estimates the tax called AingGsHfifth Nquinto del Re"O* in the
island of $uba* at L888 %esos* &hich indicates an annual %roduct of
7888 marks of gold* at 77 caratsP and consequentl" %urer than the gold
of 0ibao in 0an (omingo' +n 1I8; the mines of Cexico altogether
%roduced 3888 marks of goldP and those of Peru !;88' +t is difficult*
in these calculations* to distinguish bet&een the gold sent to 0%ain
b" the first $onquistadores* that obtained b" &ashings* and that &hich
had been accumulated for ages in the hands of the natives* &ho &ere
%illaged at &ill' 0u%%osing that in the t&o islands of $uba and 0an
(omingo Nin $ubanacan and $ibaoO the %roduct of the &ashings &as !888
marks of gold* &e find a quantit" three times less than the gold
furnished annuall" N1328 to 1I89O b" the small %rovince of $hoco' +n
this su%%osition of ancient &ealth there is nothing im%robableP and if
&e are sur%rised at the scant" %roduce of the goldH&ashings attem%ted
in our da"s at $uba and 0an (omingo* &hich &ere heretofore so
%rolific* it must be recollected that at BraRil also the %roduct of
the goldH&ashings has fallen* from 13L8 to 1I78* from LL88 gold
kilogrammes to less than 929' =um%s of gold &eighing several %ounds*
found in our da"s in /lorida and @orth and 0outh $arolina* %rove the
%rimitive &ealth of the &hole basin of the Antilles from the island of
$uba to the A%%alachian chain' +t is also natural that the %roduct of
the goldH&ashings should diminish &ith greater ra%idit" than that of
the subterraneous &orking of the veins' The metals not being rene&ed
in the clefts of the veins Nb" sublimationO no& accumulate in alluvial
soil b" the course of the rivers &here the tableHlands are higher than
the level of the surrounding running &aters' But in rocks &ith
metalliferous veins the miner does not at once kno& all he has to
&ork' He ma" chance to lengthen the labours* to go dee%* and to cross
other accom%an"ing veins' Alluvial soils are generall" of small de%th
&here the" are auriferousP the" most frequentl" rest u%on sterile
rocks' Their su%erficial %osition and uniformit" of com%osition hel%
to the kno&ledge of their limits* and &herever &orkmen can be
collected* and &here the &aters for the &ashings abound* accelerate
the total &orking of the auriferous cla"' These considerations*
suggested b" the histor" of the $onquest* and b" the science of
mining* ma" thro& some light on the %roblem of the metallic &ealth of
Ha"ti' +n that island* as &ell as at BraRil* it &ould be more
%rofitable to attem%t subterraneous &orkings Non veinsO in %rimitive
and intermediar" soils than to rene& the goldH&ashings &hich &ere
abandoned in the ages of barbarism* ra%ine and carnage'OP traces of
that sand are still found in the rivers Holguin and Escambra"* kno&n
in general in the vicinit" of illaH$lara* 0anto Es%iritu* Puerto del
Princi%e de Ba"amo and the Bahia de @i%e' The abundance of co%%er
mentioned b" the $onquistadores of the sixteenth centur"* at a %eriod
&hen the 0%aniards &ere more attentive than the" have been in latter
times to the natural %roductions of America* ma" %ossibl" be
attributed to the formations of am%hibolic slate* transition
cla"Hslate mixed &ith diorite* and to eu%hotides analogous to those +
found in the mountains of Guanabacoa'
The central and &estern %arts of the island contain t&o formations of
com%act limestoneP one of cla"e" sandstone and another of g"%sum' The
former has* in its as%ect and com%osition* some resemblance to the
6ura formation' +t is &hite* or of a clear ochreH"ello&* &ith a dull
fracture* sometimes conchoidal* sometimes smoothP divided into thin
la"ers* furnishing some balls of %"romac silex* often hollo& Nat Rio
$animar t&o leagues east of CatanRasO* and %etrifications of %ecten*
cardites* terebratules and madre%ores'- N- + sa& neither gr"%hites nor
ammonites of 6ura limestone nor the nummulites and cerites of coarse
limestone'O + found no oolitic beds* but %orous beds almost bulbous*
bet&een the Potrero del $onde de Co%ox* and the %ort of Batabano*
resembling the s%ong" beds of 6ura limestone in /ranconia* near
(ondorf* PegnitR* and Tumbach' ,ello&ish cavernous strata* &ith
cavities from three to four inches in diameter* alternate &ith strata
altogether com%act*- and %oorer in %etrifications' N- The &estern %art
of the island has no dee% ravinesP and &e recogniRe this alternation
in travelling from the Havannah to Batabano* the dee%est beds
Ninclined from !8 to ;8 degrees northHeastO a%%ear as &e advance'O The
chain of hills that borders the %lain of Guines on the north and is
linked &ith the =omas de $amua* and the Tetas de Canagua* belongs to
the latter variet"* &hich is reddish &hite* and almost of lithogra%hic
nature* like the 6ura limestone of Pa%%enheim' The com%act and
cavernous beds contain nests of bro&n ochreous ironP %ossibl" the red
earth Ntierra coloradaO so much sought for b" the coffee %lanters
NhaciendadosO o&es its origin to the decom%osition of some su%erficial
beds of oxidated iron* mixed &ith silex and cla"* or to a reddish
sandstone- N- 0andstone and ferruginous sandP ironHsandTO su%er%osed
on limestone' The &hole of this formation* &hich + shall designate b"
the name of the limestone of Guines* to distinguish it from another
much more recent* forms* near Trinidad* in the =omas of 0t' 6uan*
stee% declivities* resembling the mountains of limestone of $ari%e* in
the vicinit" of $umana' The" also contain great caverns* near CatanRas
and 6aruco* &here + have not heard that an" fossil bones have been
found' The frequenc" of caverns in &hich the %luvial &aters
accumulate* and &here small rivers disa%%ear* sometimes causes a
sinking of the earth' + am of o%inion that the g"%sum of the island of
$uba belongs not to tertiar" but to secondar" soilP it is &orked in
several %laces on the east of CatanRas* at 0an Antonio de los Banos*
&here it contains sul%hur* and at the $a"os* o%%osite 0an 6uan de los
Remedios' .e must not confound &ith this limestone of Guines*
sometimes %orous* sometimes com%act* another formation so recent that
it seems to augment in our da"s' + allude to the calcareous
agglomerates* &hich + sa& in the islands of $a"os that border the
coast bet&een the Batabano and the ba" of Jagua* %rinci%all" south of
the $ienega de Sa%ata* $a"o Buenito* $a"o /lamenco and $a"o de
Piedras' The soundings %rove that the" are rocks rising abru%tl" from
a bottom of bet&een t&ent" and thirt" fathoms' 0ome are at the &aterGs
edge* others oneHfourth or oneHfifth of a toise above the surface of
the sea' Angular fragments of madre%ores* and cellularia from t&o to
three cubic inches* are found cemented b" grains of quartRose sand'
The inequalities of the rocks are covered b" mould* in &hich* b" hel%
of a microsco%e* &e onl" distinguish the detritus of shells and
corals' This tertiar" formation no doubt belongs to that of the coast
of $umana* $arthagena* and the Great =and of Guadalou%e* noticed in m"
geognostic table of 0outh America'- N- C' Coreau de 6onnes has &ell
distinguished* in his Histoire %h"sique des Antilles /rancoises*
bet&een the Roche a ravets of Cartinique and Ha"ti* &hich is %orous*
filled &ith terebratulites* and other vestiges of seaHshells* some&hat
analogous to the limestone of Guines and the calcareous %elagic
sediment called at Guadalou%e Platine* or Caconne bon (ieu' +n the
ca"os of the island of $uba* or 6ardinillos del Re" " del Re"na* the
&hole coral rock l"ing above the surface of the &ater a%%eared to me
to be fragmentar"* that is* com%osed of broken blocks' +t is* ho&ever*
%robable* that in the de%th it re%oses on masses of %ol"%i still
living'O CC' $hamiso and Guiamard have recentl" thro&n great light on
the formation of the coral islands in the Pacific' At the foot of the
$astillo de in Punta* near the Havannah* on shelves of cavernous
rocks*- covered &ith verdant seaH&eeds and living %ol"%i* &e find
enormous masses of madre%ores and other litho%h"te corals set in the
texture of those shelves' N- The surface of these shelves* blackened
and excavated b" the &aters* %resents ramifications like the
cauliflo&er* as the" are observed on the currents of lava' +s the
change of colour %roduced b" the &aters o&ing to the manganese &hich
&e recogniRe b" some dendritesT The sea* entering into the clefts of
the rocks* and in a cavern at the foot of the $astillo del Corro*
com%resses the air and makes it issue &ith a tremendous noise' This
noise ex%lains the %henomena of the baxos roncadores Nsnoring
bocabeoosO* so &ell kno&n to navigators &ho cross from 6amaica to the
mouth of Rio 0an 6uan of @icaragua* or to the island of 0an Andres'O
.e are at first tem%ted to admit that the &hole of this limestone
rock* &hich constitutes the %rinci%al %ortion of the island of $uba*
ma" be traced to an uninterru%ted o%eration of natureHHto the action
of %roductive organic forcesHHan action &hich continues in our da"s in
the bosom of the oceanP but this a%%arent novelt" of limestone
formations soon vanishes &hen &e quit the shore* and recollect the
series of coral rocks &hich contain the formations of different ages*
the muschelkalk* the 6ura limestone and coarse limestone' The same
coral rocks as those of the $astillo and =a Punta are found in the
loft" inland mountains* accom%anied &ith %etrifications of bivalve
shells* ver" different from those no& seen on the coasts of the
Antilles' .ithout %ositivel" assigning a determinate %lace in the
table of formations to the limestone of Guines* &hich is that of the
$astillo and =a Punta* + have no doubt of the relative antiquit" of
that rock &ith res%ect to the calcareous agglomerate of the $a"os*
situated south of Batabano* and east of the island of Pinos' The globe
has undergone great revolutions bet&een the %eriods &hen these t&o
soils &ere formedP the one containing the great caverns of CatanRas*
the other dail" augmenting b" the agglutination of fragments of coral
and quartRose sand' >n the south of the island of $uba* the latter
soil seems to re%ose sometimes on the 6ura limestone of Guines* as in
the 6ardinillos* and sometimes Nto&ards $a%e $ruRO immediatel" over
%rimitive rocks' +n the lesser Antilles the corals are covered &ith
volcanic %roductions' 0everal of the $a"os of the island of $uba
contain fresh &aterP and + found this &ater ver" good in the middle of
the $a"o de Piedras' .hen &e reflect on the extreme smallness of these
islands &e can scarcel" believe that the freshH&ater &ells are filled
&ith rainH&ater not eva%orated' (o the" %rove a submarine
communication bet&een the limestone of the coast &ith the limestone
serving as the basis of litho%h"te %ol"%i* and is the fresh &ater of
$uba raised u% b" h"drostatic %ressure across the coral rocks of
$a"os* as it is in the ba" of Jagua* &here* in the middle of the sea*
it forms s%rings frequented b" the lamantinsT
The secondar" formations on the east of the Havannah are %ierced in a
singular manner b" s"enitic and eu%hotide rocks united in grou%s' The
southern bottom of the ba" as &ell as the northern %art Nthe hills of
the Corro and the $abanaO are of 6ura limestoneP but on the eastern
bank of the t&o Ensenadas de Regla and Guanabacoa* the &hole is
transition soil' Going from north to south* and first near Carimelena*
&e find s"enite consisting of a great quantit" of hornblende* %artl"
decom%osed* a little quartR* and a reddishH&hite felds%ar seldom
cr"stalliRed' This fine s"enite* the strata of &hich incline to the
northH&est* alternates t&ice &ith ser%entine' The la"ers of
intercalated ser%entine are three toises thick' /arther south* to&ards
Regla and Guanabacoa* the s"enite disa%%ears* and the &hole soil is
covered &ith ser%entine* rising in hills from thirt" to fort" toises
high* and running from east to &est' This rock is much fendillated*
externall" of a bluishHgre"* covered &ith dendrites of manganese* and
internall" of leek and as%aragusHgreen* crossed b" small veins of
asbestos' +t contains no garnet or am%hibole* but metalloid diallage
disseminated in the mass' The ser%entine is sometimes of an
esquillous* sometimes of a conchoidal fracture5 this &as the first
time + had found metalloid diallage &ithin the tro%ics' 0everal blocks
of ser%entine have magnetic %olesP others are of such a homogeneous
texture* and have such a glossiness* that at a distance the" ma" be
taken for %echstein NresiniteO' +t &ere to be &ished that these fine
masses &ere em%lo"ed in the arts as the" are in several %arts of
German"' +n a%%roaching Guanabacoa &e find ser%entine crossed b" veins
bet&een t&elve and fourteen inches thick* and filled &ith fibrous
quartR* ameth"st* and fine mammelonnes* and stalactiforme
chalcedoniesP it is %ossible that chr"so%rase ma" also one da" be
found' 0ome co%%er %"rites a%%ear among these veins accom%anied* it is
said* b" silver"Hgre" co%%er' + found no traces of this gre" co%%er5
it is %robabl" the metalloid diallage that has given the $erro de
Guanabacoa the re%utation of riches in gold and silver &hich it has
enjo"ed for ages' +n some %laces %etroleum flo&s- from rents in the
ser%entine' N- (oes there exist in the Ba" of the Havannah an" other
source of %etroleum than that of Guanabacoa* or must it be admitted
that the betun liquido* &hich in 198I &as em%lo"ed b" 0ebastian de
>cam%o for the caulking of shi%s* is dried u%T That s%ring* ho&ever*
fixed the attention of >cam%o on the %ort of the Havannah* &here he
gave it the name of Puerto de $arenas' +t is said that abundant
s%rings of %etroleum are also found in the eastern %art of the island
NCanantialis de betun " cha%a%oteO bet&een Holguin and Ca"ari* and on
the coast of 0antiago de $uba'O 0%rings of &ater are frequentP the"
contain a little sul%huretted h"drogen* and de%osit oxide of iron' The
Baths of Bareto are agreeable* but of nearl" the same tem%erature as
the atmos%here' The geologic constitution of this grou% of ser%entine
rocks* from its insulated %osition* its veins* its connection &ith
s"enite and the fact of its rising u% across shellHformations* merits
%articular attention' /elds%ar &ith a basis of souda Ncom%act
felds%arO forms* &ith diallage* the eu%hotide and ser%entineP &ith
%"roxene* dolerite and basaltP and &ith garnet* eclog"te' These five
rocks* dis%ersed over the &hole globe* charged &ith oxidulated and
titanious iron* are %robabl" of similar origin' +t is eas" to
distinguish t&o formations in the eu%hotideP one is destitute of
am%hibole* even &hen it alternates &ith am%hibolic rocks N6oria in
Piedmont* Regla in the island of $ubaO rich in %ure ser%entine* in
metalloid diallage and sometimes in jas%er NTuscan"* 0axon"OP the
other* strongl" charged &ith am%hibole* often %assing to diorite*- has
no jas%er in la"ers* and sometimes contains rich veins of co%%erP
N0ilesia* Cussinet in Piedmont* the P"renees* Para%ara in eneRuela*
$o%%er Countains of @orth AmericaO' N- >n a ser%entine that flo&s like
a %enombre* veins of greenstone NdioriteO near =ake $lunie in
Perthshire' 0ee Cac$ulloch in Edinburgh 6ournal of 0cience 1I7; 6ul"
%ages ! to 1L' >n a vein of ser%entine* and the alterations it
%roduces on the banks of $arit"* near .estHBalloch in /orfarshire see
$harles ="ell l'c' volume ! %age ;!'O +t is the latter formation of
eu%hotide &hich* b" its mixture &ith diorite* is itself linked &ith
h"%erthenite* in &hich real beds of ser%entine are sometimes develo%ed
in 0cotland and in @or&a"' @o volcanic rocks of a more recent %eriod
have hitherto been discovered in the island of $ubaP for instance*
neither trach"tes* dolerites* nor basalts' + kno& not &hether the" are
found in the rest of the Great Antilles* of &hich the geologic
constitution differs essentiall" from that of the series of calcareous
and volcanic islands &hich stretch from Trinidad to the irgin
+slands' Earthquakes* &hich are in general less fatal at $uba than at
Porto Rico and Ha"ti* are most felt in the eastern %art* bet&een $a%e
Ca"si* 0antiago de $uba and =a $iudad de Puerto Princi%e' Perha%s
to&ards those regions the action of the crevice extends laterall"*
&hich is believed to cross the neck of granitic land bet&een
PortHauHPrince and $a%e Tiburon and on &hich &hole mountains &ere
overthro&n in 1338'
The cavernous texture of the limestone formations NsoborucoO just
described* the great inclination of the shelvings* the smallness of
the island* the nakedness of the %lains and the %roximit" of the
mountains that form a loft" chain on the southern coast* ma" be
considered as among the %rinci%al causes of the &ant of rivers and the
drought &hich is felt* es%eciall" in the &estern %art of $uba' +n this
res%ect* Ha"ti* 6amaica* and several of the =esser Antilles* &hich
contain volcanic heights covered &ith forests* are more favoured b"
nature' The lands most celebrated for their fertilit" are the
districts of Jagua* Trinidad* CatanRas and Cariel' The valle" of
Guines o&es its re%utation to artificial irrigation Nsanjas de riegoO'
@ot&ithstanding the &ant of great rivers and the unequal fertilit" of
the soil* the island of $uba* b" its undulated surface* its
continuall" rene&ed verdure* and the distribution of its vegetable
forms* %resents at ever" ste% the most varied and beautiful landsca%e'
T&o trees &ith large* tough* and gloss" leaves* the Cammea and the
$alo%h"llum calaba* five s%ecies of %almHtrees Nthe %alma real* or
>reodoxa regia* the common cocoaHtree* the $ocos cris%a* the $or"%ha
miraguama and the $' maritimaO* and small shrubs constantl" loaded
&ith flo&ers* decorate the hills and the savannahs' The $ecro%ia
%eltata marks the humid s%ots' +t &ould seem as if the &hole island
had been originall" a forest of %alm* lemon* and &ild orange trees'
The latter* &hich bear a small fruit* are %robabl" anterior to the
arrival of Euro%eans*- &ho trans%orted thither the agrumi of the
gardensP the" rarel" exceed the height of from ten to fifteen feet' N-
The best informed inhabitants of the island assert that the cultivated
orangeHtrees brought from Asia %reserve the siRe and all the
%ro%erties of their fruits &hen the" become &ild' The BraRilians
affirm that the small bitter orange &hich bears the name of loranja do
terra and is found &ild* far from the habitations of man* is of
American origin' $aldcleugh* Travels in 0outh America'O The lemon and
orange trees are most frequentl" se%arateP and the ne& %lanters* in
clearing the ground b" fire* distinguish the qualit" of the soil
according as it is covered &ith one or other of those grou%s of social
%lantsP the" %refer the soil of the naranjal to that &hich %roduces
the small lemon' +n a countr" &here the making of sugar is not
sufficientl" im%roved to admit of the em%lo"ment of an" other fuel
than the bagasse Ndried sugarHcaneO the %rogressive destruction of the
small &oods is a %ositive calamit"' The aridit" of the soil augments
in %ro%ortion as it is stri%%ed of the trees that sheltered it from
the heat of the sunP for the leaves* emitting heat under a sk" al&a"s
serene* occasion* as the air cools* a %reci%itation of aqueous
va%ours'
Among the fe& rivers &orth" of attention* the Rio Guines ma" be
noticed* the Rio Armendaris or $horrera* of &hich the &aters are led
to the Havannah b" the 0anja de AntoneliP the Rio $anto on the north
of the to&n of Ba"amoP the Rio Caximo &hich rises on the east of
Puerto Princi%eP the Rio 0agua Grande near illa $laraP the Rio de las
Palmas &hich issues o%%osite $a"o GaliadoP the small rivers of 6aruco
and 0anta $ruR bet&een Guanabo and CatanRas* navigable at the distance
of some miles from their mouths and favourable for the shi%ment of
sugarHcasksP the Rio 0an Antonio &hich* like man" others* is engulfed
in the caverns of limestone rocksP the Rio Guaurabo &est of the %ort
of TrinidadP and the Rio Galafre in the fertile district of /ili%inas*
&hich thro&s itself into the =aguna de $orteR' The most abundant
s%rings rise on the southern coast &here* from Jagua to Punta de
0abina* over a length of fort"Hsix leagues* the soil is extremel"
marsh"' 0o great is the abundance of the &aters &hich filter b" the
clefts of the stratified rock that* from the effect of an h"drostatic
%ressure* fresh &ater s%rings far from the coast* and amidst salt
&ater' The jurisdiction of the Havannah is not the most fertile %art
of the islandP and the fe& sugarH%lantations that existed in the
vicinit" of the ca%ital are no& converted into farms for cattle
N%otrerosO and fields of maiRe and forage* of &hich the %rofits are
considerable' The agriculturists of the island of $uba distinguish t&o
kinds of earth* often mixed together like the squares of a
draughtHboard* black earth Nnegra o %rietaO* cla"e" and full of
moisture* and red earth NbermejaO* more silicious and containing oxide
of iron' The tierra negra is generall" %referred Non account of its
best %reserving humidit"O for the cultivation of the sugarcane* and
the tierra bermeja for coffeeP but man" sugar %lantations are
established on the red soil'
The climate of the Havannah is in accordance &ith the extreme limits
of the torrid Rone5 it is a tro%ical climate* in &hich a more unequal
distribution of heat at different %arts of the "ear denotes the
%assage to the climates of the tem%erate Rone' $alcutta Nlatitude 77
degrees !; minutes northO* $anton Nlatitude 7! degrees I minutes
northO* Cacao Nlatitude 77 degrees 17 minutes northO* the Havannah
Nlatitude 7! degrees 2 minutes northO and Rio 6aneiro Nlatitude 77
degrees 9; minutes southO are %laces &hich* from their %osition at the
level of the ocean near the tro%ics of $ancer and $a%ricorn*
consequentl" at an equal distance from the equator* afford great
facilities for the stud" of meteorolog"' This stud" can onl" advance
b" the determination of certain numerical elements &hich are the
indis%ensable basis of the la&s &e seek to discover' The as%ect of
vegetation being identical near the limits of the torrid Rone and at
the equator* &e are accustomed to confound vaguel" the climates of t&o
Rones com%rised bet&een 8 and 18 degrees* and bet&een 19 and 7!
degrees of latitude' The region of %almHtrees* bananas and arborescent
gramina extends far be"ond the t&o tro%ics5 but it &ould be dangerous
to a%%l" &hat has been observed at the extremit" of the tro%ical Rone
to &hat ma" take %lace in the %lains near the equator' +n order to
rectif" those errors it is im%ortant that the mean tem%erature of the
"ear and months be &ell kno&n* as also the thermometric oscillations
in different seasons at the %arallel of the HavannahP and to %rove b"
an exact com%arison &ith other %oints alike distant from the equator*
for instance* &ith Rio 6aneiro and Cacao* that the lo&ering of
tem%erature observed in the island of $uba is o&ing to the irru%tion
and the stream of la"ers of cold air* borne from the tem%erate Rones
to&ards the tro%ics of $ancer and $a%ricorn' The mean tem%erature of
the Havannah* according to four "ears of good observations* is 79'3
degrees N78'L degrees R'O* onl" 7 degrees centigrade above that of the
regions of America nearest the equator' The %roximit" of the sea
raises the mean tem%erature of the "ear on the coastP but in the
interior of the island* &hen the north &inds %enetrate &ith the same
force* and &here the soil rises to the height of fort" toises* the
mean tem%erature attains onl" 7! degrees N1I'; degrees R'O and does
not exceed that of $airo and =o&er Eg"%t' The difference bet&een the
mean tem%erature of the hottest and coldest months rises to 17 degrees
in the interior of the islandP at the Havannah and on the coast* to I
degreesP at $umana* to scarcel" ! degrees' The hottest months* 6ul"
and August* attain 7I'I degrees* at the island of $uba* %erha%s 72'9
degrees of mean tem%erature* as at the equator' The coldest months are
(ecember and 6anuar"P their mean tem%erature in the interior of the
island* is 13 degreesP at the Havannah* 71 degrees* that is* 9 to I
degrees belo& the same months at the equator* "et still ! degrees
above the hottest month at Paris'
+t &ill be interesting to com%are the climate of the Havannah &ith
that of Cacao and Rio 6aneiroP t&o %laces* one of &hich is near the
limit of the northern torrid Rone* on the eastern coast of AsiaP and
the other on the eastern coast of America* to&ards the extremit" of
the southern torrid Rone'
The climate of the Havannah* not&ithstanding the frequenc" of the
north and northH&est &inds* is hotter than that of Cacao and Rio
6aneiro' The former %artakes of the cold &hich* o&ing to the frequenc"
of the &est &inds* is felt in &inter along all the eastern coast of a
great continent' The %roximit" of s%aces of land covered &ith
mountains and tableHlands renders the distribution of heat in
different months of the "ear more unequal at Cacao and $anton than in
an island bounded on the &est and north b" the hot &aters of the
GulfHstream' The &inters are therefore much colder at $anton and Cacao
than at the Havannah5 "et the latitude of Cacao is 1 degree more
southerl" than that of the HavannahP and the latter to&n and $anton
are* &ithin nearl" a minute* on the same %arallel' The thermometer at
$anton has sometimes almost reached the %oint ReroP and b" the effect
of reflection* ice has been found on the terraces of houses' Although
this great cold never lasts more than one da"* the English merchants
residing at $anton like to make chimne"Hfires in their a%artments from
@ovember to 6anuar"P &hile at the Havannah* the artificial &armth even
of a braRero is not required' Hail is frequent and the hailHstones are
extremel" large in the Asiatic climate of $anton and Cacao* &hile it
is scarcel" seen once in fifteen "ears at the Havannah' +n these three
%laces the thermometer sometimes kee%s u% for several hours bet&een 8
and ; degrees NcentigradeOP and "et Na circumstance &hich a%%ears to
be ver" remarkableO sno& has never been seen to fallP and
not&ithstanding the great lo&ering of the tem%erature* the bananas and
the %almHtrees are as beautiful around $anton* Cacao and the Havannah
as in the %lains nearest the equator'
+n the island of $uba the lo&ering of the tem%erature lasts onl"
during intervals of such short duration that in general neither the
banana* the sugarHcane nor other %roductions of the torrid Rone suffer
much' .e kno& ho& &ell %lants of vigorous organiRation resist
tem%orar" cold* and that the orange trees of Genoa survive the fall of
sno& and endure cold &hich does not more than exceed L or 3 degrees
belo& freeRingH%oint' As the vegetation of the island of $uba bears
the character of the vegetation of the regions near the equator* &e
are sur%rised to find even in the %lains a vegetable form of the
tem%erate climates and mountains of the equatorial %art of Cexico' +
have often directed the attention of botanists to this extraordinar"
%henomenon in the geogra%h" of %lants' The %ine NPinus occidentalisO
is not found in the =esser AntillesP not even in 6amaica Nbet&een 13
!M; and 1I 1M7 degrees of latitudeO' +t is onl" seen further north* in
the mountains of 0an (omingo* and in all that %art of the island of
$uba situated bet&een 78 and 7! degrees of latitude' +t attains a
height of from sixt" to sevent" feetP and it is remarkable that the
cahoba- Nmahogan" N- 0&ieteinia Cahogani* =inn'OO and the %ine
vegetate at the island of Pinos in the same %lains' .e also find %ines
in the southHeastern %art of the island of $uba* on the declivit" of
the $o%%er Countains &here the soil is barren and sand"' The interior
tableHland of Cexico is covered &ith the same s%ecies of coniferous
%lantsP at least the s%ecimens brought b" C' Bon%land and m"self from
Acaguisotla* @evado de Toluca and $ofre de Perote do not a%%ear to
differ s%ecificall" from the Pinus occidentalis of the .est +ndia
+slands described b" 0ch&artR' @o& those %ines &hich &e see at sea
level in the island of $uba* in 78 and 77 degrees of latitude* and
&hich belong onl" to the southern %art of that island* do not descend
on the Cexican continent bet&een the %arallels of 13 1M7 and 12 1M7
degrees* belo& the elevation of 988 toises' + even observed that* on
the road from Perote to Jala%a in the eastern mountains o%%osite to
the island of $uba* the limit of the %ines is 2!9 toisesP &hile in the
&estern mountains* bet&een $hil%anRingo and Aca%ulco* near
Buasiniquila%a* t&o degrees further south* it is 9I8 toises and
%erha%s on some %oints ;98' These anomalies of stations are ver" rare
in the torrid Rone and are %robabl" less connected &ith the
tem%erature than &ith the nature of the soil' +n the s"stem of the
migration of %lants &e must su%%ose that the Pinus occidentalis of
$uba came from ,ucatan before the o%ening of the channel bet&een $a%e
$atoche and $a%e 0an Antonio* and not from the ?nited 0tates* so rich
in coniferous %lantsP for in /lorida the s%ecies of &hich &e have here
traced the botanical geogra%h" has not been discovered'
About the end of A%ril* C' Bon%land and m"self* having com%leted the
observations &e %ro%osed to make at the northern extremit" of the
torrid Rone* &ere on the %oint of %roceeding to era $ruR &ith the
squadron of Admiral AriRtiRabalP but being misled b" false
intelligence res%ecting the ex%edition of $a%tain Baudin* &e &ere
induced to relinquish the %roject of %assing through Cexico on our &a"
to the Phili%%ine +slands' The %ublic journals announced that t&o
/rench sloo%s* the Geogra%he and @aturaliste* had sailed for $a%e
HornP that the" &ere to %roceed along the coasts of $hili and Peru*
and thence to @e& Holland' This intelligence revived in m" mind all
the %rojects + had formed during m" sta" in Paris* &hen + solicited
the (irector" to hasten the de%arture of $a%tain Baudin' >n leaving
0%ain* + had %romised to rejoin the ex%edition &herever + could reach
it' C' Bon%land and + resolved instantl" to divide our herbals into
three %ortions* to avoid ex%osing to the risks of a long vo"age the
objects &e had obtained &ith so much difficult" on the banks of the
>rinoco* the Ataba%o and the Rio @egro' .e sent one collection b" &a"
of England to German"* another b" &a" of $adiR to /rance* and a third
remained at the Havannah' .e had reason to congratulate ourselves on
this foresight5 each collection contained nearl" the same s%ecies* and
no %recautions &ere neglected to have the cases* if taken b" English
or /rench vessels* remitted to 0ir 6ose%h Banks or to the %rofessors
of natural histor" at the Cuseum at Paris' +t ha%%ened fortunatel"
that the manuscri%ts &hich + at first intended to send &ith the
collection to $adiR &ere not intrusted to our much esteemed friend and
fello& traveller* /ra" 6uan GonRales* of the order of the >bservance
of 0t' /rancis* &ho had follo&ed us to the Havannah &ith the vie& of
returning to 0%ain' He left the island of $uba soon after us* but the
vessel in &hich he sailed foundered on the coast of Africa* and the
cargo and cre& &ere all lost' B" this event &e lost some of the
du%licates of our herbals* and &hat &as more im%ortant* all the
insects &hich C' Bon%land had &ith great difficult" collected during
our vo"age to the >rinoco and the Rio @egro' B" a singular fatalit"*
&e remained t&o "ears in the 0%anish colonies &ithout receiving a
single letter from Euro%eP and those &hich arrived in the three
follo&ing "ears made no mention of &hat &e had transmitted' The reader
ma" imagine m" uneasiness for the fate of a journal &hich contained
astronomical observations and barometrical measurements* of &hich +
had not made an" co%"' After having visited @e& Grenada* Peru and
Cexico* and just &hen + &as %re%aring to leave the @e& $ontinent* +
ha%%ened* at a %ublic librar" of Philadel%hia* to cast m" e"es on a
scientific Publication* in &hich + found these &ords5 )Arrival of C'
de HumboldtGs manuscri%ts at his brotherGs house in Paris* b" &a" of
0%ain4) + could scarcel" su%%ress an exclamation of jo"'
.hile C' Bon%land laboured da" and night to divide and %ut our
collections in order* a thousand obstacles arose to im%ede our
de%arture' There &as no vessel in the %ort of the Havannah that &ould
conve" us to Porto Bello or $arthagena' The %ersons + consulted seemed
to take %leasure in exaggerating the difficulties of the %assage of
the isthmus* and the dangerous vo"age from Panama to Gu"aquil* and
from Gu"aquil to =ima and al%araiso' @ot being able to find a %assage
in an" neutral vessel* + freighted a $atalonian sloo%* l"ing at
Batabano* &hich &as to be at m" dis%osal to take me either to Porto
Bello or $arthagena* according as the gales of 0aint Cartha might
%ermit'- N- The gales of 0aint Cartha blo& &ith great violence at that
season belo& latitude 17 degrees'O The %ros%erous state of commerce at
the Havannah and the multi%lied connections of that cit" &ith the
%orts of the Pacific &ould facilitate for me the means of %rocuring
funds for several "ears' General (on GonRalo >G/arrill resided at that
time in m" native countr" as minister of the court of 0%ain' + could
exchange m" revenues in Prussia for a %art of his at the island of
$ubaP and the famil" of (on ,gnacio >G/arrill " Herera* brother of the
general* concurred kindl" in all that could favour m" ne& %rojects' >n
the Lth of Carch the vessel + had freighted &as read" to receive us'
The road to Batabano led us once more b" Guines to the %lantation of
Rio Blanco* the %ro%ert" of $ount 6aruco " Co%ox'
The road from Rio Blanco to Batabano runs across an uncultivated
countr"* half covered &ith forestsP in the o%en s%ots the indigo %lant
and the cottonHtree gro& &ild' As the ca%sule of the Goss"%ium o%ens
at the season &hen the northern storms are most frequent* the do&n
that envelo%s the seed is s&e%t from one side to the otherP and the
gathering of the cotton* &hich is of a ver" fine qualit"* suffers
greatl"' 0everal of our friends* among &hom &as 0enor de CendoRa*
ca%tain of the %ort of al%araiso* and brother to the celebrated
astronomer &ho resided so long in =ondon* accom%anied us to Potrero de
Co%ox' +n herboriRing further south&ard* &e found a ne& %almHtree &ith
fanHleaves N$or"%ha maritimaO* having a free thread bet&een the
interstices of the folioles' This $or"%ha covers a %art of the
southern coast and takes the %lace of the majestic %alma real and the
$ocos cris%a of the northern coast' Porous limestone Nof the 6ura
formationO a%%eared from time to time in the %lain'
Batabano &as then a %oor village and its church had been com%leted
onl" a fe& "ears %reviousl"' The 0ienega begins at the distance of
half a league from the villageP it is a tract of marsh" soil*
extending from the =aguna de $orteR as far as the mouth of the Rio
Jagua* on a length of sixt" leagues from &est to east' At Batabano it
is believed that in those regions the sea continues to gain u%on the
land* and that the oceanic irru%tion &as %articularl" remarkable at
the %eriod of the great u%heaving &hich took %lace at the end of the
eighteenth centur"* &hen the tobacco mills disa%%eared* and the Rio
$horrera changed its course' @othing can be more gloom" than the
as%ect of these marshes around Batabano' @ot a shrub breaks the
monoton" of the %ros%ect5 a fe& stunted trunks of %almHtrees rise like
broken masts* amidst great tufts of 6unceae and +rides' As &e sta"ed
onl" one night at Batabano* + regretted much that + &as unable to
obtain %recise information relative to the t&o s%ecies of crocodiles
&hich infest the 0ienega' The inhabitants give to one of these animals
the name of ca"man* to the other that of crocodileP or* as the" sa"
commonl" in 0%ain* of cocodrilo' The" assured us that the latter has
most agilit"* and measures most in height5 his snout is more %ointed
than that of the ca"man* and the" are never found together' The
crocodile is ver" courageous and is said to climb into boats &hen he
can find a su%%ort for his tail' He frequentl" &anders to the distance
of a league from the Rio $auto and the marsh" coast of Jagua to devour
the %igs on the islands' This animal is sometimes fifteen feet long*
and &ill* it is said* %ursue a man on horseback* like the &olves in
Euro%eP &hile the animals exclusivel" called ca"mans at Batabano are
so timid that %eo%le bathe &ithout a%%rehension in %laces &here the"
live in bands' These %eculiarities* and the name of cocodrilo* given
at the island of $uba* to the most dangerous of the carnivorous
re%tiles* a%%ear to me to indicate a different s%ecies from the great
animals of the >rinoco* Rio Cagdalena and 0aint (omingo' +n other
%arts of the 0%anish American continent the settlers* deceived b" the
exaggerated accounts of the ferocit" of crocodiles in Eg"%t* allege
that the real crocodile is onl" found in the @ile' Soologists have*
ho&ever* ascertained that there are in America ca"mans or alligators
&ith obtuse snouts* and legs not indented* and crocodiles &ith %ointed
snouts and indented legsP and in the old continent* both crocodiles
and gaviales' The $rocodilus acutus of 0an (omingo* in &hich + cannot
hitherto s%ecificall" distinguish the crocodiles of the great rivers
of the >rinoco and the Cagdalena* has* according to $uvier* so great a
resemblance to the crocodile of the @ile*- that it required a minute
examination to %rove that the rule laid do&n b" Buffon relative to the
distribution of s%ecies bet&een the tro%ical regions of the t&o
continents &as correct' N- This striking analog" &as ascertained b" C'
Geoffro" de 0aint Hilaire in 1I8! &hen General Rochambeau sent a
crocodile from 0an (omingo to the Cuseum of @atural Histor" at Paris'
C' Bon%land and m"self had made dra&ings and detailed descri%tions in
1I81 and 1I87 of the same s%ecies &hich inhabit the great rivers of
0outh America* during our %assage on the A%ure* the >rinoco and the
Cagdalena' .e committed the mistake so common to travellers* of not
sending them at once to Euro%e* together &ith some "oung s%ecimens'O
>n m" second visit to the Havannah* in 1I8;* + could not return to the
0ienega of BatabanoP and therefore + had the t&o s%ecies* called
ca"mans and crocodiles b" the inhabitants* brought to me* at a great
ex%ense' T&o crocodiles arrived aliveP the oldest &as four feet three
inches longP the" had been caught &ith great difficult" and &ere
conve"ed* muRRled and bound* on a mule* for the" &ere exceedingl"
vigorous and fierce' +n order to observe their habits and movements*-
&e %laced them in a great hall* &here* b" climbing on a ver" high
%iece of furniture* &e could see them attack great dogs' N- C'
(escourtils* &ho kno&s the habits of the crocodile better than an"
other author &ho has &ritten on that re%tile* sa&* like (am%ier and
m"self* the $rocodilus acutus often touch his tail &ith his mouth'O
Having seen much of crocodiles during six months* on the >rinoco* the
Rio A%ure and the Cagdalena* &e &ere glad to have another o%%ortunit"
of observing their habits before our return to Euro%e' The animals
sent to us from Batabano had the snout nearl" as shar% as the
crocodiles of the >rinoco and the Cagdalena N$rocodilus acutus* $uv'OP
their colour &as darkHgreen on the back* and &hite belo& the bell"*
&ith "ello& s%ots on the flanks' + counted* as in all the real
crocodiles* thirt"Height teeth in the u%%er ja&* and thirt" in the
lo&erP in the former* the tenth and ninthP and in the latter* the
first and fourth* &ere the largest' +n the descri%tion made b" C'
Bon%land and m"self on the s%ot* &e have ex%ressl" marked that the
lo&er fourth tooth rises over the u%%er ja&' The %osterior extremities
&ere %almated' These crocodiles of Batabano a%%eared to us to be
s%ecificall" identical &ith the $rocodilus acutus' +t is true that the
accounts &e heard of their habits did not quite agree &ith &hat &e had
ourselves observed on the >rinocoP but carnivorous re%tiles of the
same s%ecies are milder and more timid* or fiercer and more
courageous* in the same river* according to the nature of the
localities' The animal called the ca"man* at Batabano* died on the
&a"* and &as not brought to us* so that &e could make no com%arison of
the t&o s%ecies'- N- The four bags filled &ith musk NbolRas del
almiRcleO are* in the crocodile of Batabano* exactl" in the same
%osition as in that of the Rio Cagdalena* beneath the lo&er ja& and
near the anus' + &as much sur%rised at not %erceiving the smell of
musk at the Havannah* three da"s after the death of the animal* in a
tem%erature of !8 degrees* &hile at Com%ox* on the banks of the
Cagdalena* living crocodiles infected our a%artment' + have since
found that (am%ier also remarked an absence of smell in the crocodile
of $uba &here the ca"mans s%read a ver" strong smell of musk'O + have
no doubt that the crocodile &ith a shar% snout* and the alligator or
ca"man &ith a snout like a %ike*- N- $rocodilus acutus of 0an (omingo'
Alligator lucius of /lorida and the Cississi%%i'O inhabit together*
but in distinct bands* the marsh" coast bet&een Jagua* the 0urgidero
of Batabano* and the island of Pinos' +n that island (am%ier &as
struck &ith the great difference bet&een the ca"mans and the American
crocodiles' After having described* though not al&a"s &ith %erfect
correctness* several of the characteristics &hich distinguish
crocodiles from ca"mans* he traces the geogra%hical distribution of
those enormous saurians' )+n the ba" of $am%each"*) he sa"s* )+ sa&
onl" ca"mans or alligatorsP at the island of Great $a"man* there are
crocodiles and no alligatorsP at the island of Pinos* and in the
innumerable creeks of the coast of $uba* there are both crocodiles and
ca"mans')- N- (am%ierGs o"ages and (escri%tions* 1922'O To these
valuable observations of (am%ier + ma" add that the real crocodile
N$rocodilus acutusO is found in the .est +ndia +slands nearest the
mainland* for instance* at the island of TrinidadP at CargueritaP and
also* %robabl"* at $uracao* not&ithstanding the &ant of fresh &ater'
+t is observed* further south* in the @everi* the Rio Cagdalena* the
A%ure and the >rinoco* as far as the confluence of the $assiquiare
&ith the Rio @egro Nlatitude 7 degrees 7 minutesO* consequentl" more
than four hundred leagues from Batabano' +t &ould be interesting to
verif" on the eastern coast of Cexico and Guatimala* bet&een the
Cississi%%i and the Rio $hagres Nin the isthmus of PanamaO* the limit
of the different s%ecies of carnivorous re%tiles'
.e set sail on the 2th of Carch* some&hat incommoded b" the extreme
smallness of our vessel* &hich afforded us no slee%ingH%lace but u%on
deck' The cabin Ncamera de %oRoO received no air or light but from
aboveP it &as merel" a hold for %rovisions* and it &as &ith difficult"
that &e could %lace our instruments in it' The thermometer ke%t u%
constantl" at !7 and !! degrees Ncentesimal'O =uckil" these
inconveniences lasted onl" t&ent" da"s' >ur several vo"ages in the
canoes of the >rinoco* and a %assage in an American vessel laden &ith
several thousand arrobas of salt meat dried in the sun had rendered us
not ver" fastidious'
The gulf of Batabano* bounded b" a lo& and marsh" coast* looks like a
vast desert' The fishing birds* &hich are generall" at their %ost
&hilst the small land birds* and the indolent vultures Nultur aura'O
are at roost* are seen onl" in small numbers' The sea is of a
greenishHbro&n hue* as in some of the lakes of 0&itRerlandP &hile the
air* o&ing to its extreme %urit"* had* at the moment the sun a%%eared
above the horiRon* a cold tint of %ale blue* similar to that &hich
landsca%e %ainters observe at the same hour in the south of +tal"* and
&hich makes distant objects stand out in strong relief' >ur sloo% &as
the onl" vessel in the gulfP for the roadstead of Batabano is scarcel"
visited exce%t b" smugglers* or* as the" are here %olitel" called* the
traders Nlos tratantesO' The %rojected canal of Guines &ill render
Batabano an im%ortant %oint of communication bet&een the island of
$uba and the coast of eneRuela' The %ort is &ithin a ba" bounded b"
Punta Gorda on the east* and b" Punta de 0alinas on the &est5 but this
ba" is itself onl" the u%%er or concave end of a great gulf measuring
nearl" fourteen leagues from south to north* and along an extent of
fift" leagues Nbet&een the =aguna de $orteR and the $a"o de PiedrasO
inclosed b" an incalculable number of flats and chains of rocks' >ne
great island onl"* of &hich the su%erficies is more than four times
the dimensions of that of Cartinique* &ith mountains cro&ned &ith
majestic %ines* rises amidst this lab"rinth' This is the island of
Pinos* called b" $olumbus El Evangelista* and b" some mariners of the
sixteenth centur"* the +sla de 0anta Caria' +t is celebrated for its
mahogan" N0&ietenia mahagoniO &hich is an im%ortant article of
commerce' .e sailed eastHsouthHeast* taking the %assage of (on
$ristoval* to reach the rock" island of $a"o de Piedras* and to clear
the archi%elago* &hich the 0%anish %ilots* in the earl" times of the
conquest* designated b" the names of Gardens and Bo&ers N6ardines "
6ardinillosO' The BueenGs Gardens* %ro%erl" so called* are nearer $a%e
$ruR* and are se%arated from the archi%elago b" an o%en sea
thirt"Hfive leagues broad' $olumbus gave them the name the" bear* in
1;2;* &hen* on his second vo"age* he struggled during fift"Height da"s
&ith the &inds and currents bet&een the island of Pinos and the
eastern ca%e of $uba' He describes the islands of this archi%elago as
verdant* full of trees and %leasant- Nverdes* llenos de arboledas* "
graciososO' N- There exists great geogra%hical confusion* even at the
Havannah* in reference to the ancient denominations of the 6ardines
del Re" and 6ardines de la Re"na' +n the descri%tion of the island of
$uba* given in the Cercurio Americano* and in the Historia @atural de
la +sla de $uba* %ublished at the Havannah b" (on Antonio =o%eR GomeR*
the t&o grou%s are %laced on the southern coast of the island' =o%eR
sa"s that the 6ardines del Re" extend from the =aguna de $orteR to
Bahia de JaguaP but it is historicall" certain that the governor (iego
elasqueR gave his name to the &estern %art of the chain of rocks of
the >ld $hannel* bet&een $a"o /rances and =e Conillo* on the northern
coast of the island of $uba' The 6ardines de la Re"na* situated
bet&een $abo $ruR and the %ort of the Trinit"* are in no manner
connected &ith the 6ardines and 6ardinillos of the +sla de Pinos'
Bet&een the t&o grou%s of the chain of rocks are the flats N%laceresO
of =a PaR and Jagua'O
A %art of these soHst"led gardens is indeed beautifulP the vo"ager
sees the scene change ever" moment* and the verdure of some of the
islands a%%ears the more lovel" from its contrast &ith chains of
rocks* dis%la"ing onl" &hite and barren sands' The surface of these
sands* heated b" the ra"s of the sun* seems to be undulating like the
surface of a liquid' The contact of la"ers of air of unequal
tem%erature %roduces the most varied %henomena of sus%ension and
mirage from ten in the morning till four in the afternoon' Even in
those desert %laces the sun animates the landsca%e* and gives mobilit"
to the sand" %lain* to the trunks of trees* and to the rocks that
%roject into the sea like %romontories' .hen the sun a%%ears these
inert masses seem sus%ended in airP and on the neighbouring beach the
sands %resent the a%%earance of a sheet of &ater gentl" agitated b"
the &inds' A train of clouds suffices to seat the trunks of trees and
the sus%ended rocks again on the soilP to render the undulating
surface of the %lains motionlessP and to dissi%ate the charm &hich the
Arabian* Persian* and Hindoo %oets have celebrated as )the s&eet
illusions of the solitar" desert')
.e doubled $a%e Catahambre ver" slo&l"' The chronometer of =ouis
Berthoud having ke%t time accuratel" at the Havannah* + availed m"self
of this occasion to determine* on this and the follo&ing da"s* the
%ositions of $a"o de (on $ristoval* $a"o /lamenco* $a"o de (iego PereR
and $a"o de Piedras' + also em%lo"ed m"self in examining the influence
&hich the changes at the bottom of the sea %roduce on its tem%erature
at the surface' 0heltered b" so man" islands* the surface is calm as a
lake of fresh &ater* and the la"ers of different de%ths being distinct
and se%arate* the smallest change indicated b" the lead acts on the
thermometer' + &as sur%rised to see that on the east of the little
$a"o de (on $ristoval the high banks are onl" distinguished b" the
milk" colour of the &ater* like the bank of ibora* south of 6amaica*
and man" other banks* the existence of &hich + ascertained b" means of
the thermometer' The bottom of the rock of Batabano is a sand com%osed
of coral detritusP it nourishes seaH&eeds &hich scarcel" ever a%%ear
on the surface5 the &ater* as + have alread" observed* is greenishP
and the absence of the milk" tint is* no doubt* o&ing to the %erfect
calm &hich %ervades those regions' .henever the agitation is
%ro%agated to a certain de%th* a ver" fine sand* or a mass of
calcareous %articles sus%ended in the &ater* renders it troubled and
milk"' There are shallo&s* ho&ever* &hich are distinguished neither b"
the colour nor b" the lo& tem%erature of the &atersP and + believe
that %henomenon de%ends on the nature of a hard and rock" bottom*
destitute of sand and coralsP on the form and declivit" of the
shelvingsP the s&iftness of the currentsP and the absence of the
%ro%agation of motion to&ards the lo&er la"ers of the &ater' The cold
frequentl" indicated b" the thermometer* at the surface of the high
banks* must be traced to the molecules of &ater &hich* o&ing to the
ra"s of heat and the nocturnal cooling* fall from the surface to the
bottom* and are sto%%ed in their fall b" the high banksP and also to
the mingling of the la"ers of ver" dee% &ater that rise on the
shelvings of the banks as on an inclined %lane* to mix &ith the la"ers
of the surface'
@ot&ithstanding the small siRe of our bark and the boasted skill of
our %ilot* &e often ran aground' The bottom being soft* there &as no
dangerP but* nevertheless* at sunset* near the %ass of (on $ristoval*
&e %referred to lie at anchor' The first %art of the night &as
beautifull" serene5 &e sa& an incalculable number of fallingHstars*
all follo&ing one direction* o%%osite to that from &hence the &ind
ble& in the lo& regions of the atmos%here' The most absolute solitude
%revails in this s%ot* &hich* in the time of $olumbus* &as inhabited
and frequented b" great numbers of fishermen' The inhabitants of $uba
then em%lo"ed a small fish to take the great sea turtlesP the"
fastened a long cord to the tail of the reves Nthe name given b" the
0%aniards to that s%ecies of Echeneis-O' N- To the sucet or guaican of
the natives of $uba the 0%aniards have given the characteristic name
of reves* that is* %laced on its back* or reversed' +n fact* at first
sight* the %osition of the back and the abdomen is confounded'
Anghiera sa"s5 @ostrates reversum a%%ellant* quia versus venatur' +
examined a remora of the 0outh 0ea during the %assage from =ima to
Aca%ulco' As he lived a long time out of the &ater* + tried
ex%eriments on the &eight he could carr" before the blades of the disk
loosened from the %lank to &hich the animal &as fixedP but + lost that
%art of m" journal' +t is doubtless the fear of danger that causes the
remora not to loose his hold &hen he feels that he is %ulled b" a cord
or b" the hand of man' The sucet s%oken of b" $olumbus and Cartin
dGAnghiera &as %robabl" the Echeneis naucrates and not the Echeneis
remora'O The fisherHfish* formerl" em%lo"ed b" the $ubans b" means of
the flattened disc on his head* furnished &ith suckers* fixed himself
on the shell of the seaHturtle* &hich is so common in the narro& and
&inding channels of the 6ardinillos' )The reves*) sa"s $hristo%her
$olumbus* )&ill sooner suffer himself to be cut in %ieces than let go
the bod" to &hich he adheres') The +ndians dre& to the shore b" the
same cord the fisherHfish and the turtle' .hen Gomara and the learned
secretar" of the em%eror $harles * Peter Cart"r dGAnghiera*
%romulgated in Euro%e this fact &hich the" had learnt from the
com%anions of $olumbus* it &as received as a travellerGs tale' There
is indeed an air of the marvellous in the recital of dGAnghiera* &hich
begins in these &ords5 @on aliter ac nos canibus gallicis %er aequora
cam%i le%ores insectamur* incolae :$ubae insulae< venatorio %isce
%isces alios ca%iebant' NExactl" as &e follo& hares &ith gre"hounds in
the fields* so do the natives :of $uba< take fishes &ith other fish
trained for that %ur%oseO' .e no& kno&* from the united testimon" of
Rogers* (am%ier and $ommerson* that the artifice resorted to in the
6ardinillos to catch turtles is em%lo"ed b" the inhabitants of the
eastern coast of Africa* near $a%e @atal* at CoRambique and at
Cadagascar' +n Eg"%t* at 0an (omingo and in the lakes of the valle" of
Cexico* the method %ractised for catching ducks &as as follo&s5 men*
&hose heads &ere covered &ith great calabashes %ierced &ith holes* hid
themselves in the &ater* and seiRed the birds b" the feet' The
$hinese* from the remotest antiquit"* have em%lo"ed the cormorant* a
bird of the %elican famil"* for fishing on the coast5 rings are fixed
round the birdGs neck to %revent him from s&allo&ing his %re" and
fishing for himself' +n the lo&est degree of civiliRation* the
sagacit" of man is dis%la"ed in the stratagems of hunting and fishing5
nations &ho %robabl" never had an" communication &ith each other
furnish the most striking analogies in the means the" em%lo" in
exercising their em%ire over animals'
Three da"s ela%sed before &e could emerge from the lab"rinth of
6ardines and 6ardinillos' At night &e la" at anchorP and in the da" &e
visited those islands or chains of rocks &hich &ere most easil"
accessible' As &e advanced east&ard the sea became less calm and the
%osition of the shoals &as marked b" &ater of a milk" colour' >n the
boundar" of a sort of gulf bet&een $a"o /lamenco and $a"o de Piedras
&e found that the tem%erature of the sea* at its surface* augmented
suddenl" from 7!'9 to 79'I degrees centigrade' The geologic
constitution of the rock" islets that rise around the island of Pinos
fixed m" attention the more earnestl" as + had al&a"s rather doubted
of the existence of those huge masses of coral &hich are said to rise
from the ab"ss of the Pacific to the surface of the &ater' +t a%%eared
to me more %robable that these enormous masses had some %rimitive or
volcanic rock for a basis* to &hich the" adhered at small de%ths' The
formation* %artl" com%act and lithogra%hic* %artl" bulbous* of the
limestone of Guines* had follo&ed us as far as Batabano' +t is
some&hat analogous to 6ura limestoneP and* judging from their external
as%ect* the $a"man +slands are com%osed of the same rock' +f the
mountains of the island of Pinos* &hich %resent at the same time Nas
it is said b" the first historians of the conquestO the %ineta and
%almeta* be visible at the distance of t&ent" sea leagues* the" must
attain a height of more than five hundred toises5 + have been assured
that the" also are formed of a limestone altogether similar to that of
Guines' /rom these facts + ex%ected to find the same rock N6ura
limestoneO in the 6ardinillos5 but + sa&* in the chain of rocks that
rises generall" five to six inches above the surface of the &ater*
onl" a fragmentar" rock* in &hich angular %ieces of madre%ores are
cemented b" quartRose sand' 0ometimes the fragments form a mass of
from one to t&o cubic feet and the grains of quartR so disa%%ear that
in several la"ers one might imagine that the %ol"%i have remained on
the s%ot' The total mass of this chain of rocks a%%ears to me a
limestone agglomerate* some&hat analogous to the earth" limestone of
the %eninsula of Ara"a* near $umana* but of much more recent
formation' The inequalities of this coral rock are covered b" a
detritus of shells and madre%ores' .hatever rises above the surface of
the &ater is com%osed of broken %ieces* cemented b" carbonate of lime*
in &hich grains of quartRose sand are set' .hether rocks formed b"
%ol"%i still living are found at great de%th belo& this fragmentar"
rock of coral or &hether these %ol"%i are raised on the 6ura formation
are questions &hich + am unable to ans&er' Pilots believe that the sea
diminishes in these latitudes* because the" see the chain of rocks
augment and rise* either b" the earth &hich the &aves heave u%* or b"
successive agglutinations' +t is not im%ossible that the enlarging of
the channel of Bahama* b" &hich the &aters of the GulfHstream issue*
ma" cause* in the la%se of ages* a slight lo&ering of the &aters south
of $uba* and es%eciall" in the gulf of Cexico* the centre of the great
current &hich runs along the shores of the ?nited 0tates* and casts
the fruits of tro%ical %lants on the coast of @or&a"'- N- )The
GulfHstream* bet&een the Bahamas and /lorida* is ver" little &ider
than BehringGs 0traitP and "et the &ater rushing through this %assage
is of sufficient force and quantit" to %ut the &hole @orthern Atlantic
in motion* and to make its influence be felt in the distant strait of
Gibraltar and on the more distant coast of Africa') Buarterl" Revie&
/ebruar" 1I1I'O The configuration of the coast* the direction* the
force and the duration of certain &inds and currents* the changes
&hich the barometric heights undergo through the variable %redominance
of those &inds* are causes* the concurrence of &hich ma" alter* in a
long s%ace of time* and in circumscribed limits of extent and height*
the equilibrium of the seas'- N- + do not %retend to ex%lain* b" the
same causes* the great %henomena of the coast of 0&eden* &here the sea
has* on some %oints* the a%%earance of a ver" unequal lo&ering of from
three to five feet in one hundred "ears' The great geologist* =eo%old
von Buch* has im%arted ne& interest to these observations b" examining
&hether it be not rather some %arts of the continent of 0candinavia
&hich insensibl" heaves u%' An analogous su%%osition &as entertained
b" the inhabitants of (utch Guiana'O .hen the coast is so lo& that the
level of the soil* at a league &ithin the island* does not change to
extent of a fe& inches* these s&ellings and diminution of the &aters
strike the imagination of the inhabitants'
The $a"o bonito NPrett" RockO* &hich &e first visited* full" merits
its name from the richness of its vegetation' Ever"thing denotes that
it has been long above the surface of the oceanP and the central %art
of the $a"o is not more de%ressed than the banks' >n a la"er of sand
and land shells* five to six inches thick* covered b" a fragmentar"
madre%oric rock* rises a forest of mangroves NRhiRo%horaO' /rom their
form and foliage the" might at a distance be mistaken for laurel
trees' The Avicennia* the Batis* some small Eu%horbia and grasses* b"
the intert&ining of their roots* fix the moving sands' But the
characteristic distinction of the /lora of these coral islands is the
magnificent Tournefortia gna%halioides of 6acquin* &ith silvered
leaves* &hich &e found here for the first time' This is a social %lant
and is a shrub from four feet and a half to five feet high' +ts
flo&ers emit an agreeable %erfumeP and it is the ornament of $a"o
/lamenco* $a"o Piedras and %erha%s of the greater %art of the lo&
lands of the 6ardinillos' .hile &e &ere em%lo"ed in herboriRing*- our
sailors &ere searching among the rocks for lobsters' N- .e gathered
$enchrus m"osuroides* Eu%horbia buxifolia* Batis maritima* +resine
obtusifolia* Tournefortia gna%halioides* (iomedea glabrata* $akile
cubensis* (olichos miniatus* Parthenium h"stero%horus* etc' The
lastHnamed %lant* &hich &e had %reviousl" found in the valle" of
$aracas and on the tem%erate tableHlands of Cexico* bet&een ;38 and
288 toises high* covers the fields of the island of $uba' +t is used
b" the inhabitants for aromatic baths* and to drive a&a" the fleas
&hich are so numerous in tro%ical climates' At $umana the leaves of
several s%ecies of cassia are em%lo"ed* on account of their smell*
against those anno"ing insects'O (isa%%ointed at not finding them*
the" avenged themselves b" climbing on the mangroves and making a
dreadful slaughter of the "oung alcatras* grou%ed in %airs in their
nests' This name is given* in 0%anish America* to the bro&n
s&anHtailed %elican of Buffon' .ith the &ant of foresight %eculiar to
the great %elagic birds* the alcatra builds his nest &here several
branches of trees unite together' .e counted four or five nests on the
same trunk of a mangrove' The "oung birds defended themselves
valiantl" &ith their enormous beaks* &hich are six or seven inches
longP the old ones hovered over our heads* making hoarse and %laintive
cries' Blood streamed from the to%s of the trees* for the sailors &ere
armed &ith great sticks and cutlasses NmachetesO' +n vain &e re%roved
them for this cruelt"' $ondemned to long obedience in the solitude of
the seas* this class of men feel %leasure in exercising a cruel
t"rann" over animals &hen occasion offers' The ground &as covered &ith
&ounded birds struggling in death' At our arrival a %rofound calm
%revailed in this secluded s%otP no&* ever"thing seemed to sa"5 Can
has %assed this &a"'
The sk" &as veiled &ith reddish va%ours* &hich ho&ever dis%ersed in
the direction of southH&estP &e ho%ed* but in vain* to discern the
heights of the island of Pinos' Those s%ots have a charm in &hich most
%arts of the @e& .orld are &anting' The" are associated &ith
recollections of the greatest names of the 0%anish monarch"HHthose of
$hristo%her $olumbus and of Hernan $orteR' +t &as on the southern
coast of the island of $uba* bet&een the ba" of Jagua and the island
of Pinos* that the great 0%anish Admiral* in his second vo"age* sa&*
&ith astonishment* )that m"sterious king &ho s%oke to his subjects
onl" b" signs* and that grou% of men &ho &ore long &hite tunics* like
the monks of =a Cerced* &hilst the rest of the %eo%le &ere naked')
)$olumbus in his fourth vo"age found in the 6ardinillos* great boats
filled &ith Cexican +ndians* and laden &ith the rich %roductions and
merchandise of ,ucatan') Cisled b" his ardent imagination* he thought
he had heard from those navigators* )that the" came from a countr"
&here the men &ere mounted on horses*- and &ore cro&ns of gold on
their heads') N- $om%are the =ettera rarissima di $hristoforo $olombo*
di 3 di 6ulio* 198!P &ith the letter of Herrera* dated (ecember 1'
@othing can be more touching and %athetic than the ex%ression of
melanchol" &hich %revails in the letter of $olumbus* &ritten at
6amaica* and addressed to Aing /erdinand and Bueen +sabella' +
recommend to the notice of those &ho &ish to understand the character
of that extraordinar" man* the recital of the nocturnal vision* in
&hich he imagined that he heard a celestial voice* in the midst of a
tem%est* encouraging him b" these &ords5 +ddio maravigliosamente fece
sonar tuo nome nella terra' =e +ndie que sono %a te del mondo cosi
ricca* te le ha date %er tueP tu le hai re%artite dove ti e %iaciuto*
e ti dette %otenRia %er farlo' (elli ligamenti del mare >ceano che
erano serrati con catene cosi forte* ti dono le chiave* etc' :God
marvellousl" makes th" name resound throughout the &orld' The +ndies*
&hich are so rich a %ortion of the &orld* he gives to thee for
th"selfP thou ma"est distribute them in the &a" thou %leasest* and God
gives thee %o&er to do so' >f the shores of the Atlantic* &hich &ere
closed b" such strong chains* he gives thee the ke"'< This fragment
has been handed do&n to us onl" in an ancient +talian traditionP for
the 0%anish original mentioned in the Biblioteca @autica of (on
Antonio =eon has not hitherto been found' + ma" add a fe& more lines*
characteriRed b" great sim%licit"* &ritten b" the discoverer of the
@e& .orld5 ),our Highness*) sa"s $olumbus* )ma" believe me* the globe
of the earth is far from being so great as the vulgar admit' + &as
seven "ears at "our ro"al court* and during seven "ears &as told that
m" enter%rise &as a foll"' @o& that + have o%ened the &a"* tailors and
shoemakers ask the %rivilege of going to discover ne& lands'
Persecuted* forgotten as + am* + never think of His%aniola and Paria
&ithout m" e"es being filled &ith tears' + &as t&ent" "ears in the
service of "our HighnessP + have not a hair that is not &hiteP and m"
bod" is enfeebled' Heaven and earth no& mourn for meP all &ho have
%it"* truth* and justice* mourn for me N%ianga adesso il cielo e
%ianga %er me la terraP %ianga %er me chi ha carita* verita*
giustiRiaO') =ettera rarissima %ages 1!* 12* !;* !3'O )$ata"o N$hinaO*
the em%ire of the Great Ahan* and the mouth of the Ganges*) a%%eared
to him so near* that he ho%ed soon to em%lo" t&o Arabian inter%reters*
&hom he had embarked at $adiR* in going to America' >ther remembrances
of the island of Pinos* and the surrounding Gardens* are connected
&ith the conquest of Cexico' .hen Hernan $ortes &as %re%aring his
great ex%edition* he &as &recked &ith his @ave $a%itana on one of the
flats of the 6ardinillos' /or the s%ace of five da"s he &as believed
to be lost* and the valiant Pedro de Alvarado sent Nin @ovember 191IO
from the %ort of $arenas- Nthe HavannahO three vessels in search of
him' N- At that %eriod there &ere t&o settlements* one at Puerto de
$arenas in the ancient +ndian %rovince of the Havannah* and the
otherHHthe most considerableHHin the illa de 0an $ristoval de $uba'
These settlements &ere onl" united in 1912 &hen the Puerto de $arenas
took the name of 0an $ristoval de la Habana' )$ortes*) sa"s Herrera*
)%aso a la illa de 0an $ristoval que a la saRon estaba en la costa
del sur* " des%ues se %aso a la Habana') :$ortes %roceeded to the to&n
of 0an $ristoval* &hich at that time &as on the seaHcoast* and
after&ards he re%aired to the Havannah'<O +n /ebruar"* 1912* $ortes
assembled his &hole fleet near ca%e 0an Antonio* %robabl" on the s%ot
&hich still bears the name of Ensenada de $ortes* &est of Batabano and
o%%osite to the island of Pinos' /rom thence* believing he should
better esca%e the snares laid for him b" the governor* elasqueR* he
%assed almost clandestinel" to the coast of Cexico' 0trange
vicissitude of events4 the em%ire of ConteRuma &as shaken b" a handful
of men &ho* from the &estern extremit" of the island of $uba* landed
on the coast of ,ucatanP and in our da"s* three centuries later*
,ucatan* no& a %art of the ne& confederation of the free states of
Cexico* has nearl" menaced &ith conquest the &estern coast of $uba'
>n the morning of the 11th Carch &e visited $a"o /lamenco' + found the
latitude 71 degrees 92 minutes !2 seconds' The centre of this island
is de%ressed and onl" fourteen inches above the surface of the sea'
The &ater here is brackish &hile in other ca"os it is quite fresh' The
mariners of $uba attribute this freshness of the &ater to the action
of the sands in filtering seaH&ater* the same cause &hich is assigned
for the freshness of the lagunes of enice' But this su%%osition is
not justified b" an" chemical analog"' The ca"os are com%osed of
rocks* and not of sands* and their smallness renders it extremel"
im%robable that the %luvial &aters should unite in a %ermanent lake'
Perha%s the fresh &ater of this chain of rocks comes from the
neighbouring coast* from the mountains of $uba* b" the effect of
h"drostatic %ressure' This &ould %rove a %rolongation of the strata of
6ura limestone belo& the sea and a su%er%osition of coral rock on that
limestone'- N- Eru%tions of fresh &ater in the sea* near Baiae*
0"racuse and Aradus Nin PheniciaO &ere kno&n to the ancients' 0trabo
lib' 1L %age 39;' The coral islands that surround Radak* es%eciall"
the lo& island of >tdia* furnish also fresh &ater' $hamisso in
AotRebueGs EntdekkungsHReise volume ! %age 18I'O
+t is too general a %rejudice to consider ever" source of fresh or
salt &ater to be merel" a local %henomenon5 currents of &ater
circulate in the interior of lands bet&een strata of rocks of a
%articular densit" or nature* at immense distances* like the floods
that furro& the surface of the globe' The learned engineer* (on
/rancisco =e Caur* informed me that in the ba" of Jagua* half a degree
east of the 6ardinillos* there issue in the middle of the sea* s%rings
of fresh &ater* t&o leagues and a half from the coast' These s%rings
gush u% &ith such force that the" cause an agitation of the &ater
often dangerous for small canoes' essels that are not going to Jagua
sometimes take in &ater from these ocean s%rings and the &ater is
fresher and colder in %ro%ortion to the de%th &hence it is dra&n' The
manatees* guided b" instinct* have discovered this region of fresh
&atersP and the fishermen &ho like the flesh of these herbivorous
animals*- find them in abundance in the o%en sea' N- Possibl" the"
subsist u%on seaH&eed in the ocean* as &e sa& them feed* on the banks
of the A%ure and the >rinoco* on several s%ecies of Panicum and
>%lismenus NcamaloteTO' +t a%%ears common enough* on the coast of
Tabasco and Honduras* at the mouths of rivers* to find the manatees
s&imming in the sea* as crocodiles do sometimes' (am%ier distinguishes
bet&een the freshH&ater and the saltH&ater manatee' No"ages and
(escr' volume 7O Among the $a"os de las doce leguas* east of Jagua*
some islands bear the name of Ceganos del Canati'O
Half a mile east of $a"o /lamenco &e %assed close to t&o rocks on
&hich the &aves break furiousl"' The" are the Piedras de (iego PereR
Nlatitude 71 degrees 9I minutes 18 seconds'O The tem%erature of the
sea at its surface lo&ers at this %oint to 77'L degrees centigrade*
the de%th of the &ater being onl" about one fathom' +n the evening &e
&ent on shore at $a"o de PiedrasP t&o rocks connected together b"
breakers and l"ing in the direction of northHnorthH&est to
southHsouthHeast' >n these rocks &hich form the eastern extremit" of
the 6ardinillos man" vessels are lost* and the" are almost destitute
of shrubs because shi%&recked cre&s cut them to make fireHsignals' The
$a"o de Piedras is extremel" %reci%itous on the side near the seaP and
to&ards the middle there is a small basin of fresh &ater' .e found a
block of madre%ore in the rock* measuring u%&ards of three cubic feet'
(oubtless this limestone formation* &hich at a distance resembles 6ura
limestone* is a fragmentar" rock' +t &ould be &ell if this chain of
ca"os &hich surrounds the island of $uba &ere examined b" geologists
&ith the vie& of determining &hat ma" be attributed to the animals
&hich still &ork at the bottom of the sea* and &hat belongs to the
real tertiar" formations* the age of &hich ma" be traced back to the
date of the coarse limestone abounding in remains of litho%hite coral'
+n general* that &hich rises above the &aters is onl" breccia* or
aggregate of madre%oric fragments cemented b" carbonate of lime*
broken shells* and sand' +t is im%ortant to examine* in each of the
ca"os* on &hat this breccia re%osesP &hether it covers edifices of
mollusca still living* or those secondar" and tertiar" rocks* &hich
judging from the remains of coral the" contain* seem to be the %roduct
of our da"s' The g"%sum of the ca"os o%%osite 0an 6uan de los
Remedios* on the northern coast of the island of $uba* merits great
attention' +ts age is doubtless more remote than historic times* and
no geologist &ill believe that it is the &ork of the mollusca of our
seas'
/rom the $a"o de Piedras &e could faintl" discern in the direction of
eastHnorthHeast the loft" mountains that rise be"ond the ba" of Jagua'
(uring the night &e again la" at anchorP and next da" N17th CarchO*
having %assed bet&een the northern ca%e of the $a"o de Piedras and the
island of $uba* &e entered a sea free from breakers' +ts blue colour
Na dark indigo tintO and the heightening of the tem%erature %roved ho&
much the de%th of the &ater had augmented' .e tried* under favour of
the variable &inds on sea and shore* to steer east&ard as far as the
%ort of =a Trinidad so that &e might be less o%%osed b" the northHeast
&inds &hich then %revail in the o%en sea* in making the %assage to
$arthagena* of &hich the meridian falls bet&een 0antiago de $uba and
the ba" of Guantanamo' Having %assed the marsh" coast of $amareos*- N-
Here the celebrated %hilanthro%ist Bartolomeo de las $asas obtained in
191; from his friend elasqueR* the governor* a good re%artimiente de
+ndios Ngrant of land so calledO' But this he renounced in the same
"ear* from scru%les of conscience* during a short sta" at 6amaica'O &e
arrived Nlatitude 71 degrees 98 minutesO in the meridian of the
entrance of the Bahia de Jagua' The longitude the chronometer gave me
at this %oint &as almost identical &ith that since %ublished Nin 1I71O
in the ma% of the (e%osito hidrografico of Cadrid'
The %ort of Jagua is one of the finest but least frequented of the
island' )There cannot be another such in the &orld*) is the remark of
the $oronista major NAntonio de HerreraO' The surve"s and %lans of
defence made b" C' =e Caur* at the time of the commission of $ount
6aruco* %rove that the anchorage of Jagua merits the celebrit" it
acquired even in the first "ears of the conquest' The to&n consists
merel" of a small grou% of houses and a fort Ncastillito'O >n the east
of Jagua* the mountains N$erros de 0an 6uanO near the coast* assume an
as%ect more and more majesticP not from their height* &hich does not
seem to exceed three hundred toises* but from their stee%ness and
general form' The coast* + &as told* is so stee% that a frigate ma"
a%%roach the mouth of the Rio Guaurabo' .hen the tem%erature of the
air diminished at night to 7! degrees and the &ind ble& from the land
it brought that delicious odour of flo&ers and hone" &hich
characteriRes the shores of the island of $uba'- N- $uban &ax* &hich
is a ver" im%ortant object of trade* is %roduced b" the bees of Euro%e
Nthe s%ecies A%is* =atr'O' $olumbus sa"s ex%ressl" that in his time
the inhabitants of $uba did not collect &ax' The great loaf of that
substance &hich he found in the island in his first vo"age* and
%resented to Aing /erdinand in the celebrated audience of Barcelona*
&as after&ards ascertained to have been brought thither b" Cexican
barques from ,ucatan' +t is curious that the &ax of meli%ones &as the
first %roduction of Cexico that fell into the hands of the 0%aniards*
in the month of @ovember* 1;27'O .e sailed along the coast kee%ing t&o
or three miles distant from land' >n the 1!th Carch a little before
sunset &e &ere o%%osite the mouth of the Rio 0an 6uan* so much dreaded
b" navigators on account of the innumerable quantit" of mosquitos and
Rancudos &hich fill the atmos%here' +t is like the o%ening of a
ravine* in &hich vessels of heav" burden might enter* but that a shoal
N%lacerO obstructs the %assage' 0ome horar" angles gave me the
longitude I7 degrees ;8 minutes 98 seconds for this %ort &hich is
frequented b" the smugglers of 6amaica and the corsairs of Providence
+sland' The mountains that command the %ort scarcel" rise to 7!8
toises' + %assed a great %art of the night on deck' The coast &as
drear" and desolate' @ot a light announced a fishermanGs hut' There is
no village bet&een Batabano and Trinidad* a distance of fift" leaguesP
scarcel" are there more than t&o or three corrales or farm "ards*
containing hogs or co&s' ,et* in the time of $olumbus* this territor"
&as inhabited along the shore' .hen the ground is dug to make &ells*
or &hen torrents furro& the surface of the earth in floods* stone
hatchets and co%%er utensils- are often discoveredP these are remains
of the ancient inhabitants of America' N- (oubtless the co%%er of
$uba' The abundance of this metal in its native state &ould naturall"
induce the +ndians of $uba and Ha"ti to melt it' $olumbus sa"s that
there &ere masses of native co%%er at Ha"ti* of the &eight of six
arrobasP and that the boats of ,ucatan* &hich he met &ith on the
eastern coast of $uba* carried* among other Cexican merchandiRe*
crucibles to melt co%%er'O
At sunrise + requested the ca%tain to heave the lead' There &as no
bottom to be found at sixt" fathomsP and the ocean &as &armer at its
surface than an"&here elseP it &as at 7L'I degreesP the tem%erature
exceeded ;'7 degrees that &hich &e had found near the breakers of
(iego PereR' At the distance of half a mile from the coast* the sea
&ater &as not more than 7'9 degreesP &e had no o%%ortunit" of sounding
but the de%th of the &ater had no doubt diminished' >n the 1;th of
Carch &e entered the Rio Guaurabo* one of the t&o %orts of Trinidad de
$uba* to %ut on shore the %ractico* or %ilot of Batabano* &ho had
steered us across the flats of the 6ardinillos* though not &ithout
causing us to run aground several times' .e also ho%ed to find a
%acketHboat Ncorreo maritimoO in this %ort* &hich &ould take us to
$arthagena' + landed to&ards the evening* and %laced BordaGs aRimuth
com%ass and the artificial horiRon on the shore for the %ur%ose of
observing the %assage of some stars b" the meridianP but &e had
scarcel" begun our %re%arations &hen a %art" of small traders of the
class called %ul%eros* &ho had dined on board a foreign shi% recentl"
arrived* invited us to accom%an" them to the to&n' These good %eo%le
requested us mount t&o b" t&o on the same horseP and* as the heat &as
excessive* &e acce%ted their offer' The distance from the mouth of the
Rio Guaurabo to Trinidad is nearl" four miles in a northH&est
direction' The road runs across a %lain &hich seems as if it had been
levelled b" a long sojourn of the &aters' +t is covered &ith
vegetation* to &hich the miraguama* a %almHtree &ith silvered leaves
N&hich &e sa& here for the first timeO* gives a %eculiar character'-
N- $or"%ha miraguama' Probabl" the same s%ecies &hich struck Cessrs'
6ohn and .illiam /raser Nfather and sonO in the vicinit" of CatanRas'
Those t&o botanists* &ho introduced a great number of valuable %lants
to the gardens of Euro%e* &ere shi%&recked on their vo"age to the
Havannah from the ?nited 0tates* and saved themselves &ith difficult"
on the ca"os at the entrance of the >ld $hannel* a fe& &eeks before m"
de%arture for $arthagena'O This fertile soil* although of tierra
colorada* requires onl" to be tilled and it &ould "ield fruitful
harvests' A ver" %icturesque vie& o%ens &est&ard on the =omas of 0an
6uan* a chain of calcareous mountains from 1I88 to 7888 toises high
and ver" stee% to&ards the south' Their bare and barren summits form
sometimes round blocksP and here and there rise u% in %oints like
horns*- a little inclined' N- .herever the rock is visible + %erceived
com%act limestone* &hitishHgre"* %artl" %orous and %artl" &ith a
smooth fracture* as in the 6ura formation'O @ot&ithstanding the great
lo&ering of the tem%erature during the season of the @ortes or north
&inds* sno& never fallsP and onl" a hoarHfrost NescarchaO is seen on
these mountains* as on those of 0antiago' This absence of sno& is
difficult to be ex%lained' +n emerging from the forest &e %erceived a
curtain of hills of &hich the southern slo%e is covered &ith housesP
this is the to&n of Trinidad* founded in 191;* b" the governor (iego
elasqueR* on account of the rich mines of gold &hich &ere said to
have been discovered in the little valle" of Rio Arimao'- N- This
river flo&s to&ards the east into the Bahia de Jagua'O The streets of
Trinidad have all a ra%id descent5 there* as in most %arts of 0%anish
America* it is com%lained that the $ouquistadores chose ver"
injudiciousl" the sites for ne& to&ns'- N- +t is questionable &hether
the to&n founded b" elasqueR &as not situated in the %lain and nearer
the %orts of $asilda and Guaurabo' +t has been suggested that the fear
of the /rench* Portuguese and English freebooters led to the
selection* even in inland %laces* of sites on the declivit" of
mountains* &hence* as from a &atchHto&er* the a%%roach of the enem"
could be discernedP but it seems to me that these fears could have had
no existence %rior to the government of Hernando de 0oto' The Havannah
&as sacked for the first time b" /rench corsairs in 19!2'O At the
northern extremit" is the church of @uestra 0enora de la Po%a* a
celebrated %lace of %ilgrimage' This %oint + found to be 388 feet
above the level of the seaP it commands a magnificent vie& of the
ocean* the t&o %orts NPuerto $asilda and Boca GuauraboO* a forest of
%almHtrees and the grou% of the loft" mountains of 0an 6uan' .e &ere
received at the to&n of Trinidad &ith the kindest hos%italit" b" 0enor
CunoR* the 0u%erintendent of the Real Hacienda' + made observations
during a great %art of the night and found the latitude near the
cathedral b" the 0%ica irginis* al%ha of the $entaur* and beta of the
0outhern $ross* under circumstances not equall" favourable* to be 71
degrees ;I minutes 78 seconds' C" chronometric longitude &as I7
degrees 71 minutes 3 seconds' + &as informed at m" second visit to the
Havannah* in returning from Cexico* that this longitude &as nearl"
identical &ith that obtained b" the ca%tain of a frigate* (on 6ose del
Rio* &ho had long resided on that s%otP but that he marked the
latitude of the to&n at 71 degrees ;7 minutes ;8 seconds'
The =ieutenantHGovernor NTeniente GovernadoreO of Trinidad* &hose
jurisdiction then extended to illa $lara* Princi%e and 0anto
Es%iritu* &as ne%he& to the celebrated astronomer (on Antonio ?lloa'
He gave us a grand entertainment* at &hich &e met some /rench
emigrants from 0an (omingo &ho had brought their talents and industr"
to 0%anish America' The ex%ortation of the sugar of Trinidad* b" the
registers of the customHhouse* did not then exceed ;888 chests'
The advantage of having t&o %orts is often discussed at Trinidad' The
distance of the to&n from Puerto de $asilda and Puerto Guaurabo is
nearl" equalP "et the ex%ense of trans%ort is greatest in the former
%ort' The Boca del Rio Guaurabo* defended b" a ne& batter"* furnishes
safe anchorage* although less sheltered than that of Puerto $asilda'
essels that dra& little &ater or are lightened to %ass the bar* can
go u% the river and a%%roach the to&n &ithin a mile' The %acketHboats
NcorreosO that touch at Trinidad de $uba %refer* in general* the Rio
Guaurabo* &here the" find safe anchorage &ithout needing a %ilot' The
Puerto $asilda is more inclosed and goes further back inland but
cannot be entered &ithout a %ilot* on account of the breakers
NarrecifesO and the Culas and Culattas' The great mole* constructed
&ith &ood* and ver" useful to commerce* &as damaged in discharging
%ieces of artiller"' +t is entirel" destro"ed* and it &as undecided
&hether it &ould be best to reconstruct it &ith masonr"* according to
the %roject of (on =uis de Bassecourt* or to o%en the bar of Guaurabo
b" dredging it' The great disadvantage of Puerto de $asilda is the
&ant of fresh &ater* &hich vessels have to %rocure at the distance of
a league'
.e %assed a ver" agreeable evening in the house of one of the richest
inhabitants* (on Antonio Padron* &here &e found assembled at a
tertulia all the good com%an" of Trinidad' .e &ere again struck &ith
the gaiet" and vivacit" that distinguish the &omen of $uba' These are
ha%%" gifts of nature to &hich the refinements of Euro%ean
civiliRation might lend additional charms but &hich* nevertheless*
%lease in their %rimitive sim%licit"' .e quitted Trinidad on the night
of the 19th Carch' The munici%alit" caused us to be conducted to the
mouth of the Rio Guaurabo in a fine carriage lined &ith old crimson
damaskP and* to add to our confusion* an ecclesiastic* the %oet of the
%lace* habited in a suit of velvet not&ithstanding the heat of the
climate* celebrated* in a sonnet* our vo"age to the >rinoco'
>n the road leading to the %ort &e &ere forcibl" struck b" a s%ectacle
&hich our sta" of t&o "ears in the hottest %art of the tro%ics might
have rendered familiar to usP but %reviousl" + had no&here seen such
an innumerable quantit" of %hos%horescent insects'- N- $ocu"o* Elater
noctilucus'O The grass that overs%read the ground* the branches and
foliage of the trees* all shone &ith that reddish and moveable light
&hich varies in its intensit" at the &ill of the animal b" &hich it is
%roduced' +t seemed as though the starr" firmament re%osed on the
savannah' +n the hut of the %oorest inhabitants of the countr"*
fifteen cocu"os* %laced in a calabash %ierced &ith holes* afford
sufficient light to search for an"thing during the night' To shake the
calabash forcibl" is all that is necessar" to excite the animal to
increase the intensit" of the luminous discs situated on each side of
its bod"' The %eo%le of the countr" remark* &ith a sim%le truth of
ex%ression* that calabashes filled &ith cocu"os are lanterns al&a"s
read" lighted' The" are* in fact* onl" extinguished b" the sickness or
death of the insects* &hich are easil" fed &ith a little sugarHcane' A
"oung &oman at Trinidad de $uba told us that during a long and
difficult %assage from the main land* she al&a"s made use of the
%hos%horescence of the cocu"os* &hen she gave suck to her child at
nightP the ca%tain of the shi% &ould allo& no other light on board*
from the fear of corsairs'
As the breeRe freshened in the direction of northHeast &e sought to
avoid the grou% of the $a"mans but the current drove us to&ards those
islands' 0ailing to south 1M; southHeast* &e graduall" lost sight of
the %almHcovered shore* the hills rising above the to&n of Trinidad
and the loft" mountains of the island of $uba' There is something
solemn in the as%ect of land from &hich the vo"ager is de%arting and
&hich he sees sinking b" degrees belo& the horiRon of the sea' The
interest of this im%ression &as heightened at the %eriod to &hich +
here advertP &hen 0aint (omingo &as the centre of great %olitical
agitations* and threatened to involve the other islands in one of
those sanguinar" struggles &hich reveal to man the ferocit" of his
nature' These threatened dangers &ere ha%%il" avertedP the storm &as
a%%eased on the s%ot &hich gave it birthP and a free black %o%ulation*
far from troubling the %eace of the neighbouring islands* has made
some ste%s in the %rogress of civiliRation and has %romoted the
establishment of good institutions' Porto Rico* $uba and 6amaica* &ith
!38*888 &hites and II9*888 men of colour* surround Ha"ti* &here a
%o%ulation of 288*888 negros and mulattos have been emanci%ated b"
their o&n efforts' The negros* more inclined to cultivate alimentar"
%lants than colonial %roductions* augment &ith a ra%idit" onl"
sur%assed b" the increase of the %o%ulation of the ?nited 0tates'
$HAPTER !'!8'
PA00AGE /R>C TR+@+(A( (E $?BA T> R+> 0+@?'
$ARTHAGE@A'
A+R >=$A@>E0 >/ T?RBA$>'
$A@A= >/ CAHATE0'
>n the morning of the 13th of Carch* &e came &ithin sight of the most
eastern island of the grou% of the =esser $a"mans' $om%aring the
reckoning &ith the chronometric longitude* + ascertained that the
currents had borne us in seventeen hours t&ent" miles &est&ard' The
island is called b" the English %ilots $a"manHbrack* and b" the
0%anish %ilots* $a"man chico oriental' +t forms a rock" &all* bare and
stee% to&ards the south and southHeast' The north and northH&est %art
is lo&* sand"* and scantil" covered &ith vegetation' The rock is
broken into narro& horiRontal ledges' /rom its &hiteness and its
%roximit" to the island of $uba* + su%%osed it to be of 6ura
limestone' .e a%%roached the eastern extremit" of $a"manHbrack &ithin
the distance of ;88 toises' The neighbouring coast is not entirel"
free from danger and breakersP "et the tem%erature of the sea had not
sensibl" diminished at its surface' The chronometer of =ouis Berthoud
gave me I7 degrees 3 minutes !3 seconds for the longitude of the
eastern ca%e of $a"manHbrack' The latitude reduced b" the reckoning on
the rhumbs of &ind at the meridian observation* a%%eared to me to be
12 degrees ;8 minutes 98 seconds'
As long as &e &ere &ithin sight of the rock of $a"manHbrack
seaHturtles of extraordinar" dimensions s&am round our vessel' The
abundance of these animals led $olumbus to give the &hole grou% of the
$a"mans the name of Penascales de las Tortugas Nrocks of the turtles'O
>ur sailors &ould have thro&n themselves into the &ater to catch some
of these animalsP but the numerous sharks that accom%an" them rendered
the attem%t too %erilous' The sharks fixed their ja&s on great iron
hooks &hich &ere flung to themP these hooks &ere ver" shar% and Nfor
&ant of anRuelos encandenados- N- /ishHhooks &ith chains'OO the" &ere
tied to cords5 the sharks &ere in this manner dra&n u% half the length
of their bodiesP and &e &ere sur%rised to see that those &hich had
their mouths &ounded and bleeding continued to seiRe the bait over and
over again during several hours'- N- idimus quoque squales*
quotiescunque* hamo icti* dimidia %arte cor%oris e fluctibus
extrahebantur* cito alvo stercus emittere haud absimile excrementis
caninis' $ommovebat intestina Nut arbitramurO subitus %avor' Although
the form and number of teeth change &ith age* and the teeth a%%ear
successivel" in the shark genus* + doubt &hether (on Antonio ?lloa be
correct in stating that the "oung sharks have t&o* and the old ones
four ro&s of grinders' These* like man" other seaHfish* are easil"
accustomed to live in fresh &ater* or in &ater slightl" brin"' +t is
observed that sharks NtiburonesO abound of late in the =aguna of
Caraca"bo* &hither the" have been attracted b" the dead bodies thro&n
into the &ater after the frequent battles bet&een the 0%anish
ro"alists and the $olumbian re%ublicans'O At the sight of these
voracious fish the sailors in a 0%anish vessel al&a"s recollect the
local fable of the coast of eneRuela* &hich describes the benediction
of a bisho% as having softened the habits of the sharks* &hich are
ever"&here else the dread of mariners' (o these &ild sharks of the
%ort of =a Gua"ra s%ecificall" differ from those &hich are so
formidable in the %ort of the HavannahT And do the former belong to
the grou% of Emissoles &ith small shar% teeth* &hich $uvier
distinguishes from the Celandres* b" the name of CusteliT
The &ind freshened more and more from the southHeast* as &e advanced
in the direction of $a%e @egril and the &estern extremit" of the great
bank of =a ibora' .e &ere often forced to diverge from our courseP
and* on account of the extreme smallness of our vessel* &e &ere almost
constantl" under &ater' >n the 1Ith of Carch at noon &e found
ourselves in latitude 1I degrees 13 minutes ;8 seconds* and in I1
degrees 98 minutes longitude' The horiRon* to the height of 98
degrees* &as covered &ith those reddish va%ours so common &ithin the
tro%ics* and &hich never seem to affect the h"grometer at the surface
of the globe' .e %assed fift" miles &est of $a%e @egril on the south*
nearl" at the %oint &here several charts indicate an insulated flat of
&hich the %osition is similar to that of 0ancho Pardo* o%%osite to
$a%e 0an Antonio de $uba' .e sa& no change in the bottom' +t a%%ears
that the rock" shoal at a de%th of four fathoms* near $a%e @egril* has
no more existence than the rock NcascabelO itself* long believed to
mark the &estern extremit" of =a ibora NPedro Bank* Portland Rock or
la 0olaO* marking the eastern extremit"' >n the 12th of Carch* at four
in the afternoon* the mudd" colour of the sea denoted that &e had
reached that %art of the bank of =a ibora &here &e no longer find
fifteen* and indeed scarcel" nine or ten* fathoms of &ater' >ur
chronometric longitude &as I1 degrees ! minutesP and our latitude
%robabl" belo& 13 degrees' + &as sur%rised that* at the noon
observation* at 13 degrees 3 minutes of latitude* &e "et %erceived no
change in the colour of the &ater' 0%anish vessels going from Batabano
or Trinidad de $uba to $arthagena* usuall" %ass over the bank of =a
ibora* on its &estern side* at bet&een fifteen and sixteen fathoms
&ater' The dangers of the breakers begin onl" be"ond the meridian I8
degrees ;9 minutes &est longitude' +n %assing along the bank on its
southern limit* as %ilots often do in %roceeding from $umana or other
%arts of the mainland* to the Great $a"mnan or $a%e 0an Antonio* the"
need not ascend along the rocks* above 1L degrees ;3 minutes latitude'
/ortunatel" the currents run on the &hole bank to southH&est'
$ ibora not as a submerged land* but as a heavedHu% %art
of the surface of the globe* &hich has not reached the level of the
sea* &e are struck at finding on this great submarine island* as on
the neighbouring land of 6amaica and $uba* the loftiest heights
to&ards its eastern boundar"' +n that direction are situated Portland
Rock* Pedro Ae"s and 0outh Ae"* all surrounded b" dangerous breakers'
The de%th is six or eight fathomsP but* in advancing to the middle of
the bank* along the line of the summit* first to&ards the &est and
then to&ards the northH&est* the de%th becomes successivel" ten*
t&elve* sixteen and nineteen fathoms' .hen &e surve" on the ma% the
%roximit" of the high lands of 0an (omingo* $uba and 6amaica* in the
neighbourhood of the .ind&ard $hannel* the %osition of the island of
@avaRa and the bank of Hormigas* bet&een $a%es Tiburon and CorantP
&hen &e trace that chain of successive breakers* from the ibora* b"
Baxo @uevo* 0erranilla* and Buita 0ueno* as far as the Cosquito 0ound*
&e cannot but recogniRe in this s"stem of islands and shoals the
almostHcontinued line of a heavedHu% ridge running from northHeast to
southH&est' This ridge* and the old d"ke* &hich link* b" the rock of
0ancho Pardo* $a%e 0an Antonio to the %eninsula of ,ucatan* divide the
great sea of the .est +ndies into three %artial basins* similar to
those observed in the Cediterranean'
The colour of the troubled &aters on the shoal of =a ibora has not a
milk" a%%earance like the &aters in the 6ardinillos and on the bank of
BahamaP but it is of a dirt" gre" colour' The striking differences of
tint on the bank of @e&foundland* in the archi%elago of the Bahama
+slands and on =a ibora* the variable quantities of earth" matter
sus%ended in the more or less troubled &aters of the soundings* ma"
all be the effects of the variable absor%tion of the ra"s of light*
contributing to modif" to a certain %oint the tem%erature of the sea'
.here the shoals are I to 18 degrees colder at their surface than the
surrounding sea* it cannot be sur%rising that the" should %roduce a
local change of climate' A great mass of ver" cold &ater* as on the
bank of @e&foundland* in the current of the Peruvian shore Nbet&een
the %ort of $allao and Punta Parina- N- + found the surface of the
Pacific ocean* in the month of >ctober 1I87 on the coast of Truxillo*
19'I degrees centigradeP in the %ort of $allao* in @ovember* 19'9P
bet&een the %arallel of $allao and Punta Parina* in (ecember* 12
degreesP and %rogressivel"* &hen the current advanced to&ards the
equator and receded to&ards the &estHnorthH&est* 78'9 and 77'!
degreesOO* or in the African current near $a%e erd* have necessaril"
an influence on the atmos%here that covers the sea* and on the climate
of the neighbouring landP but it is less eas" to conceive that those
slight changes of tem%erature Nfor instance* a centesimal degree on
the bank of =a iboraO can im%art a %eculiar character to the
atmos%here of the shoals' Ca" not these submarine islands act u%on the
formation and accumulation of the vesicular va%ours in some other &a"
than b" cooling the &aters of the surfaceT
Buitting the bank of =a ibora* &e %assed bet&een the Baxo @uevo and
the lightHhouse of $ambo"P and on the 77nd Carch &e %assed more than
thirt" leagues to &est&ard of El Roncador NThe 0norerO* a name &hich
this shoal has received from the %ilots &ho assert* on the authorit"
of ancient traditions* that a sound like snoring is heard from afar'
+f such a sound be reall" heard* it arises* no doubt* from a
%eriodical issuing of air com%ressed b" the &aters in a rock" cavern'
+ have observed the same %henomenon on several coasts* for instance*
on the %romontories of Teneriffe* in the limestones of the Havannah*-
N- $alled b" the 0%anish sailors El $ordonaRo de 0an /rancisco'O and
in the granite of =o&er Peru bet&een Truxillo and =ima' A %roject &as
formed at the $anar" +slands for %lacing a machine at the issue of the
com%ressed air and allo&ing the sea to act as an im%elling force'
.hile the autumnal equinox is ever"&here dreaded in the sea of the
.est +ndies Nexce%t on the coast of $umana and $aracasO* the s%ring
equinox %roduces no effect on the tranquillit" of those tro%ical
regions5 a %henomenon almost the inverse of that observable in high
latitudes' 0ince &e had quitted =a ibora the &eather had been
remarkabl" fineP the colour of the sea &as indigoHblue and sometimes
violet* o&ing to the quantit" of medusae and eggs of fish N%urga de
marO &hich covered it' +ts surface &as gentl" agitated' The
thermometer ke%t u%* in the shade* from 7L to 73 degreesP not a cloud
arose on the horiRon although the &ind &as constantl" north* or
northHnorthH&est' + kno& not &hether to attribute to this &ind* &hich
cools the higher la"ers of the atmos%here* and there %roduces ic"
cr"stals* the halos &hich &ere formed round the moon t&o nights
successivel"' The halos &ere of small dimensions* ;9 degrees diameter'
+ never had an o%%ortunit" of seeing and measuring an"- of &hich the
diameter had attained 28 degrees' N- +n $a%tain Parr"Gs first vo"age
halos &ere measured round the sun and moon* of &hich the ra"s &ere 77
1M7 degreesP 77 degrees 97 minutesP !I degreesP ;L degrees' @orthH&est
Passage* 1I71'O The disa%%earance of one of those lunar halos &as
follo&ed b" the formation of a great black cloud* from &hich fell some
dro%s of rainP but the sk" soon resumed its fixed serenit"* and &e sa&
a long series of fallingHstars and bolides &hich moved in one
direction and contrar" to that of the &ind of the lo&er strata'
>n the 7!rd Carch* a com%arison of the reckoning &ith the chronometric
longitude* indicated the force of a current bearing to&ards
&estHsouthH&est' +ts s&iftness* in the %arallel of 13 degrees* &as
t&ent" to t&ent"Ht&o miles in t&ent"Hfour hours' + found the
tem%erature of the sea some&hat diminishedP in latitude 17 degrees !9
minutes it &as onl" 79'2 degrees Nair 73'8 degreesO' (uring the &hole
da" the firmament exhibited a s%ectacle &hich &as thought remarkable
even b" the sailors and &hich + had observed on a %revious occasion
N6une 1!th* 1322O' There &as a total absence of clouds* even of those
light va%ours called dr"P "et the sun coloured* &ith a fine ros" tint*
the air and the horiRon of the sea' To&ards night the sea &as covered
&ith great bluish cloudsP and &hen the" disa%%eared &e sa&* at an
immense height* fleec" clouds in regular s%aces* and ranged in
convergent bands' Their direction &as from northHnorthH&est to
southHsouthHeast* or more exactl"* north 78 degrees &est* consequentl"
contrar" to the direction of the magnetic meridian'
>n the 7;th Carch &e entered the gulf &hich is bounded on the east b"
the coast of 0anta Carta* and on the &est b" $osta RicaP for the mouth
of the Cagdalena and that of the Rio 0an 6uan de @icaragua are on the
same %arallel* nearl" 11 degrees latitude' The %roximit" of the
Pacific >cean* the configuration of the neighbouring lands* the
smallness of the isthmus of Panama* the lo&ering of the soil bet&een
the gulf of Pa%aga"o and the %ort of 0an 6uan de @icaragua* the
vicinit" of the sno&" mountains of 0anta Carta* and man" other
circumstances too numerous to mention* combine to create a %eculiar
climate in this gulf' The atmos%here is agitated b" violent gales
kno&n in &inter b" the name of the briRotes de 0anta Carta' .hen the
&ind abates* the currents bear to northHeast* and the conflict bet&een
the slight breeRes Nfrom east and northHeastO and the current renders
the sea rough and agitated' +n calm &eather* the vessels going from
$arthagena to Rio 0inu* at the mouth of the Atrato and at Portobello*
are im%eded in their course b" the currents of the coast' The heav" or
briRote &inds* on the contrar"* govern the movement of the &aters*
&hich the" im%el in an o%%osite direction* to&ards &estHsouthH&est' +t
is the latter movement &hich Cajor Rennell* in his great h"drogra%hic
&ork* calls driftP and he distinguishes it from real currents* &hich
are not o&ing to the local action of the &ind* but to differences of
level in the surface of the oceanP to the rising and accumulation of
&aters in ver" distant latitudes' The observations &hich + have
collected on the force and direction of the &inds* on the tem%erature
and ra%idit" of the currents* on the influence of the seasons* or the
variable declination of the sun* have thro&n some light on the
com%licated s"stem of those %elagic floods that furro& the surface of
the ocean5 but it is less eas" to conceive the causes of the change in
the movement of the &aters at the same season and &ith the same &ind'
.h" is the GulfHstream sometimes borne on the coast of /lorida*
sometimes on the border of the shoal of BahamaT .h" do the &aters
flo&* for the s%ace of &hole &eeks* from the Havannah to CatanRas* and
Nto cite an exam%le of the corriente %or arriba* &hich is sometimes
observed in the most eastern %art of the main land during the
%revalence of gentle &indsO from =a Gua"ra to $a%e $odera and $umanaT
As &e advanced* on the 79th of Carch* to&ards the coast of (arien* the
northHeast &ind increased &ith violence' .e might have imagined
ourselves trans%orted to another climate' The sea became ver" rough
during the night "et the tem%erature of the &ater ke%t u% Nfrom
latitude 18 degrees !8 minutes* to 2 degrees ;3 minutesO at 79'I
degrees' .e %erceived at sunrise a %art of the archi%elago- of 0aint
Bernard* &hich closes the gulf of Corrosquillo on the north' N- +t is
com%osed of the islands Cucara* $e"cen* Caravilla* Tinti%an* Panda*
Palma* Cangles* and 0alamanquilla* &hich rise little above the sea'
0everal of them have the form of a bastion' There are t&o %assages in
the middle of this archi%elago* from seventeen to t&ent" fathoms'
=arge vessels can %ass bet&een the +sla Panda and Tinti%an* and
bet&een the +sla de Cangles and Palma'O A clear s%ot bet&een the
clouds enabled me to take the horar" angles' The chronometer* at the
little island of Cucara* gave longitude 3I degrees 1! minutes 9;
seconds' .e %assed on the southern extremit" of the Placer de 0an
Bernardo' The &aters &ere milk"* although a sounding of t&ent"Hfive
fathoms did not indicate the bottomP the cooling of the &ater &as not
felt* doubtless o&ing to the ra%idit" of the current' Above the
archi%elago of 0aint Bernard and $a%e Boqueron &e sa& in the distance
the mountains of Tigua' The storm" &eather and the difficult" of going
u% against the &ind induced the ca%tain of our frail vessel to seek
shelter in the Rio 0inu* or rather* near the Punta del Sa%ote*
situated on the eastern bank of the Ensenada de $is%ata* into &hich
flo&s the river 0inu or the Senu of the earl" $onquistadores' +t
rained &ith violence* and + availed m"self of that occasion to measure
the tem%erature of the rainH&ater5 it &as 7L'! degrees* &hile the
thermometer in the air ke%t u%* in a %lace &here the bulb &as not &et*
at 7;'I degrees' This result differed much from that &e had obtained
at $umana* &here the rainH&ater &as often a degree colder than the
air'- N- As* &ithin the tro%ics* it takes but little time to collect
some inches of &ater in a vase having a &ide o%ening* and narro&ing
to&ards the bottom* + do not think there can be an" error in the
observation* &hen the heat of the rainH&ater differs from that of the
air' +f the heat of the rainH&ater be less than that of the air it ma"
be %resumed that onl" a %art of the total effect is observed' + often
found at Cexico at the end of 6une* the rain at 12'7 or 12'; degrees*
&hen the air &as at 13'I and 1I degrees' +n general it a%%eared to me
that* &ithin the torrid Rone* either at the level of the sea* or on
tableHlands from 1788 to 1988 toises high* there is no rain but that
during storms* &hich falls in large dro%s ver" distant from each
other* and is sensibl" colder than the air' These dro%s bring &ith
them* no doubt* the lo& tem%erature of the high regions' +n the rain
&hich + found hotter than the air* t&o causes ma" act simultaneousl"'
Great clouds heat b" the absor%tion of the ra"s of the sun &hich
strike their surfaceP and the dro%s of &ater in falling cause an
eva%oration and %roduce cold in the air' The tem%erature of
rainH&ater* to &hich + devoted much attention during m" travels* has
become a more im%ortant %roblem since C' Boisgiraud* Professor of
Ex%erimental Philoso%h" at Poitiers* has %roved that in Euro%e rain is
generall" sufficientl" cold* relativel" to the air* to cause
%reci%itation of va%our at the surface of ever" dro%' /rom this fact
he traces the cause of the unequal quantit" of rain collected at
different heights' .hen &e recollect that one degree onl" of cooling
%reci%itates more &ater in the hot climate of the tro%ics* than b" a
tem%erature of 18 to 1! degrees* &e ma" cease to be sur%rised at the
enormous siRe of the dro%s of rain that fall at $umana* $arthagena and
Gua"aquil'O
>ur %assage from the island of $uba to the coast of 0outh America
terminated at the mouth of the Rio 0inu* and it occu%ied sixteen da"s'
The roadstead near the Punta del Sa%ote afforded ver" bad anchorageP
and in a rough sea* and &ith a violent &ind* &e found some difficult"
in reaching the coast in our canoe' Ever"thing denoted that &e had
entered a &ild region rarel" visited b" strangers' A fe& scattered
houses form the village of Sa%ote5 &e found a great number of mariners
assembled under a sort of shed* all men of colour* &ho had descended
the Rio 0inu in their barks* to carr" maiRe* bananas* %oultr" and
other %rovisions to the %ort of $arthagena' These barks* &hich are
from fift" to eight" feet long* belong for the most %art to the
%lanters NhaciendadosO of =orica' The value of their largest freight
amounts to about 7888 %iastres' These boats are flatHbottomed* and
cannot kee% at sea &hen it is ver" rough' The breeRes from the
northHeast had* during ten da"s* blo&n &ith violence on the coast*
&hile* in the o%en sea* as far as 18 degrees latitude* &e had onl" had
slight gales* and a constantl" calm sea' +n the aerial* as in the
%elagic currents* some la"ers of fluids move &ith extreme s&iftness*
&hile others near them remain almost motionless' The Rambos of the Rio
0inu &earied us &ith idle questions res%ecting the %ur%ose of our
vo"age* our books* and the use of our instruments5 the" regarded us
&ith mistrustP and to esca%e from their im%ortunate curiosit" &e &ent
to herboriRe in the forest* although it rained' The" had endeavoured*
as usual* to alarm us b" stories of boas NtragaHvenadoO* vi%ers and
the attacks of jaguarsP but during a long residence among the $ha"ma
+ndians of the >rinoco &e &ere habituated to these exaggerations*
&hich arise less from the credulit" of the natives* than from the
%leasure the" take in tormenting the &hites' Buitting the coast of
Sa%ote* covered &ith mangroves*- N- RhiRo%hora mangle'O &e entered a
forest remarkable for a great variet" of %almHtrees' .e sa& the trunks
of the $oroRo del 0inu- %ressed against each other* &hich formed
heretofore our s%ecies Alfonsia* "ielding oil in abundance N- +n
0%anish America %almHtrees &ith leaves the most different in kind and
s%ecies are called $oroRo5 the $oroRo del 0inu* &ith a short* thick*
gloss" trunk* is the Elaeis melanococca of Cartius* Palm' %age L; tab'
!!* 99' + cannot believe it to be identical &ith the Elaeis guineensis
NHerbal of $ongo River %age !3O since it vegetates s%ontaneousl" in
the forests of the Rio 0inu' The $oroRo of $ari%e is slender* small
and covered &ith thornsP it a%%roaches the $ocos aculeata of 6acquin'
The $oroRo de los Carinos of the valle" of $auca* one of the tallest
%almHtrees* is the $ocus but"racea of =innaeus'OP the $ocos but"racea*
called here %alma dolce or %alma real* and ver" different from the
%alma real of the island of $ubaP the %alma amarga* &ith fanHleaves
that serve to cover the roofs of houses* and the latta*- N- Perha%s of
the s%ecies of Ai%hanes'O resembling the small %iritu %almHtree of the
>rinoco' This variet" of %almHtrees &as remarked b" the first
$onquistadores'- N- Pedro de $ieca de =eon* a native of 0eville* &ho
travelled in 19!1* at the age of thirteen "ears* in the countries +
have described* observes that =as tierras comarcanas del Rio $enu "
del Golfo de ?raba estan llena de unos %almares mu" grandes "
es%essos* que son unos arboles gruessos* " llevan unas ramas como
%alma de datiles' :The lands adjacent to the Rio $enu and the Gulf of
?raba are full of ver" tall* s%reading %almHtrees' The" are of vast
siRe and are branched like the dateH%alm'< 0ee =a $ronica del Peru
nuevamenta escrita* Ant&er% 199; %ages 71 and 78;'O The Alfonsia* or
rather the s%ecies of Elais* &hich &e had no&here else seen* is onl"
six feet high* &ith a ver" large trunkP and the fecundit" of its
s%athes is such that the" contain more than 788*888 flo&ers' Although
a great number of those flo&ers None tree bearing L88*888 at the same
timeO never come to maturit"*- the soil remains covered &ith a thick
la"er of fruits' N- + have carefull" counted ho& man" flo&ers are
contained in a square inch on each amentum* from 188 to 178 of &hich
are found united in one s%athe'O .e often made a similar observation
under the shade of the mauritia %almHtree* the $ocos but"racea* the
0eje and the Pihiguao of the Ataba%o' @o other famil" of arborescent
%lants is so %rolific in the develo%ment of the organs of flo&ering'
The almond of the $oroRo del 0inu is %eeled in the &ater' The thick
la"er of oil that s&ims in the &ater is %urified b" boiling* and
"ields the butter of $oroRo Nmanteca de $oroRoO &hich is thicker than
the oil of the cocoaHtree* and serves to light churches and houses'
The %almHtrees of the section of $ocoinies of Cr' Bro&n are the
oliveHtrees of the tro%ical regions' As &e advanced in the forest* &e
began to find little %ath&a"s* looking as though the" had been
recentl" cleared out b" the hatchet' Their &indings dis%la"ed a great
number of ne& %lants5 Cougeotia mollis* @elsonia albicans* Celam%odium
%aludosum* 6onidium anomalum* Teucrium %alustre* Gom%hia lucens* and a
ne& kind of $om%osees* the 0%iracantha cornifolia' A fine Pancratium
embalmed the air in the humid s%ots* and almost made us forget that
those gloom" and marsh" forests are highl" dangerous to health'
After an hourGs &alk &e found* in a cleared s%ot* several inhabitants
em%lo"ed in collecting %almHtree &ine' The dark tint of the Rambos
formed a strong contrast &ith the a%%earance of a little man &ith
light hair and a %ale com%lexion &ho seemed to take no share in the
labour' + thought at first that he &as a sailor &ho had esca%ed from
some @orth American vesselP but + &as soon undeceived' This
fairHcom%lexioned man &as m" countr"man* born on the coast of the
BalticP he had served in the (anish nav" and had lived for several
"ears in the u%%er %art of the Rio 0inu* near 0anta $ruR de =orica' He
had come* to use the &ords of the loungers of the countr" %ara ver
tierras* " %asear* no mas Nto see other lands* and to roam about*
nothing else'O The sight of a man &ho could s%eak to him of his
countr" seemed to have no attraction for himP and* as he had almost
forgotten German &ithout being able to ex%ress himself clearl" in
0%anish* our conversation &as not ver" animated' (uring the five "ears
of m" travels in 0%anish America + found onl" t&o o%%ortunities of
s%eaking m" native language' The first Prussian + met &ith &as a
sailor from Cemel &ho served on board a shi% from Halifax* and &ho
refused to make himself kno&n till after he had fired some musketHshot
at our boat' The second* the man &e met at the Rio 0inu* &as ver"
amicabl" dis%osed' .ithout ans&ering m" questions he continued
re%eating* &ith a smile* that the countr" &as hot and humidP that the
houses in the to&n of Pomerania &ere finer than those of 0anta $ruR de
=oricaP and that* if &e remained in the forest* &e should have the
tertian fever NcalenturaO from &hich he had long suffered' .e had some
difficult" in testif"ing our gratitude to this good man for his kind
adviceP for according to his some&hat aristocratic %rinci%les* a &hite
man* &ere he bareHfooted* should never acce%t mone" )in the %resence
of those vile coloured %eo%le4) Ngente %ardaO' =ess disdainful than
our Euro%ean countr"man* &e saluted %olitel" the grou% of men of
colour &ho &ere em%lo"ed in dra&ing off into large calabashes* or
fruits of the $rescentia cujete* the %almHtree &ine from the trunks of
felled trees' .e asked them to ex%lain to us this o%eration* &hich &e
had alread" seen %ractised in the missions of the $ataracts' The vine
of the countr" is the %alma dolce* the $ocos but"racea* &hich* near
Calgar* in the valle" of the Cagdalena* is called the &ine %almHtree*
and here* on account of its majestic height* the ro"al %almHtree'
After having thro&n do&n the trunk* &hich diminishes but little
to&ards the to%* the" make just belo& the %oint &hence the leaves
NfrondsO and s%athes issue* an excavation in the ligneous %art*
eighteen inches long* eight broad* and six in de%th' The" &ork in the
hollo& of the tree* as though the" &ere making a canoeP and three da"s
after&ards this cavit" is found filled &ith a "ello&ishH&hite juice*
ver" lim%id* &ith a s&eet and vinous flavour' The fermentation a%%ears
to commence as soon as the trunk falls* but the vessels %reserve their
vitalit"P for &e sa& that the sa% flo&ed even &hen the summit of the
%almHtree Nthat %art &hence the leaves s%rout outO is a foot higher
than the lo&er end* near the roots' The sa% continues to mount as in
the arborescent Eu%horbia recentl" cut' (uring eighteen to t&ent"
da"s* the %almHtree &ine is dail" collectedP the last is less s&eet
but more alcoholic and more highl" esteemed' >ne tree "ields as much
as eighteen bottles of sa%* each bottle containing fort"Ht&o cubic
inches' The natives affirm that the flo&ing is more abundant &hen the
%etioles of the leaves* &hich remain fixed to the trunk* are burnt'
The great humidit" and thickness of the forest forced us to retrace
our ste%s and to gain the shore before sunset' +n several %laces the
com%act limestone rock* %robabl" of tertiar" formation* is visible' A
thick la"er of cla" and mould rendered observation difficultP but a
shelf of carburetted and shining slate seemed to me to indicate the
%resence of more ancient formations' +t has been affirmed that coal is
to be found on the banks of the 0inu' .e met &ith Sambos carr"ing on
their shoulders the c"linders of %almetto* im%ro%erl" called the
cabbage %alm* three feet long and five to six feet thick' The stem of
the %almHtree has been for ages an esteemed article of food in those
countries' + believe it to be &holesome although historians relate
that* &hen Alonso =o%eR de A"ala &as governor of ?raba* several
0%aniards died after having eaten immoderatel" of the %almetto* and at
the same time drinking a great quantit" of &ater' +n com%aring the
herbaceous and nourishing fibres of the "oung undevelo%ed leaves of
the %almHtrees &ith the sago of the Cauritia* of &hich the +ndians
make bread similar to that of the root of the 6atro%ha manihot* &e
involuntaril" recollect the striking analog" &hich modern chemistr"
has %roved to exist bet&een ligneous matter and the am"laceous fecula'
.e sto%%ed on the shore to collect lichens* o%egra%has and a great
number of mosses NBoletus* H"dnum* Helvela* Thele%horaO that &ere
attached to the mangroves* and there* to m" great sur%rise*
vegetating* although moistened b" the seaH&ater'
Before + quit this coast* so seldom visited b" travellers and
described b" no modern vo"ager* + ma" here offer some information
&hich + acquired during m" sta" at $arthagena' The Rio 0inu in its
u%%er course a%%roaches the tributar" streams of the Atrato &hich* to
the auriferous and %latiniferous %rovince of $hoco* is of the same
im%ortance as the Cagdalena to $undinamarca* or the Rio $auca to the
%rovinces of Antioquia and Po%a"an' The three great rivers here
mentioned have heretofore been the onl" commercial routes* + might
almost add* the onl" channels of communication for the inhabitants'
The Rio Atrato receives* at t&elve leagues distance from its mouth*
the Rio 0ucio on the eastP the +ndian village of 0an Antonio is
situated on its banks' Proceeding u%&ard be"ond the Rio Pabarando* "ou
arrive in the valle" of 0inu' After several fruitless attem%ts on the
%art of the Archbisho% Gongora to establish colonies in (arien del
@orte and on the eastern coast of the gulf of ?raba* the icero"
Es%eleta recommended the 0%anish Government to fix its &hole attention
on the Rio 0inuP to destro" the colon" of $a"manP to fix the %lanters
in the 0%anish village of 0an Bernardo del iento in the jurisdiction
of =oricaP and from that %ost* &hich is the most &esterl"* to %ush
for&ard the %eaceful conquests of agriculture and civiliRation to&ards
the banks of the Pabarando* the Rio 0ucio and the Atrato'- N- + &ill
here state some facts &hich + obtained from official documents during
m" sta" at $arthagena* and &hich have not "et been %ublished' +n the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the name of (arien &as given
vaguel" to the &hole coast extending from the Rio (amaquiel to the
Punta de 0an Blas* on 7 1M; degrees of longitude' The cruelties
exercised b" Pedrarias (avila rendered almost inaccessible to the
0%aniards a countr" &hich &as one of the first the" had coloniRed' The
+ndians N(ariens and $unasH$unasO remained masters of the coast* as
the" still are at Po"ais* in the land of the Cosquitos' 0ome 0cotchmen
formed in 1L2I the settlements of @e& $aledonia* @e& Edinburgh and
0cotch Port* in the most eastern %art of the isthmus* a little &est of
Punta $arreto' The" &ere soon driven a&a" b" the 0%aniards but* as the
latter occu%ied no %art of the coast* the +ndians continued their
attacks against $hocoGs boats* &hich from time to time descended the
Rio Atrato* The sanguinar" ex%edition of (on Canuel de Aldarete in
1372 served onl" to augment the resentment of the natives' A
settlement for the cultivation of the cocoaHtree* attem%ted in the
territor" of ?rabia in 13;8 b" some /rench %lanters under the
%rotection of the 0%anish Government* had no durable successP and the
court* excited b" the re%orts of the archbisho%Hvicero"* Gongora*
ordered* b" the cedule of the 19th August* 13I!* either the conversion
and conquest* or the destruction Nreduccion o extincionO of the
+ndians of (arien' This order* &orth" of another age* &as executed b"
(on Antonio de Arebalo5 he ex%erienced little resistance and formed*
in 13I9* the four settlements and forts of $a"man on the eastern coast
of the Gulf of ?rabia* $once%cion* $arolina and Candinga' The =ele* or
highH%riest of Candinga* took an oath of fidelit" to the Aing of
0%ainP but in 13IL the &ar &ith the (arien +ndians recommenced and &as
terminated b" a treat" concluded 6ul" 73th* 13I3* bet&een the
archbisho%Hvicero" and the cacique Bernardo' The forts and ne&
colonies* &hich figured onl" on the ma%s sent to Cadrid* augmented the
debt of the treasur" of 0anta /e de Bogota* in 13I2* to the sum of
1*788*888 %iastres' The vicero"* Gil =emos* &iser than his
%redecessor* obtained %ermission from the $ourt to abandon $arolina*
$once%cion and Candinga' The settlement of $a"man onl" &as %reserved*
on account of the navigation of the Atrato* and it &as declared free*
under the government of the archbisho%Hvicero"5 it &as %ro%osed to
transfer this settlement to a more health" s%ot* that of ?rabaP but
lieutenantHgeneral (on Antonio Arebalo* having %roved that the ex%ense
of this removal &ould amount to the sum of ;8*888 %iastres* the fort
of $a"man &as also destro"ed* b" order of the vicero" Es%eleta in
1321* and the %lanters &ere com%elled to join those of the village of
0an Bernardo'O The number of inde%endent +ndians &ho inhabit the lands
bet&een ?raba* Rio Atrato* Rio 0ucio and Rio 0inu &as* according to a
census made in 13L8* at least 1I88' The" &ere distributed in three
small villages* 0uraba* Toanequi and 6araguia' This %o%ulation &as
com%uted* at the %eriod &hen + travelled there* to be !888' The
natives* com%rehended in the general name of $a"mans* live at %eace
&ith the inhabitants of 0an Bernardo del iento N%ueblo de Es%anolesO*
situated on the &estern bank of the Rio 0inu* lo&er than 0an @icolas
de Sis%ata* and near the mouth of the river' These %eo%le have not the
ferocit" of the (arien and $unas +ndians* on the left bank of the
AtratoP &ho often attack the boats trading &ith the to&n of Buidbo in
the $hocoP the" also make incursions on the territor" of ?raba* in the
months of 6une and @ovember* to collect the fruit of the cacaoHtrees'
The cacao of ?raba is of excellent qualit"P and the (arien +ndians
sometimes come to sell it* &ith other %roductions* to the inhabitants
of Rio 0inu* entering the valle" of that river b" one of its tributar"
streams* the 6araguai'
+t cannot be doubted that the Gulf of (arien &as considered* at the
beginning of the sixteenth centur"* as a nook in the countr" of the
$aribs' The &ord $aribana is still %reserved in the name of the
eastern ca%e of that gulf' .e kno& nothing of the languages of the
(arien* $unas and $a"man +ndians5 and &e kno& not &hether $arib or
Aro&ak &ords are found in their idiomsP but it is certain*
not&ithstanding the testimon" of Anghiera on the identit" of the race
of the $aribs of the =esser Antilles and the +ndians of ?raba* that
Pedro de $ieca* &ho lived so long among the latter* never calls them
$aribs nor cannibals' He describes the race of that tribe as being
naked &ith long hair* and going to the neighbouring countries to
tradeP and sa"s the &omen are cleanl"* &ell dressed and extremel"
engaging Namorosas " galanasO' )+ have not seen*) adds the
$onquistador* )an" &omen more beautiful- in all the +ndian lands +
have visited5 the" have one fault* ho&ever* that of having too
frequent intercourse &ith the devil') N- $ronica del Peru %ages 71 and
77' The +ndians of (arien* ?raba* Senu N0inuO* Tatabe* the valle"s of
@ore and of Guaca* the mountains of Abibe and Antioquia* are accused*
b" the same author* of the most ferocious cannibalismP and %erha%s
that circumstance alone gives rise to the idea that the" &ere of the
same race as the $aribs of the .est +ndies' +n the celebrated
Provision Real of the !8th of >ctober* 198!* b" &hich the 0%aniards
are %ermitted to make slaves of the anthro%o%hagic +ndians of the
archi%elago of 0an Bernardo* o%%osite the mouth of the Rio 0inu* the
+sla /uerte* +sla Bura NBaruO and $arthagena* there is more of a
question of morals than of race* and the denomination of $aribs is
altogether avoided' $ieca asserts that the natives of the valle" of
@ore seiRed the &omen of neighbouring tribes* in order first to devour
the children &ho &ere born of the union &ith foreign &ives* and then
the &omen themselves' /oreseeing that this horrible de%ravit" &ould
not be believed* although it had been observed b" $olumbus in the .est
+ndies* he cites the testimon" of 6uan de adillo* &ho had observed
the same facts and &ho &as still living in 199; &hen the $ronica del
Peru a%%eared in (utch' .ith res%ect to the et"molog" of the &ord
cannibal* it seems to me entirel" cleared u% b" the discover" of the
journal ke%t b" $olumbus during his first vo"age of discover"* and of
&hich Bartholome& de las $asas has left us an abridged co%"' (ice mas
el Almirante que en las islas %assadas estaban con gran temor de
carib5 " en algunas los llamaban canibaP %ero en la Es%anola carib "
son gente arriscada* %ues andan %or todas estas islas " comen la gente
que %ueden haber' :And the Admiral moreover sa"s that in the islands
the" %assed* great a%%rehension &as entertained on account of the
caribs' 0ome call them canibasP but in 0%anish the" are called caribs'
The" are a ver" bold %eo%le* and the" travel about these islands* and
devour all the %ersons &hom the" ca%ture'< @avarete tome 1 %age 1!9'
+n this %rimitive form of &ords it is eas" to %erceive that the
%ermutation of the letters r and n* resulting from the im%erfection of
the organs in some nations* might change carib into canib* or caniba'
Geraldini &ho* according to the tendenc" of that age* sought* like
$ardinal Bembo* to latiniRe all barbarous denominations* recogniRes in
the $annibals the manners of dogs NcanesO just as 0t' =ouis desired to
send the Tartars ad suas tartareas sedes unde exierint'O
The Rio 0inu* o&ing to its %osition and its fertilit"* is of the
highest im%ortance for %rovisioning $arthagena' +n time of &ar the
enem" usuall" stationed their shi%s bet&een the Corro de Tigua and the
Boca de Catunilla* to interce%t barques laden &ith %rovisions' +n that
station the" &ere* ho&ever* sometimes ex%osed to the attack of the
gunHboats of $arthagena5 these gunHboats can %ass through the channel
of Pasacaballos &hich* near 0aint Anne* se%arates the isle of Baru
from the continent' =orica has* since the sixteenth centur"* been the
%rinci%al to&n of Rio 0inuP but its %o%ulation &hich* in 133I* under
the government of (on 6uan (iaR Pimienta* amounted to ;888 souls* has
considerabl" diminished* because nothing has been done to secure the
to&n from inundations and the deleterious miasmata the" %roduce'
The goldH&ashings of the Rio 0inu* heretofore so im%ortant above all*
bet&een its source and the village of 0an Geronimo* have almost
entirel" ceased* as &ell as those of $ienega de Tolu* ?raba and all
the rivers descending from the mountains of Abibe' )The (arien and the
Senu*) sa"s the bachelor Enciso in his geogra%hical &ork %ublished at
the beginning of the sixteenth centur"* )is a countr" so rich in gold
%e%ites that* in the running &aters* that metal can be fished &ith
nets') Excited b" these narratives* the governor Pedrarias sent his
lieutenant* /rancisco Becerra* in 1919* to the Rio 0inu' This
ex%edition &as most unfortunate for Becerra and his troo% &ere
massacred b" the natives* of &hom the 0%aniards* according to the
custom of the time* had carried a&a" great numbers to be sold as
slaves in the .est +ndies' The %rovince of Antioquia no& furnishes* in
its auriferous veins* a vast field for mining s%eculationsP but it
might be &ell &orth &hile to relinquish goldH&ashings for the
cultivation of colonial %roductions in the fertile lands of 0inu* the
Rio (amaquiel* the ?raba and the (arien del @orteP above all* that of
cacao* &hich is of a su%erior qualit"' The %roximit" of the %ort of
$arthagena &ould also render the neglected cultivation of cinchona an
object of great im%ortance to Euro%ean trade' That %recious tree
vegetates at the source of the Rio 0inu* as in the mountains of Abibe
and Caria' The real febrifuge cinchona* &ith a hair" corolla* is
no&here else found so near the coast* if &e exce%t the 0ierra @evada
of 0anta Carta'
The Rio 0inu and the Gulf of (arien &ere not visited b" $olumbus' The
most eastern %oint at &hich that great man touched land* on the 7Lth
@ovember* 198!* is the Puerto do Retreto* no& called Punta de
Escribanos* near the Punta of 0an Blas* in the isthmus of Panama' T&o
"ears %reviousl"* Rodrigo de Bastidas and Alanso do >jeda* accom%anied
b" Amerigo es%ucci* had discovered the &hole coast of the main land*
from the Gulf of Caraca"bo as far as the Puerto de Retreto' Having
often had occasion in the %receding volumes to s%eak of @e& Andalusia*
+ ma" here mention that + found that denomination* for the first time*
in the convention made b" Alonso de >jeda &ith the $onquistador (iego
de 0icuessa* a %o&erful man* sa" the historians of his time* because
he &as a flattering courtier and a &it' +n 198I all the countr" from
the $abo de la ela to the Gulf of ?raba* &here the $astillo del >ro
begins* &as called @e& Andalusia* a name since restricted to the
%rovince of $umana'
A fortunate chance led me to see* during the course of m" travels* the
t&o extremities of the main land* the mountainous and verdant coast of
Paria* &hich $olumbus su%%oses to have been the cradle of the human
race* and the lo& and humid coast extending from the mouth of the 0inu
to&ards the Gulf of (arien' The com%arison of these scenes* &hich have
again rela%sed into a savage state* confirms &hat + have else&here
advanced relative to the strange and sometimes retrograde nature of
civiliRation in America' >n one side* the coast of Paria* the islands
of $ubagua and CargueritaP on the other* the Gulf of ?raba and (arien*
received the first 0%anish colonists' Gold and %earls* &hich &ere
there found in abundance* because from time immemorial the" had been
accumulated in the hands of the natives* gave those countries a
%o%ular celebrit" from the beginning of the sixteenth centur"' At
0eville* Toledo* Pisa* Genoa and Ant&er% those countries &ere vie&ed
like the realms of >rmuR and of +nd' The %ontiffs of Rome mentioned
them in their bullsP and Bembo has celebrated them in those historical
%ages &hich add lustre to the glor" of enice'
At the close of the fifteenth* and the beginning of the sixteenth
centur"* Euro%e sa&* in those %arts of the @e& .orld discovered b"
$olumbus* >jeda* es%ucci and Rodrigo de Bastidas* onl" the advanced
ca%es of the vast territories of +ndia and eastern Asia' The immense
&ealth of those territories in gold* diamonds* %earls and s%ices had
been vaunted in the narratives of Benjamin de Tudela* Rubruquis* Carco
Polo and Candeville' $olumbus* &hose imagination &as excited b" these
narrations* caused a de%osition to be made before a notar"* on the
17th of 6une* 1;2;* in &hich sixt" of his com%anions* %ilots* sailors
and %assengers certified u%on oath that the southern coast of $uba &as
a %art of the continent of +ndia' The descri%tion of the treasures of
$atha" and $i%ango* of the celestial to&n of Buinsa" and the %rovince
of Cango* &hich had fired the admiralGs ambition in earl" life*
%ursued him like %hantoms in his declining da"s' +n his fourth and
last vo"age* on a%%roaching the coast of $aria" NPo"ais or Cosquito
$oastO* eragua and the +sthmus* he believed himself to be near the
mouth of the Ganges'- N- Tambien dicen que la mar baxa a $iguare* " de
alli a dieR jornadas es el Rio de Guangues5 %ara que estas tierras
estan con eragua como Tortosa con /uenterabia o Pisa con enecia')
:Also it is said that the sea lo&ers at $iguara* and from thence it is
a ten da"sG journe" to the river GangesP for these lands are* &ith
reference to eragua* like Tortosa &ith res%ect to /uenterabia* or
Pisa* &ith res%ect to enice'< These &ords are taken from the =ettera
Rarissima of $olumbus* of &hich the original 0%anish &as latel" found*
and %ublished b" the learned C' @avarrete* in his $oleccion de iages
volume 1 %age 722'O These geogra%hical illusions* this m"sterious
veil* &hich envelo%ed the first discoveries* contributed to magnif"
ever" object* and to fix the attention of Euro%e on regions* the ver"
names of &hich are* to us* scarcel" kno&n' @e& $adiR* the %rinci%al
seat of the %earlHfisher"* &as on an island &hich has again become
uninhabited' The extremit" of the rock" coast of Paria is also a
desert' 0everal to&ns &ere founded at the mouth of the Rio Atrato* b"
the names of Antigua del (arien* ?raba or 0an 0ebastian de Buenavista'
+n these s%ots* so celebrated at the beginning of the sixteenth
centur"* the historians of the conquest tell us that the flo&er of the
$astilian heroes &ere found assembled5 thence Balboa set out to
discover the 0outh 0eaP PiRarro marched from thence to conquer and
ravage PeruP and Pedro de $ieca constantl" follo&ed the chain of the
Andes* b" Autioquia* Po%a"an and $uRco* as far as =a Plata* after
having gone 288 leagues b" land' These to&ns of (arien are destro"edP
some ruins scattered on the hills of ?raba* the fruitHtrees of Euro%e
mixed &ith native trees* are all that mark to the traveller the s%ots
on &hich those to&ns once stood' +n almost all 0%anish America the
first lands %eo%led b" the $onquistadores* have retrograted into
barbarism'- N- +n carefull" collating the testimonies of the
historians of the $onquest* some contradictions are observed in the
%eriods assigned to the foundation of the to&ns of (arien' Pedro de
$ieca* &ho had been on the s%ot* affirms that* under the government of
AlonRo de >jeda and @icuessa* the to&n of @uestra 0enora 0anta Caria
el Antigua del (arien &as founded on the &estern coast of the Gulf or
$ulata de ?raba* in 1982P and that later Ndes%ues desto %assadoO >jeda
%assed to the eastern coast of the $ulata to construct the to&n of 0an
0ebastian de ?raba' The former* called b" abbreviation $iudad del
Antigua* had soon a %o%ulation of 7888 0%aniardsP &hile the latter*
the $iudad del ?raba* remained uninhabited* because /rancisco PiRarro*
since kno&n as the conqueror of Peru* &as forced to abandon it* having
vainl" demanded succour from 0t' (omingo' The historian Herrera* after
having said that the foundation of Antigua had %receded b" one "ear
that of ?raba or 0an 0ebastian* affirms the contrar" in the follo&ing
cha%ter and in the $hronicle itself' +t &as* according to the
$hronicle* in 1981 that >jeda* accom%anied b" es%ucci* and
%enetrating for the first time the Gulf of ?raba or (arien* resolved
to construct* &ith &ood and unbaked bricks* a fort at the entrance of
$ulata' +t a%%ears* ho&ever* that this enter%rise &as not executedP
for* in 198I* in the convention made b" >jeda and @icuessa* the" each
%romised to build t&o fortresses on the limits of @e& Andalusia and of
$astillo del >ro' Herrera* in the 3th and Ith books of the first
(ecade* fixes the foundation of 0an 0ebastian de ?raba at the
beginning of 1918* and mentions it as the most ancient to&n of the
continent of America* after that of $eragua* founded b" $olumbus in
198!* on the Rio Belen' He relates ho& /rancisco PiRarro abandoned
that to&n* and ho& the foundation of the $iudad del Antigua b" Entiso*
to&ards the end of the "ear 1918* &as the consequence of that event'
=eo J made Antigua a bisho%ric in 191;P and this &as the first
e%isco%al church of the continent' +n 1912 Pedrarius (avila %ersuaded
the court of Cadrid* b" false re%orts* that the site of the ne& to&n
of Panama &as more healthful than that of Antigua* the inhabitants
&ere com%elled to abandon the latter to&n* and the bisho%ric &as
transferred to Panama' The Gulf of ?raba &as deserted during thirteen
"ears* till the founder of the to&n of $arthagena* Pedro de Heredia*
after having dug u% the graves* or huacas* of the Rio 0inu* to collect
gold* sent his brother AlonRo* in 19!7* to re%eo%le ?raba* and
reconstruct on that s%ot a to&n under the name of 0an 0ebastian de
Buenavista'O >ther countries* discovered later* attract the attention
of the colonists5 such is the natural %rogress of things in %eo%ling a
vast continent' +t ma" be ho%ed that on several %oints the %eo%le &ill
return to the %laces that &ere first chosen' +t is difficult to
conceive &h" the mouth of a great river* descending from a countr"
rich in gold and %latina* should have remained uninhabited' The
Atrato* heretofore called Rio del (arien* de 0an 6uan or (aba"ba* has
had the same fate as the >rinoco' The +ndians &ho &ander around the
delta of those rivers continue in a savage state'
.e &eighed anchor in the road of Sa%ote* on the 73th Carch* at
sunrise' The sea &as less storm"* and the &eather rather &armer*
although the fur" of the &ind &as undiminished' .e sa& on the north a
succession of small cones of extraordinar" form* as far as the Corro
de TiguaP the" are kno&n b" the name of the Pa%s NtetasO of 0antero*
Tolu* Rincon and $hichimar' The t&o latter are nearest the coast' The
Tetas de Tolu rise in the middle of the savannahs' There* from the
trunks of the Toluifera balsamum* is collected the %recious balsam of
Tolu* heretofore so celebrated in the %harmaco%oeias of Euro%e* and in
&hich is a %rofitable article of trade at $oroRal* $aimito and the
to&n of Tocasuan' +n the savannahs Naltas del ToluO oxen and mules
&ander half &ild' 0everal of those hills bet&een $ienega de Pesquero
and the Punta del $omissario are linked t&oHandHt&o together* like
basaltic columnsP it is* ho&ever* ver" %robable that the" are
calcareous* like the Tetas de Canagua* south of the Havannah' +n the
archi%elago of 0an Bernardo &e %assed bet&een the island of
0alamanquilla and $a%e Boqueron' .e had scarcel" quitted the gulf of
Corosquillo &hen the sea became so rough that the &aves frequentl"
&ashed over the deck of our little vessel' +t &as a fine moonlight
night' >ur ca%tain sought in vain a shelteringH%lace on the coast to
the north of the village of Rincon' .e cast anchor at four fathoms
but* having discovered that &e &ere l"ing over a reef of coral* &e
%referred the o%en sea'
The coast has a singular configuration be"ond the Corro de Tigua* the
terminator" %oint of the grou% of little mountains &hich rise like
islands from the %lain' .e found at first a marsh" soil extending over
a square of eight leagues bet&een the Bocas de Catuna and Catunilla'
These marshes are connected b" the $ienega de la $ruR* &ith the (ique
of Cahates and the Rio Cagdalena' The island of Baru &hich* &ith the
island of Tierra Bomba* forms the vast %ort of $arthagena* is*
%ro%erl" s%eaking* but a %eninsula fourteen miles long* se%arated from
the continent b" the narro& channel of Pasacaballos' The archi%elago
of 0an Bernardo is situated o%%osite $a%e Boqueron' Another
archi%elago* called Rosario* lies off the southern %oint of the
%eninsula of Baru' These rents in the coast are re%eated at the 18 !M;
and 11 degrees of latitude' The %eninsulas near the Ensenada of Galera
de Samba and near the %ort of 0avanilla have the same as%ect as the
%eninsula Baru' 0imilar causes have %roduced similar effectsP and the
geologist must not neglect those analogies* in the configuration of a
coast &hich* from Punta $aribana in the mouth of the Atrato* be"ond
the ca%e of =a ela* along an extent of 178 leagues* has a general
direction from southH&est to northHeast'
The &ind having dro%%ed during the night &e could onl" advance to the
island of Arenas &here &e anchored' + found it &as 3I degrees 7
minutes 18 seconds of longitude' The &eather became storm" during the
night' .e again set sail on the morning of the 72th of Carch* ho%ing
to be able to reach Boca $hica that da"' The gale ble& &ith extreme
violence* and &e &ere unable to %roceed &ith our frail bark against
the &ind and the current* &hen* b" a false manoeuvre in setting the
sails N&e had but four sailorsO* &e &ere during some minutes in
imminent danger' The ca%tain* &ho &as not a ver" bold mariner*
declined to %roceed further u% the coast and &e took refuge* sheltered
from the &ind* in a nook of the island of Baru south of Punta
Gigantes' +t &as Palm 0unda" and the Sambo* &ho had accom%anied us to
the >rinoco and did not leave us till &e returned to /rance* reminded
us that on the same 0unda" in the %receding "ear* &e had nearl" been
lost on the north of the mission of ?ruana'
There &as to be an ecli%se of the moon during the night* and the next
da" an occultation of al%ha irginis' The observation of the latter
%henomenon might have been ver" im%ortant in determining the longitude
of $arthagena' +n vain + urged the ca%tain to allo& one of his sailors
to accom%an" me b" land to the foot of Boca $hica* a distance of five
miles' He objected on account of the &ild state of the countr" in
&hich there is neither habitation nor %ath' A little incident &hich
might have rendered PalmH0unda" more fatal justified the %rudence of
the ca%tain' .e &ent b" moonlight to collect %lants on the shoreP as
&e a%%roached the land* &e sa& a "oung negro issue from the thicket'
He &as quite naked* loaded &ith chains* and armed &ith a machete' He
invited us to land on a %art of the beach covered &ith large
mangroves* as being a s%ot &here the surf did not break* and offered
to conduct us to the interior of the island of Baru if &e &ould
%romise to give him some clothes' His cunning and &ild a%%earance* the
oftenHre%eated question &hether &e &ere 0%aniards* and certain
unintelligible &ords &hich he addressed to some of his com%anions &ho
&ere concealed amidst the trees* ins%ired us &ith some mistrust' These
blacks &ere no doubt maroon negroes5 slaves esca%ed from %rison' This
unfortunate class are much to be feared5 the" have the courage of
des%air* and a desire of vengeance excited b" the severit" of the
&hites' .e &ere &ithout armsP the negroes a%%eared to be more numerous
than &e &ere and* thinking that %ossibl" the" invited us to land &ith
the desire of taking %ossession of our canoe* &e thought it most
%rudent to return on board' The as%ect of a naked man &andering on an
uninhabited beach* unable to free himself from the chains fastened
round his neck and the u%%er %art of his arm* &as an object calculated
to excite the most %ainful im%ressions' >ur sailors &ished to return
to the shore for the %ur%ose of seiRing the fugitives* to sell them
secretl" at $arthagena' +n countries &here slaver" exists the mind is
familiariRed &ith suffering and that instinct of %it" &hich
characteriRes and enobles our nature is blunted'
.hilst &e la" at anchor near the island of Baru in the meridian of
Punta Gigantes + observed the ecli%se of the moon of the 72th of
Carch* 1I81' The total immersion took %lace at 11 hours !8 minutes
17'L seconds mean time' 0ome grou%s of va%ours* scattered over the
aRure vault of the sk"* rendered the observation of the immersion
uncertain'
(uring the total ecli%se the lunar disc dis%la"ed* as almost al&a"s
ha%%ens* a reddish tint* &ithout disa%%earingP the edges* examined
&ith a sextant* &ere strongl" undulating* not&ithstanding the
considerable altitude of the orb' +t a%%eared to me that the moon &as
more luminous than + had ever seen it in the tem%erate Rone' The
vividness of the light* it ma" be conceived* does not de%end solel" on
the state of the atmos%here* &hich reflects* more or less feebl"* the
solar ra"s* b" inflecting them in the cone of the shade' The light is
also modified b" the variable trans%arenc" of that %art of the
atmos%here across &hich &e %erceived the moon ecli%sed' .ithin the
tro%ics great serenit" of the sk" and a %erfect dissolution of the
va%ours diminish the extinction of the light sent back to us b" the
lunar disc' + &as singularl" struck during the ecli%se b" the &ant of
uniformit" in the distribution of the refracted light b" the
terrestrial atmos%here' +n the central region of the disc there &as a
shado& like a round cloud* the movement of &hich &as from east to
&est' The %art &here the immersion &as to take %lace &as consequentl"
a fe& minutes %rior to the immersion much more brightl" illumined than
the &estern edges' +s this %henomenon to be attributed to an
inequalit" of our atmos%hereP to a %artial accumulation of va%our
&hich* b" absorbing a considerable %art of the solar light* inflects
less on one side the cone of the shado& of the earthT +f a similar
cause* in the %erigee of central ecli%ses* sometimes renders the disc
invisible* ma" it not ha%%en also that onl" a small %ortion of the
moon is seenP a disc* irregularl" formed* and of &hich different %arts
&ere successivel" enlightenedT
>n the morning of the !8th of Carch &e doubled Punta Gigantes* and
made for the Boca $hica* the %resent entrance of the %ort of
$arthagena' /rom thence the distance is seven or eight miles to the
anchorage near the to&nP and although &e took a %ractico to %ilot us*
&e re%eatedl" touched on the sandbanks' >n landing + learned* &ith
great satisfaction* that the ex%edition a%%ointed to take the surve"
of the coast under the direction of C' /idalgo* had not "et %ut to
sea' This circumstance not onl" enabled me to ascertain the
astronomical %osition of several to&ns on the shore &hich had served
me as %oints of de%arture in fixing chronometricall" the longitude of
the =lanos and the >rinoco* but also served to guide me &ith res%ect
to the future direction of m" journe" to Peru' The %assage from
$arthagena to Porto Bello and that of the isthmus b" the Rio $hagres
and $ruces* are alike short and eas"P but it &as to be feared that &e
might sta" long at Panama before &e found an o%%ortunit" of %roceeding
to Gua"aquil* and in that case the vo"age on the Pacific &ould be
extremel" lingering* as &e should have to sail against contrar" &inds
and currents' + relinquished &ith regret the ho%e of levelling b" the
barometer the mountains of the isthmus* though it &ould then have been
difficult to foresee that at the %resent time N1I73O* &hile
measurements have been effected on so man" other %oints of Cexico and
$olumbia* &e should remain in ignorance of the height of the ridge
&hich divides the &aters in the isthmus' The %ersons &e consulted all
agreed that the journe" b" land along the $ordilleras b" 0anta /e de
Bogota* Po%a"an* Buito and $axamarca &ould be %referable to the
seaHvo"age* and &ould furnish an immense field for ex%loration' The
%redilection of Euro%eans for the tierras frias* that is to sa"* the
cold and tem%erate climate that %revails on the back of the Andes*
gave further &eight to these counsels' The distances &ere kno&n* but
&e &ere deceived &ith res%ect to the time it &ould take to traverse
them on mulesG backs' .e did not imagine that it &ould require more
than eighteen months to go from $arthagena to =ima' @ot&ithstanding
this dela"* or rather o&ing to the slo&ness &ith &hich &e %assed
through $undinamarca* the %rovinces of Po%a"an and Buito* + did not
regret having sacrificed the %assage of the isthmus to the route of
Bogota* for ever" ste% of the journe" &as full of interest both
geogra%hicall" and botanicall"' This change of direction gave me
occasion to trace the ma% of the Rio Cagdalena* to determine
astronomicall" the %osition of eight" %oints situated in the inland
countr" bet&een $arthagena* Po%a"an* and the u%%er course of the river
AmaRon and =ima* to discover the error in the longitude of Buito* to
collect several thousand ne& %lants* and to observe on a vast scale
the relations bet&een the rocks of s"enitic %or%h"r" and trach"te &ith
the fire of volcanoes'
The result of those labours of &hich it is not for me to a%%reciate
the im%ortance have long since been %ublished' C" ma% of the Rio
Cagdalena* multi%lied b" the co%ies of the "ear 1I87 in America and
0%ain* and com%rehending the countr" bet&een Almaguer and 0anta Carta*
from 1 degree 9; minutes to 11 degrees 19 minutes latitude* a%%eared
in 1I1L' Till that %eriod no traveller had undertaken to describe @e&
GrenadaP and the %ublic* exce%t in 0%ain* kne& the navigation of the
Cagdalena onl" b" some lines traced b" Bouguer' That learned traveller
had descended the river from HondaP but* being in &ant of astronomical
instruments* he had ascertained but four or five latitudes* b" means
of small dials hastil" constructed' The narratives of travels in
America are no& singularl" multi%lied' Political events have led
numbers of %ersons to those countries5 and travellers have %erha%s too
hastil" %ublished their journals on returning to Euro%e' The" have
described the to&ns &here the" resided* and landsca%e scener"
remarkable for beaut"P the" have furnished information res%ecting the
inhabitants and the different modes of travelling in barks* on mules
or on menGs backs' These &orks* several of &hich are agreeable and
instructive* have familiariRed the nations of the >ld .orld &ith those
of 0%anish America* from Buenos A"res and $hili as far as Sacatecas
and @e& Cexico' But unfortunatel"* in man" instances* the &ant of a
thorough kno&ledge of the 0%anish language and the little care taken
to acquire the names of %laces* rivers and tribes* have occasioned
extraordinar" mistakes'
(uring the six da"s of our sta" at $arthagena our most interesting
excursions &ere to the Boca Grande and the hill of Po%aP the latter
commands the to&n and a ver" extensive vie&' The %ort* or rather the
bahia* is nearl" nine miles and a half long* if &e com%ute the length
from the to&n Nnear the suburb of 6ehemani or JeRemaniO to the $ienega
of $acao' The $ienega is one of the nooks of the isle of Baru*
southH&est of the Estero de Pasacaballos* b" &hich &e reach the
o%ening of the (ique de Cahates' T&o extremities of the small island
of Tierra Bomba form* on the north* &ith a neck of land of the
continent* and on the south* &ith a ca%e of the island of Baru* the
onl" entrances to the Ba" of $arthagenaP the former is called Boca
Grande* the second Boca $hica' This extraordinar" conformation of the
land has given birth* for the s%ace of a centur"* to theories entirel"
contradictor" res%ecting the defence of a %lace &hich* next to the
Havannah and Porto $abello* is the most im%ortant of the main land and
the .est +ndies' Engineers differed res%ecting the choice of the
o%ening &hich should be closedP and it &as not* as some &riters have
stated* after the landing of Admiral ernon* in 13;1* that the idea
&as first conceived- of filling u% the Boca Grande' N- (on 6orge 6uan
in his 0ecret @otices addressed to the Carques de la Ensenada sa"s5 =a
entrada antigua era %or un angosto canal que llaman Boca $hicaP de
resultas de esta invasion se acordo deja cioga " im%assable la Boca
Grande* " volver a abrir la antigua fortificandola' :The old entrance
&as b" a narro& channel called the Boca $hicaP but after this invasion
it &as determined to close u% the Boca Grande and to o%en the old
%assage* fortif"ing it'< 0ecr' @ot' volume 1 %age ;'O The English
forced the small entrance &hen the" made themselves masters of the
ba"P but being unable to take the to&n of $arthagena* &hich made a
gallant resistance* the" destro"ed the $astillo Grande Ncalled also
0anta $ruRO and the t&o forts of 0an =uis and 0an 6ose &hich defended
the Boca $hica'
The a%%rehension excited b" the %roximit" of the Boca Grande to the
to&n determined the court of Cadrid* after the English ex%edition* to
shut u% the entrance along a distance of 7L;8 varas' /rom t&o and a
half to three fathoms of &ater &ere foundP and a &all* or rather a
d"ke* in stone* from fifteen to t&ent" feet high* &as raised on %iles'
The slo%e on the side of the &ater is unequal* and seldom ;9 degrees'
This immense &ork &as com%leted under the icero" Es%eleta in 1329'
But art could not vanquish natureP the sea is unceasingl" though
graduall" silting u% the Boca $hica* &hile it labours unceasingl" to
o%en and enlarge the Boca Grande' The currents &hich* during a great
%art of the "ear* es%eciall" &hen the bendavales blo& &ith violence*
ascend from southH&est to northHeast* thro& sand into the Boca $hica*
and even into the ba" itself' The %assage* &hich is from seventeen to
eighteen fathoms dee%* becomes more and more narro&*- and if a regular
cleansing be not established b" dredging machines* vessels &ill not be
able to enter &ithout risk' N- At the foot of the t&o forts 0an 6ose
and 0an /ernando* constructed for the defence of the Boca $hica* it
ma" be seen ho& much the land has gained u%on the sea' @ecks of land
are formed on both sides* and also before the $astillo del Angel
&hich* north&ard* commands the fort of 0an /ernando'O +t is this small
entrance &hich should have been closedP its o%ening is onl" 798
toises* and the %assage or navigable channel is 118 toises' +f it
should one da" be determined to abandon the Boca $hica* and
reHestablish the Boca Grande in the state &hich nature seems to
%rescribe* ne& fortifications must be constructed on the
southHsouthH&est of the to&n' This fortress has al&a"s required great
%ecuniar" outla"s to kee% it u%'
The insalubrit" of $arthagena varies &ith the state of the great
marshes that surround the to&n on the east and north' The $ienega de
Tesca is more than fifteen miles longP it communicates &ith the ocean
&here it a%%roaches the village of Gua"e%er' .hen* in "ears of
drought* the hea%edHu% earth %revents the salt &ater from covering the
&hole %lain* the emanations that rise during the heat of the da" &hen
the thermometer stands bet&een 7I and !7 degrees are ver" %ernicious
to the health of the inhabitants' A small %ortion of hill" land
se%arates the to&n of $arthagena and the islet of Canga from the
$ienega de Tesca' Those hills* some of &hich are more than 988 feet
high* command the to&n' The $astillo de 0an =aRaro is seen from afar
rising like a great rock" %"ramidP &hen examined nearer its
fortifications are not ver" formidable' =a"ers of cla" and sand*
belonging to the tertiar" formation of nagelfluhe* are covered &ith
bricks and furnish a kind of construction &hich has little stabilit"'
The $erro de 0anta Caria de la Po%a* cro&ned b" a convent and some
batteries* rises above the fort of 0an =aRaro and is &orth" of more
solid and extensive &orks' The image of the irgin* %reserved in the
church of the convent* has been long revered b" mariners' The hill
itself forms a %rolonged ridge from &est to east' The calcareous rock*
&ith cardites* meandrites and %etrified corals* some&hat resembles the
tertiar" limestone of the %eninsula of Ara"a near $umana' +t is s%lit
and decom%osed in the stee% %arts of the rock* and the %reservation of
the convent on so unsolid a foundation is considered b" the %eo%le as
one of the miracles of the %atron of the %lace' @ear the $erro de la
Po%a there a%%ears* on several %oints* breccia &ith a limestone cement
containing angular fragments of ="dian stone' .hether this formation
of nagelfluhe is su%er%osed on tertiar" limestone of coral* and
&hether the fragments of the ="dian stone come from secondar"
limestone analogous to that of Sacatecas and the Coro de @ueva
Barcelona* are questions &hich + have not had leisure to investigate'
The vie& from the Po%a is extensive and varied* and the &indings and
rents of the coast give it a %eculiar character' + &as assured that
sometimes from the &indo&s of the convent and even in the o%en sea*
before the fort of Boca $hica* the sno&" to%s of the 0ierra @evada de
0anta Carta are discernible' The distance of the Horqueta to the Po%a
is sevent"Height nautical miles' This grou% of colossal mountains is
most frequentl" &ra%%ed in thick clouds5 and it is most veiled at the
season &hen the gales blo& &ith violence' Although onl" fort"Hfive
miles distant from the coast* it is of little service as a signal to
mariners &ho seek the %ort of 0aint Carta' Hidalgo during the &hole
time of his o%erations near the shore could take onl" one observation
of the @evados'
A gloom" vegetation of cactus* 6atro%ha goss"%ifolia* croton and
mimosa covers the barren declivit" of $erro de la Po%a' +n herbaliRing
in those &ild s%ots* our guides sho&ed us a thick bush of Acacia
cornigera* &hich had become celebrated b" a de%lorable event' >f all
the s%ecies of mimosa the acacia is that &hich is armed &ith the
shar%est thornsP the" are sometimes t&o inches longP and being hollo&*
serve for the habitation of ants of an extraordinar" siRe' A &oman*
anno"ed b" the jealous" and &ell founded re%roaches of her husband*
conceived a %roject of the most barbarous vengeance' .ith the
assistance of her lover she bound her husband &ith cords* and thre&
him* at night* into a bush of Cimosa cornigera' The more violentl" he
struggled* the more the shar% &ood" thorns of the tree tore his skin'
His cries &ere heard b" %ersons &ho &ere %assing* and he &as found
after several hours of suffering* covered &ith blood* and dreadfull"
stung b" the ants' This crime is %erha%s &ithout exam%le in the
histor" of human tur%itude5 it indicates a violence of %assion less
assignable to the climate than to the barbarism of manners %revailing
among the lo&er class of the %eo%le'
C" most im%ortant occu%ation at $arthagena &as the com%arison of m"
observations &ith the astronomical %ositions fixed b" the officers of
the ex%edition of /idalgo' +n the "ear 13I! Nunder the ministr" of C'
aldesO (on 6osef Es%inosa* (on (ionisio Galiano and (on 6osef de =anR
%ro%osed to the 0%anish government a %lan for taking a surve" of the
coast of America* in order to extend the atlas of Tofino to the
&estern colonies' The %lan &as a%%rovedP but it &as not till 1327 that
an ex%edition &as fitted out at $adiR* and the" &ere enabled to
commence their scientific o%erations at the island of Trinidad'
$HAPTER !'!1' $?BA A@( THE 0=AE TRA(E'
+ might enumerate among the causes of the lo&ering of the tem%erature
at $uba during the &inter months* the great number of shoals &ith
&hich the island is surrounded* and on &hich the heat is diminished
several degrees of centesimal tem%erature' This diminished heat ma" be
assigned to the molecules of &ater locall" cooled* &hich go to the
bottomP to the %olar currents* &hich are borne to&ard the ab"ss of the
tro%ical ocean* or to the mixture of the dee% &aters &ith those of the
surface at the declivities of the banks' But the lo&ering of the
tem%erature is %artl" com%ensated b" the flood of hot &ater* the Gulf
0tream* &hich runs along the northH&est coast* and the s&iftness of
&hich is often diminished b" the north and northHeast &inds' The chain
of shoals &hich encircles the island and &hich a%%ears on our ma%s
like a %enumbra* is fortunatel" broken on several %oints* and those
interru%tions afford free access to the shore' +n the southHeast %art
the %roximit" of the loft" %rimitive mountains renders the coast more
%reci%itous' +n that direction are situated the %orts of 0antiago de
$uba* Guantanamo* Baitiqueri and Nin turning the Punta Ca"siO Baracoa'
The latter is the %lace most earl" %eo%led b" Euro%eans' The entrance
to the >ld $hannel* from Punta de Culas* &estHnorthH&est of Baracoa*
as far as the ne& settlement &hich has taken the name of Puerto de las
@uevitas del Princi%e* is alike free from shoals and breakers'
@avigators find excellent anchorage a little to the east of Punta de
Culas* in the three rocks of Tanamo* $abonico* and @i%eP and on the
&est of Punta de Culas in the %orts of 0ama* @aranjo* del Padre and
@uevas Grandes' +t is remarkable that near the latter %ort* almost in
the same meridian &here* on the southern side of the island* are
situated the shoals of Buena Es%eranRa and of =as doce =eguas*
stretching as far as the island of Pinos* &e find the commencement of
the uninterru%ted series of the ca"os of the >ld $hannel* extending to
the length of ninet"Hfour leagues* from @uevitas to Punta +cacos' The
>ld $hannel is narro&est o%%osite to $a"o $ruR and $a"o RomanoP its
breadth is scarcel" more than five or six leagues' >n this %oint* too*
the Great Bank of Bahama takes its greatest develo%ment' The $a"os
nearest the island of $uba and those %arts of the bank not covered
&ith &ater N=ong +sland* EleutheraO are* like $uba* of a long and
narro& sha%e' .ere the" onl" t&ent" or thirt" feet higher* an island
much larger than 0t' (omingo &ould a%%ear at the surface of the ocean'
The chain of breakers and ca"os that bound the navigable %art of the
>ld $hannel to&ards the south leave bet&een the channel and the coast
of $uba small basins &ithout breakers* &hich communicate &ith several
%orts having good anchorage* such as Guanaja* Coron and Remedios'
Having %assed through the >ld $hannel* or rather the $hannel of 0an
@icolas* bet&een $ruR del Padre and the bank of the $a"os de 0el* the
lo&est of &hich furnish s%rings of fresh &ater* &e again find the
coast* from Punta de +cacos to $abanas* free from danger' +t affords*
in the interval* the anchorage of CatanRas* Puerto Escondido* the
Havannah and Cariel' /urther on* &est&ard of Bahia Honda* the
%ossession of &hich might &ell tem%t a maritime enem" of 0%ain* the
chain of shoals recommences- N- The" are here called Bajos de 0anta
+sabel " de los $olorados'O and extends &ithout interru%tion as far as
$a%e 0an Antonio' /rom that ca%e to Punta de Piedras and Bahia de
$orteR* the coast is almost %reci%itous* and does not afford soundings
at an" distanceP but bet&een Punta de Piedras and $abo $ruR almost the
&hole southern %art of $uba is surrounded &ith shoals of &hich the
isle of Pinos is but a %ortion not covered &ith &ater' These shoals
are distinguished on the &est b" the name of Gardens N6ardines "
6ardinillosOP and on the east* b" the names $a"o Breton* $a"os de las
doce =eguas* and Bancos de Buena Es%eranRa' >n all this southern line
the coast is exem%t from danger &ith the exce%tion of that %art &hich
lies bet&een the strait of $ochinos and the mouth of the Rio Guaurabo'
These seas are ver" difficult to navigate' + had the o%%ortunit" of
determining the %osition of several %oints in latitude and longitude
during the %assage from Batabano to Trinidad of $uba and to
$arthagena' +t &ould seem that the resistance of the currents of the
highlands of the island of Pines* and the remarkable outHstretching of
$abo $ruR* have at once favoured the accumulation of sand* and the
labours of the coralline %ol"%es &hich inhabit calm and shallo& &ater'
Along this extent of the southern coast a length of 1;9 leagues* onl"
oneHseventh affords entirel" free accessP namel" that %art bet&een
$a"o de Piedras and $a"o Blanco* a little to the east of Puerto
$asilda' There are found anchorages often frequented b" small barksP
for exam%le* the 0urgidero del Batabano* Bahia de Jagua* and Puerto
$asilda* or Trinidad de $uba' Be"ond this latter %ort* to&ards the
mouth of the Rio $auto and $abo $ruR Nbehind the $a"os de doce
=eguasO* the coast* covered &ith lagoons* is not ver" accessible* and
is almost entirel" desert'
At the island of $uba* as heretofore in all the 0%anish %ossessions in
America* &e must distinguish bet&een the ecclesiastic*
%oliticoHmilitar"* and financial divisions' .e &ill not add those of
the judicial hierarch" &hich have created so much confusion amongst
modern geogra%hers* the island having but one Audiencia* residing
since the "ear 1323 at Puerto Princi%e* &hose jurisdiction extends
from Baracoa to $a%e 0an Antonio' The division into t&o bisho%rics
dates from 13II &hen Po%e Pius + nominated the first bisho% of the
Havannah' The island of $uba &as formerl"* &ith =ouisiana and /lorida*
under the jurisdiction of the archbisho% of 0an (omingo* and from the
%eriod of its discover" it had onl" one bisho%ric* founded in 191I* in
the most &estern %art at Baracoa b" Po%e =eo J' The translation of
this bisho%ric to 0antiago de $uba* took %lace four "ears laterP but
the first bisho%* /ra" 6uan de ?bite* arrived onl" in 197I' +n the
beginning of the nineteenth centur" N1I8;O* 0antiago de $uba &as made
an archbisho%ric' The ecclesiastical limit bet&een the diocese of the
Havannah and $uba %asses in the meridian of $a"o Romano* nearl" in the
I8 !M; degree of longitude &est of Paris* bet&een the illa de 0anto
Es%iritu and the cit" of Puerto Princi%e' The island* &ith relation to
its %olitical and militar" government* is divided into t&o goviernos*
de%ending on the same ca%itanHgeneral' The govierno of the Havannah
com%rehends* besides the ca%ital* the district of the Buatro illas
NTrinidad* 0anto Es%iritu* illa $lara and 0an 6uan de los RemediosO
and the district of Puerto Princi%e' The $a%itanHgeneral " Gobernador
of the Havannah has the %rivilege of a%%ointing a lieutenant in Puerto
Princi%e NTeniente GobernadorO* as also at Trinidad and @ueva
/ili%ina' The territorial jurisdiction of the ca%itanHgeneral extends*
as the jurisdiction of a corregidor* to eight %ueblos de A"untamiento
Nthe ciudades of CatanRas* 6aruco* 0an /eli%e " 0antiago* 0anta Caria
del RosarioP the villas of Guanabacoa* 0antiago de las egas* Guines*
and 0an Antonio de los BanosO' The govierno of $uba com%rehends
0antiago de $uba* Baracoa* Holguin and Ba"amo' The %resent limits of
the goviernos are not the same as those of the bisho%rics' The
district of Puerto Princi%e* &ith its seven %arishes* for instance*
belonged till 1I1; to the govierno of the Havannah and the
archbisho%ric of $uba' +n the enumerations of 1I13 and 1I78 &e find
Puerto Princi%e joined &ith Baracoa and Ba"amo* in the jurisdiction of
$uba' +t remains for me to s%eak of a third division altogether
financial' B" the cedula of the 7!rd Carch* 1I17* the island &as
divided into three +ntendencias or ProvinciasP those of the Havannah*
Puerto Princi%e and 0antiago de $uba* of &hich the res%ective length
from east to &est is about ninet"* sevent" and sixt"Hfive seaHleagues'
The intendant of the Havannah retains the %rerogatives of
0u%erintendente general subdelegado de Real Hacienda de la +sla de
$uba' According to this division* the Provincia de $uba com%rehends
0antiago de $uba* Baracoa* Holguin* Ba"amo* Gibara* CanRanillo*
6iguani* $obre* and TiguarosP the Provincia de Puerto Princi%e* the
to&n of that name* @uevitas* 6agua* 0anto Es%iritu* 0an 6uan de los
Remedios* illa de 0anta $lara and Trinidad' The most &esterl"
intendencia* or Provincia de la Havannah* occu%ies all that %art
situated &est of the Buatro illas* of &hich the intendant of the
ca%ital has lost the financial administration' .hen the cultivation of
the land shall be more uniforml" advanced* the division of the island
into five de%artments* namel"5 the vuelta de abaxo Nfrom $a%e 0an
Antonio to the fine village of Guanaja" and CarielO* the Havannah
Nfrom Cariel to AlvareRO* the Buintas illas Nfrom AlvareR to CoronO*
Puerto Princi%e Nfrom Coron to Rio $autoO* and $uba Nfrom Rio $auto to
Punta Ca"siO* &ill %erha%s a%%ear the most fit* and most consistent
&ith the historical remembrances of the earl" times of the $onquest'
C" ma% of the island of $uba* ho&ever im%erfect it ma" be for the
interior* is "et the onl" one on &hich are marked the thirteen
ciudadesP and also seven villas* &hich are included in the divisions +
have just enumerated' The boundar" bet&een the t&o bisho%rics Nlinea
divisoria de los dos obis%ados de la Havana " de 0antiago de $ubaO
extends from the mouth of the small river of 0anta Caria Nlongitude I8
degrees ;2 minutesO* on the southern coast* b" the %arish of 0an
Eugenio de la Palma* and b" the haciendas of 0anta Anna* (os Hermanos*
$o%e"* and $ienega* to =a Punta de 6udas Nlongitude I8 degrees ;L
minutesO on the northern coast o%%osite $a"o Romano' (uring the regime
of the 0%anish $ortes it &as agreed that this ecclesiastical limit
should be also that of the t&o (e%utaciones %rovinciales of the
Havannah and of 0antiago' NGuia $onstitucional de la isla de $uba*
1I77 %age 32O' The diocese of the Havannah com%rehends fort"* and that
of $uba t&ent"Ht&o* %arishes' Having been established at a time &hen
the greater %art of the island &as occu%ied b" farms of cattle
Nhaciendas de ganadoO* these %arishes are of too great extent* and
little ada%ted to the requirements of %resent civiliRation' The
bisho%ric of 0antiago de $uba contains the five cities of Baracoa*
$uba* Holguin* GuiRa* Puerto Princi%e and the illa of Ba"amo' +n the
bisho%ric of 0an $ristoval de la Havannah are included the eight
cities of the Havannah* namel"5 0anta Caria del Rosario* 0an Antonio
Abad or de los Banos* 0an /eli%e " 0antiago del Bejucal* CatanRas*
6aruco* =a PaR and Trinidad* and the six villas of Guanabacoa* namel"5
0antiago de las egas or $om%ostela* 0anta $lara* 0an 6uan de los
Remedios* 0anto Es%iritu and 0' 6ulian de los Guines' The territorial
division most in favour among the inhabitants of the Havannah* is that
of vuelta de arriba and de abaxo* east and &est of the meridian of the
Havannah' The first governor of the island &ho took the title of
$a%tainHgeneral N1L81O &as (on Pedro aldes' Before him there &ere
sixteen other governors* of &hom the series begins &ith the famous
Poblador and $onquistador* (iego elasqueR* native of $uellar* &ho &as
a%%ointed b" $olumbus in 1911'
+n the island of $uba free men com%ose 8'L; of the &hole %o%ulationP
and in the English islands* scarcel" 8'12' +n the &hole archi%elago of
the .est +ndies the co%%erHcoloured men Nblacks and mulattos* free and
slavesO form a mass of 7*!L8*888* or 8'I! of the total %o%ulation' +f
the legislation of the .est +ndies and the state of the men of colour
do not shortl" undergo a salutar" changeP if the legislation continue
to em%lo" itself in discussion instead of action* the %olitical
%re%onderance &ill %ass into the hands of those &ho have strength to
labour* &ill to be free* and courage to endure long %rivations' This
catastro%he &ill ensue as a necessar" consequence of circumstances*
&ithout the intervention of the free blacks of Ha"ti* and &ithout
their abandoning the s"stem of insulation &hich the" have hitherto
follo&ed' .ho can venture to %redict the influence &hich ma" be
exercised on the %olitics of the @e& .orld b" an African $onfederation
of the free states of the .est +ndies* situated bet&een $olumbia*
@orth America* and GuatimalaT The fear of this event ma" act more
%o&erfull" on the minds of man"* than the %rinci%les of humanit" and
justiceP but in ever" island the &hites believe that their %o&er is
not to be shaken' All simultaneous action on the %art of the blacks
a%%ears to them im%ossibleP and ever" change* ever" concession granted
to the slave %o%ulation* is regarded as a sign of &eakness' The
horrible catastro%he of 0an (omingo is declared to have been onl" the
effect of the inca%acit" of its government' 0uch are the illusions
&hich %revail amidst the great mass of the %lanters of the .est
+ndies* and &hich are alike o%%osed to an amelioration of the
condition of the blacks in Georgia and in the $arolinas' The island of
$uba* more than an" other of the .est +ndia +slands* might esca%e the
common &reck' That island contains ;99*888 free men and 1L8*888
slaves5 and there* b" %rudent and humane measures* the gradual
abolition of slaver" might be brought about' =et us not forget that
since 0an (omingo has become free there are in the &hole archi%elago
of the .est +ndies more free negroes and mulattos than slaves' The
&hites* and above all* the free men* &hose cause it &ould be eas" to
link &ith that of the &hites* take a ver" ra%id numerical increase at
$uba' The slaves &ould have diminished* since 1I78* &ith great
ra%idit"* but for the fraudulent continuation of the slaveHtrade' +f*
b" the %rogress of human civiliRation* and the firm resolution of the
ne& states of free America* this infamous traffic should cease
altogether* the diminution of the slave %o%ulation &ould become more
considerable for some time* on account of the dis%ro%ortion existing
bet&een the t&o sexes* and the continuance of emanci%ation' +t &ould
cease onl" &hen the relation bet&een the deaths and births of slaves
should be such that even the effects of enfranchisement &ould be
counterbalanced' The &hites and free men no& form t&oHthirds of the
&hole %o%ulation of the island* and this increase marks in some degree
the diminution of the slaves' Among the latter* the &omen are to the
men Nexclusive of the mulatto slavesO* scarcel" in the %ro%ortion of
1 5 ;* in the sugarHcane %lantationsP in the &hole island* as 1 5 1'3P
and in the to&ns and farina &here the negro slaves serve as domestics*
or &ork b" the da" on their o&n account as &ell as that of their
masters* the %ro%ortion is as 1 5 1';P even Nfor instance at the
HavannahO*- as 1 5 1'7' N- +t a%%ears %robable that at the end of
1I79* of the total %o%ulation of men of colour Nmulattos and negroes*
free and slavesO* there &ere nearl" 1L8*888 in the to&ns* and 7!8*888
in the fields' +n 1I11 the $onsulado* in a statement %resented to the
$ortes of 0%ain* com%uted at 1;1*888* the number of men of colour in
the to&ns* and 1I9*888 in the fields' (ocumentes sobre los @egros %age
171'O This great accumulation of mulattos* free negros and slaves in
the to&ns is a characteristic feature in the island of $uba'O The
develo%ments that follo& &ill sho& that these %ro%ortions are founded
on numerical statements &hich ma" be regarded as the limitHnumbers of
the maximum'
The %rognostics &hich are haRarded res%ecting the diminution of the
total %o%ulation of the island* at the %eriod &hen the slaveHtrade
shall be reall" abolished* and not merel" according to the la&s* as
since 1I78* res%ecting the im%ossibilit" of continuing the cultivation
of sugar on a large scale* and res%ecting the a%%roaching time &hen
the agricultural industr" of $uba shall be restrained to %lantations
of coffee and tobacco* and the breeding of cattle* are founded on
arguments &hich do not a%%ear to me to be %erfectl" just' +nstead of
indulging in gloom" %resages the %lanters &ould do &ell to &ait till
the government shall have %rocured %ositive statistical statements'
The s%irit in &hich even ver" old enumerations &ere made* for instance
that of 1339* b" the distinction of age* sex* race* and state of civil
libert"* deserves high commendation' @othing but the means of
execution &ere &anting' +t &as felt that the inhabitants &ere
%o&erfull" interested in kno&ing %artiall" the occu%ations of the
blacks* and their numerical distribution in the sugarHsettlements*
farms and to&ns' To remed" evil* to avoid %ublic danger* to console
the misfortunes of a suffering race* &ho are feared more than is
ackno&ledged* the &ound must be %robedP for in the social bod"* &hen
governed b" intelligence* there is found* as in organic bodies* a
re%airing force* &hich ma" be o%%osed to the most inveterate evils'
+n the "ear 1I11 the munici%alit" and the Tribunal of $ommerce of the
Havannah com%uted the total %o%ulation of the island of $uba to be
L88*888* including !7L*888 %eo%le of colour* free or slaves* mulattos
or blacks' At that time* nearl" threeHfifths of the %eo%le of colour
resided in the jurisdiction of the Havannah* from $a%e 0aint Antonio
to AlvareR' +n this %art it a%%ears that the to&ns contained as man"
mulattos and free negroes as slaves* but that the coloured %o%ulation
of the to&ns &as to that of the fields as t&o to three' +n the eastern
%art of the island* on the contrar"* from AlvareR to 0antiago de $uba
and $a%e Ca"si* the men of colour inhabiting the to&ns nearl" equalled
in number those scattered in the farms' /rom 1I11 till the end of
1I79* the island of $uba has received along the &hole extent of its
coast* b" la&ful and unla&ful means* 1I9*888 African blacks* of &hom
the customHhouse of the Havannah* onl"* registered from 1I11 to 1I78*
about 11L*888' This ne&l" introduced mass has no doubt been s%read
more in the countr" than in the to&nsP it must have changed the
relations &hich %ersons &ell informed of the localities had
established in 1I11* bet&een the eastern and &estern %arts of the
island* bet&een the to&ns and the fields' The negro slaves have much
augmented in the eastern %lantationsP but the fact that*
not&ithstanding the im%ortation of 1I9*888 boRal negroes* the mass of
men of colour* free and slaves* has not augmented* from 1I11 to 1I79*
more than L;*888* or oneHfifth* sho&s that the changes in the relation
of %artial distribution are restrained &ithin narro&er limits than one
&ould at first be inclined to admit'
The %ro%ortions of the castes &ith res%ect to each other &ill remain a
%olitical %roblem of high im%ortance till such time as a &ise
legislation shall have succeeded in calming inveterate animosities and
in granting equalit" of rights to the o%%ressed classes' +n 1I11* the
number of &hites in the island of $uba exceeded that of the slaves b"
L7*888* &hilst it nearl" equalled the number of the %eo%le of colour*
both free and slaves' The &hites* &ho in the /rench and English
islands formed at the same %eriod nineHhundredths of the total
%o%ulation* amounted in the island of $uba to fort"Hfive hundredths'
The free men of colour amounted to nineteen hundredths* that is*
double the number of those in 6amaica and Cartinique' The numbers
given in the enumeration of 1I13* modified b" the (e%utacion
Provincial* being onl" 119*388 freedmen and 779*!88 slaves* the
com%arison %roves* first* that the freedmen have been estimated &ith
little %recision either in 1I11 or in 1I13P and* secondl"* that the
mortalit" of the negroes is so great* that not&ithstanding the
introduction of more than L3*388 African negroes registered at the
customHhouse* there &ere onl" 1!*!88 more slaves in 1I13 than in 1I11'
+n 1I13 a ne& enumeration &as substituted for the a%%roximative
estimates attem%ted in 1I11' /rom the census of 1I13 it a%%ears that
the total %o%ulation of the island of $uba amounted to 937*!L!' The
number of &hites &as 793*!I8P of free men of colour* 119*L21* and of
slaves 122*727'
+n no %art of the &orld &here slaver" %revails is emanci%ation so
frequent as in the island of $uba' The 0%anish legislature favours
libert"* instead of o%%osing it* like the English and /rench
legislatures' The right of ever" slave to choose his o&n master* or
set himself free* if he can %a" the %urchaseHmone"* the religious
feeling &hich dis%oses man" masters in eas" circumstances to liberate
some of their slaves* the habit of kee%ing a multitude of blacks for
domestic service* the attachments &hich arise from this intercourse
&ith the &hites* the facilit" &ith &hich slaves &ho are mechanics
accumulate mone"* and %a" their masters a certain sum dail"* in order
to &ork on their o&n accountHHsuch are the %rinci%al causes &hich in
the to&ns convert so man" slaves into free men of colour' + might add
the chances of the lotter"* and games of haRard* but that too much
confidence in those means often %roduces the most fatal effects'
The %rimitive %o%ulation of the .est +ndia +slands having entirel"
disa%%eared Nthe Sambo $aribs* a mixture of natives and negroes*
having been trans%orted in 132L* from 0t' incent to the island of
RatanO* the %resent %o%ulation of the islands N7*I98*888O must be
considered as com%osed of Euro%ean and African blood' The negroes of
%ure race form nearl" t&oHthirdsP the &hites oneHfifthP and the mixed
race oneHseventh' +n the 0%anish colonies of the continent* &e find
the descendants of the +ndians &ho disa%%ear among the mestiRos and
Rambos* a mixture of +ndians &ith &hites and negroes' The archi%elago
of the .est +ndies suggests no such consolator" idea' The state of
societ" &as there such* at the beginning of the sixteenth centur"*
that* &ith some rare exce%tions* the ne& %lanters %aid as little
attention to the natives as the English no& do in $anada' The +ndians
of $uba have disa%%eared like the Guanches of the $anaries* although
at Guanabacoa and Teneriffe false %retensions &ere rene&ed fort" "ears
ago* b" several families* &ho obtained small %ensions from the
government on %retext of having in their veins some dro%s of +ndian or
Guanche blood' +t is im%ossible no& to form an accurate judgment of
the %o%ulation of $uba or Ha"ti in the time of $olumbus' Ho& can &e
admit* &ith some* that the island of $uba* at its conquest in 1911*
had a million of inhabitants* and that there remained of that million*
in 1913* onl" 1;*8884 The statistic statements in the &ritings of the
bisho% of $hia%a are full of contradictions' +t is related that the
(ominican monk* /ra" =u"s Bertram* &ho &as %ersecuted- b" the
encomenderos* as the Cethodists no& are b" some English %lanters*
%redicted that the 788*888 +ndians &hich $uba contained* &ould %erish
the victims of the cruelt" of Euro%eans' N- 0ee the curious
revelations in 6uan de Carieta* Hist' de todos los 0antos de Es%ana
libro 3 %age 13;'O +f this be true* &e ma" at least conclude that the
native race &as far from being extinct bet&een the "ears 1999 and
19L2P but according to Gomara Nsuch is the confusion among the
historians of those timesO there &ere no longer an" +ndians on the
island of $uba in 199!' To form an idea of the vagueness of the
estimates made b" the first 0%anish travellers* at a %eriod &hen the
%o%ulation of no %rovince of the %eninsula &as ascertained* &e have
but to recollect that the number of inhabitants &hich $a%tain $ook and
other navigators assigned to >taheite and the 0and&ich +slands* at a
time &hen statistics furnished the most exact com%arisons* varied from
one to five' .e ma" conceive that the island of $uba* surrounded &ith
coasts ada%ted for fishing* might* from the great fertilit" of its
soil* afford sustenance for several millions of those +ndians &ho have
no desire for animal food* and &ho cultivate maiRe* manioc* and other
nourishing rootsP but had there been that amount of %o%ulation* &ould
it not have been manifest b" a more advanced degree of civiliRation
than the narrative of $olumbus describesT .ould the %eo%le of $uba
have remained more back&ard in civiliRation than the inhabitants of
the =uca"es +slandsT .hatever activit" ma" be attributed to causes of
destruction* such as the t"rann" of the conquistadores* the faults of
governors* the too severe labours of the goldH&ashings* the smallH%ox
and the frequenc" of suicides*- it &ould be difficult to conceive ho&
in thirt" or fort" "ears three or four hundred thousand +ndians could
entirel" disa%%ear' N- The rage of hanging themselves b" &hole
families* in huts and caverns* as related b" Garcilasso* &as no doubt
the effect of des%airP "et instead of lamenting the barbarism of the
sixteenth centur"* it &as attem%ted to excul%ate the conquistadores*
b" attributing the disa%%earance of the natives to their taste for
suicide' 0ee Patriota tome 7 %age 98' @umerous so%hisms of this kind
are found in a &ork %ublished b" C' @uix on the humanit" of the
0%aniards in the conquest of America' This &ork is entitled
Reflexiones im%arciales sobre la humanidad de los E%anoles contra los
%retendidos filosofos " %oliticos* %ara illustrar las historias de
Ra"nal " RobertsonP escrito en +taliano %or el Abate (on 6uan @uix* "
traducido al castellano %ar (on Pedro arela " ?lloa* del $onsejo de
0'C' 1397' :+m%artial reflections on the humanit" of the 0%aniards*
intended to controvert %retended %hiloso%hers and %oliticians* and to
illustrate the histories of Ra"nal and RobertsonP &ritten in +talian
b" the Abate (on 6uan @uix and translated into $astilian b" (on Pedro
arela " ?lloa* member of His Cajest"Gs $ouncil'< The author* &ho
calls the ex%ulsion of the Coors under Phili% +++ a meritorious and
religious act* terminates his &ork b" congratulating the +ndians of
America )on having fallen into the hands of the 0%aniards* &hose
conduct has been at all times the most humane* and their government
the &isest') 0everal %ages of this book recall the salutar" rigour of
the (ragonadesP and that odious %assage* in &hich a man distinguished
for his talents and his %rivate virtues* the $ount de Caistre N0oirees
de 0t' Petersbourg tome 7 %age 171O justifies the +nquisition of
Portugal )&hich he observes has onl" caused some dro%s of guilt" blood
to flo&') To &hat so%hisms must the" have recourse* &ho &ould defend
religion* national honour or the stabilit" of governments* b"
excul%ating all that is offensive to humanit" in the actions of the
clerg"* the %eo%le* or kings4 +t is vain to seek to destro" the %o&er
most firml" established on earth* namel"* the testimon" of histor"'O
The &ar &ith the $acique Hatue" &as short and &as confined to the most
eastern %art of the island' /e& com%laints arose against the
administration of the t&o first 0%anish governors* (iego elasqueR and
Pedro de Barba' The o%%ression of the natives dates from the arrival
of the cruel Hernando de 0oto about the "ear 19!2' 0u%%osing* &ith
Gomara* that fifteen "ears later* under the government of (iego de
Cajariegos N199; to 19L;O* there &ere no longer an" +ndians in $uba*
&e must necessaril" admit that considerable remains of that %eo%le
saved themselves b" means of canoes in /lorida* believing* according
to ancient traditions* that the" &ere returning to the countr" of
their ancestors' The mortalit" of the negro slaves* observed in our
da"s in the .est +ndies* can alone thro& some light on these numerous
contradictions' To $olumbus and elasqueR the island of $uba must have
a%%eared &ell %eo%led*- if* for instance* it contained as man"
inhabitants as &ere found there b" the English in 13L7' N- $olumbus
relates that the island of Ha"ti &as sometimes attacked b" a race of
black men Ngente negraO* &ho lived more to the south or southH&est' He
ho%ed to visit them in his third vo"age because those black men
%ossessed a metal of &hich the admiral had %rocured some %ieces in his
second vo"age' These %ieces &ere sent to 0%ain and found to be
com%osed of 8'L! of gold* 8'1; of silver and 8'12 of co%%er' +n fact*
Balboa discovered this black tribe in the +sthmus of (arien' )That
conquistador*) sa"s Gomara* )entered the %rovince of Buareca5 he found
no gold* but some blacks* &ho &ere slaves of the lord of the %lace' He
asked this lord &hence he had received themP &ho re%lied* that men of
that colour lived near the %lace* &ith &hom the" &ere constantl" at
&ar'''These negroes*) adds Gomara* )exactl" resemble those of GuineaP
and no others have since been seen in America Nen las +ndios "o %ienso
que no se han visto negros des%ues')O The %assage is ver" remarkable'
H"%otheses &ere formed in the sixteenth centur"* as no&P and Petrus
Cart"r imagined that these men seen b" Balboa Nthe BuarecasO* &ere
Ethio%ian blacks &ho* as %irates* infested the seas* and had been
shi%&recked on the coast of America' But the negroes of 0oudan are not
%iratesP and it is easier to conceive that Esquimaux* in their boats
of skins* ma" have gone to Euro%e* than the Africans to (arien' Those
learned s%eculators &ho believe in a mixture of the Pol"nesians &ith
the Americans rather consider the Buarecas as of the race of Pa%uans*
similar to the negritos of the Phili%%ines' Tro%ical migrations from
&est to east* from the most &estern %art of Pol"nesia to the +sthmus
of (arien* %resent great difficulties* although the &inds blo& during
&hole &eeks from the &est' Above all* it is essential to kno& &hether
the Buarecas &ere reall" like the negroes of 0oudan* as Gomara
asserts* or &hether the" &ere onl" a race of ver" dark +ndians N&ith
smooth and gloss" hairO* &ho from time to time* before 1;27* infested
the coasts of the island of Ha"ti &hich has become in our da"s the
domain of Ethio%ians'O The first travellers &ere easil" deceived b"
the cro&ds &hich the a%%earance of Euro%ean vessels brought together
on some %oints of the coast' @o&* the island of $uba* &ith the same
ciudades and villas &hich it %ossesses at %resent* had not in 13L7
more than 788*888 inhabitantsP and "et* among a %eo%le treated like
slaves* ex%osed to the violence and brutalit" of their masters* to
excess of labour* &ant of nourishment* and the ravages of the
smallH%oxHHfort"Ht&o "ears &ould not suffice to obliterate all but the
remembrance of their misfortunes on the earth' +n several of the
=esser Antilles the %o%ulation diminishes under English domination
five and six %er cent annuall"P at $uba* more than eight %er centP but
the annihilation of 788*888 in fort"Ht&o "ears su%%oses an annual loss
of t&ent"Hsix %er cent* a loss scarcel" credible* although &e ma"
su%%ose that the mortalit" of the natives of $uba &as much greater
than that of negroes bought at a ver" high %rice'
+n stud"ing the histor" of the island &e observe that the movement of
coloniRation has been from east to &estP and that here* as ever"&here
in the 0%anish colonies* the %laces first %eo%led are no& the most
desert' The first establishment of the &hites &as in 1911 &hen*
according to the orders of (on (iego $olumbus* together &ith the
conquistador and %oblador elasqueR* he landed at Puerto de Palmas*
near $a%e Ca"si* then called Alfa " >mega* and subdued the cacique
Hatue" &ho* an emigrant and fugitive from Ha"ti* had &ithdra&n to the
eastern %art of the island of $uba* and had become the chief of a
confederation of %ett" native %rinces' The building of the to&n of
Baracoa &as begun in 1917P and later* Puerto Princi%e* Trinidad* the
illa de 0anto Es%iritu* 0antiago de $uba N191;O* 0an 0alvador de
Ba"amo* and 0an $ristoval de la Havana' This last to&n &as originall"
founded in 1919 on the southern coast of the island* in the Partido of
Guines* and transferred* four "ears later* to Puerto de $arenas* the
%osition of &hich at the entrance of the t&o channels of Bahama Nel
iejo " de @uevoO a%%ears to be much more favourable to commerce than
the coast on the southH&est of Batabano'- N- A tree is still sho&n at
the Havannah Nat Puerto de $arenasO under the shade of &hich the
0%aniards celebrated their first mass' The island* no& called
officiall" The everHfaithful island of $uba* &as after its discover"
named successivel" 6uana /ernandina* +sla de 0antiago* and +sla del
Ave Caria' +ts arms date from the "ear 191L'O The %rogress of
civiliRation since the sixteenth centur" has had a %o&erful influence
on the relations of the castes &ith each otherP these relations var"
in the districts &hich contain onl" farms for cattle* and in those
&here the soil has been long clearedP in the seaH%orts and inland
to&ns* in the s%ots &here colonial %roduce is cultivated* and in such
as %roduce maiRe* vegetables and forage'
?ntil the latter %art of the eighteenth centur" the number of female
slaves in the sugar %lantations of $uba &as extremel" limitedP and
&hat ma" a%%ear sur%rising is that a %rejudice* founded on religious
scru%les* o%%osed the introduction of &omen* &hose %rice at the
Havannah &as generall" oneHthird less than that of men' The slaves
&ere forced to celibac" on the %retext of avoiding moral disorder' The
6esuits and the Bethlemite monks alone renounced that fatal %rejudice*
and encouraged negresses in their %lantations' +f the census* no doubt
im%erfect* of 1339* "ielded 19*9L7 female* and 72*!LL male slaves* &e
must not forget that that enumeration com%rehended the totalit" of the
island* and that the sugar %lantations occu%" even no& but a quarter
of the slave %o%ulation' After the "ear 1329* the $onsulado of the
Havannah began to be seriousl" occu%ied &ith the %roject of rendering
the increase of the slave %o%ulation more inde%endent of the
variations of the slaveHtrade' (on /rancisco Arango* &hose vie&s &ere
ever characteriRed b" &isdom* %ro%osed a tax on the %lantations in
&hich the number of slaves &as not com%rised of oneHthird females' He
also %ro%osed a tax of six %iastres on ever" negro brought into the
island* and from &hich the &omen Nnegras boRalesO should be exem%t'
These measures &ere not ado%ted because the colonial assembl" refused
to em%lo" coercive meansP but a desire to %romote marriages and to
im%rove the condition of the children of slaves has existed since that
%eriod* &hen a cedula real Nof the 77nd A%ril* 1I8;O recommended those
objects )to the conscience and humanit" of the %lanters')
The first introduction of negroes into the eastern %art of the island
of $uba took %lace in 1971 and their number did not exceed !88' The
0%aniards &ere then much less eager for slaves than the PortugueseP
for* in 19!2* there &as a sale of 17*888 negroes at =isbon* as in our
da"s Nto the eternal shame of $hristian Euro%eO the trade in Greek
slaves is carried on at $onstantino%le and 0m"rna' +n the sixteenth
centur" the slaveHtrade &as not free in 0%ainP the %rivilege of
trading* &hich &as granted b" the $ourt* &as %urchased in 19IL* for
all 0%anish America* b" Gas%ar de PeraltaP in 1929* b" GomeR Re"nelP
and in 1L19* b" Antonio RodrigueR de Elvas' The total im%ortation then
amounted to onl" !988 negroes annuall"P and the inhabitants of $uba*
&ho &ere &holl" engaged in rearing cattle* scarcel" received an"'
(uring the &ar of succession* /rench shi%s &ere accustomed to sto% at
the Havannah and to exchange slaves for tobacco' The Asiento treat"
&ith the English in some degree augmented the introduction of negroesP
"et in 13L!* although the taking of the Havannah and the sojourn of
strangers gave rise to ne& &ants* the number of slaves in the
jurisdiction of the Havannah did not amount to 79*888P and in the
&hole island* not to !7*888' The total number of African negroes
im%orted from 1971 to 13L! &as %robabl" L8*888P their descendants
survive among the free mulattos* &ho inhabit for the most %art the
eastern side of the island' /rom the "ear 13L! to 1328* &hen the
negroHtrade &as declared free* the Havannah received 7;*I39 Nb" the
$om%ania de Tobacos ;293* from 13L! to 13LLP b" the contract of the
Carquess de $asa Enrile* 1;*1!7* from 133! to 1332P b" the contract of
Baker and (a&son* 93IL* from 13IL to 13I2O' +f &e estimate the
introduction of slaves in the eastern %art of the island during those
t&ent"Hseven "ears N13L! to 1328O at L888* &e find from the discover"
of the island of $uba* or rather from 1971 to 1328* a total of 28*I39'
.e shall soon see that b" the everHincreasing activit" of the
slaveHtrade the fifteen "ears that follo&ed 1328 furnished more slaves
than the t&o centuries and a half &hich %receded the %eriod of the
free trade' That activit" &as redoubled &hen it &as sti%ulated bet&een
England and 0%ain that the slaveHtrade should be %rohibited north of
the equator* from @ovember 77nd* 1I13* and entirel" abolished on the
!8th Ca"* 1I78' The Aing of 0%ain acce%ted from England N&hich
%osterit" &ill one da" scarcel" believeO a sum of ;88*888 %ounds
sterling* as a com%ensation for the loss &hich might result from the
cessation of that barbarous commerce'
6amaica received from Africa in the s%ace of three hundred "ears
I98*888 blacksP or* to fix on a more certain estimate* in one hundred
and eight "ears Nfrom 1388 to 1I8IO nearl" L33*888P and "et that
island does not no& %ossess !I8*888 blacks* free mulattos and slaves'
The island of $uba furnishes a more consoling resultP it has 1!8*888
free men of colour* &hilst 6amaica* on a total %o%ulation half as
great* contains onl" !9*888'
>n com%aring the island of $uba &ith 6amaica* the result of the
com%arison seems to be in favour of the 0%anish legislation* and the
morals of the inhabitants of $uba' These com%arisons demonstrate a
state of things in the latter island more favorable to the %h"sical
%reservation* and to the liberation of the blacksP but &hat a
melanchol" s%ectacle is that of $hristian and civiliRed nations*
discussing &hich of them has caused the fe&est Africans to %erish
during the interval of three centuries* b" reducing them to slaver"4
Cuch cannot be said in commendation of the treatment of the blacks in
the southern %arts of the ?nited 0tatesP but there are degrees in the
sufferings of the human s%ecies' The slave &ho has a hut and a famil"
is less miserable than he &ho is %urchased as if he formed %art of a
flock' The greater the number of slaves established &ith their
families in d&ellings &hich the" believe to be their o&n %ro%ert"* the
more ra%idl" &ill their numbers increase'
The annual increase of the last ten "ears in the ?nited 0tates
N&ithout counting the manumission of 188*888O* &as t&ent"Hsix on a
thousand* &hich %roduces a doubling in t&ent"Hseven "ears' @o&* if the
slaves at 6amaica and $uba had multi%lied in the same %ro%ortion*
those t&o islands Nthe former since 1329* and the latter since 1I88O
&ould %ossess almost their %resent %o%ulation* &ithout ;88*888 blacks
having been dragged from the coast of Africa* to PortHRo"al and the
Havannah'
The mortalit" of the negroes is ver" different in the island of $uba*
as in all the .est +ndies* according to the nature of their treatment*
the humanit" of masters and overseers* and the number of negresses &ho
can attend to the sick' There are %lantations in &hich fifteen to
eighteen %er cent %erish annuall"' + have heard it cooll" discussed
&hether it &ere better for the %ro%rietor not to subject the slaves to
excessive labour and consequentl" to re%lace them less frequentl"* or
to dra& all the advantage %ossible from them in a fe& "ears* and
re%lace them oftener b" the acquisition of boRal negroes' 0uch are the
reasonings of cu%idit" &hen man em%lo"s man as a beast of burden4 +t
&ould be unjust to entertain a doubt that &ithin fifteen "ears negro
mortalit" has greatl" diminished in the island of $uba' 0everal
%ro%rietors have made laudable efforts to im%rove the %lantation
s"stem'
+t has been remarked ho& much the %o%ulation of the island of $uba is
susce%tible of being augmented in the la%se of ages' As the native of
a northern countr"* little favoured b" nature* + ma" observe that the
Cark of Brandebourg* for the most %art sand"* contains* under an
administration favourable to the %rogress of agricultural industr"* on
a surface onl" oneHthird of that of $uba* a %o%ulation nearl" double'
The extreme inequalit" in the distribution of the %o%ulation* the &ant
of inhabitants on a great %art of the coast* and its immense
develo%ment* render the militar" defence of the &hole island
im%ossible5 neither the landing of an enem" nor illicit trade can be
%revented' The Havannah is &ell defended* and its &orks rival those of
the most im%ortant fortified to&ns of Euro%eP the Torreones* and the
fortifications of $ogimar* 6aruco* CatanRas* Cariel* Bahia Honda*
Batabano* Jagua and Trinidad might resist for a considerable time the
assaults of an enem"P but on the other hand t&oHthirds of the island
are almost &ithout defence* and could scarcel" be %rotected b" the
best gunHboats'
+ntellectual cultivation is almost entirel" limited to the &hites* and
is as unequall" distributed as the %o%ulation' The best societ" of the
Havannah ma" be com%ared for eas" and %olished manners &ith the
societ" of $adiR and &ith that of the richest commercial to&ns of
Euro%eP but on quitting the ca%ital* or the neighbouring %lantations*
&hich are inhabited b" rich %ro%rietors* a striking contrast to this
state of %artial and local civiliRation is manifest* in the sim%licit"
of manners %revailing in the insulated farms and small to&ns' The
Havaneros or natives of the Havannah &ere the first among the rich
inhabitants of the 0%anish colonies &ho visited 0%ain* /rance and
+tal"P and at the Havannah the %eo%le &ere al&a"s &ell informed of the
%olitics of Euro%e' This kno&ledge of events* this %rescience of
future chances* have %o&erfull" aided the inhabitants of $uba to free
themselves from some of the burthens &hich check the develo%ment of
colonial %ros%erit"' +n the interval bet&een the %eace of ersailles
and the beginning of the revolution of 0an (omingo* the Havannah
a%%eared to be ten times nearer to 0%ain than to Cexico* $aracas and
@e& Grenada' /ifteen "ears later* at the %eriod of m" visit to the
colonies* this a%%arent inequalit" of distance had considerabl"
diminishedP no&* &hen the inde%endence of the continental colonies*
the im%ortation of foreign manufactures and the financial &ants of the
ne& states have multi%lied the intercourse bet&een Euro%e and AmericaP
&hen the %assage is shortened b" im%rovements in navigationP &hen the
$olumbians* the Cexicans and the inhabitants of Guatimala rival each
other in visiting Euro%eP the ancient 0%anish coloniesHHthose at least
that are bathed b" the AtlanticHHseem alike to have dra&n nearer to
the continent' 0uch are the changes &hich a fe& "ears have %roduced*
and &hich are %roceeding &ith increasing ra%idit"' The" are the
effects of kno&ledge and of longHrestrained activit"P and the" render
less striking the contrast in manners and civiliRation &hich +
observed at the beginning of the centur"* at $aracas* Bogota* Buito*
=ima* Cexico and the Havannah' The influences of the Basque*
$atalanian* Galician and Andalusian origin become ever" da" more
im%erce%tible'
The island of $uba does not %ossess those great and magnificent
establishments the foundation of &hich is of ver" remote date in
CexicoP but the Havannah can boast of institutions &hich the
%atriotism of the inhabitants* animated b" a ha%%" rivalr" bet&een the
different centres of American civiliRation* &ill kno& ho& to extend
and im%rove &henever %olitical circumstances and confidence in the
%reservation of internal tranquillit" ma" %ermit' The Patriotic
0ociet" of the Havannah Nestablished in 132!OP those of 0anto
Es%iritu* Puerto Princi%e* and Trinidad* &hich de%end on itP the
universit"* &ith its chairs of theolog"* juris%rudence* medicine and
mathematics* established since 137I* in the convent of the Padres
PredicedoresP- N- The clerg" of the island of $uba is neither numerous
nor rich* if &e exce%t the Bisho% of the Havannah and the Archbisho%
of $uba* the former of &hom has 118*888 %iastres* and the latter
;8*888 %iastres %er annum' The canons have !888 %iastres' The number
of ecclesiastics does not exceed 1188* according to the official
enumeration in m" %ossession'O the chair of %olitical econom"* founded
in 1I1IP that of agricultural botan"P the museum and the school of
descri%tive anatom"* due to the enlightened Real of (on Alexander
RamireRP the %ublic librar"* the free school of dra&ing and %aintingP
the national schoolP the =ancastrian schools* and the botanic garden*
are institutions %artl" ne&* and %artl" old' 0ome stand in need of
%rogressive amelioration* others require a total reform to %lace them
in harmon" &ith the s%irit of the age and the &ants of societ"'
AGR+$?=T?RE'
.hen the 0%aniards began their settlements in the islands and on the
continent of America those %roductions of the soil chiefl" cultivated
&ere* as in Euro%e* the %lants that serve to nourish man' This
%rimitive stage of the agricultural life of nations has been %reserved
till the %resent time in Cexico* in Peru* in the cold and tem%erate
regions of $undinamarca* in short* &herever the domination of the
&hites com%rehends a vast extent of territor"' The alimentar" %lants*
bananas* manioc* maiRe* the cereals of Euro%e* %otatoes and quinoa*
have continued to be* at different heights above the level of the sea*
the basis of continental agriculture &ithin the tro%ics' +ndigo*
cotton* coffee and sugarHcane a%%ear in those regions onl" in
intercalated grou%s' $uba and the other islands of the archi%elago of
the Antilles %resented during the s%ace of t&o centuries and a half a
uniform as%ect5 the same %lants &ere cultivated &hich had nourished
the halfH&ild natives and the vast savannahs of the great islands &ere
%eo%led &ith numerous herds of cattle' Piedro de AtienRa %lanted the
first sugarHcanes in 0aint (omingo about the "ear 1978P and
c"lindrical %resses* moved b" &aterH&heels* &ere constructed'- N- >n
the tra%iches or molinos de agua of the sixteenth centur" see >viedo*
Hist' nat' des +nd' lib' ; ca%' I'O But the island of $uba
%artici%ated little in these efforts of rising industr"P and &hat is
ver" remarkable* in 199!* the historians of the $onquest- mention no
ex%ortation of sugar exce%t that of Cexican sugar for 0%ain and Peru'
N- =o%eR de Gomara* $onquista de Cexico NCedina del $am%o 1!9!O fol'
172'O /ar from thro&ing into commerce &hat &e no& call colonial
%roduce* the Havannah* till the eighteenth centur"* ex%orted onl"
skins and leather' The rearing of cattle &as succeeded b" the
cultivation of tobacco and the rearing of bees* of &hich the first
hives NcolmenaresO &ere brought from the /loridas' .ax and tobacco
soon became more im%ortant objects of commerce than leather* but &ere
shortl" su%erseded in their turn b" the sugarHcane and coffee' The
cultivation of these %roductions did not exclude more ancient
cultivationP and* in the different %hases of agricultural industr"*
not&ithstanding the general tendenc" to make the coffee %lantations
%redominate* the sugarHhouses furnish the greatest amount in the
annual %rofits' The ex%ortation of tobacco* coffee* sugar and &ax* b"
la&ful and illicit means* amounts to fourteen millions of %iastres*
according to the actual %rice of those articles'
Three qualities of sugar are distinguished in the island of $uba*
according to the degree of %urit" attained b" refining Ngrados de
%urgaO' +n ever" loaf or reversed cone the u%%er %art "ields the &hite
sugarP the middle %art the "ello& sugar* or quebradoP and the lo&er
%art* or %oint of the cone* the cucurucho' All the sugar of $uba is
consequentl" refinedP a ver" small quantit" is introduced of coarse or
muscovado sugar Nb" corru%tion* aRucar mascabadoO' The forms being of
a different siRe* the loaves N%anesO differ also in &eight' The"
generall" &eigh an arroba after refining' The refiners Nmaestros de
aRucarO endeavour to make ever" loaf of sugar "ield fiveHninths of
&hite* threeHninths of quebrado* and oneHninth of cucurucho' The %rice
of &hite sugar is higher &hen sold alone than in the sale called
surtido* in &hich threeHfifths of &hite sugar and t&oHfifths of
quebrado are combined in the same lot' +n the latter case the
difference of the %rice is generall" four reals Nreales de %lataOP in
the former* it rises to six or seven reals' The revolution of 0aint
(omingo* the %rohibitions dictated b" the $ontinental 0"stem of
@a%oleon* the enormous consum%tion of sugar in England and the ?nited
0tates* the %rogress of cultivation in $uba* BraRil* (emerara* the
Cauritius and 6ava* have occasioned great fluctuations of %rice' +n an
interval of t&elve "ears it &as from three to seven reals in 1I83* and
from t&ent"Hfour to t&ent"Height reals in 1I1I* &hich %roves
fluctuations in the relation of one to five'
(uring m" sta" in the %lains of Guines* in 1I8;* + endeavoured to
obtain some accurate information res%ecting the statistics of the
making of caneHsugar' A great "ngenio %roducing from !7*888 to ;8*888
arrobas of sugar is generall" fift" caballerias*- or L98 hectares in
extent* of &hich the half Nless than oneHtenth of a square sea leagueO
is allotted to sugarHmaking %ro%erl" so called NcanaveralO and the
other half for alimentar" %lants and %asturage N%otreroO' N- The
agrarian measure* called caballeria* is eighteen cordels* Neach cordel
includes t&ent"Hfour varasO or ;!7 square varasP consequentl"* as 1
vara Q 8'I!9m'* according to RodrigueR* a caballeria is 1IL*L7; square
varas* or 1!8*11I square metres* or thirt"Ht&o and t&oHtenths English
acres'O The %rice of land varies* naturall"* according to the qualit"
of the soil and the %roximit" of the %orts of the Havannah* CatanRas
and Cariel' +n a circuit of t&ent"Hfive leagues round the Havannah the
caballeria ma" be estimated at t&o or three thousand %iastres' /or a
%roduce- of !7*888 arrobas Nor 7888 cases of sugarO the "ngenio must
have at least three hundred negroes' N- There are ver" fe& %lantations
in the &hole island of $uba ca%able of furnishing ;8*888 arrobasP
among these fe& are the "ngenio of Rio Blanco* or of the Carquess del
Arca* and those belonging to (on Rafael >farrel and (ona /elicia
6aurregui' 0ugarHhouses are thought to be ver" considerable that "ield
7888 cases annuall"* or !7*888 arrobas Nnearl" !LI*888 kilogrammes'O
+n the /rench colonies it is generall" com%uted that the third or
fourth %art onl" of the land is allotted for the %lantation of food
Nbananas* ignames and batatesOP in the 0%anish colonies a greater
surface is lost in %asturageP this is the natural consequence of the
old habits of the haciendas de ganado'O An adult and acclimated slave
is &orth from four hundred and fift" to five hundred %iastresP a boRal
negro* adult* not acclimated* three hundred and sevent" to four
hundred %iastres' +t is %robable that a negro costs annuall"* in
nourishment* clothing and medicine* fort"Hfive to fift" %iastresP
consequentl"* &ith the interest of the ca%ital* and deducting the
holida"s* more than t&ent"Ht&o sous %er da"' The slaves are fed &ith
tasajo Nmeat dried in the sunO of Buenos A"res and $aracasP saltHfish
NbacalaoO &hen the tasajo is too dearP and vegetables NviandasO such
as %um%kins* munatos* batatas* and maiRe' An arroba of tasajo &as
&orth ten to t&elve reals at Guines in 1I8;P and from fourteen to
sixteen in 1I79' An "ngenio* such as &e here su%%ose N&ith a %roduce
of !7*888 to ;8*888 arrobasO* requires* first* three machines &ith
c"linders %ut in motion b" oxen Ntra%ichesO or t&o &aterH&heelsP
second* according to the old 0%anish method* &hich* b" a slo& fire
causes a great consum%tion of &ood* eighteen cauldrons N%ieRasOP
according to the first method of reverberation Nintroduced since the
"ear 1I81 b" Cr' Bailli of 0aint (omingo under the aus%ices of (on
@icolas $alvoO three clarificadoras* three %eilas and t&o traines de
tachos Neach train has three %ieRasO* in all t&elve fondos' +t is
commonl" asserted that three arrobas of refined sugar "ield one barrel
of miel* and that the molasses are sufficient for the ex%enses of the
%lantation5 this is es%eciall" the case &here the" %roduce brand" in
abundance' Thirt"Ht&o thousand arrobas of sugar "ield 19*888 bariles
de miel Nat t&o arrobasO of &hich five hundred %i%as de aguardiente de
cana are made* at t&ent"Hfive %iastres'
+n establishing an "ngenio ca%able of furnishing t&o thousand caxas
"earl"* a ca%italist &ould dra&* according to the old 0%anish method*
and at the %resent %rice of sugar* an interest of six and oneHsixth
%er centP an interest no &a" considerable for an establishment not
merel" agricultural* and of &hich the ex%ense remains the same*
although the %roduce sometimes diminishes more than a third' +t is
ver" rarel" that one of those great "ngenios can make !7*888 cases of
sugar during several successive "ears' +t cannot therefore be matter
of sur%rise that &hen the %rice of sugar in the island of $uba has
been ver" lo& Nfour or five %iastres the quintalO* the cultivation of
rice has been %referred to that of the sugarHcane' The %rofit of the
old lando&ners NhaciendadosO consists* first* in the circumstance that
the ex%enses of the settlement &ere much less t&ent" or thirt" "ears
ago* &hen a caballeria of good land cost onl" 1788 or 1L88 %iastres*
instead of 7988 to !888P and the adult negro !88 %iastres* instead of
;98 to 988P second* in the balance of the ver" lo& and the ver" high
%rices of sugar' These %rices are so different in a %eriod of ten
"ears that the interest of the ca%ital varies from five to fifteen %er
cent' +n the "ear 1I8;* for instance* if the ca%ital em%lo"ed had been
onl" 188*888 %iastres* the ra& %roduce* according to the value of
sugar and rum* &ould have amounted to 2;*888 %iastres' @o&* from 1323
to 1I88* the %rice of a case of sugar &as sometimes* mean value* fort"
%iastres instead of t&ent"Hfour* &hich + &as obliged to su%%ose in the
calculation for the "ear 1I79' .hen a sugarHhouse* a great manufacture
or a mine is found in the hands of the %erson &ho first formed the
establishment* the estimate of the rate of interest &hich the ca%ital
em%lo"ed "ields to the %ro%rietor* can be no guide to those &ho*
%urchasing after&ards* balance the advantages of different kinds of
industr"'
+n soils that can be &atered* or &here %lants &ith tuberose roots have
%receded the cultivation of the sugarHcane* a caballeria of fertile
land "ields* instead of 1988 arrobas* !888 or ;888* making 7LL8 or
!!;8 kilogrammes of sugar Nblanco and quebradoO %er hectare' +n fixing
on 1988 arrobas and estimating the case of sugar at 7; %iastres*
according to the %rice of the Havannah* &e find that the hectare
%roduces the value of I38 francs in sugarP and that of 7II francs in
&heat* in the su%%osition of an octu%le harvest* and the %rice of 188
kilogrammes of &heat being 1I francs' + have observed else&here that
in this com%arison of the t&o branches of cultivation it must not be
forgotten that the cultivation of sugar requires great ca%italP for
instance* at %resent ;88*888 %iastres for an annual %roduction of
!7*888 arrobas* or !LI*888 kilogrammes* if this quantit" be made in
one single settlement' At Bengal* in &atered lands* an acre N;8;;
square metresO renders 7!88 kilogrammes of coarse sugar* making 9388
kilogrammes %er hectare' +f this fertilit" is common in lands of great
extent &e must not be sur%rised at the lo& %rice of sugar in the East
+ndies' The %roduce of a hectare is double that of the best soil in
the .est +ndies and the %rice of a free +ndian da"Hlabourer is not
oneHthird the %rice of the da"Hlabour of a negro slave in the island
of $uba'
+n 6amaica in 1I79 a %lantation of five hundred acres Nor fifteen and
a half caballeriasO* of &hich t&o hundred acres are cultivated in
sugarHcane* "ields* b" the labour of t&o hundred slaves* one hundred
oxen and fift" mules 7I88 hundred&eight* or 1;7*788 kilogrammes of
sugar* and is com%uted to be &orth* &ith its slaves* ;!*888 %ounds
sterling' According to this estimate of Cr' 0te&art* one hectare &ould
"ield 13L8 kilogrammes of coarse sugarP for such is the qualit" of the
sugar furnished for commerce at 6amaica' Reckoning in a great
sugarHfabric of the Havannah 79 caballerias or !79 hectares for a
%roduce of from !7*888 to ;8*888 cases* &e find 11!8 or 1;78
kilogrammes of refined sugar Nblanco and quebradoO %er hectare' This
result agrees sufficientl" &ith that of 6amaica* if &e consider the
loss sustained in the &eight of sugar b" refining* in converting the
coarse sugar into aRucar blanco " quebradoO or refined sugar' At 0an
(omingo a square N!;8! square toises Q 1'72 hectareO is estimated at
fort"* and sometimes at sixt" quintals5 if &e fix on 9888 %ounds* &e
still find 1288 kilogrammes of coarse sugar %er hectare' 0u%%osing* as
&e ought to do &hen s%eaking of the %roduce of the &hole island of
$uba* that* in soils of average fertilit"* the caballeria Nat 1!
hectaresO "ields 1988 arrobas of refined sugar Nmixed &ith blanco and
quebradoO* or 1!!8 kilogrammes %er hectare* it follo&s that L8*I37
hectares* or nineteen fiveHfourths square sea leagues* Nnearl" a ninth
of the extent of a de%artment of /rance of middling siReO* suffice to
%roduce the ;;8*888 cases of refined sugar furnished b" the island of
$uba for its o&n consum%tion and for la&ful and illicit ex%ortation'
+t seems sur%rising that less than t&ent" square sea leagues should
"ield an annual %roduce of more than the value of fift"Ht&o millions
of francs Ncounting one case* at the Havannah* at the rate of
t&ent"Hfour %iastresO' To furnish coarse sugar for the consum%tion of
thirt" millions of /rench N&hich is actuall" from fift"Hsix to sixt"
millions of kilogrammesO it requires &ithin the tro%ics but nine and
fiveHsixths square sea leagues cultivated &ith sugarHcaneP and in
tem%erate climates but thirt"Hseven and a half square sea leagues
cultivated &ith beetHroot' A hectare of good soil* so&n or %lanted
&ith beetHroot* %roduces in /rance from ten to thirt" thousand
kilogrammes of beetHroot' The mean fertilit" is 78*888 kilogrammes*
&hich furnish 7 1M7 %er cent* or five hundred kilogrammes of coarse
sugar' @o&* one hundred kilogrammes of that sugar "ield fift"
kilogrammes of refined sugar* thirt" of sugar vergeoise* and t&ent" of
muscovadeP consequentl"* a hectare of beetHroot %roduces 798
kilogrammes of refined sugar'
A short time before m" arrival at the Havannah there had been sent
from German" some s%ecimens of beetHroot sugar &hich &ere said to
menace the existence of the 0ugar +slands in America' The %lanters had
learned &ith alarm that it &as a substance entirel" similar to
sugarHcane* but the" flattered themselves that the high %rice of
labour in Euro%e and the difficult" of se%arating the sugar fit for
cr"stalliRation from so great a mass of vegetable %ul% &ould render
the o%eration on a grand scale little %rofitable' $hemistr" has* since
that %eriod* succeeded in overcoming those difficultiesP and* in the
"ear 1I17* /rance alone had more than t&o hundred beetHroot sugar
factories &orking &ith ver" unequal success and %roducing a million of
kilogrammes of coarse sugar* that is* a fift"Heighth %art of the
actual consum%tion of sugar in /rance' Those t&o hundred factories are
no& reduced to fifteen or t&ent"* &hich "ield a %roduce of !88*888
kilogrammes'- N- Although the actual %rice of caneHsugar not refined
is 1 franc 98 cents the kilogramme* in the %orts* the %roduction of
beetrootHsugar offers a still greater advantage in certain localities*
for instance* in the vicinit" of Arras' These establishments &ould be
introduced in man" other %arts of /rance if the %rice of the sugar of
the .est +ndies rose to 7 francs* or 7 francs 79 cents the kilogramme*
and if the government laid no tax on the beetrootHsugar* to com%ensate
the loss on the consum%tion of colonial sugar' The making of
beetrootHsugar is es%eciall" %rofitable &hen combined &ith a general
s"stem of rural econom"* &ith the im%rovement of the soil and the
nourishment of cattle5 it is not a cultivation inde%endent of local
circumstances* like that of the sugarHcane in the tro%ics'O The
inhabitants of the .est +ndies* &ell informed of the affairs of
Euro%e* no longer fear beetHroot* gra%es* chesnuts* and mushrooms* the
coffee of @a%les nor the indigo of the south of /rance' /ortunatel"
the im%rovement of the condition of the .est +ndia slaves does not
de%end on the success of these branches of Euro%ean cultivation'
Previousl" to the "ear 13L7 the island of $uba did not furnish more
commercial %roduce than the three least industrious and most neglected
%rovinces &ith res%ect to cultivation* eragua* the isthmus of Panama
and (arien* do at %resent' A %olitical event &hich a%%eared extremel"
unfortunate* the taking of the Havannah b" the English* roused the
%ublic mind' The to&n &as evacuated in 13I; and its subsequent efforts
of industr" date from that memorable %eriod' The construction of ne&
fortifications on a gigantic %lan- thre& a great deal of mone"
suddenl" into circulation N- +t is affirmed that the construction of
the fort of $abana alone cost fourteen millions of %iastres'OP later
the slaveHtrade became free and furnished hands for the sugar
factories' /ree trade &ith all the %orts of 0%ain and occasionall"
&ith neutral states* the able administration of (on =uis de =as $asas*
the establishment of the $onsulado and the Patriotic 0ociet"* the
destruction of the /rench colon" of 0aint (omingo*- N- +n three
successive attem%ts* in August 1321* 6une 132!* and >ctober 1I8!'
Above all the unfortunate and sanguinar" ex%edition of Generals
=eclerc and Rochambeau com%leted the destruction of the sugar
factories of 0aint (omingo'O and the rise in the %rice of sugar &hich
&as the natural consequence* the im%rovement in machines and ovens*
due in great %art to the refugees of $a%e /rancois* the more intimate
connection formed bet&een the %ro%rietors of the sugar factories and
the merchants of the Havannah* the great ca%ital em%lo"ed b" the
latter in agricultural establishments Nsugar and coffee %lantationsO*
such have been successivel" the causes of the increasing %ros%erit" of
the island of $uba* not&ithstanding the conflict of the authorities*
&hich serves to embarrass the %rogress of affairs'
The greatest changes in the %lantations of sugarHcane and in the sugar
factories* took %lace from 132L to 1I88' /irst* mules &ere substituted
Ntra%iches de mulasO for oxen Ntra%iches de bue"esOP and after&ards
h"draulic &heels &ere introduced Ntra%iches de aguaO* &hich the first
conquistadores had em%lo"ed at 0aint (omingoP finall" the action of
steamHengines &as tried at $eibabo* at the ex%ense of $ount 6aruco "
Co%ex' There are no& t&ent"Hfive of those machines in the different
sugar mills of the island of $uba' The culture of the sugarHcane of
>taheite in the meantime increased' Boilers of %re%aration
NclarificadorasO &ere introduced and the reverberating furnaces better
arranged' +t must be said* to the honour of &ealth" %ro%rietors* that
in a great number of %lantations* a kind solicitude is manifested for
sick slaves* for the introduction of negresses* and for the education
of children'
The number of sugar factories N"ngeniosO in 1339 &as ;3! in the &hole
islandP and in 1I13 more than 3I8' Among the former* none %roduced the
fourth %art of the sugar no& made in the "ngenios of second rankP it
is consequentl" not the number of factories that can afford an
accurate idea of the %rogress of that branch of agricultural industr"'
The first sugarHcanes carefull" %lanted on virgin soil "ield a harvest
during t&ent" to t&ent"Hfive "ears* after &hich the" must be re%lanted
ever" three "ears' There existed in 1I8;* at the Hacienda de
Catamoros* a square NcanaveralO &orked during fort"Hfive "ears' The
most fertile soil for the %roduction of sugar is no& in the vicinit"
of Cariel and Guanaja"' That variet" of sugarHcane kno&n b" the name
of $ana de >tahiti* recognised at a distance b" a fresher green* has
the advantage of furnishing* on the same extent of soil* oneHfourth
more juice* and a stem more &ood"* thicker* and consequentl" richer in
combustible matter' The refiners Nmaestros de aRucarO* %retend that
the veRou Nguara%oO of the $ana de >tahiti is more easil" &orked* and
"ields more cr"stalliRed sugar b" adding less lime or %otass to the
veRou' The 0outh 0ea sugarHcane furnishes* no doubt* after five or six
"earsG cultivation* the thinnest stubble* but the knots remain more
distant from each other than in the $ana creolia or de la tierra' The
a%%rehension at first entertained of the former degenerating b"
degrees into ordinar" sugarHcane is ha%%il" not realiRed' The
sugarHcane is %lanted in the island of $uba in the rain" season* from
6ul" to >ctoberP and the harvest is gathered from /ebruar" to Ca"'
+n %ro%ortion as b" too ra%id clearing the island has become un&ooded*
the sugarHhouses have begun to &ant fuel' A little stalk NsugarHcane
destitute of its juiceO used to be em%lo"ed to quicken the fire
beneath the old cauldrons NtachosOP but it is onl" since the
introduction of reverberating furnaces b" the emigrants of 0aint
(omingo that the attem%t has been made to dis%ense altogether &ith
&ood and burn onl" refuse sugarHcane' +n the old construction of
furnaces and cauldrons* a tarea of &ood* of one hundred and sixt"
cubic feet* is burnt to %roduce five arrobas of sugar* or* for a
hundred kilogrammes of ra& sugar* 73I cubic feet of the &ood of the
lemon and orange trees are required' +n the reverberating furnaces of
0aint (omingo a cart of refuseHcane of ;29 cubic feet %roduced L;8
%ounds of coarse sugar* &hich make 19I cubic feet of refuseHcane for
188 kilogrammes of sugar' + attem%ted* during m" sta" at Guines* and
es%eciall" at Rio Blanco* &ith the $ount de Co%ex* several ne&
constructions* &ith the vie& of diminishing the ex%ense of fuel*
surrounding the focus &ith substances &hich do not %o&erfull" conduct
the heat* and thus diminish the sufferings of the slaves &ho kee% u%
the fire' A long residence in the saltH%roducing districts of Euro%e*
and the labours of %ractical halurg"* to &hich + have been devoted
since m" earl" "outh* suggested to me the idea of those constructions*
&hich have been imitated &ith some success' $uvercles of &ood* %laced
on clarificadoras* accelerated the eva%oration* and led me to believe
that a s"stem of cuvercles and moveable frames* furnished &ith
counterH&eights* might extend to other cauldrons' This object merits
further examinationP but the quantit" of veRou Nguara%oO of the
cr"stalliRed sugar extracted* and that &hich is destro"ed* the fuel*
the time and the %ecuniar" ex%ense* must be carefull" estimated'
An error* ver" general through Euro%e and one &hich influences o%inion
res%ecting the effects of the abolition of the slaveHtrade* is that in
those .est +ndia islands called sugar colonies* the majorit" of the
slaves are su%%osed to be em%lo"ed in the %roduction of sugar' The
cultivation of the sugarHcane is no doubt a %o&erful incentive to the
activit" of the slave tradeP but a ver" sim%le calculation suffices to
%rove that the total mass of slaves contained in the .est +ndies is
nearl" three times greater than the number em%lo"ed in the %roduction
of sugar' + sho&ed seven "ears ago that* if the 788*888 cases of sugar
ex%orted from the island of $uba in 1I17 &ere %roduced in the great
establishments* less than !8*888 slaves &ould have sufficed for that
kind of labour' +t ought to be borne in mind for the interests of
humanit" that the evils of slaver" &eigh on a much greater number of
individuals than agricultural labours require* even admitting* &hich +
am ver" far from doing* that sugar* coffee* indigo and cotton can be
cultivated onl" b" slaves' At the island of $uba it is generall"
su%%osed that one hundred and fift" negroes are required to %roduce
1888 cases N1I;*888 kilogrammesO of refined sugarP or* in round
numbers* a little more than 1788 kilogrammes* b" the labour of each
adult slave' The %roduction of ;;8*888 cases &ould consequentl"
require onl" LL*888 slaves' +f &e add !L*888 to that number for the
cultivation of coffee and tobacco in the island of $uba* &e find that
about 188*888 of the 7L8*888 slaves no& there &ould suffice for the
three great branches of colonial industr" on &hich the activit" of
commerce de%ends'
$>//EE'
The cultivation of coffee takes its date* like the im%roved
construction of cauldrons in the sugar houses* from the arrival of the
emigrants of 0an (omingo* es%eciall" after the "ears 132L and 132I' A
hectare "ields IL8 kilogrammes* the %roduce of !988 %lants' The
%rovince of the Havannah reckoned5
+n 1I88 L8 cafetales'
+n 1I13 332 cafetales'
The coffee tree being a shrub that "ields a good harvest onl" in the
fourth "ear* the ex%ortation of coffee from the %ort of the Havannah
&as* in 1I8;* onl" 98*888 arrobas' +t rose5
+n 1I82 to !78*888 arrobas'
+n 1I19 to 21I*7L! arrobas'
+n 1I19* &hen the %rice of coffee &as fifteen %iastres the quintal*
the value of the ex%ortation from the Havannah exceeded the sum of
!*;;!*888 %iastres' +n 1I7!* the ex%ortation from the %ort of CatanRas
&as I;*;;8 arrobasP so that it seems not doubtful that* in "ears of
medium fertilit"* the total ex%ortation of the island* la&ful and
contraband* is more than fourteen millions of kilogrammes'
/rom this calculation it results that the ex%ortation of coffee from
the island of $uba is greater than that from 6ava* estimated b" Cr'
$ra&furd* in 1I78* at 128*888 %iculs* 11 ;M9 millions of kilogrammes'
+t like&ise exceeds the ex%ortation from 6amaica* &hich amounted* in
1I7!* according to the registers of the customHhouse* onl" to 1L2*3!;
hundred&eight* or I*L77*;3I kilogrammes' +n the same "ear Great
Britain received* from all the English islands* 12;*I78 hundred&eightP
or 2*I2L*I9L kilogrammesP &hich %roves that 6amaica onl" %roduced
sixHsevenths' Guadalou%e sent* in 1I18* to the mother countr"*
1*813*128 kilogrammesP Cartinico* L31*!!L kilogrammes' At Ha"ti* &here
the %roduction of coffee before the /rench revolution &as !3*7;8*888
kilogrammes* PortHauHPrince ex%orted* in 1I7;* onl" 21*9;;*888
kilogrammes' +t a%%ears that the total ex%ortation of coffee from the
archi%elago of the .est +ndies* b" la&ful means onl"* no& amounts to
more than thirt"Height millions of kilogrammesP nearl" five times the
consum%tion of /rance* &hich* from 1I78 to 1I7!* &as* on the "earl"
average* I*12I*888 kilogrammes' The consum%tion of Great Britain is
"et- onl" ! 1M7 millions of kilogrammes' N- Before the "ear 1I83* &hen
the tax on coffee &as reduced* the consum%tion of Great Britain &as
not I888 hundred&eight Nless than 1M7 million of kilogrammesOP in
1I82* it rose to ;9*831 hundred&eightP in 1I18* to ;2*1;3
hundred&eightP in 1I7!* to 31*888 hundred&eight* in 1I7;* to LL*888
hundred&eight Nor !*997*I88 kilogrammes'O
The ex%ortation of 1I1; &as L8 1M7 millions of kilogrammes* &hich &e
ma" su%%ose &as at that %eriod nearl" the consum%tion of the &hole of
Euro%e' Great Britain Ntaking that denomination in its true sense* as
denoting onl" England and 0cotlandO no& consumes nearl" t&oHthirds
less coffee and three times more sugar than /rance'
The %rice of sugar at the Havannah is al&a"s b" the arroba of 79
0%anish %ounds Nor 11';2 kilogrammesO* and the %rice of coffee b" the
quintal Nor ;9'23 kilogrammesO' The latter has been kno&n to var" from
; to !8 %iastresP it even fell* in 1I8I* belo& 7; reals' The %rice of
1I19 and 1I12 &as bet&een 1! and 13 %iastres the quintalP coffee is
no& at 17 %iastres' +t is %robable that the cultivation of coffee
scarcel" em%lo"s in the &hole island of $uba 7I*888 slaves* &ho
%roduce* on the "earl" average* !89*888 0%anish quintals N1; millions
of kilogrammesO* or* according to the %resent value* !*LL8*888
%iastresP &hile LL*888 negroes %roduce ;;8*888 cases NI1 millions of
kilogrammesO of sugar* &hich* at the %rice of 7; %iastres* is &orth
18*9L8*888 %iastres' +t results from this calculation that a slave no&
%roduces the value of 1!8 %iastres of coffee* and 1L8 %iastres of
sugar' +t is almost useless to observe that these relations var" &ith
the %rice of the t&o articles* of &hich the variations are often
o%%osite and that* in calculations &hich ma" thro& some light on
agriculture in the tro%ical region* + com%rehend in the same %oint of
vie& interior consum%tion* ex%ortation la&ful and contraband'
T>BA$$>'
The tobacco of the island of $uba is celebrated throughout Euro%e' The
custom of smoking* borro&ed from the natives of Ha"ti* &as introduced
into Euro%e about the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the
seventeenth centur"' +t &as generall" ho%ed that the cultivation of
tobacco* freed from an o%%ressive mono%ol"* &ould be to the Havannah a
ver" %rofitable object of commerce' The good intentions dis%la"ed b"
the government in abolishing* &ithin six "ears* the /actoria de
tabacos* have not been attended b" the im%rovement &hich &as ex%ected
in that branch of industr"' The cultivators &ant ca%ital* the farms
have become extremel" dear* and the %redilection for the cultivation
of coffee is %rejudicial to that of tobacco'
The oldest information &e %ossess res%ecting the quantit" of tobacco
&hich the island of $uba has thro&n into the magaRines of the mother
countr" go back to 13;I' According to the Abbe Ra"nal* a much more
exact &riter than is generall" believed* that quantit"* from 13;I to
139! Naverage "earO &as 39*888 arrobas' /rom 13I2 to 132; the %roduce
of the island amounted annuall" to 798*888 arrobasP but from that
%eriod to 1I8! the increased %rice of land* the attention given
exclusivel" to the coffee %lantations and the sugar factories* little
vexations in the exercise of the ro"al mono%ol" NestancoO* and
im%ediments in the &a" of ex%ort trade* have %rogressivel" diminished
the %roduce b" more than oneHhalf' The total %roduce of tobacco in the
island is* ho&ever* believed to have been* from 1I77 to 1I79* again
from !88*888 to ;88*888 arrobas'
+n good "ears* &hen the harvest rose to !98*888 arrobas of leaves*
17I*888 arrobas &ere %re%ared for the Peninsula* I8*888 for the
Havannah* 2788 for Peru* L888 for Panama* !888 for Buenos A"res* 77;8
for Cexico* and 1888 for $aracas and $am%each"' To com%lete the sum of
!19*888*888 Nfor the harvest loses 18 %er cent of its &eight in merma
" aberias* during the %re%aration and the trans%ortO &e must su%%ose
that I8*888 arrobas &ere consumed in the interior of the island Nen
los cam%osO* &hither the mono%ol" and the taxes did not extend' The
maintenance of 178 slaves and the ex%ense of the manufacture amounted
onl" to 17*888 %iastres annuall"P the %ersons em%lo"ed in the factoria
cost 9;*188 %iastres' The value of 17I*888 arrobas* &hich in good
"ears &as sent to 0%ain* either in cigars or in snuff Nrama " %olvosO*
often exceeded 9*888*888 %iastres* according to the common %rice of
0%ain' +t seems sur%rising to see that the statements of ex%ortation
from the Havannah Ndocuments %ublished b" the $onsuladoO mark the
ex%ortations for 1I1L* at onl" !;88 arrobasP for 1I7!* onl" 1!*288
arrobas of tabaco en rama* and 31*888 %ounds of tabaco torcida*
estimated together* at the customHhouse* at 7I1*888 %iastresP for
1I79* onl" 38*!87 %ounds of cigars* and 1L3*188 %ounds of tobacco in
leavesP but it must be remembered that no branch of contraband is more
active than that of cigars' Although the tobacco of the uelta de
abaxo is the most famous* a considerable ex%ortation takes %lace in
the eastern %art of the island' + rather doubt the total ex%ortation
of 788*888 boxes of cigars Nvalue 7*888*888 %iastresO as stated b"
several travellers during latter "ears' +f the harvests &ere thus
abundant* &h" should the island of $uba receive tobacco from the
?nited 0tates for the consum%tion of the lo&er class of %eo%leT
+ shall sa" nothing of the cotton* the indigo* or the &heat of the
island of $uba' These branches of colonial industr" are of
com%arativel" little im%ortanceP and the %roximit" of the ?nited
0tates and Guatimala renders com%etition almost im%ossible' The state
of 0alvador* belonging to the $onfederation of $entral America* no&
thro&s 17*888 tercios annuall"* or 1*I88*888 %ounds of indigo into
tradeP an ex%ortation &hich amounts to more than 7*888*888 %iastres'
The cultivation of &heat succeeds Nto the great astonishment of
travellers &ho have %assed through CexicoO* near the Buatro illas* at
small heights above the level of the ocean* though in general it is
ver" limited' The flour is fineP but colonial %roductions are more
tem%ting* and the %lains of the ?nited 0tatesHHthat $rimea of the @e&
.orldHH"ield harvests too abundant for the commerce of native cereals
to be efficaciousl" %rotected b" the %rohibitive s"stem of the
customHhouse* in an island near the mouth of the Cississi%%i and the
(ela&are' Analogous difficulties o%%ose the cultivation of flax* hem%*
and the vine' Possibl" the inhabitants of $uba are themselves ignorant
of the fact that* in the first "ears of the conquest b" the 0%aniards*
&ine &as made in their island of &ild gra%es'- N- (e muchas %arras
monteses con ubas se ha cogido vino* aunque algo agrio' :/rom several
gra%eHbearing vines &hich gro& in the mountains* the" extract a kind
of &ineP but it is ver" acid'< Herera (ec' 1 %age 7!!' Gabriel de
$abrera found a tradition at $uba similar to that &hich the %eo%le of
0emitic race have of @oah ex%eriencing for the first time the effect
of a fermented liquor' He adds that the idea of t&o races of men* one
naked* another clothed* is linked to the American tradition' Has
$abrera* %reoccu%ied b" the rites of the Hebre&s* im%erfectl"
inter%reted the &ords of the natives* or* as seems more %robable* has
he added something to the analogies of the &omanHser%ent* the conflict
of t&o brothers* the catacl"sm of &ater* the raft of $oxcox* the
ex%loring bird* and man" other things that teach us incontestabl" that
there existed a communit" of antique traditions bet&een the nations of
the t&o &orldsT ie&s of the $ordilleras and Conuments of America'O
This kind of vine* %eculiar to America* has given rise to the general
error that the true itis vinifera is common to the t&o continents'
The Parras monteses &hich "ields the some&hat sour &ine of the island
of $uba* &as %robabl" gathered on the itis tiliaefolia &hich Cr'
.illdenou& has described from our herbals' +n no %art of the northern
hemis%here has the vine hitherto been cultivated &ith the vie& of
%roducing &ine south of the 73 degrees ;I minutes* or the latitude of
the island of /erro* one of the $anaries* and of 72 degrees 7 minutes*
or the latitude of Bushire in Persia'
.AJ'
This is not the %roduce of native bees Nthe Celi%ones of =atreilleO*
but of bees brought from Euro%e b" &a" of /lorida' The trade in &ax
has onl" become im%ortant since 1337' The ex%ortation of the &hole
island* &hich from 133; to 1332 &as onl" 7388 arrobas Naverage "earO*
&as estimated in 1I8!* including contraband* at ;7*388 arrobas* of
&hich 79*888 &ere destined for era $ruR' +n the churches of Cexico
there is a great consum%tion of $uban &ax' The %rice varies from
sixteen to t&ent" %iastres the arroba'
Trinidad and the small %ort of Baracoa also carr" on a considerable
trade in &ax* furnished b" the almost uncultivated regions on the east
of the island' +n the %roximit" of the sugarHfactories man" bees
%erish of inebriet" from the molasses* of &hich the" are extremel"
fond' +n general the %roduction of &ax diminishes in %ro%ortion as the
cultivation of the land augments' The ex%ortation of &ax* according to
the %resent %rice* amounts to about 988*888 of %iastres'
$>CCER$E'
+t has alread" been observed that the im%ortance of the commerce of
the island of $uba de%ends not solel" on the riches of its
%roductions* the &ants of the %o%ulation in the articles and
merchandiRe of Euro%e* but also in great %art on the favourable
%osition of the %ort of the Havannah' This %ort is situated at the
entrance of the Gulf of Cexico* &here the high roads of the commercial
nations of the old and the ne& &orlds cross each other' +t &as
remarked b" the Abbe Ra"nal* at a %eriod &hen agriculture and industr"
&ere in their infanc"* and scarcel" thre& into commerce the value of
7*888*888 %iastres in sugar and tobacco* that the island of $uba alone
might be &orth a kingdom to 0%ain' There seems to have been something
%ro%hetic in those memorable &ordsP and since the %arent state has
lost Cexico* Peru and so man" other colonies declared inde%endent*
the" demand the serious consideration of statesmen &ho are called u%on
to discuss the %olitical interests of the Peninsula'
The island of $uba* to &hich for a long time the court of Cadrid
&isel" granted great freedom of trade* ex%orts* la&full" and b"
contraband* of its o&n native %roductions* in sugar* coffee* tobacco*
&ax and skins* to the value of more than 1;*888*888 %iastresP &hich is
about oneHthird less than the value of the %recious metals furnished
b" Cexico at the %eriod of the greatest %ros%erit" of its mines'- N-
+n 1I89 gold and silver s%ecie &as struck at Cexico to the value of
73*1L9*III %iastresP but* taking an average of ten "ears of %olitical
tranquillit"* &e find from 1I88 to 1I18 scarcel" 7; 1M7 million of
%iastres'O +t ma" be said that the Havannah and era $ruR are to the
rest of America &hat @e& ,ork is to the ?nited 0tates' The tonnage of
1888 to 1788 merchant shi%s &hich annuall" enter the %ort of the
Havannah* amounts Nexcluding the small coastingHvesselsO* to 198*888
or 138*888 tons'- N- +n 1I1L the tonnage of the commerce of @e& ,ork
&as 722*L13 tonsP that of Boston* 1;!*;78 tons' The amount of tonnage
is not al&a"s an exact measure of the &ealth of commerce' The
countries &hich ex%ort rice* flour* he&n &ood and cotton require more
ca%aciousness than the tro%ical regions of &hich the %roductions
Ncochineal* indigo* sugar and coffeeO are of little bulk* although of
considerable value'O +n time of %eace from 178 to 198 shi%s of &ar are
frequentl" seen at anchor at the Havannah' /rom 1I19 to 1I12 the
%roductions registered at the customHhouse of that %ort onl" Nsugar*
rum* molasses* coffee* &ax and butterO amounted* on the average* to
the value of 11*7;9*888 %iastres %er annum' +n 1I7! the ex%ortation
registered t&oHthirds less than their actual %rice* amounted
Ndeducting 1*132*888 %iastres in s%ecieO to more than 17*988*888
%iastres' +t is %robable that the im%ortations of the &hole island
Nla&ful and contrabandO* estimated at the real %rice of the articles*
the merchandiRe and the slaves* amount at %resent to 19*888*888 or
1L*888*888 %iastres* of &hich scarcel" !*888*888 or ;*888*888 are
reHex%orted' The Havannah %urchases from abroad far be"ond its o&n
&ants* and exchanges its colonial articles for the %roductions of the
manufactures of Euro%e* to sell a %art of them at era $ruR* Truxillo*
Gua"ra* and $arthagena'
>n com%aring* in the commercial tables of the Havannah* the great
value of merchandise im%orted* &ith the little value of merchandise
reHex%orted* one is sur%rised at the vast internal consum%tion of a
countr" containing onl" !79*888 &hites and 1!8*888 free men of colour'
.e find* in estimating the different articles* according to the real
current %rices5 in cotton and linen Nbretanas* %latillas* lienRos "
hiloO* t&o and a half to three millions of %iastresP in tissues of
cotton NRaraRas musulinasO* one million of %iastresP in silk Nrasos "
generos de sedaO* ;88*888 %iastresP and in linen and &oollen tissues*
778*888 %iastres' The &ants of the island* in Euro%ean tissues*
registered as ex%orted to the %ort of the Havannah onl"* consequentl"
exceeded* in these latter "ears* from four millions to four and a half
millions of %iastres' To these im%ortations of the Havannah &e must
add5 hard&are and furniture* more than half a million of %iastresP
iron and steel* !I8*888 %iastresP %lanks and great timber* ;88*888
%iastresP $astile soa%* !88*888 %iastres' .ith res%ect to the
im%ortation of %rovisions and drinks to the Havannah* it a%%ears to me
to be &ell &orth" the attention of those &ho &ould kno& the real state
of those societies &hich are called sugar or slave colonies' 0uch is
the com%osition of those societies established on the most fruitful
soil &hich nature can furnish for the nourishment of man* such the
direction of agricultural labours and industr" in the .est +ndies*
that* in the best climate of the equinoctial region* the %o%ulation
&ould &ant subsistence but for the freedom and activit" of external
commerce' + do not s%eak of the introduction of &ines at the %ort of
the Havannah* &hich amounted Naccording to the registers of the
customHhouseO* in 1I8!* to ;8*888 barrelsP in 1I7!* to 19*888 %i%as
and 13*888 barrels* to the value of 1*788*888 %iastresP nor of the
introduction of L888 barrels of brand" from 0%ain and Holland* and
11!*888 barrels N1*IL;*888 %iastresO of flour' These &ines* liquors
and flour are consumed b" the o%ulent %art of the nation' The cereals
of the ?nited 0tates have become articles of absolute necessit" in a
Rone &here maiRe* manioc and bananas &ere long %referred to ever"
other am"laceous food' The develo%ment of a luxur" altogether
Euro%ean* cannot be com%lained of amidst the %ros%erit" and increasing
civiliRation of the HavannahP but* along &ith the introduction of the
flour* &ine* and s%irituous liquors of Euro%e* &e find* in the "ear
1I1L* 1 1M7millions of %iastresP and* in the "ear 1I7!* ! 1M7 millions
for salt meat* rice and dried vegetables' +n the last mentioned "ear*
the im%ortation of rice &as !7!*888 arrobasP and the im%ortation of
dried and salt meat NtasajoO* for the slaves* ;L9*888 arrobas'
The scarcit" of necessar" articles of subsistence characteriRes a %art
of the tro%ical climates &here the im%rudent activit" of Euro%eans has
inverted the order of nature5 it &ill diminish in %ro%ortion as the
inhabitants* more enlightened res%ecting their true interests* and
discouraged b" the lo& %rice of colonial %roduce* &ill var" the
cultivation* and give free sco%e to all the branches of rural econom"'
The %rinci%les of that narro& %olic" &hich guides the government of
ver" small islands* inhabited b" men &ho desert the soil &henever the"
are sufficientl" enriched* cannot be a%%licable to a countr" of an
extent nearl" equal to that of England* covered &ith %o%ulous cities*
and &here the inhabitants* established from father to son during ages*
far from regarding themselves as strangers to the American soil*
cherish it as their o&n countr"' The %o%ulation of the island of $uba*
&hich in fift" "ears &ill %erha%s exceed a million* ma" o%en b" its
o&n consum%tion an immense field to native industr"' +f the
slaveHtrade should cease altogether* the slaves &ill %ass b" degrees
into the class of free menP and societ"* being reconstructed* &ithout
suffering an" of the violent convulsions of civil dissension* &ill
follo& the %ath &hich nature has traced for all societies that become
numerous and enlightened' The cultivation of the sugarHcane and of
coffee &ill not be abandonedP but it &ill no longer remain the
%rinci%al basis of national existence than the cultivation of
cochineal in Cexico* of indigo in Guatimala* and of cacao in
eneRuela' A free* intelligent and agricultural %o%ulation &ill
%rogressivel" succeed a slave %o%ulation* destitute of foresight and
industr"' Alread" the ca%ital &hich the commerce of the Havannah has
%laced &ithin the last t&ent"Hfive "ears in the hands of cultivators*
has begun to change the face of the countr"P and to that %o&er* of
&hich the action is constantl" increasing* another &ill be necessaril"
joined* inse%arable from the %rogress of industr" and national
&ealthHHthe develo%ment of human intelligence' >n these united %o&ers
de%end the future destinies of the metro%olis of the .est +ndies'
+n reference to &hat has been said res%ecting external commerce* + ma"
quote the author of a memoir &hich + have often mentioned* and &ho
describes the real situation of the island' )At the Havannah* the
effects of accumulated &ealth begin to be feltP the %rice of
%rovisions has been doubled in a small number of "ears' =abour is so
dear that a boRal negro* recentl" brought from the coast of Africa*
gains b" the labour of his hands N&ithout having learned an" tradeO
from four to five reals Nt&o francs thirteen sous to three francs five
sousO a da"' The negroes &ho follo& mechanical trades* ho&ever common*
gain from five to six francs' The %atrician families remain fixed to
the soil5 a man &ho has enriched himself does not return to Euro%e
taking &ith him his ca%ital' 0ome families are so o%ulent that (on
Catheo de Pedroso* &ho died latel"* left in landed %ro%ert" above t&o
millions of %iastres' 0everal commercial houses of the Havannah
%urchase* annuall"* from ten to t&elve thousand cases of sugar* for
&hich the" %a" at the rate of from !98*888 to ;78*888 %iastres') N(e
la situacion %resente de $uba in manuscri%t'O 0uch &as the state of
%ublic &ealth at the end of 1I88' T&ent"Hfive "ears of increasing
%ros%erit" have ela%sed since that %eriod* and the %o%ulation of the
island is nearl" doubled' The ex%ortation of registered sugar had not*
in an" "ear before 1I88* attained the extent of 138*888 cases
N!1*7I8*888 kilogrammesOP in these latter times it has constantl"
sur%assed 788*888 cases* and even attained 798*888 and !88*888 cases
Nfort"Hsix to fift"Hfive millions of kilogrammesO' A ne& branch of
industr" has s%rung u% Nthat of %lantations of the coffee treeO &hich
furnishes an ex%ortation of the value of three millions and a half of
%iastres' +ndustr"* guided b" a greater mass of kno&ledge* has been
better directed' The s"stem of taxation that &eighed on national
industr" and exterior commerce has been made lighter since 1321* and
been im%roved b" successive changes' .henever the motherHcountr"*
mistaking her o&n interests* has attem%ted to make a retrograde ste%*
courageous voices have arisen not onl" among the Havaneros* but often
among the 0%anish rulers* in defence of the freedom of American
commerce' A ne& channel has recentl" been o%ened for ca%ital b" the
enlightened Real and %atriotic vie&s of the intendant (on $laudio
CartineR de Pinillos* and the commerce of entre%ot has been granted to
the Havannah on the most advantageous conditions'
The difficult and ex%ensive interior communications of the island
render its o&n %roductions dearer at the %orts* not&ithstanding the
short distance bet&een the northern and southern coasts' A %roject of
canaliRation &hich unites the double advantage of connecting the
Havannah and Batabano b" a navigable line* and diminishing the high
%rice of the trans%ort of native %roduce* merits here a s%ecial
mention' The idea of the $anal of Guines had been conceived for more
than half a centur" &ith the vie& of furnishing timber at a more
moderate %rice for shi%Hbuilding in the arsenal of the Havannah' +n
132L the $ount de 6aruco " Co%ox* an enter%rising man* &ho had
acquired great influence b" his connection &ith the Prince of the
Peace* undertook to revive this %roject' The surve" &as made in 132I
b" t&o ver" able engineers* (on /rancisco and (on /elix =emaur' These
officers ascertained that the canal in its &hole develo%ment &ould be
nineteen leagues long N9888 varas or ;198 metresO* that the %oint of
%artition &ould be at the Taverna del Re"* and that it &ould require
nineteen locks on the north* and t&ent"Hone on the south' The distance
from the Havannah to Batabano is onl" eight and a half seaHleagues'
The canal of Guines &ould be ver" useful for the trans%ort of
agricultural %roductions b" steamHboats*- because its course &ould be
in %roximit" &ith the best cultivated lands' N- 0teamHboats are
established from the Havannah to CatanRas* and from the Havannah to
Cariel' The government granted to (on 6uan >G/arrill NCarch 7;th*
1I12O a %rivilege on the barcos de va%or'O The roads are no&here &orse
in the rain" season than in this %art of the island* &here the soil is
of friable limestone* little fitted for the construction of solid
roads' The trans%ort of sugar from Guines to the Havannah* a distance
of t&elve leagues* no& costs one %iastre %er quintal' Besides the
advantage of facilitating internal communications* the canal &ould
also give great im%ortance to the surgidero of Batabano* into &hich
small vessels laden &ith salt %rovisions NtasajoO from eneRuela*
&ould enter &ithout being obliged to double $a%e 0aint Antonio' +n the
bad season and in time of &ar* &hen corsairs are cruising bet&een $a%e
$atoche* Tortugas and Cariel* the %assage from the 0%anish main to the
island of $uba &ould be shortened b" entering* not at the Havannah*
but at some %ort of the southern coast' The cost of constructing the
canal de Guines &as estimated in 132L at one million* or 1*788*888
%iastres5 it is no& thought that the ex%ense &ould amount to more than
one million and a half' The %roductions &hich might annuall" %ass the
canal have been estimated at 39*888 cases of sugar* 79*888 arrobas of
coffee* and I888 boco"es of molasses and rum' According to the first
%roject* that of 132L* it &as intended to link the canal &ith the
small river of Guines* to be brought from the +ngenio de la Holanda to
Buibican* three leagues south of Bejucal and 0anta Rosa' This idea is
no& relinquished* the Rio de los Guines losing its &aters to&ards the
east in the irrigation of the savannahs of Hato de Guanamon' +nstead
of carr"ing the canal east of the Barrio del $erro and south of the
fort of Atares* in the ba" of the Havannah* it &as %ro%osed at first
to make use of the bed of the $horrera or Rio Armendaris* from
$alabaRal to the Husillo* and then of the Sanja Real* not onl" for
conve"ing the boats to the centre of the arrabales and of the cit" of
the Havannah* but also for furnishing &ater to the fountains &hich
require to be su%%lied during three months of the "ear' + visited
several times* &ith CC' =emaur* the %lains through &hich this line of
navigation is intended to %ass' The utilit" of the %roject is
incontestable if in times of great drought a sufficient quantit" of
&ater can be brought to the %oint of %artition'
At the Havannah* as in ever" %lace &here commerce and the &ealth it
%roduces increase ra%idl"* com%laints are heard of the %rejudicial
influence exercised b" them on ancient manners' .e cannot here sto% to
com%are the first state of the island of $uba* &hen covered &ith
%asturage* before the taking of the ca%ital b" the English* and its
%resent condition* since it has become the metro%olis of the .est
+ndiesP nor to thro& into the balance the candour and sim%licit" of
manners of an infant societ"* against the manners that belong to the
develo%ment of an advanced civiliRation' The s%irit of commerce*
leading to the love of &ealth* no doubt brings nations to de%reciate
&hat mone" cannot obtain' But the state of human things is ha%%il"
such that &hat is most desirable* most noble* most free in man* is
o&ing onl" to the ins%irations of the soul* to the extent and
amelioration of its intellectual faculties' .ere the thirst of riches
to take absolute %ossession of ever" class of societ"* it &ould
infallibl" %roduce the evil com%lained of b" those &ho see &ith regret
&hat the" call the %re%onderance of the industrious s"stemP but the
increase of commerce* b" multi%l"ing the connections bet&een nations*
b" o%ening an immense s%here to the activit" of the mind* b" %ouring
ca%ital into agriculture* and creating ne& &ants b" the refinement of
luxur"* furnishes a remed" against the su%%osed dangers'
/+@A@$E'
The increase of the agricultural %ros%erit" of the island of $uba and
the influence of the accumulation of &ealth on the value of
im%ortations* have raised the %ublic revenue in these latter "ears to
four millions and a half* %erha%s five millions of %iastres' The
customHhouse of the Havannah* &hich before 132; "ielded less than
L88*888 %iastres* and from 1323 to 1I88* 1*288*888 %iastres* %ours
into the treasur"* since the declaration of free trade* a revenue
Nim%orte liquidoO of more than !*188*888 %iastres'- N- The
customHhouse of PortHauHPrince* at Ha"ti* %roduced in 1I79* the sum of
1*L99*3L; %iastresP that of Buenos A"res* from 1I12 to 1I71* average
"ear* 1*L99*888 %iastres' 0ee $entinela de =a Plata* 0e%tember 1I77
@umber IP Argos de Buenos A"res @umber I9'O
The island of $uba as "et contains onl" one fort"Hsecond %art of the
%o%ulation of /ranceP and one half of its inhabitants* being in the
most abject indigence* consume but little' +ts revenue is nearl" equal
to that of the Re%ublic of $olumbia* and it exceeds the revenue of all
the customHhouses of the ?nited 0tates- before the "ear 1329* &hen
that confederation had ;*988*888 inhabitants* &hile the island of $uba
contained onl" 319*888' N- The customHhouses of the ?nited 0tates*
&hich "ielded in 1I81 to 1I8I sixteen millions of dollars* %roduced in
1I19 but 3*7I7*888'O The %rinci%al source of the %ublic revenue of
this fine colon" is the customHhouse* &hich alone %roduces above
threeHfifths* and am%l" suffices for all the &ants of the internal
administration and militar" defence' +f in these latter "ears* the
ex%ense of the general treasur" of the Havannah amounted to more than
four millions of %iastres* this increase of ex%ense is solel" o&ing to
the obstinate struggle maintained bet&een the mother countr" and her
freed colonies' T&o millions of %iastres &ere em%lo"ed to %a" the land
and sea forces &hich %oured back from the American continent* b" the
Havannah* on their &a" to the Peninsula' As long as 0%ain* unmindful
of her real interests* refuses to recogniRe the inde%endence of the
@e& Re%ublics* the island of $uba* menaced b" $olumbia and the Cexican
$onfederation* must su%%ort a militar" force for its external defence*
&hich ruins the colonial finances' The 0%anish naval force stationed
in the %ort of the Havannah generall" costs above L98*888 %iastres'
The land forces require nearl" one million and a half of %iastres'
0uch a state of things cannot last indefinitel" if the Peninsula do
not relieve the burden that %resses u%on the colon"'
/rom 13I2 to 1323 the %roduce of the customHhouse at the Havannah
never rose to more than 388*888 %iastres' +n 1I1; it &as 1*I99*113'
/rom 1I19 to 1I12 the ro"al taxes in the %ort of the Havannah amounted
to 11*939*;L8 %iastresP total 1I*7I;*I83 %iastresP or* average "ear*
!*L93*888 %iastres* of &hich the munici%al taxes formed 8'!L'
The %ublic revenue of the Administracion general de Rentas of the
jurisdiction of Havannah amounted5
in 1I78 to !*L!1*73! %iastres'
in 1I71 to !*733*L!2 %iastres'
in 1I77 to !*!3I*77I %iastres'
The ro"al and munici%al taxes of im%ortation at the customHhouse of
the Havannah in 1I7! &ere 7*3!;*9L! %iastres'
The total amount of the revenue of the Havannah in 1I7; &as !*879*!88
%iastres'
+n 1I79 the revenue of the to&n and jurisdiction of the Havannah &as
!*!98*!88 %iastres'
These %artial statements sho& that from 13I2 to 1I7; the %ublic
revenue of $uba has been increased sevenfold'
According to the estimates of the $ajas matrices* the %ublic revenue
in 1I77 &as* in the %rovince of the Havannah alone* ;*!11*IL7
%iastresP &hich arose from the customHhouse N!*173*21I %iastresO* from
the ramos de directa entrada* as lotter"* tithes* etc' NL81*I8I
%iastresO* and antici%ations on the charges of the $onsulado and the
(e%osito N9I1*23I %iastresO' The ex%enditure in the same "ear* for the
island of $uba* &as 7*3!7*3!I %iastres* and for the succour destined
to maintain the struggle &ith the continental colonies declared
inde%endent* 1*!L7*872 %iastres' +n the first class of ex%enditure &e
find 1*!99*32I %iastres for the subsistence of the militar" forces
ke%t u% for the defence of the Havannah and the neighbouring %lacesP
and L;I*28I %iastres for the ro"al nav" stationed in the %ort of the
Havannah' +n the second class of ex%ense foreign to the local
administration &e find 1*119*L37 %iastres for the %a" of ;7!; soldiers
&ho* after having evacuated Cexico* $olumbia and other %arts of the
$ontinent formerl" 0%anish %ossessions* %assed b" the Havannah to
return to 0%ainP 1L;*888 %iastres is the cost of the defence of the
castle of 0an 6uan de ?lloa'
+ here terminate the Political Essa" on the island of $uba* in &hich +
have traced the state of that im%ortant 0%anish %ossession as it no&
is' C" object has been to thro& light on facts and give %recision to
ideas b" the aid of com%arisons and statistical tables' That minute
investigation of facts is desirable at a moment &hen* on the one hand
enthusiasm exciting to benevolent credulit"* and on the other
animosities menacing the securit" of the ne& re%ublics* have given
rise to the most vague and erroneous statements' + have as far as
%ossible abstained from all reasoning on future chances* and on the
%robabilit" of the changes &hich external %olitics ma" %roduce in the
situation of the .est +ndies' + have merel" examined &hat regards the
organiRation of human societ"P the unequal %artition of rights and of
the enjo"ments of lifeP the threatening dangers &hich the &isdom of
the legislator and the moderation of free men ma" &ard off* &hatever
be the form of the government' +t is for the traveller &ho has been an
e"e&itness of the suffering and the degradation of human nature to
make the com%laints of the unfortunate reach the ear of those b" &hom
the" can be relieved' + observed the condition of the blacks in
countries &here the la&s* the religion and the national habits tend to
mitigate their fateP "et + retained* on quitting America* the same
horror of slaver" &hich + had felt in Euro%e' +n vain have &riters of
abilit"* seeking to veil barbarous institutions b" ingenious turns of
language* invented the ex%ressions negro %easants of the .est +ndies*
black vassalage* and %atriarchal %rotection5 that is %rofaning the
noble qualities of the mind and the imagination* for the %ur%ose of
excul%ating b" illusor" com%arisons or ca%tious so%hisms excesses
&hich afflict humanit"* and &hich %re%are the &a" for violent
convulsions' (o the" think that the" have acquired the right of
%utting do&n commiseration* b" com%aring- the condition of the negroes
&ith that of the serfs of the middle ages* and &ith the state of
o%%ression to &hich some classes are still subjected in the north and
east of Euro%eT N- 0uch com%arisons do not satisf" those secret
%artisans of the slave trade &ho tr" to make light of the miseries of
the black race* and to resist ever" emotion those miseries a&aken' The
%ermanent condition of a caste founded on barbarous la&s and
institutions is often confounded &ith the excesses of a %o&er
tem%oraril" exercised on individuals' Thus Cr' Bolingbroke* &ho lived
seven "ears at (emerara and &ho visited the .est +ndia +slands*
observes that )on board an English shi% of &ar* flogging is more
frequent than in the %lantations of the English colonies') He adds
)that in general the negroes are but little flogged* but that ver"
reasonable means of correction have been imagined* such as making them
take boiling sou% strongl" %e%%ered* or obliging them to drink* &ith a
ver" small s%oon* a solution of GlauberHsalts') Cr' Bolingbroke
regards the slaveHtrade as a universal benefitP and he is %ersuaded
that if negroes &ho have enjo"ed* during t&ent" "ears* all the
comforts of slave life at (emerara* &ere %ermitted to return to the
coast of Africa* the" &ould effect recruiting on a large scale* and
bring &hole nations to the English %ossessions' o"age to (emerara*
1I83' 0uch is the firm and frank %rofession of faith of a %lanterP "et
Cr' Bolingbroke* as several %assages of his book %rove* is a moderate
man* full of benevolent intentions to&ards the slaves'O These
com%arisons* these artifices of language* this disdainful im%atience
&ith &hich even a ho%e of the gradual abolition of slaver" is re%ulsed
as chimerical* are useless arms in the times in &hich &e live' The
great revolutions &hich the continent of America and the Archi%elago
of the .est +ndies have undergone since the commencement of the
nineteenth centur"* have had their influence on %ublic feeling and
%ublic reason* even in countries &here slaver" exists and is beginning
to be modified' Can" sensible men* dee%l" interested in the
tranquillit" of the sugar and slave islands* feel that b" a liberal
understanding among the %ro%rietors* and b" judicious measures ado%ted
b" those &ho kno& the localities* the" might emerge from a state of
danger and uneasiness &hich indolence and obstinac" serve onl" to
increase'
0laver" is no doubt the greatest evil that afflicts human nature*
&hether &e consider the slave torn from his famil" in his native
countr" and thro&n into the hold of a slave shi%*- or as making %art
of a flock of black men* %arked on the soil of the .est +ndiesP but
for individuals there are degrees of suffering and %rivation' N- )+f
the slaves are &hi%%ed*) said one of the &itnesses before the
Parliamentar" $ommittee of 13I2* )to make them dance on the deck of a
slave shi%HHif the" are forced to sing in chorusP GCesse* messe*
mackerida*G :ho& gail" &e live among the &hites<* this onl" %roves the
care &e take of the health of those men') This delicate attention
reminds me of the descri%tion of an autoHdaHfe in m" %ossession' +n
that curious document a boast is made of the %rodigalit" &ith &hich
refreshments are distributed to the condemned* and of the staircase
&hich the inquisitors have had erected in the interior of the %ile for
the accommodation of the relaRados Nthe rela%sed cul%rits'OO Ho& great
is the difference in the condition of the slave &ho serves in the
house of a rich famil" at the Havannah or at Aingston* or one &ho
&orks for himself* giving his master but a dail" retribution* and that
of the slave attached to a sugar estate4 The threats em%lo"ed to
correct an obstinate negro mark this scale of human %rivations' The
coachman is menaced &ith the coffee %lantationP and the slave &orking
on the latter is menaced &ith the sugar house' The negro* &ho &ith his
&ife inhabits a se%arate hut* &hose heart is &armed b" those feelings
of affection &hich for the most %art characteriRe the African race*
finds that after his labour some care is taken of him amidst his
indigent famil"* is in a %osition not to be com%ared &ith that of the
insulated slave lost in the mass' This diversit" of condition esca%es
the notice of those &ho have not had the s%ectacle of the .est +ndies
before their e"es' >&ing to the %rogressive amelioration of the state
even of the ca%tive caste in the island of $uba* the luxur" of the
masters and the %ossibilit" of gain b" their &ork* have dra&n more
than eight" thousand slaves to the to&nsP and the manumission of them*
favoured b" the &isdom of the la&s* is become so active as to have
%roduced* at the %resent %eriod* more than 1!8*888 free men of colour'
B" considering the individual %osition of each class* b" recom%ensing*
b" the decreasing scale of %rivations* intelligence* love of labour
and the domestic virtues* the colonial administration &ill find the
best means of im%roving the condition of the blacks' Philanthro%" does
not consist in giving a little more saltHfish* and some fe&er lashes5
the real amelioration of the ca%tive caste ought to extend over the
&hole moral and %h"sical %osition of man'
The im%ulse ma" be given b" those Euro%ean governments &hich have a
right com%rehension of human dignit"* and &ho kno& that &hatever is
unjust bears &ith it a germ of destructionP but this im%ulse* it is
melanchol" to add* &ill be %o&erless if the union of the %lanters* if
the colonial assemblies or legislatures* fail to ado%t the same vie&s
and to act b" a &ellHconcerted %lan* having for its ultimate aim the
cessation of slaver" in the .est +ndies' Till then it &ill be in vain
to register the strokes of the &hi%* to diminish the number that ma"
be given at one time* to require the %resence of &itnesses and to
a%%oint %rotectors of slavesP all these regulations* dictated b" the
most benevolent intentions* are easil" eluded5 the isolated %osition
of the %lantations renders their execution im%ossible' The"
%reHsu%%ose a s"stem of domestic inquisition incom%atible &ith &hat is
understood in the colonies b" the %hrase established rights' The state
of slaver" cannot be altogether %eaceabl" ameliorated exce%t b" the
simultaneous action of the free men N&hite men and colouredO residing
in the .est +ndiesP b" colonial assemblies and legislaturesP b" the
influence of those &ho* enjo"ing great moral consideration among their
countr"men and acquainted &ith the localities* kno& ho& to var" the
means of im%rovement conformabl" &ith the manners* habits* and the
%osition of ever" island' +n %re%aring the &a" for the accom%lishment
of this task* &hich ought to embrace a great %art of the archi%elago
of the .est +ndies* it ma" be useful to cast a retros%ective glance on
the events b" &hich the freedom of a considerable %art of the human
race &as obtained in Euro%e in the middle ages' +n order to ameliorate
&ithout commotion ne& institutions must be made* as it &ere* to rise
out of those &hich the barbarism of centuries has consecrated' +t &ill
one da" seem incredible that until the "ear 1I7L there existed no la&
in the Great Antilles to %revent the sale of "oung infants and their
se%aration from their %arents* or to %rohibit the degrading custom of
marking the negroes &ith a hot iron* merel" to enable these human
cattle to be more easil" recogniRed' Enact la&s to obviate the
%ossibilit" of a barbarous outrageP fix* in ever" sugar estate* the
%ro%ortion bet&een the least number of negresses and that of the
labouring negroesP grant libert" to ever" slave &ho has served fifteen
"ears* to ever" negress &ho has reared four or five childrenP set them
free on the condition of &orking a certain number of da"s for the
%rofit of the %lantationP give the slaves a %art of the net %roduce*
to interest them in the increase of agricultural richesP- fix a sum on
the budget of the %ublic funds* destined for the ransom of slaves* and
the amelioration of their conditionHHsuch are the most urgent objects
for colonial legislation' N- General =afa"ette* &hose name is linked
&ith all that %romises to contribute to the libert" of man and the
ha%%iness of mankind* conceived* in the "ear 13I9* the %roject of
%urchasing a settlement at $a"enne* and to divide it among the blacks
b" &hom it &as cultivated and in &hose favour the %ro%rietor renounced
for himself and his descendants all benefit &hatever' He had
interested in this noble enter%rise the %riests of the Cission of the
Hol" Ghost* &ho themselves %ossessed lands in /rench Guiana' A letter
from Carshal de $astries* dated Lth 6une* 13I9* %roves that the
unfortunate =ouis J+* extending his beneficent intentions to the
blacks and free men of colour* had ordered similar ex%eriments to be
made at the ex%ense of Government' C' de Riche%re"* &ho &as a%%ointed
b" C' de =afa"ette to su%erintend the %artition of the lands among the
blacks* died from the effects of the climate at $a"enne'O
The $onquest on the continent of 0%anish America and the slaveHtrade
in the .est +ndies* in BraRil* and in the southern %arts of the ?nited
0tates* have brought together the most heterogeneous elements of
%o%ulation' This strange mixture of +ndians* &hites* negroes*
mestiRos* mulattoes and Rambos is accom%anied b" all the %erils &hich
violent and disorderl" %assion can engender* at those critical %eriods
&hen societ"* shaken to its ver" foundations* begins a ne& era' At
those junctures* the odious %rinci%le of the $olonial 0"stem* that of
securit"* founded on the hostilit" of castes* and %re%ared during
ages* has burst forth &ith violence' /ortunatel" the number of blacks
has been so inconsiderable in the ne& states of the 0%anish continent
that* &ith the exce%tion of the cruelties exercised in eneRuela*
&here the ro"alist %art" armed their slaves* the struggle bet&een the
inde%endents and the soldiers of the mother countr" &as not stained b"
the vengeance of the ca%tive %o%ulation' The free men of colour
Nblacks* mulattoes and mestiRoesO have &arml" es%oused the national
causeP and the co%%erHcoloured race* in its timid distrust and
%assiveness* has taken no %art in movements from &hich it must %rofit
in s%ite of itself' The +ndians* long before the revolution* &ere %oor
and free agriculturistsP isolated b" their language and manners the"
lived a%art from the &hites' +f* in contem%t of 0%anish la&s* the
cu%idit" of the corregidores and the tormenting s"stem of the
missionaries often restricted their libert"* that state of vexatious
o%%ression &as far different from %ersonal slaver" like that of the
slaver" of the blacks* or of the vassalage of the %easantr" in the
0clavonian %art of Euro%e' +t is the small number of blacks* it is the
libert" of the aboriginal race* of &hich America has %reserved more
than eight millions and a half &ithout mixture of foreign blood* that
characteriRes the ancient continental %ossessions of 0%ain* and
renders their moral and %olitical situation entirel" different from
that of the .est +ndies* &here* b" the dis%ro%ortion bet&een the free
men and the slaves* the %rinci%les of the $olonial 0"stem have been
develo%ed &ith more energ"' +n the .est +ndian archi%elago as in
BraRil Nt&o %ortions of America &hich contain near !*788*888 slavesO
the fear of :T< among the blacks* and the %erils that surround the
&hites* have been hitherto the most %o&erful causes of the securit" of
the mother countries and of the maintenance of the Portuguese d"nast"'
$an this securit"* from its nature* be of long durationT (oes it
justif" the inertness of governments &ho neglect to remed" the evil
&hile it is "et timeT + doubt this' .hen* under the influence of
extraordinar" circumstances* alarm is mitigated* &hen countries in
&hich the accumulation of slaves has %roduced in societ" the fatal
mixture of heterogeneous elements ma" be led* %erha%s un&illingl"*
into an exterior struggle* civil dissensions &ill break forth in all
their violence and Euro%ean families* innocent of an order of things
&hich the" have had no share in creating* &ill be ex%osed to the most
imminent dangers'
.e can never sufficientl" %raise the legislative &isdom of the ne&
re%ublics of 0%anish America &hich* since their birth* have been
seriousl" intent on the total extinction of slaver"' That vast %ortion
of the earth has* in this res%ect* an immense advantage over the
southern %art of the ?nited 0tates* &here the &hites* during the
struggle &ith England* established libert" for their o&n %rofit* and
&here the slave %o%ulation* to the number of 1*L88*888* augments still
more ra%idl" than the &hites'- N- +n 13L2* fort"Hsix "ears before the
declaration of the $ongress at ienna* and thirt"Height "ears before
the abolition of the slaveHtrade* decreed in =ondon and at .ashington*
the $hamber of Re%resentatives of Cassachusetts had declared itself
against )the unnatural and un&arrantable custom of enslaving mankind')
0ee .alshGs A%%eal to the ?nited 0tates* 1I12 %age !17' The 0%anish
&riter* Avendano* &as %erha%s the first &ho declaimed forcibl" not
onl" against the slaveHtrade* abhorred even b" the Afghans
NEl%hinstoneGs 6ourne" to $abul %age 7;9O* but against slaver" in
general* and )all the iniquitous sources of colonial &ealth')
Thesaurus +nd' tom' 1 tit' 2 ca%' 7'O +f civiliRation* instead of
extending* &ere to change its %laceP if* after great and de%lorable
convulsions in Euro%e* America* bet&een $a%e Hatteras and the
Cissouri* &ere to become the %rinci%al seat of the light of
$hristianit"* &hat a s%ectacle &ould be %resented b" that centre of
civiliRation* &here* in the sanctuar" of libert"* &e could attend a
sale of negroes after the death of a master* and hear the sobbings of
%arents &ho are se%arated from their children4 =et us ho%e that the
generous %rinci%les &hich have so long animated the legislatures of
the northern %arts of the ?nited 0tates &ill extend b" degrees
south&ard and to&ards those &estern regions &here* b" the effect of an
im%rudent and fatal la&* slaver" and its iniquities have %assed the
chain of the Alleghenies and the banks of the Cississi%%i5 let us ho%e
that the force of %ublic o%inion* the %rogress of kno&ledge* the
softening of manners* the legislation of the ne& continental re%ublics
and the great and ha%%" event of the recognition of Ha"ti b" the
/rench government* &ill* either from motives of %rudence and fear* or
from more noble and disinterested sentiments* exercise a ha%%"
influence on the amelioration of the state of the blacks in the rest
of the .est +ndies* in the $arolinas* Guiana* and BraRil'
+n order to slacken graduall" the bonds of slaver" the la&s against
the slaveHtrade must be most strictl" enforced* and %unishments
inflicted for their infringementP mixed tribunals must be formed* and
the right of search exercised &ith equitable reci%rocit"' +t is
melanchol" to learn that* o&ing to the cul%able indifference of some
of the governments of Euro%e* the slaveHtrade Nmore cruel from having
become more secretO has dragged from Africa* &ithin ten "ears* almost
the same number of negroes as before 1I83P but &e must not from this
fact infer the inutilit"* or* as the secret %artisans of slaver"
assert* the %ractical im%ossibilit" of the beneficent measures ado%ted
first b" (enmark* the ?nited 0tates and Great Britain* and
successivel" b" all the rest of Euro%e' .hat %assed from 1I83 till the
time &hen /rance recovered %ossession of her ancient colonies* and
&hat %asses in our da"s in nations &hose governments sincerel" desire
the abolition of the slaveHtrade and its abominable %ractices* %roves
the fallac" of this conclusion' Besides* is it reasonable to com%are
numericall" the im%ortation of slaves in 1I79 and in 1I8LT .ith the
activit" %revailing in ever" enter%rise of industr"* &hat an increase
&ould the im%ortation of negroes have taken in the English .est +ndies
and the southern %rovinces of the ?nited 0tates if the slaveHtrade*
entirel" free* had continued to su%%l" ne& slaves* and had rendered
the care of their %reservation and the increase of the old %o%ulation*
su%erfluousT $an &e believe that the English trade &ould have been
limited* as in 1I8L* to the sale of 9!*888 slavesP and that of the
?nited 0tates* to the sale of 19*888T +t is %rett" &ell ascertained
that the English islands received in the 18L "ears %receding 13IL more
than 7*1!8*888 negroes* forcibl" carried from the coast of Africa' At
the %eriod of the /rench revolution* the slaveHtrade furnished
Naccording to Cr' @orrisO 3;*888 slaves annuall"* of &hich the English
colonies absorbed !I*888* and the /rench 78*888' +t &ould be eas" to
%rove that the &hole of the .est +ndian archi%elago* &hich no&
com%rises scarcel" 7*;88*888 negroes and mulattoes Nfree and slavesO*
received* from 1L38 to 1I79* nearl" 9*888*888 of Africans' These
revolting calculations res%ecting the consum%tion of the human s%ecies
do not include the number of unfortunate slaves &ho have %erished in
the %assage or have been thro&n into the sea as damaged merchandiRe'-
N- olume 3 %age 191' 0ee also the eloquent s%eech of the (uke de
Broglie* Carch 7Ith* 1I77 %ages ;8* ;! and 2L'O B" ho& man" thousands
must &e have augmented the loss* if the t&o nations most distinguished
for ardour and intelligence in the develo%ment of commerce and
industr"* the English and the inhabitants of the ?nited 0tates* had
continued* from 1I83* to carr" on the trade as freel" as some other
nations of Euro%eT 0ad ex%erience has %roved ho& much the treaties of
the 19th 6ul"* 1I1;* and of the 77nd 6anuar"* 1I19* b" &hich 0%ain and
Portugal reserved to themselves the trade in blacks during a certain
number of "ears* have been fatal to humanit"'
The local authorities* or rather the rich %ro%rietors* forming the
A"untamiento of the Havannah* the $onsulado and the Patriotic 0ociet"*
have on several occasions sho&n a dis%osition favourable to the
amelioration of the condition of the slaves'- N- (icen nuestros +ndios
del Rio $aura cuando se confiesan que "a entienden que es %ecado
corner carne humanaP %ero %iden qua se les %ermita desacostumbrarse
%oco a %ocoP quieren comer la carne humana una veR al mes* des%ues
cada tres meses* hasta qua sin sentirlo %ierdan la costumbre' $artas
de los Rev Padres >bservantes @umber 3 manuscri%t' :>ur negroes of the
River $aura sa"* &hen the" confess* that the" kno& it is sinful to eat
human fleshP the" beg to be %ermitted to break themselves of the
custom* little b" little5 the" &ish to eat human flesh once a month*
and after&ards once ever" three months* until the" feel the" have
cured themselves of the %ractice'<O +f the government of the
motherHcountr"* instead of dreading the least a%%earance of
innovation* had taken advantage of those %ro%itious circumstances* and
of the ascendanc" of some men of abilities over their countr"men* the
state of societ" &ould have undergone %rogressive changesP and in our
da"s* the inhabitants of the island of $uba &ould have enjo"ed some of
the im%rovements &hich have been under discussion for the s%ace of
thirt" "ears' The movement at 0aint (omingo in 1328 and those &hich
took %lace in 6amaica in 132; caused so great an alarm among the
haciendados of the island of $uba that in a 6unta economica it &as
&arml" debated &hat measure could be ado%ted to secure the
tranquillit" of the countr"' Regulations &ere made res%ecting the
%ursuit of fugitive slaves*- &hich* till then* had given rise to the
most revolting excesses N- Reglamento sobre los @egros $immarrones de
7L de (ec' de 132L' Before the "ear 13II there &ere great numbers of
fugitive negroes NcimmaronesO in the mountains of 6aruco* &here the"
&ere sometimes a%alancados* that is* &here several of those
unfortunate creatures formed small intrenchments for their common
defence b" hea%ing u% trunks of trees' The maroon negroes* born in
Africa NboRalesO* are easil" takenP for the greater number* in the
vain ho%e of finding their native land* march da" and night in the
direction of the east' .hen taken the" are so exhausted b" fatigue and
hunger that the" are onl" saved b" giving them* during several da"s*
ver" small quantities of sou%' The creole maroon negroes conceal
themselves b" da" in the &oods and steal %rovisions during the night'
Till 1328* the right of taking the fugitive negroes belonged onl" to
the Alcalde ma"or %rovincial* an hereditar" office in the famil" of
the $ount de Bareto' At %resent an" of the inhabitants can seiRe the
maroons and the %ro%rietor of the slave %a"s four %iastres %er head*
besides the food' +f the name of the master is not kno&n* the
$onsulado em%lo"s the maroon negro in the %ublic &orks' This
manHhunting* &hich* at Ha"ti and 6amaica* has given so much fatal
celebrit" to the dogs of $uba* &as carried on in the most cruel manner
before the regulation &hich + have mentioned above'OP it &as %ro%osed
to augment the number of negresses on the sugar estates* to direct
more attention to the education of children* to diminish the
introduction of African negroes* to bring &hite %lanters from the
$anaries* and +ndian %lanters from Cexico* to establish countr"
schools &ith the vie& of im%roving the manners of the lo&er class* and
to mitigate slaver" in an indirect &a"' These %ro%ositions had not the
desired effect' The junta o%%osed ever" s"stem of immigration* and the
majorit" of the %ro%rietors* indulging their old illusions of
securit"* &ould not restrain the slaveHtrade &hen the high %rice of
the %roduce gave a ho%e of extraordinar" %rofit' +t &ould* ho&ever* be
unjust not to ackno&ledge in this struggle bet&een %rivate interests
and the vie&s of &ise %olic"* the desires and the %rinci%les
manifested b" some inhabitants of the island of $uba* either in their
o&n name or in the name of some rich and %o&erful cor%orations' )The
humanit" of our legislation*) sa"s C' dGArango nobl"*- in a memoir
&ritten in 132L N- +nforme sobre negros fugitives Nde 2 de 6unio de
13L2O* %ar (on /rancisco de Arango " Pareno* >idor honorario " s"ndico
del $onsulado'O* )grants the slave four rights Nquatro consuelosO
&hich some&hat assuage his sufferings and &hich have al&a"s been
refused him b" a foreign %olic"' These rights are* the choice of a
master less severe- N- The right of buscar amo' .hen a slave has found
a ne& master &ho &ill %urchase him* he ma" quit the master of &hom he
has to com%lainP such is the sense and s%irit of a la&* beneficent*
though often eluded* as are all the la&s that %rotect the slaves' +n
the ho%e of enjo"ing the %rivilege of buscar amo* the blacks often
address to the travellers the" meet* a question* &hich in civiliRed
Euro%e* &here a vote or an o%inion is sometimes sold* is more
equivocall" ex%ressedP Buiere m com%rarmeT :.ill "ou bu" me* 0irT<OP
the %rivilege of marr"ing according to his o&n inclinationP the
%ossibilit" of %urchasing his libert"- b" his labour N- A slave in the
0%anish colonies ought* according to la&* to be estimated at the
lo&est %riceP this estimate* at the time of m" journe"* &as* according
to the localit"* from 788 to !I8 %iastres' +n 1I79 the %rice of an
adult negro at the island of $uba* &as ;98 %iastres' +n 13II the
/rench trade furnished a negro for 7I8 to !88 %iastres' A slave among
the Greeks cost !88 to L88 drachmes N9; to 18I %iastresO* &hen the
da"Hlabourer &as %aid oneHtenth of a %iastre' .hile the 0%anish la&s
and institutions favour manumission in ever" &a"* the master* in the
other islands* %a"s the fiscal* for ever" freed slave* five to seven
hundred %iastres4O* and of %a"ing* &ith an acquired %ro%ert"* for the
libert" of his &ife and children'- N- .hat a contrast is observable
bet&een the humanit" of the most ancient 0%anish la&s concerning
slaver"* and the traces of barbarism found in ever" %age of the Black
$ode and in some of the %rovincial la&s of the English islands4 The
la&s of Barbadoes* made in 1LIL* and those of Bermuda* in 13!8*
decreed that the master &ho killed his negro in chastising him* could
not even be sued* &hile the master &ho killed his slave &ilfull"
should %a" ten %ounds sterling to the ro"al treasur"' A la& of saint
$hristo%herGs* of Carch 11th* 13I;* begins &ith these &ords5 ).hereas
some %ersons have of late been guilt" of cutting off and de%riving
slaves of their ears* &e order that &hoever shall extir%ate an e"e*
tear out the tongue* or cut off the nose of a slave* shall %a" five
hundred %ounds sterling* and be condemned to six months im%risonment')
+t is unnecessar" to add that these English la&s* &hich &ere in force
thirt" or fort" "ears ago* are abolished and su%erseded b" la&s more
humane' .h" can + not sa" as much of the legislation of the /rench
islands* &here six "oung slaves* sus%ected of an intention to esca%e*
&ere condemned* b" a sentence %ronounced in 1I19* to have their
hamstrings cut4O @ot&ithstanding the &isdom and mildness of 0%anish
legislation* to ho& man" excesses the slave is ex%osed in the solitude
of a %lantation or a farm* &here a rude ca%ateR* armed &ith a cutlass
NmacheteO and a &hi%* exercises absolute authorit" &ith im%unit"4 The
la& neither limits the %unishment of the slave* nor the duration of
labourP nor does it %rescribe the qualit" and quantit" of his food'-
N- A ro"al cedula of Ca" !1st* 13I2 had attem%ted to regulate the food
and clothingP but that cedula &as never executed'O +t %ermits the
slave* it is true* to have recourse to a magistrate* in order that he
ma" enjoin the master to be more equitableP but this recourse is
nearl" illusor"P for there exists another la& according to &hich ever"
slave ma" be arrested and sent back to his master &ho is found &ithout
%ermission at the distance of a league and a half from the %lantation
to &hich he belongs' Ho& can a slave* &hi%%ed* exhausted b" hunger*
and excess of labour* find means to a%%ear before the magistrateT and
if he did reach him* ho& &ould he be defended against a %o&erful
master &ho calls the hired accom%lices of his cruelties as &itnesses')
+n conclusion + ma" quote a ver" remarkable extract from the
Re%resentacion del A"untamiento* $onsulado* " 0ociedad %atriotica*
dated 6ul" 78th* 1I11' )+n all that relates to the changes to be
introduced in the ca%tive class* there is much less question of our
fears on the diminution of agricultural &ealth* than of the securit"
of the &hites* so eas" to be com%romised b" im%rudent measures'
Besides* those &ho accuse the consulate and the munici%alit" of the
Havannah of obstinate resistance forget that* in the "ear 1322* the
same authorities %ro%osed fruitlessl" that the government &ould divert
attention to the state of the blacks in the island of $uba Ndel
arreglo de este delicado asunto'O /urther* &e are far from ado%ting
the maxims &hich the nations of Euro%e* &ho boast of their
civiliRation* have regarded as incontrovertibleP that* for instance*
&ithout slaves there could be no colonies' .e declare* on the
contrar"* that &ithout slaves* and even &ithout blacks* colonies might
have existed* and that the &hole difference &ould have been com%rised
in more or less %rofit* b" the more or less ra%id increase of the
%roducts' But such being our firm %ersuasion* &e ought also to remind
"our Cajest" that a social organiRation into &hich slaver" has been
introduced as an element cannot be changed &ith inconsiderate
%reci%itation' .e are far from den"ing that it &as an evil contrar" to
all moral %rinci%les to drag slaves from one continent to anotherP
that it &as a %olitical error not to have listened to the
remonstrances of >vando* the governor of His%aniola* &ho com%lained of
the introduction and accumulation of so man" slaves in %roximit" &ith
a small number of free menP but* these evils being no& inveterate* &e
ought to avoid rendering our %osition and that of our slaves &orse* b"
the em%lo"ment of violent means' .hat &e ask of "our Cajest" is
conformable to the &ish %roclaimed b" one of the most ardent
%rotectors of the rights of humanit"* b" the most determined enem" of
slaver"P &e desire* like him* that the civil la&s should deliver us at
the same time from abuses and dangers')
>n the solution of this %roblem de%ends* in the .est +ndia +slands
onl"* and exclusive of the re%ublic of Ha"ti* the securit" of I39*888
free men N&hites and men of colour- N- @amel"5 ;97*888 &hites* of
&hich !;7*888 are in the t&o 0%anish +slands N$uba and Porto RicoO*
and ;7!*888 free men of colour* mulattoes* and blacks'OO and the
mitigation of the sufferings of 1*198*888 slaves' +t is evident that
these objects can never be attained b" %eaceful means* &ithout the
concurrence of the local authorities* either colonial assemblies* or
meetings of %ro%rietors designated b" less dreaded names* b" the old
%arent state' The direct influence of the authorities is
indis%ensableP and it is a fatal error to believe that &e ma" leave it
to time to act' Time &ill act simultaneousl" on the slaves* on the
relations bet&een the islands and the inhabitants of the continent*
and on events &hich cannot be controlled* &hen the" have been &aited
for &ith the inaction of a%ath"' .herever slaver" is long established*
the increase of civiliRation solel" has less influence on the
treatment of slaves than man" are dis%osed to admit' The civiliRation
of a nation seldom extends to a great number of individualsP and does
not reach those &ho in the %lantations are in immediate contact &ith
the blacks' + have kno&n ver" humane %ro%rietors shrink from the
difficulties that arise in the great %lantationsP the" hesitate to
disturb established order* to make innovations* &hich* if not
simultaneous* not su%%orted b" the legislation* or N&hich &ould be
more %o&erfulO b" %ublic feeling* &ould fail in their end* and %erha%s
aggravate the &retchedness of those &hose sufferings the" &ere meant
to alleviate' These considerations retard the good that might be
effected b" men animated b" the most benevolent intentions* and &ho
de%lore the barbarous institutions &hich have devolved to them b"
inheritance' The" &ell kno& that to %roduce an essential change in the
state of the slaves* to lead them %rogressivel" to the enjo"ment of
libert"* requires a firm &ill on the %art of the local authorities*
the concurrence of &ealth" and enlightened citiRens* and a general
%lan in &hich all chances of disorder and means of re%ression are
&isel" calculated' .ithout this communit" of action and effort
slaver"* &ith its miseries and excesses* &ill survive as it did in
ancient Rome*- along &ith elegance of manners* %rogressive
intelligence* and all the charms of the civiliRation &hich its
%resence accuses* and &hich it threatens to destro"* &henever the hour
of vengeance shall arrive' N- The argument deduced from the
civiliRation of Rome and Greece in favour of slaver" is much in vogue
in the .est +ndies* &here sometimes &e find it adorned &ith all the
graces of erudition' Thus* in s%eeches delivered in 1329* in the
=egislative Assembl" of 6amaica* it &as alleged that from the exam%le
of ele%hants having been em%lo"ed in the &ars of P"rrhus and Hannibal*
it could not be blamable to have brought a hundred dogs and fort"
hunters from the island of $uba to hunt the maroon negroes' Br"an
Ed&ards volume 1 %age 938'O $iviliRation* or slo& national
demoraliRation* merel" %re%are the &a" for future eventsP but to
%roduce great changes in the social state there must be a coincidence
of certain events* the %eriod of the occurrence of &hich cannot be
calculated' 0uch is the com%lication of human destin"* that the same
cruelties &hich tarnished the conquest of America have been reHenacted
before our o&n e"es in times &hich &e su%%ose to be characteriRed b"
vast %rogress* information and general refinement of manners' .ithin
the interval embraced b" the s%an of one life &e have seen the reign
of terror in /rance* the ex%edition to 0t' (omingo*- N- The @orth
American Revie& for 1I71 @umber !8 contains the follo&ing %assage5
$onflicts &ith slaves fighting for their freedom are not onl" dreadful
on account of the atrocities to &hich the" give rise on both sidesP
but even after freedom has been gained the" hel% to confound ever"
sentiment of justice and injustice' 0ome %lanters are condemning to
death all the male negro %o%ulation above six "ears of age' The"
affirm that those &ho have not borne arms &ill be contaminated b" the
exam%le of those &ho have been fighting' This merciless act is the
consequence of the result of the continued misfortunes of the
colonies' $harault* Reflexions sur 0aint (omingue'O* the %olitical
reHaction in @a%les and 0%ain* + ma" also add* the massacres of $hio*
+%sara and Cissolonghi* the &ork of the barbarians of Eastern Euro%e*
&hich the civiliRed nations of the north and &est did not deem it
their dut" to %revent' +n slave countries* &here the effect of long
habit tends to legitimiRe institutions the most adverse to justice* it
is vain to count on the influence of information* of intellectual
culture* or refinement of manners* exce%t in as much as all those
benefits accelerate the im%ulse given b" governments and facilitate
the execution of measures once ado%ted' .ithout the directive action
of governments and legislatures a %eaceful revolution is a thing not
to be ho%ed for' The danger becomes the more imminent &hen a general
inquietude %ervades the %ublic mindP &hen amidst the %olitical
dissensions of neighbouring countries the faults and the duties of
governments have been revealed5 in such cases tranquillit" can be
restored onl" b" a ruling authorit" &hich* in the noble consciousness
of its %o&er and right* s&a"s events b" entering itself on the career
of im%rovement'
$HAPTER !'!7'
GE>G@>0T+$ (E0$R+PT+>@ >/ 0>?TH ACER+$A* @>RTH >/ THE R+ER ACAS>@*
A@( EA0T >/ THE CER+(+A@ >/ THE 0+ERRA @EA(A (E CER+(A'
The object of this memoir is to concentrate the geological
observations &hich + collected during m" journe"s among the mountains
of @e& Andalusia and eneRuela* on the banks of the >rinoco and in the
=lanos of Barcelona* $alaboRo and the A%ureP consequentl"* from the
coast of the $aribbean 0ea to the valle" of the AmaRon* bet&een 7 and
18 1M7 degrees north latitude'
The extent of countr" &hich + traversed in different directions &as
more than 19*;88 square leagues' +t has alread" formed the subject of
a geological sketch* traced hastil" on the s%ot* after m" return from
the >rinoco* and %ublished in 1I81' At that %eriod the direction of
the $ordillera on the coast of eneRuela and the existence of the
$ordillera of Parime &ere unkno&n in Euro%e' @o measure of altitude
had been attem%ted be"ond the %rovince of BuitoP no rock of 0outh
America had been namedP there existed no descri%tion of the
su%er%osition of rocks in an" region of the tro%ics' ?nder these
circumstances an essa" tending to %rove the identit" of the formations
of the t&o hemis%heres could not fail to excite interest' The stud" of
the collections &hich + brought back &ith me* and four "ears of
journe"ing in the Andes* have enabled me to rectif" m" first vie&s*
and to extend an investigation &hich* b" reason of its novelt"* had
been favourabl" received' That the most remarkable geological
relations ma" be the more easil" seiRed* + shall treat a%horisticall"*
in different sections* the configuration of the soil* the general
division of the land* the direction and inclination of the beds and
the nature of the %rimitive* intermediar"* secondar" and tertiar"
rocks'
0E$T+>@ 1'
$onfiguration of the $ountr"'
+nequalities of the 0oil'
$hains and Grou%s of Countains'
(ivisionar" Ridges'
Plains or =lanos'
0outh America is one of those great triangular masses &hich form the
three continental %arts of the southern hemis%here of the globe' +n
its exterior configuration it resembles Africa more than Australia'
The southern extremities of the three continents are so %laced that*
in sailing from the $a%e of Good Ho%e Nlatitude !! degrees 99 minutesO
to $a%e Horn Nlatitude 99 degrees 9I minutesO* and doubling the
southern %oint of an (iemenGs =and Nlatitude ;! degrees !I minutesO*
&e see those lands stretching out to&ards the south %ole in %ro%ortion
as &e advance east&ard' A fourth %art of the 931*888 square sea
leagues- N- Almost double the extent of Euro%e'O &hich 0outh America
com%rises is covered &ith mountains distributed in chains or gathered
together in grou%s' The other %arts are %lains forming long
uninterru%ted bands covered &ith forests or gramina* flatter than in
Euro%e* and rising %rogressivel"* at the distance of !88 leagues from
the coast* bet&een !8 and 138 toises above the level of the sea' The
most considerable mountainous chain in 0outh America extends from
south to north according to the greatest dimension of the continentP
it is not central like the Euro%ean chains* nor far removed from the
seaHshore* like the Himala"a and the HindooHAooshP but it is thro&n
to&ards the &estern extremit" of the continent* almost on the coast of
the Pacific >cean' Referring to the %rofile &hich + have given- of the
configuration of 0outh America N- Ca% of $olumbia according to the
astronomical observations of Humboldt b" A'H' Brue 1I7!'O* in the
latitude of $himboraRo and Grand Para* across the %lains of the
AmaRon* &e find the land lo& to&ards the east* in an inclined %lane*
at an angle of less than 79 seconds on a length of L88 leaguesP and
if* in the ancient state of our %lanet* the Atlantic >cean* b" some
extraordinar" cause* ever rose to 1188 feet above its %resent level Na
height oneHthird less than the tableHlands of 0%ain and BavariaO* the
&aves must* in the %rovince of 6aen de Bracamoros* have broken u%on
the rocks that bound the eastern declivit" of the $ordilleras of the
Andes' The rising of this ridge is so inconsiderable com%ared to the
&hole continent that its breadth in the %arallel of $a%e 0aint Roche
is 1;88 times greater than the average height of the Andes'
.e distinguish in the mountainous %art of 0outh America a chain and
three grou%s of mountains* namel"* the $ordillera of the Andes* &hich
the geologist ma" trace &ithout interru%tion from $a%e Pilares* in the
&estern %art of the 0traits of Cagellan* to the %romontor" of Paria
o%%osite the island of TrinidadP the insulated grou% of the 0ierra
@evada de 0anta CartaP the grou% of the mountains of the >rinoco* or
of =a ParimeP and that of the mountains of BraRil' The 0ierra de 0anta
Carta being nearl" in the meridian of the $ordilleras of Peru and @e&
Grenada* the sno&" summits descried b" navigators in %assing the mouth
of the Rio Cagdalena are commonl" mistaken for the northern extremit"
of the Andes' + shall soon %rove that the colossal grou% of the 0ierra
de 0anta Carta is almost entirel" se%arate from the mountains of >cana
and Pam%lona &hich belong to the eastern $ordillera of @e& Grenada'
The hot %lains through &hich runs the Rio $esar* and &hich extend
to&ards the valle" of ?%ar* se%arate the 0ierra @evada from the Paramo
de $acota* south of Pam%lona' The ridge &hich divides the &aters
bet&een the gulf of Caracaibo and the Rio Cagdalena is in the %lain on
the east of the =aguna Sa%atoRa' +f* on the one hand* the 0ierra de
0anta Carta has been erroneousl" considered Non account of its eternal
sno&* and its longitudeO to be a continuation of the $ordillera of the
Andes* on the other hand* the connexion of that same $ordillera &ith
the coast mountains of the %rovinces of $umana and $aracas has not
been recogniRed' The littoral chain of eneRuela* of &hich the
different ranges form the Contana de Paria* the isthmus of Ara"a* the
0illa of $aracas and the gneissHgranite mountains north and south of
the lake of alencia* is joined bet&een Porto $abello* 0an /eli%e and
Tocu"o to the Paramos de las Rosas and @iquitao* &hich form the
northHeast extremit" of the 0ierra de Cerida* and the eastern
$ordillera of the Andes of @e& Grenada' +t is sufficient here to
mention this connexion* so im%ortant in a geological %oint of vie&P
for the denominations of Andes and $ordilleras being altogether in
disuse as a%%lied to the chains of mountains extending from the
eastern gulf of Caracaibo to the %romontor" of Paria* &e shall
continue to designate those chains Nstretching from &est to eastO b"
the names of littoral chain* or coastHchain of eneRuela'
>f the three insulated grou%s of mountains* that is to sa"* those
&hich are not branches of the $ordillera of the Andes and its
continuation to&ards the shore of eneRuela* one is on the north* and
the other t&o on the &est of the Andes5 that on the north is the
0ierra @evada de 0anta CartaP the t&o others are the 0ierra de la
Parime* bet&een ; and I degrees of north latitude* and the mountains
of BraRil* bet&een 19 and 7I degrees south latitude' This singular
distribution of great inequalities of soil %roduces three %lains or
basins* com%rising a surface of ;78*L88 square leagues* or fourHfifths
of all 0outh America* east of the Andes' Bet&een the coastHchain of
eneRuela and the grou% of the Parime* the %lains of the A%ure and the
=o&er >rinoco extendP bet&een the grou% of Parime and the BraRil
mountains are the %lains of the AmaRon* of the Rio @egro and the
Cadeira* and bet&een the grou%s of BraRil and the southern extremit"
of the continent are the %lains of Rio de la Plata and of Patagonia'
As the grou% of the Parime in 0%anish Guiana* and of the BraRil
mountains Nor of Cinas Geraes and Go"aRO* do not join the $ordillera
of the Andes of @e& Grenada and ?%%er Peru to&ards the &est* the three
%lains of the =o&er >rinoco* the AmaRon* and the Rio de la Plata* are
connected b" landHstraits of considerable breadth' These straits are
also %lains stretching from north to south* and traversed b" ridges
im%erce%tible to the e"e but forming divortia aquarum' These ridges
Nand this remarkable %henomenon has hitherto esca%ed the attention of
geologistsO are situated bet&een 7 and ! degrees north latitude* and
1L and 1I degrees south latitude' The first ridge forms the %artition
of the &aters &hich fall into the =o&er >rinoco on the northHeast* and
into the Rio @egro and the AmaRon on the south and southHeastP the
second ridge divides the tributar" streams of the right bank of the
AmaRon and the Rio de la Plata' These ridges* of &hich the existence
is onl" manifested* as in olh"nia* b" the course of the &aters* are
%arallel &ith the coastHchain of eneRuelaP the" %resent* as it &ere*
t&o s"stems of counterHslo%es %artiall" develo%ed* in the direction
from &est to east* bet&een the Guaviare and the $aqueta* and bet&een
the Camori and the Pilcoma"o' +t is also &orth" of remark that in the
southern hemis%here the $ordillera of the Andes sends an immense
counter%oise east&ard in the %romontor" of the 0ierra @evada de
$ochabamba* &hence begins the ridge stretching bet&een the tributar"
streams of the Cadeira and the Paragua" to the loft" grou% of the
mountains of BraRil or Cinas Geraes' Three transversal chains Nthe
coastHmountains of eneRuela* of the >rinoco or Parime* and the BraRil
mountainsO tend to join the longitudinal chain Nthe AndesO either b"
an intermediar" grou% Nbet&een the lake of alencia and Tocu"oO* or b"
ridges formed b" the intersection of counterHslo%es in the %lains' The
t&o extremities of the three =lanos &hich communicate b" landHstraits*
the =lanos of the =o&er >rinoco* the AmaRon* and the Rio de la Plata
or of Buenos A"res* are ste%%es covered &ith gramina* &hile the
intermediar" =lano Nthat of the AmaRonO is a thick forest' .ith
res%ect to the t&o landHstraits forming bands directed from north to
south Nfrom the A%ure to $aqueta across the Provincia de los =lanos*
and the sources of the Camori to Rio Pilcoma"o* across the %rovince of
Cocos and $hiquitosO the" are bare and grass" ste%%es like the %lains
of $aracas and Buenos A"res'
+n the immense extent of land east of the Andes* com%rehending more
than ;I8*888 square sea leagues* of &hich 27*888 are a mountainous
tract of countr"* no grou% rises to the region of %er%etual sno&P none
even attains the height of 1;88 toises' This lo&ering of the mountains
in the eastern region of the @e& $ontinent extends as far as L8
degrees north latitudeP &hile in the &estern %art* on the %rolongation
of the $ordillera of the Andes* the highest 0ummits rise in Cexico
Nlatitude 1I degrees 92 minutesO to 7338 toises* and in the Rock"
Countains Nlatitude !3 to ;8 degreesO to 1288 toises' The insulated
grou% of the Alleghenies* corres%onding in its eastern %osition and
direction &ith the BraRil grou%* does not exceed 18;8 toises'- N- The
culminant %oint of the Alleghenies is Count .ashington in @e&
Ham%shire* latitude ;; 1M; degrees' According to $a%tain Partridge its
height is LL!; English feet'O The loft" summits* therefore* thrice
exceeding the height of Cont Blanc* belong onl" to the longitudinal
chain &hich bounds the basin of the Pacific >cean* from 99 degrees
south to LI degrees north latitude* that is to sa"* the $ordillera of
the Andes' The onl" insulated grou% that can be com%ared &ith the
sno&" summits of the equinoctial Andes* and &hich attains the height
of nearl" !888 toises* is the 0ierra de 0anta CartaP it is not
situated on the east of the $ordilleras* but bet&een the %rolongation
of t&o of their branches* those of Cerida and eragua' The
$ordilleras* &here the" bound the $aribbean 0ea* in that %art &hich &e
designate b" the name of $oast $hain of eneRuela* do not attain the
extraordinar" height N7988 toisesO &hich the" reach in their
%rolongation to&ards $hita and Cerida' $onsidering se%aratel" the
grou%s of the east* those of the shore of eneRuela* of the Parime*
and BraRil* &e see their height diminish from north to south' The
highest summits of each grou% are the 0illa de $aracas N1!98 toisesO*
the %eak of (uida N1!88 toisesO* the +tacolumi and the +tambe- N288
toisesO' N- According to the measure of CC' 0%ix and Cartius the
+tambe de illa de Princi%e is 9928 feet high'O But* as + have
else&here observed* it &ould be erroneous to judge the height of a
chain of mountains solel" from that of the most loft" summits' The
%eak of the Himala"as* accuratel" measured* is L3L toises higher than
$himboraRo N- The Peak +e&ahir* latitude !8 degrees 77 minutes 12
secondsP longitude 33 degrees !9 minutes 3 seconds east of Paris*
height ;87L toises* according to CC' Hodgson and Herbert'OP $himboraRo
is 288 toises higher than Cont BlancP and Cont Blanc L9! toises higher
than the %eak of @ethou'- N- This %eak* called also %eak of Anethou or
Calahita* or eastern %eak of Caladetta* is the highest summit of the
P"renees' +t rises 13I3 toises and consequentl" exceeds Cont Perdu b"
;8 toises'O These differences do not furnish the relative average
heights of the Himala"as* the Andes* the Al%s and the P"renees* that
is* the height of the back of the mountains* on &hich arise the %eaks*
needles* %"ramids* or rounded domes' +t is that %art of the back &here
%asses are made* &hich furnishes a %recise measure of the minimum of
the height of the great chains' +n com%aring the &hole of m" measures
&ith those of Coorcroft* .ebb* Hodgson* 0aussure and Ramond* +
estimate the average height of the to% of the Himala"as* bet&een the
meridians of 39 and 33 degrees* at 7;98 toisesP the Andes- Nat Peru*
Buito and @e& GrenadaO* at 1I98 toises N- +n the %assage of Buindiu*
bet&een the valle" of the Cagdalena and that of the Rio $auca* + found
the culminant %oint Nla Garita del ParamaO to be 132I toisesP it is
ho&ever* regarded as one of the least elevated' The %assages of the
Andes of Guanacas* Guamani and Cicui%am%a* are res%ectivel" 7!88*
131!* and 1I13 toises above seaHlevel' Even in !! degrees south
latitude the road across the Andes bet&een CendoRa and al%araiso is
12I3 toises high' + do not mention the $ol de lGAssua"* &here +
%assed* near la =adera de $adlud* on a ridge 7;7I toises high* because
it is a %assage on a transverse ridge joining t&o %arallel chains'OP
the summit of the Al%s and P"renees at 1198 toises' The difference of
the mean height of the $ordilleras Nbet&een 9 degrees north and 7
degrees south latitudeO and the 0&iss Al%s* is consequentl" 788 toises
less than the difference of their loftiest summitsP and in com%aring
the %asses of the Al%s* &e see that their average height is nearl" the
same* although %eak @ethou is L88 toises lo&er than Cont Blanc and
Cont Rosa' Bet&een the Himala"a- N- The %asses of the Himala"a that
lead from $hinese Tartar" into Hindostan N@iteeHGhaut* Bamsaru* etc'O
are from 7;88 to 7388 toises high'O and the Andes* on the contrar"*
Nconsidering those chains in the limits &hich + have just indicatedO*
the difference bet&een the mean height of the ridges and that of the
loftiest summits %resents nearl" the same %ro%ortions'
Taking an analogous vie& of the grou%s of mountains at the east of the
Andes* &e find the average height of the coastHchain of eneRuela to
be 398 toisesP of the 0ierra Parime* 988 toisesP of the BraRilian
grou%* ;88 toisesP &hence it follo&s that the mountains of the eastern
region of 0outh America bet&een the tro%ics are* &hen com%ared to the
medium elevation of the Andes* in the relation of one to three'
The follo&ing is the result of some numerical statements* the
com%arison of &hich affords more %recise ideas on the structure of
mountains in general'- N- The $ols or %asses indicate the minimum of
the height to &hich the ridge of the mountains lo&ers in a %articular
countr"' @o&* looking at the %rinci%al %asses of the Al%s of
0&itRerland N$ol Terret* 1121 toises* Cont $enis* 18L8 toisesP Great
0aint Bernard* 17;L toisesP 0im%lon* 1872 toisesP and on the neck of
the P"renees* Benasque* 17!1 toisesP Pinede* 1721 toisesP Gavarnic*
1123 toisesP $avarere* 1191 toisesP it &ould be difficult to affirm
that the P"renees are lo&er than the average height of the 0&iss
Al%s'O
TAB=E >/ HE+GHT0 >/ AR+>?0 RA@GE0'
$>=?C@ 1 5 @ACE0 >/ THE $HA+@0 >/ C>?@TA+@0'
$>=?C@ 7 5 THE H+GHE0T 0?CC+T0 +@ T>+0E0'
$>=?C@ ! 5 CEA@ HE+GHT >/ THE R+(GE +@ T>+0E0'
$>=?C@ ; 5 PR>P>RT+>@ >/ THE CEA@ HE+GHT >/ THE R+(GE0 T> THAT A THE
H+GHE0T 0?CC+T0'
Himala"as Nbet&een north latitude 5 ;87L 5 7;98 5 1 5 1'L'
!8 degrees 1I minutes and !1 degrees
9! minutes* and longitude 39 degrees
7! minutes and 33 degrees !I minutesO
$ordillera of the Andes Nbet&een 5 !!98 5 1I98 5 1 5 1'I'
latitude 9 and 7 degrees southO
Al%s of 0&itRerland 5 7;98 5 1198 5 1 5 7'1'
P"renees 5 13I3 5 1198 5 1 5 1'9'
=ittoral $hain of eneRuela 5 1!98 5 398 5 1 5 1'I'
Grou% of the Countains of the Parime 5 1!88 5 988 5 1 5 7'L'
Grou% of the Countains of BraRil 5 288 5 988 5 1 5 7'!'
+f &e distinguish among the mountains those &hich rise s%oradicall"*
and form small insulated s"stems*- N- As the grou%s of the $anaries*
the ARores* the 0and&ich +slands* the ContsH(ores* and the Euganean
mountains'O and those that make %art of a continued chain*- N- The
Himala"as* the Al%s* and the Andes'O &e find that* not&ithstanding the
immense height- of the summits of some insulated s"stems N- Among the
insulated s"stems* or s%oradic mountains* Co&naHRoa is generall"
regarded as the most elevated summit of the 0and&ich +slands' +ts
height is com%uted at 7988 toises* and "et at some seasons it is
entirel" free from sno&' An exact measure of this summit* situated in
ver" frequented latitudes* has for 79 "ears been desired in vain b"
naturalists and geologists'O* the culminant %oints of the &hole globe
belong to continuous chainsHHto the $ordilleras of $entral Asia and
0outh America'
+n that %art of the Andes &ith &hich + am best acquainted* bet&een I
degrees south latitude and 71 degrees north latitude* all the colossal
summits are of trach"te' +t ma" almost be admitted as a general rule
that &henever the mass of mountains rises in that region of the
tro%ics much above the limit of %er%etual sno& N7!88 to 7;38 toisesO*
the rocks commonl" called %rimitive Nfor instance* gneissHgranite or
micaHslateO disa%%ear* and the summits are of trach"te or
tra%%eanH%or%h"r"' + kno& onl" a fe& rare exce%tions to this la&* and
the" occur in the $ordilleras of Buito &here the @evados of $onderasto
and $uvillan* situated o%%osite to the trach"tic $himboraRo* are
com%osed of micaHslate and contain veins of sul%huret of silver' Thus
in the grou%s of detached mountains &hich rise abru%tl" from the
%lains the loftiest summits* such as Co&naHRoa* the Peak of Teneriffe*
Etna and the Peak of the ARores* %resent onl" recent volcanic rocks'
+t &ould* ho&ever* be an error to extend that la& to ever" other
continent* and to admit* as a general rule* that* in ever" Rone* the
greatest elevations have %roduced trach"tic domes5 gneissHgranite and
micaHslate constitute the summits of the ridge* in the almost
insulated grou% of the 0ierra @evada of Grenada and the Peak of
Calhacen*- N- This %eak* according to the surve" of C' $lemente Roxas*
is 1I7L toises above the level of the sea* consequentl" !2 toises
higher than the loftiest summit of the P"renees Nthe granitic %eak of
@ethouO and I! toises lo&er than the trach"tic %eak of Teneriffe' The
0ierra @evada of Grenada forms a s"stem of mountains of micaHslate*
%assing to gneiss and cla"Hslate* and containing shelves of eu%hotide
and greenstone'O* as the" also do in the continuous chain of the Al%s*
the P"renees and %robabl" the Himala"as'- N- +f &e ma" judge from the
s%ecimens of rocks collected in the gorges and %asses of the Himala"as
or rolled do&n b" the torrents'O These %henomena* discordant in
a%%earance* are %ossibl" all effects of the same cause5 granite*
gneiss* and all the soHst"led %rimitive @e%tunian mountains* ma"
%ossibl" o&e their origin to volcanic forces* as &ell as the
trach"tesP but to forces of &hich the action resembles less the
stillHburning volcanoes of our da"s* ejecting lava* &hich at the
moment of its eru%tion comes immediatel" into contact &ith the
atmos%heric airP but it is not here m" %ur%ose to discuss this great
theoretic question'
After having examined the general structure of 0outh America according
to considerations of com%arative geolog"* + shall %roceed to notice
se%aratel" the different s"stems of mountains and %lains* the mutual
connection of &hich has so %o&erful an influence on the state of
industr" and commerce in the nations of the @e& $ontinent' + shall
give onl" a general vie& of the s"stems situated be"ond the limits of
the region &hich forms the s%ecial object of this memoir' Geolog"
being essentiall" founded on the stud" of the relations of
juxta%osition and %lace* + could not treat of the littoral chain and
the chain of the Parime se%aratel"* &ithout touching on the other
s"stems south and &est of eneRuela'
A' 0,0TEC0 >/ C>?@TA+@0'
A'1' $>R(+==ERA0 >/ THE A@(E0'
This is the most continuous* the longest* the most uniform in its
direction from south to north and northHnorthH&est* of an" chain of
the globe' +t a%%roaches the north and south %oles at unequal
distances of from 77 to !! degrees' +ts develo%ment is from 7I88 to
!888 leagues N78 to a degreeO* a length equal to the distance from
$a%e /inisterre in Galicia to the northHeast ca%e NTschuktschoiH@ossO
of Asia' 0ome&hat less than one half of this chain belongs to 0outh
America* and runs along its &estern shores' @orth of the isthmus of
$u%ica and of Panama* after an immense lo&ering* it assumes the
a%%earance of a nearl" central ridge* forming a rock" d"ke that joins
the great continent of @orth America to the southern continent' The
lo& lands on the east of the Andes of Guatimala and @e& 0%ain a%%ear
to have been over&helmed b" the ocean and no& form the bottom of the
$aribbean 0ea' As the continent be"ond the %arallel of /lorida again
&idens to&ards the east* the $ordilleras of (urango and @e& Cexico* as
&ell as the Rock" Countains* merel" a continuation of those
$ordilleras* a%%ear to be thro&n still further &est&ard* that is*
to&ards the coast of the Pacific >ceanP but the" still remain eight or
ten times more remote from it than in the southern hemis%here' .e ma"
consider as the t&o extremities of the Andes* the rock or granitic
island of (iego RamireR* south of $a%e Horn* and the mountains l"ing
at the mouth of CackenRie River Nlatitude L2 degrees* longitude 1!8
1M7 degreesO* more than t&elve degrees &est of the greenstone
mountains* kno&n b" the name of the $o%%er Countains* visited b"
$a%tain /ranklin' The colossal %eak of 0aint Elias and that of Count
/air&eather* in @e& @orfolk* do not* %ro%erl" s%eaking* belong to the
northern %rolongation of the $ordilleras of the Andes* but to a
%arallel chain Nthe maritime Al%s of the northH&est coastO* stretching
to&ards the %eninsula of $alifornia* and connected b" transversal
ridges &ith a mountainous land* bet&een ;9 and 9! degrees of latitude*
&ith the Andes of @e& Cexico NRock" CountainsO' +n 0outh America the
mean breadth of the $ordillera of the Andes is from 1I to 77 leagues'-
N- The breadth of this immense chain is a %henomenon &ell &orth" of
attention' The 0&iss Al%s extend* in the Grisons and in the T"rol* to
a breadth of !L and ;8 leagues* both in the meridians of the lake at
$omo* the canton of A%%enRell* and in the meridian of Bassano and
Tegernsee'O +t is onl" in the knots of the mountains* that is &here
the $ordillera is s&elled b" sideHgrou%s or divided into several
chains nearl" %arallel* and reuniting at intervals* for instance* on
the south of the lake of Titicaca* that it is more than 188 to 178
leagues broad* in a direction %er%endicular to its axis' The Andes of
0outh America bound the %lains of the >rinoco* the AmaRon* and the Rio
de la Plata* on the &est* like a rock" &all raised across a crevice
1!88 leagues long* and stretching from south to north' This u%heaved
%art Nif + ma" be %ermitted to use an ex%ression founded on a
geological h"%othesisO com%rises a surface of 9I*288 square leagues*
bet&een the %arallel of $a%e Pilesar and the northern $hoco' To form
an idea of the variet" of rocks &hich this s%ace ma" furnish for the
observation of the traveller* &e must recollect that the P"renees*
according to the observations of C' $har%entier* occu%" onl" 3LI
square sea leagues'
The name of Andes in the Buichua language N&hich &ants the consonants
d* f* and gO Antis* or Ante* a%%ears to me to be derived from the
Peruvian &ord anta* signif"ing co%%er or metal in general' Anta chacra
signifies mine of co%%erP antacuri* co%%er mixed &ith goldP and %uca
anta* co%%er* or red metal' As the grou% of the Altai mountains- takes
its name from the Turkish &ord altor or alt"n N- Ala%roth' Asia
%ol"glotta %age 711' +t a%%ears to me less %robable that the tribe of
the Antis gave its name to the mountains of Peru'O* in the same manner
the $ordilleras ma" have been termed )$o%%erHcountr"*) or AntiHsu"u*
on account of the abundance of that metal* &hich the Peruvians
em%lo"ed for their tools' The +nca Garcilasso* &ho &as the son of a
Peruvian %rincess* and &ho &rote the histor" of his native countr" in
the first "ears of the conquest* gives no et"molog" of the name of the
Andes' He onl" o%%oses AntiHsu"u* or the region of summits covered
&ith eternal sno& NritisecaO* to the %lains or ,uncas* that is* to the
lo&er region of Peru' The et"molog" of the name of the largest
mountain chain of the globe cannot be devoid of interest to the
mineralogic geogra%her'
The structure of the $ordillera of the Andes* that is* its division
into several chains nearl" %arallel* &hich are again joined b" knots
of mountains* is ver" remarkable' >n our ma%s this structure is
indicated but im%erfectl"P and &hat =a $ondamine and Bouguer merel"
guessed* during their long visit to the tableHland of Buito* has been
generaliRed and illHinter%reted b" those &ho have described the &hole
chain according to the t"%e of the equatorial Andes' The follo&ing is
the most accurate information + could collect b" m" o&n researches and
an active corres%ondence of t&ent" "ears &ith the inhabitants of
0%anish America' The grou% of islands called Tierra del /uego* in
&hich the chain of the Andes begins* is a %lain extending from $a%e
Es%iritu 0anto as far as the canal of 0an 0ebastian' The countr" on
the &est of this canal* bet&een $a%e 0an alentino and $a%e Pilares*
is bristled &ith granitic mountains covered Nfrom the Corro de 0an
Agueda to $abo RedondoO &ith calcareous shells' @avigators have
greatl" exaggerated the height of the mountains of Tierra del /uego*
among &hich there a%%ears to be a volcano still burning' C' de
$hurruca found the height of the &estern %eak of $a%e Pilares
Nlatitude 97 degrees ;9 minutes southO onl" 71I toisesP even $a%e Horn
is %robabl" not more than 988 toises- high' N- +t is ver" distinctl"
seen at the distance of L8 miles* &hich* &ithout calculating the
effects of terrestrial refraction* &ould give it a height of ;2I
toises'O The %lain extends on the northern shore of the 0traits of
Cagellan* from the irginGs $a%e to $abo @egroP at the latter the
$ordilleras rise abru%tl"* and fill the &hole s%ace as far as $a%e
ictoria Nlatitude 97 degrees 77 minutesO' The region bet&een $a%e
Horn and the southern extremit" of the continent some&hat resembles
the origin of the P"renees bet&een $a%e $reux Nnear the gulf of RosasO
and the $ol des Perdus' The height of the Patagonian chain is not
kno&nP it a%%ears* ho&ever* that no summit south of the %arallel of ;I
degrees attains the elevation of the $anigou N1;!8 toisesO &hich is
near the eastern extremit" of the P"renees' +n that southern countr"*
&here the summers are so cold and short* the limit of eternal sno&
must lo&er at least as much as in the northern hemis%here* in @or&a"*
in latitude L! and L; degreesP consequentl" belo& I88 toises' The
great breadth* therefore* of the band of sno& that envelo%es these
Patagonian summits* does not justif" the idea &hich travellers form of
their height in ;8 degrees south latitude' As &e advance to&ards the
island of $hiloe* the $ordilleras dra& near the coastP and the
archi%elago of $honos or Hua"tecas a%%ears like the vestiges of an
immense grou% of mountains over&helmed b" &ater' @arro& estuaries fill
the lo&er valle"s of the Andes* and remind us of the fjords of @or&a"
and Greenland' .e there find* running from south to north* the @evados
de Caca Nlatitude ;9 degrees 12 minutesO* of $u%tano Nlatitude ;;
degrees 9I minutesO* of ,anteles Nlatitude ;! degrees 97 minutesO* of
$orcovado* $ha"a%irca Nlatitude ;7 degrees 97 minutesO and of =lebean
Nlatitude ;1 degrees ;2 minutesO' The %eak of $u%tana rises like the
%eak of Teneriffe* from the bosom of the seaP but being scarcel"
visible at thirt"Hsix or fort" leagues distance* it cannot be more
than 1988 toises high' $orcovado* situated on the coast of the
continent* o%%osite the southern %oint of the island of $hiloe*
a%%ears to be more than 1298 toises highP it is %erha%s the loftiest
summit of the &hole globe* south of the %arallel of ;7 degrees south
latitude' >n the north of 0an $arlos de $hiloe* in the &hole length of
$hile to the desert of Atacama* the lo& &estern regions not having
been over&helmed b" floods* the Andes there a%%ear farther from the
coast' The Abbe Colina affirms that the $ordilleras of $hile form
three %arallel chains* of &hich the intermediar" is the most elevatedP
but to %rove that this division is far from general* it suffices to
recollect the barometric surve" made b" CC' BauRa and Es%inosa* in
132;* bet&een CendoRa and 0antiago de $hile' The road leading from one
of those to&ns to the other* rises graduall" from 388 to 12I3 toisesP
and after %assing the $ol des Andes N=a $umbre* bet&een the houses of
refuge called =as $alaveras and =as $uevasO* it descends continuall"
as far as the tem%erate valle" of 0antiago de $hile* of &hich the
bottom is onl" ;82 toises above the level of the sea' The same surve"
has made kno&n the minimum of height at $hile of the lo&er limit of
sno&* in !! degrees south latitude' The limit does not lo&er in summer
to 7888 toises'- N- >n the southern declivit" of the Himala"as sno&
begins N! degrees nearer the equatorO at 1238 toises'O + think &e ma"
conclude according to the analog" of the 0no&" Countains of Cexico and
southern Euro%e* and considering the difference of the summer
tem%erature of the t&o hemis%heres* that the real @evadas at $hile* in
the %arallel of aldivia Nlatitude ;8 degreesO* cannot be belo& 1!88
toisesP in al%araiso Nlatitude !! degreesO not lo&er than 7888
toises* and in that of $o%ia%o Nlatitude 73 degreesO not belo& 7788
toises of height' These are the limitHnumbers* the minimum of
elevation* &hich the ridge of the Andes of $hile must attain in
different degrees of latitude* to enable their summits to rise above
the line of %er%etual sno&' The numerical results &hich + have just
marked and &hich are founded on the la&s of distribution of heat* have
still the same im%ortance &hich the" %ossessed at the time of m"
travels in AmericaP for there does not exist in the immense extent of
the Andes* from I degrees south latitude to the 0traits of Cagellan*
one @evada of &hich the height above the seaHlevel has been
determined* either b" a sim%le geometric measure* or b" the combined
means of barometric and geodesic measurements'
Bet&een !! and 1I degrees south latitude* bet&een the %arallels of
al%araiso and Arica* the Andes %resent to&ards the east three
remarkable s%urs* the 0ierra de $ordova* the 0ierra de 0alta* and the
@evados de $ochabamba' Travellers %artl" cross and %artl" go along the
side of the 0ierra de $ordova Nbet&een !! and !1 degrees of latitudeO
in their &a" from Buenos A"res to CendoRaP it ma" be said to be the
most southern %romontor" &hich advances* in the Pam%as* to&ards the
meridian of L9 degreesP it gives birth to the great river kno&n b" the
name of (esaguadero de CendoRa and extends from 0an 6uan de la
/rontera and 0an 6uan de la Punta to the to&n of $ordova' The second
s%ur* called the 0ierra de 0alta and the 6ujui* of &hich the greatest
breadth is 79 degrees of latitude* &idens from the valle" of $atamarca
and 0an Ciguel del Tucuman* in the direction of the Rio ermejo
Nlongitude L; degreesO' /inall"* the third and most majestic s%ur* the
0ierra @evada de $ochabamba and 0anta $ruR Nfrom 77 to 13 1M7 degrees
of latitudeO* is linked &ith the knot of the mountains of Porco' +t
forms the %oints of %artition Ndivortia aquarum* bet&een the basin of
the AmaRon and that of the Rio de la Plata' The $achima"o and the
Pilcoma"o* &hich rise bet&een Potosi* Talavera de la Puna* and =a
Plata or $huquisaca* run in the direction of southHeast* &hile the
Para%iti and the Gua%e" NGua%aiR* or Rio de CiRqueO %our their &aters
into the Camori* to northHeast' The ridge of %artition being near
$ha"anta* south of CiRque* Tomina and Pomabamba* nearl" on the
southern declivit" of the 0ierra de $ochabamba in latitude 12 and 78
degrees* the Rio Gua%e" flo&s round the &hole grou%* before it reaches
the %lains of the AmaRon* as in Euro%e the Po%rad* a tributar" of the
istula* makes a circuit in its course from the southern %art of the
$ar%athians to the %lains of Poland' + have alread" observed above*
that &here the mountains cease N&est- of the meridian of LL 1M7
degrees N- + agree &ith $a%tain Basil Hall* in fixing the %ort of
al%araiso in 31 degrees !1 minutes &est of Green&ich* and + %lace
$ordova I degrees ;8 minutes* and 0anta $ruR de la 0ierra 3 degrees ;
minutes east of al%araiso' The longitudes mentioned in the text refer
al&a"s to the meridian of the >bservator" of Paris'OO the %artition
ridge of $ochabamba goes u% to&ards the northHeast* to 1L degrees of
latitude* forming* b" the intersection of t&o slightl" inclined
%lanes* onl" one ridge amidst the savannahs* and se%arating the &aters
of the Gua%ore* a tributar" of the Cadeira* from those of the Agua%eh"
and 6auru* tributaries of the Rio Paragua"' This vast countr" bet&een
0anta $ruR de la 0ierra* illabella* and Catogrosso* is one of the
least kno&n %arts of 0outh America' The t&o s%urs of $ordova and 0alta
%resent onl" a mountainous territor" of small elevation* and linked to
the foot of the Andes of $hile' $ochabamba* on the contrar"* attains
the limit of %er%etual sno& N7!88 toisesO and forms in some sort a
lateral branch of the $ordilleras* diverging even from their to%s
bet&een =a PaR and >ruro' The mountains com%osing this branch Nthe
$ordillera de $hiriguanaes* de los 0auces and ,uracareesO extend
regularl" from &est to eastP their eastern declivit"- is ver" ra%id*
and their loftiest summits are not in the centre* but in the northern
%art of the grou%' N- /or much information concerning the 0ierra de
$ochabamba + am indebted to the manuscri%ts of m" countr"man* the
celebrated botanist Taddeus Haenke* &hich a monk of the congregation
of the Escurial* /ather $isneros* kindl" communicated to me at =ima'
Cr' Haenke* after having follo&ed the ex%edition of Alexander
Calas%ina* settled at $ochabamba in 132I' A %art of the immense herbal
of this botanist is no& at Prague'O
The %rinci%al $ordillera of $hile and ?%%er Peru is* for the first
time* ramified ver" distinctl" into t&o branches* in the grou% of
Porco and Potosi* bet&een latitude 12 and 78 degrees' These t&o
branches com%rehend the tableHland extending from $arangas to =amba
Nlatitude 12 !M; to 19 degreesO and in &hich is situated the small
mountain lake of Paria* the (esaguadero* and the great =aguna of
Titicaca or $hucuito* of &hich the &estern %art bears the name of
inamarca' To afford an idea of the colossal dimensions of the Andes*
+ ma" here observe that the surface of the lake of Titicaca alone N;;I
square sea leaguesO is t&ent" times greater than that of the =ake of
Geneva* and t&ice the average extent of a de%artment of /rance' >n the
banks of this lake* near Tiahuanacu* and in the high %lains of $allao*
ruins are found &hich bear evidence of a state of civiliRation
anterior to that &hich the Peruvians assign to the reign of the +nca
Canco $a%ac' The eastern $ordillera* that of =a PaR* Palca* Ancuma*
and Pelechuco* join* northH&est of A%olobamba* the &estern $ordillera*
&hich is the most extensive of the &hole chain of the Andes* bet&een
the %arallels 1; and 19 degrees' The im%erial cit" of $uRco is
situated near the eastern extremit" of this knot* &hich com%rehends*
in an area of !888 square leagues* the mountains of ilcanota*
$araba"a* Abancai* Huando* Parinacochas* and Andahua"las' Though here*
as in general* in ever" considerable &idening of the $ordillera* the
grou%ed summits do not follo& the %rinci%al axis in uniform and
%arallel directions* a %henomenon observable in the general
dis%osition of the chain of the Andes* from latitude 1I degrees* is
&ell &orth" the attention of geologists' The &hole mass of the
$ordilleras of $hile and ?%%er Peru* from the 0traits of Cagellan to
the %arallel of the %ort of Arica N1I degrees 7I minutes !9 secondsO*
runs from south to north* in the direction of a meridian at most 9
degrees northHeastP but from the %arallel of Arica* the coast and the
t&o $ordilleras east and &est of the Al%ine lake of Titicaca* abru%tl"
change their direction and incline to northH&est' The $ordilleras of
Ancuma and Coquehua* and the longitudinal valle"* or rather the basin
of Titicaca* &hich the" inclose* take a direction north ;7 degrees
&est' /urther on* the t&o branches again unite in the grou% of the
mountains of $uRco* and thence their direction is north I8 degrees
&est' This grou% of &hich the tableHland inclines to the northHeast*
forms a curve* nearl" from east to &est* so that the %art of the Andes
north of $astrovire"na is thro&n back more than 7;7*888 toises
&est&ard' This singular geological %henomenon resembles the variation
of di% of the veins* and es%eciall" of the t&o %arts of the chain of
the P"renees* %arallel to each other* and linked b" an almost
rectangular elbo&* 1L*888 toises long* near the source of the
GaronneP- N- Bet&een the mountain of Tentenade and the Port dGEs%ot'OP
but in the Andes* the axes of the chain* south and north of the curve*
do not %reserve %arallelism' >n the north of $astrovire"na and
Andahua"las Nlatitude 1; degreesO* the direction is north 77 degrees
&est* &hile south of 19 degrees* it is north ;7 degrees &est' The
inflexions of the coast follo& these changes' The shore se%arated from
the $ordillera b" a %lain 19 leagues in breadth* stretches from $ama%o
to Arica* bet&een 73 1M7 and 1I 1M7 degrees latitude north 9 degrees
eastP from Arica to Pisco* bet&een 1I 1M7 and 1; degrees latitude at
first north ;7 degrees &est* after&ards north L9 degrees &estP and
from Pisco to Truxillo* bet&een 1; and I degrees of latitude north 73
degrees &est' The %arallelism bet&een the coast and the $ordillera of
the Andes is a %henomenon the more &orth" of attention* as it occurs
in several %arts of the globe &here the mountains do not in the same
manner form the shore'
After the great knot of mountains of $uRco and Parinacochas* in 1;
degrees south latitude* the Andes %resent a second bifurcation* on the
east and &est of the Rio 6auja* &hich thro&s itself into the Cantaro*
a tributar" stream of the A%urimac' The eastern chain stretches on the
east of Huanta* the convent of >co%a and TarmaP the &estern chain* on
the &est of $astrovire"na* Huancavelica* Huarocheri* and ,auli' The
basin* or rather the loft" tableHland &hich is inclosed b" these
chains* is nearl" half the length of the basin of $hucuito or
Titicaca' T&o mountains covered &ith eternal sno&* seen from the to&n
of =ima* and &hich the inhabitants name Toldo de la @ieve* belong to
the &estern chain* that of Huarocheri'
@orthH&est of the valle"s of 0alcabamba* in the %arallel of the %orts
of Huaura and Guarme"* bet&een 11 and 18 degrees latitude* the t&o
chains unite in the knot of the Huanuco and the Pasco* celebrated for
the mines of ,auricocha or 0anta Rosa' There rise t&o %eaks of
colossal height* the @evados of 0asaguanca and of =a iuda' The
tableHland of this knot of mountains a%%ears in the Pambas de Bombon
to be more than 1I88 toises above the level of the ocean' /rom this
%oint* on the north of the %arallel of Huanuco Nlatitude 11 degreesO*
the Andes are divided into three chains5 the first* and most eastern*
rises bet&een PoRuRu and Cuna* bet&een the Rio Huallaga* and the Rio
Pachitea* a tributar" of the ?ca"aliP the second* or central* is
bet&een the Huallaga* and the ?%%er CaranonP the third* or &estern*
bet&een the ?%%er Caranon and the coast of Truxillo and Pa"ta' The
eastern chain is a small lateral branch &hich lo&ers into a range of
hills5 its direction is first northHnorthHeast* bordering the Pam%as
del 0acramento* after&ards it turns &estHnorthH&est* &here it is
broken b" the Rio Huallaga* in the Pongo* above the confluence of
$hi%urana* and then it loses itself in latitude L 1M; degrees* on the
northH&est of =amas' A transversal ridge seems to connect it &ith the
central chain* south of Paramo de Piscoguanuna Nor PiscuagunaO* &est
of $hacha%o"as' The intermediar" or central chain stretches from the
knot of Pasco and Huanuco* to&ards northHnorthH&est* bet&een Jican and
$hico%la"a* Huacurachuco and the sources of the Rio ConRan* bet&een
PataR and Pajatan* $axamarquilla and Co"obamba' +t &idens greatl" in
the %arallel of $hacha%o"as* and forms a mountainous territor"*
traversed b" dee% and extremel" hot valle"s' >n the north of the
Paramo de Piscoguanuna Nlatitude L degreesO the central chain thro&s
t&o branches in the direction of =a ellaca and 0an Borja' .e shall
soon see that this latter branch forms* belo& the Rio @eva a tributar"
stream of the AmaRon* the rocks that border the famous Pongo de
Canseriche' +n this Rone* &here @orth Peru a%%roximates to the
confines of @e& Grenada in latitude 18 and 9 degrees* no summit of the
eastern and central chains rises as high as the region of %er%etual
sno&P the onl" sno&" summits are in the &estern chain' The central
chain* that of the Paramos de $allacalla* and Piscoguanuna* scarcel"
attains 1I88 toises* and lo&ers gentl" to I88 toisesP so that the
mountainous and tem%erate tract of countr" &hich extends on the north
of $hacha%o"as to&ards Pomacocha* =a ellaca and the source of the Rio
@ieva is rich in fine cinchona trees' After having %assed the Rio
Huallaga and the Pachitea* &hich &ith the Beni forms the ?ca"ali* &e
find* in advancing to&ards the east* onl" ranges of hills' The &estern
chain of the Andes* &hich is the most elevated and nearest to the
coast* runs almost %arallel &ith the shore north 77 degrees &est*
bet&een $axatambo and Huar"* $onchucos and Guamachuco* b" $axamarca*
the Paramo de ,anaguanga* and Contan* to&ards the Rio de Guancabamba'
+t com%rises Nbet&een 2 and 3 1M7 degreesO the three @evados de
Pelagatos* Co"o%ata and Hua"lillas' This last sno&" summit* situated
near Guamachuco Nin 3 degrees 99 minutes latitudeO* is the more
remarkable* since from thence on the north* as far as $himboraRo* on a
length of 1;8 leagues* there is not one mountain that enters the
region of %er%etual sno&' This de%ression* or absence of sno&* extends
in the same interval* over all the lateral chainsP &hile* on the south
of the @evado de Hua"lillas* it al&a"s ha%%ens that &hen one chain is
ver" lo&* the summits of the other exceed the height of 7;L8 toises'
+t &as on the south of Cicui%am%a Nlatitude 3 degrees 1 minuteO that +
found the magnetic equator'
The AmaRon* or as it is customar" to sa" in those regions* the ?%%er
Caranon* flo&s through the &estern %art of the longitudinal valle"
l"ing bet&een the $ordilleras of $hacha%a"as and $axamarca'
$om%rehending in one %oint of vie&* this valle"* and that of the Rio
6auja* bounded b" the $ordilleras of Tarma and Huarocheri* &e are
inclined to consider them as one immense basin 1I8 leagues long* and
crossed in the first third of its length* b" a d"ke* or ridge 1I*888
toises broad' +n fact* the t&o al%ine lakes of =auricocha and
$hincha"cocha* &here the river AmaRon and the Rio de 6auja take their
rise* are situated south and north of this rock" d"ke* &hich is a
%rolongation of the knot of Huanuco and Pasco' The AmaRon* on issuing
from the longitudinal valle" &hich bounds the chains of $axamarca and
$hachacocha* breaks the latter chainP and the %oint &here the great
river %enetrates the mountains* is ver" remarkable' Entering the
AmaRon b" the Rio $hama"a or Guancabamba* + found o%%osite the
confluence* the %icturesque mountain of PatachuanaP but the rocks on
both banks of the AmaRon begin onl" bet&een Tambillo and Tome%enda
Nlatitude 9 degrees !1 minutes* longitude I8 degrees 9L minutesO' /rom
thence to the Pongo de Rentema* a long succession of rocks follo&* of
&hich the last is the Pongo de Ta"ouchouc* bet&een the strait of
Canseriche and the village of 0an Borja' The course of the AmaRon*
&hich is first directed north* then east* changes near Pu"a"a* three
leagues northHeast of Tome%enda' Throughout the &hole distance bet&een
Tambillo and 0an Borja* the &aters force a &a"* more or less narro&*
across the sandstones of the $ordillera of $hacha%o"as' The mountains
are loft" near the Embarcadero* at the confluence of the +masa* &here
large trees of cinchona* &hich might be easil" trans%lanted to
$a"enne* or the $anaries* a%%roach the AmaRon' The rocks in the famous
strait of Canseriche are scarcel" ;8 toises highP and further east&ard
the last hills rise near Jeberos* to&ards the mouth of the Rio
Huallaga'
+ have not "et noticed the extraordinar" &idening of the Andes near
the A%olobamba' The sources of the Rio Beni being found in the s%ur
&hich stretches north&ard be"ond the confluence of that river &ith the
A%urimac* + shall give to the &hole grou% the name of )the s%ur of
Beni') The follo&ing is the most certain information + have obtained
res%ecting those countries* from %ersons &ho had long inhabited
A%olobamba* the Real das Cinas of Pasco* and the convent of >co%a'
Along the &hole eastern chain of Titicaca* from =a PaR to the knot of
Huanuco Nlatitude 13 1M7 to 18 1M7 degreesO a ver" &ide mountainous
land is situated east&ard* at the back of the declivit" of the Andes'
+t is not a &idening of the eastern chain itself* but rather of the
small heights that surround the foot of the Andes like a %enumbra*
filling the &hole s%ace bet&een the Beni and the Pachitca' A chain of
hills bounds the eastern bank of the Beni to latitude I degreesP for
the rivers $oanache and Cagua* tributaries of the ?ca"ali Nflo&ing in
latitude L and 3 degreesO come from a mountainous tract bet&een the
?ca"ali and the 6avari' The existence of this tract in so eastern a
longitude N%robabl" longitude 3; degreesO* is the more remarkable* as
&e find at four degrees of latitude further north* neither a rock nor
a hill on the east of Jeberos* or the mouth of the Huallaga Nlongitude
33 degrees 9L minutesO'
.e have just seen that the s%ur of Beni* a sort of lateral branch*
loses itself about latitude I degreesP the chain bet&een the ?ca"ali
and the Huallaga terminates at the %arallel of 3 degrees* in joining*
on the &est of =amas* the chain of $hacha%a"as* stretching bet&een the
Huallaga and the AmaRon' /inall"* the latter chain* to &hich + have
given the designation of central* after forming the ra%ids and
cataracts of the AmaRon* bet&een Tome%enda and 0an Borja* turns to
northHnorthH&est* and joins the &estern chain* that of $axamarca* or
the @evados of Pelagatos and Hua"lillas* and forms the great knot of
the mountains of =oxa' The mean height of this knot is onl" from 1888
to 1788 toises5 its mild climate renders it %eculiarl" favourable to
the gro&th of the cinchona trees* the finest kinds of &hich are found
in the celebrated forest of $axanuma and ?ritusinga* bet&een the Rio
Samora and the $achi"acu* and bet&een Tavacona and Guancabamba' Before
the cinchona of Po%a"an and 0anta /e de Bogota Nnorth latitude 7 1M7
to 9 degreesO* of Huacarachuco* Huamalies and Huanuco Nsouth latitude
2 to 11 degreesO became kno&n* the grou% of the mountains of =oxa had
for ages been regarded as the sole region &hence the febrifuge bark of
cinchona could be obtained' This grou% occu%ies the vast territor"
bet&een Guancabamba* Ava"aca* >na and the ruined to&ns of Samora and
=o"ola* bet&een latitude 9 1M7 and ! 1M; degrees' 0ome of the summits
Nthe Paramos of Al%achaca* 0araguru* 0avanilla* Gueringa* $hulucanas*
Guamani* and ,amoca* &hich + measuredO rise from 19I8 to 1378 toises*
but are not even s%oradicall" covered &ith sno&* &hich in this
latitude falls onl" above 1IL8 to 1288 toises of absolute height'
East&ard* in the direction of the Rio 0antiago and the Rio de $hama"a*
t&o tributar" streams of the AmaRon* the mountains lo&er ra%idl"5
bet&een 0an /eli%e* Catara* and 6aen de Bracamoros* the" are not more
than 988 or !88 toises'
As &e advance from the micaHslate mountain of =oxa to&ards the north*
bet&een the Paramos of Al%achaca and 0ara Nin latitude ! degrees 19
minutesO the knot of mountains ramifies into t&o branches &hich
com%rehend the longitudinal valle" of $uenca' This se%aration
continues for a length of onl" 17 leaguesP for in latitude 7 degrees
73 minutes the t&o $ordilleras again reHunite in the knot of Assu"* a
trach"tic grou%* of &hich the tableHland near $adlud N7;7I toises
highO nearl" enters the region of %er%etual sno&'
The grou% of the mountains of Assu"* &hich affords a ver" frequented
%ass of the Andes bet&een $uenca and Buito Nlatitude 7 1M7 to 8
degrees ;8 minutes southO is succeeded b" another division of the
$ordilleras* celebrated b" the labours of Bouguer and =a $ondamine*
&ho %laced their signals sometimes on one* sometimes on the other of
the t&o chains' The eastern chain is that of $himboraRo N!!98 toisesO
and $arguairaRoP the &estern is the chain of the volcano 0anga"* the
$ollanes* and of =langanate' The latter is broken b" the Rio PastaRa'
The bottom of the longitudinal basin that bounds those t&o chains*
from Alausi to =lactacunga* is some&hat higher than the bottom of the
basin of $uenca' @orth of =lactacanga* 8 degrees ;8 minutes latitude*
bet&een the to%s of ,liniRa N7313 toisesO and $oto%axi N7298 toisesO*
of &hich the former belongs to the chain of $himboraRo* and the latter
to that of 0anga"* is situated the knot of $hisincheP a kind of narro&
d"ke that closes the basin* and divides the &aters bet&een the
Atlantic and the Pacific' The Alto de $hisinche is onl" I8 toises
above the surrounding tableHlands' The &aters of its northern
declivit" form the Rio de 0an Pedro* &hich* joining the Rio Pita*
thro&s itself into the Gualabamba* or Rio de las Esmeraldas' The
&aters of the southern declivit"* called $erro de Tio%ullo* run into
the Rio 0an /eli%e and the PastaRa* a tributar" stream of the AmaRon'
The bi%artition of the $ordilleras reHcommences and continues from 8
degrees ;8 minutes latitude south to 8 degrees 78 minutes latitude
northP that is* as far as the volcano of +mbabura near the villa of
+barra' The eastern $ordillera %resents the sno&" summits of Antisana
N7227 toisesO* of Guamani* $a"ambe N!838 toisesO and of +mbaburaP the
&estern $ordillera* those of $oraRon* AtacaRo* Pichinca N7;21 toisesO
and $atocache N7938 toisesO' Bet&een these t&o chains* &hich ma" be
regarded as the classic soil of the astronom" of the 1Ith centur"* is
a valle"* %art of &hich is again divided longitudinall" b" the hills
of +chimbio and Poignasi' The tableHlands of Puembo and $hillo are
situated east&ard of those hillsP and those of Buito* +naquito and
Turubamba lie &est&ard' The equator crosses the summit of the @evado
de $a"ambe and the valle" of Buito* in the village of 0an Antonio de
=ulumbamba' .hen &e consider the small mass of the knot of Assu"* and
above all* of that of $hisinche* &e are inclined to regard the three
basins of $uenca* Hambato and Buito as one valle" Nfrom the Paramo de
0arar to the illa de +barraO 3! sea leagues long* from ; to 9 leagues
broad* having a general direction north I degrees east* and divided b"
t&o transverse d"kes one bet&een Alausi and $uenca N7 degrees 73
minutes south latitudeO* and the other bet&een Cachache and Tambilbo
N8 degrees ;8 minutesO' @o&here in the $ordillera of the Andes are
there more colossal mountains hea%ed together than on the east and
&est of this vast basin of the %rovince of Buito* one degree and a
half south* and a quarter of a degree north of the equator' This basin
&hich* next to the basin of Titicaca* is the centre of the most
ancient native civiliRation* touches* south&ard* the knot of the
mountains of =oxa* and north&ard the tableland of the %rovince of =os
Pastos'
+n this %rovince* a little be"ond the villa of +barra* bet&een the
sno&" summits of $otocache and +mbabura* the t&o $ordilleras of Buito
unite* and form one mass* extending to Ceneses and oisaco* from 8
degrees 71 minutes north latitude to 1 degree 1! minutes' + call this
mass* on &hich are situated the volcanoes of $umbal and $hiles* the
knot of the mountains of =os Pastos* from the name of the %rovince
that forms the centre' The volcano of Pasto* the last eru%tion of
&hich took %lace in the "ear 1373* is on the south of ,enoi* near the
northern limit of this grou%* of &hich the inhabited tableHlands are
more than 1L88 toises above seaHlevel' +t is the Thibet of the
equinoctial regions of the @e& .orld'
>n the north of the to&n of Pasto Nlatitude 1 degree 1! minutes northP
longitude 32 degrees ;1 minutesO the Andes again divide into t&o
branches and surround the tableHland of Camendo" and Almaguer' The
eastern $ordillera contains the 0ienega of 0ebondo" Nan al%ine lake
&hich gives birth to the Putuma"oO* the sources of the 6u%ura or
$aqueta* and the Paramos of A%onte and +scanse' The &estern
$ordillera* that of Camacond"* called in the countr" $ordillera de la
$osta* on account of its %roximit" to the shore of the Pacific* is
broken b" the great Rio de Patias* &hich receives the Guativa* the
Guachicon and the Builquase' The tableHland or intermediar" basin has
great inequalitiesP it is %artl" filled b" the Paramos of Pitatumba
and Paragua"* and the se%aration of the t&o chains a%%eared to me
indistinct as far as the %arallel of Almaguer Nlatitude 1 degree 9;
minutesP longitude 32 degrees 19 minutesO' The general direction of
the Andes* from the extremit" of the basin of the %rovince of Buito to
the vicinit" of Po%a"an* changes from north I degrees east to north !L
degrees eastP and follo&s the direction of the coast of Esmeralda and
Barbacoas'
>n the %arallel of Almaguer* or rather a little northHeast of that
to&n* the geological structure of the ground dis%la"s ver" remarkable
changes' The $ordillera* to &hich &e have given the name of eastern*
that of the lake of 0ebondo"* &idens considerabl" bet&een Pansitara
and $eja' The knot of the Paramo de las Pa%as and of 0ocoboni gives
birth to the great rivers of $auca and Cagdalena* and is divided into
t&o chains* latitude 7 degrees 9 minutes east and &est of =a Plata*
ieja and Timana' These t&o chains continue nearl" %arallel as far as
9 degrees of latitude* and the" bound the longitudinal valle" through
&hich &inds the Rio Cagdalena' .e shall give the name of the eastern
$ordillera of @e& Grenada to that chain &hich stretches to&ards 0anta
/e de Bogota* and the 0ierra @evada de Cerida* east of CagdalenaP the
chain &hich lies bet&een the Cagdalena and the $auca* in the direction
of Cariquita* &e &ill call the central $ordillera of @e& GrenadaP and
the chain &hich continues the $ordillera de la $osta from the basin of
Almaguer* and se%arates the bed of the Rio $auca from the
%latiniferous territor" of $hoco* &e &ill designate the &estern
$ordillera of @e& Grenada' /or additional clearness* &e ma" also name
the chain* that of 0uma PaR* after the colossal grou% of mountains on
the south of 0anta /e de Bogota* &hich em%ties the &aters of its
eastern declivit" into the Rio Ceta' The second chain ma" bear the
name of the chain of Guanacas or Buindiu* after the t&o celebrated
%assages of the Andes* on the road from 0anta /e de Bogota to Po%a"an'
The third chain ma" be called the chain of $hoco* or of the shore'
0ome leagues south of Po%a"an Nlatitude 7 degrees 71 minutes northO*
&est of Paramo de Palitara and the volcano of Purace* a ridge of
micaHslate runs from the knot of the mountains of 0acoboni to
northH&est* and divides the &aters bet&een the Pacific and the
$aribbean 0eaP the" flo& from the northern declivit" into the Rio
$auca* and from the southern declivit"* into the Rio de Patias'
The tri%artition of the Andes Nnorth latitude 1 !M; to 7 1M; degreesO
resembles that &hich takes %lace at the source of the AmaRon in the
knot of the mountains of Huanuco and Pasco Nlatitude 11 degrees
southOP but the most &estern of the three chains that bound the basins
of the AmaRon and the Huallaga* is the loftiestP &hile that of $hoco*
or the shore* is the least elevated of the three chains of @e&
Grenada' +gnorance of this tri%artition of the Andes in that %art of
0outh America near the Rio Atrato and the isthmus of Panama* has led
to man" erroneous o%inions res%ecting the %ossibilit" of a canal that
should connect the t&o seas'
The eastern chain of the Andes of @e& Grenada- %reserves its
%arallelism during some time &ith the t&o other chains* those of
Buindiu and $hocoP but be"ond Tunja Nlatitude 9 1M7 degreesO it
inclines more to&ards the northHeast* %assing some&hat abru%tl" from
the direction north 79 degrees east to that of north ;9 degrees east'
N- + em%lo" a s"stematic denomination* for the name of the Andes is
unkno&n in the countries situated north of the equator'O +t is like a
vein that changes its directionP and it rejoins the coast after being
greatl" enlarged b" the grou%ing of the sno&" mountains of Cerida' The
tri%artition of the $ordilleras* and above all* the s%reading of their
branches* have a vast influence on the %ros%erit" of the nations of
@e& Grenada' The diversit" of the su%er%osed tableHlands and climates
varies the agricultural %roductions as &ell as the character of the
inhabitants' +t gives activit" to the exchange of %roductions* and
rene&s over a vast surface* north of the equator* the %icture of the
sultr" valle"s and cool and tem%erate %lains of Peru' +t is also
&orth" of remark that* b" the se%aration of one of the branches of the
$ordilleras of $undinamarca and b" the deviation of the chain of
Bogota to&ards the northHeast* the colossal grou% of the mountains of
Cerida is enclosed in the territor" of the ancient $a%itaniaHgeneral
of eneRuela* and that the continuit" of the same mountainous land
from Pam%lona to Barquisimeto and @irgua ma" be said to have
facilitated the %olitical union of the $olumbian territor"' As long as
the central chain Nthat of BuindiuO %resents its sno&" summits* no
%eak of the eastern chain Nthat of =a 0uma PaRO rises* in the same
%arallels* to the limit of %er%etual sno&' Bet&een latitude 7 and 9
1M7 degrees neither the Paramos situated on the east of Gigante and
@eiva* nor the to%s of =a 0uma PaR* $hingasa* Guachaneque* and Soraca*
exceed the height of 1288 to 7888 toisesP &hile on the north of the
%arallel of Paramo dGErve Nlatitude 9 degrees 9 minutesO* the last of
the @evados of the central $ordillera* &e discover in the eastern
chain the sno&" summits of $hita Nlatitude 9 degrees 98 minutesO* and
of Cucuchies Nlatitude I degrees 17 minutesO' Hence it results that
from latitude 9 degrees the onl" mountains covered &ith sno& during
the &hole "ear are the $ordilleras of the eastP and although the
0ierra @evada of 0anta Carta is not* %ro%erl" s%eaking* a continuation
of the @evados of $hita and Cucuchies N&est of Patute and east of
CeridaO* it is at least ver" near their meridian'
Having no& arrived at the northern extremit" of the $ordilleras*
com%rehended bet&een $a%e Horn and the isthmus of Panama* &e shall
%roceed to notice the loftiest summits of the three chains &hich
se%arate in the knot of the mountains of 0ocoboni* and the ridge of
Roble Nlatitude 1 degree 98 minutes to 7 degrees 78 minutesO' + begin
&ith the most eastern chain* that of Timana and 0uma PaR* &hich
divides the tributar" streams of the Cagdalena and the Ceta5 it runs
b" the Paramos de $hingasu* Guachaneque* Soraca* Toquillo Nnear
=abranRa GrandeO* $hita* Almorsadero* =aura* $acota* Sumbador and
Porqueras* in the direction of the 0ierra @evada de Cerida' These
Paramos indicate ten %artial risings of the back of the $ordilleras'
The declivit" of the eastern chain is extremel" ra%id on the eastern
side* &here it bounds the basin of the Ceta and the >rinocoP it is
&idened on the &est b" the s%urs on &hich are situated the to&ns of
0anta /e de Bogota* Tunja* 0ogamoso and =eiva' The" are like
tablelands fixed to the &estern declivit"* and are from 1!88 to 1;88
toises highP that of Bogota Nthe bottom of an ancient lakeO contains
fossil bones of the mastodon* in the %lain called Nfrom themO the
$am%o de Gigantes* near 0uacha'
The intermediar"* or central chain* runs east of Po%a"an* b" the high
%lains of Cabasa* the Paramos of Guanacas* Huila* 0avelillo* +raca*
Baraguan* Tolima* RuiR and Herveo* to&ards the %rovince of Antioquia'
+n 9 degrees 19 minutes of latitude this chain* the onl" one that
sho&s traces of recent volcanic fire* in the summits of 0otara and
Purace* &idens considerabl" to&ards the &est* and joins the &estern
chain* &hich &e have called the chain of $hoco* because the
%latiniferous land of that %rovince lies on the slo%e o%%osite the
Pacific ocean' B" the union of the t&o chains* the basin of the
%rovince of Po%a"an is close on the north of $artago iejoP and the
river of $auca* issuing from the %lain of Buga* is forced* from the
0alto de 0an Antonio* to =a Boca del Es%iritu 0anto* to o%en its &a"
across the mountains* along a course of from ;8 to 98 leagues' The
difference of the level is ver" remarkable in the bottom of the t&o
%arallel basins of $auca and Cagdalena' The former* bet&een $ali and
$antago* is from 988 to ;8; toisesP the latter* from @eiva to
Ambalema* is from 7L9 to 198 toises high' According to different
geological h"%otheses* it ma" be said either that the secondar"
formations have not accumulated to the same thickness bet&een the
eastern and central* as bet&een the central and &estern chainsP or*
that the de%osits have been made on the base of %rimitive rocks*
unequall" u%heaved on the east and &est of the Andes of Buindiu' The
average difference of the thickness of these formations is !88 toises'
The rock" ridge of the Angostura of $arare branches from the
southHeast* from the s%ur of CuRo* through &hich &inds the Rio @egro'
B" this s%ur* and b" those that come from the &est* the eastern and
central chains a%%roach bet&een @ares* Honda* and Cendales' +n fact*
the bed of the Rio Cagdalena is narro&ed in 9 and 9 degrees 1I
minutes* on the east b" the mountains of 0ergento* and on the &est b"
the s%urs that are linked &ith the granitic mountains of Caraquito and
0anta Ana' This narro&ing of the bed of the river is in the same
%arallel &ith that of the $auca* near the 0alto de 0an AntonioP but*
in the knot of the mountains of Antioquia the central and &estern
chains join each other* &hile bet&een Honda and Cendales* the to%s of
the central and eastern chains are so far removed that it is onl" the
s%urs of each s"stem that dra& near and are confounded together' +t is
also &orth" of remark that the central $ordillera of @e& Grenada
dis%la"s the loftiest summit of the Andes in the northern hemis%here'
The %eak of Tolima Nlatitude ; degrees ;L minutesO &hich is almost
unkno&n even b" name in Euro%e* and &hich + measured in 1I81* is at
least 7IL9 toises high' +t consequentl" sur%asses +mbabura and
$otocache in the %rovince of Buito* the $hiles of the tableHlands of
=os Pastos* the t&o volcanoes of Po%a"an and even the @evados of
Cexico and Count 0aint Elias of Russian America' The %eak of Tolima*
&hich in form resembles $ota%axi* is %erha%s inferior in height onl"
to the ridge of the 0ierra @evada de 0anta Carta* &hich ma" be
considered as an insulated s"stem of mountains'
The eastern chain* also called the chain of $hoco and the east coast
Nof the PacificO* se%arates the %rovinces of Po%a"an and Antioquia
from those of Barbacoas* Ra%oso and $hoco' +t is in general but little
elevated* com%ared to the height of the central and eastern chainsP it
ho&ever %resents great obstacles to the communications bet&een the
valle" of $auca and the shore' >n its &estern slo%e lies the famous
auriferous and %latiniferous land*- &hich has during ages "ielded more
than 1!*888 marks of gold annuall"' N- $hoco* Barbacoas and BraRil are
the onl" countries in &hich the existence of grains of %latinum and
%alladium has hitherto been full" ascertained' The small to&n of
Barbacoas is situated on the left bank of the Rio Telembi Na tributar"
of Patias or the Rio del $astigoO a little above the confluence of
Telembi and the Guagi or Guaxi* nearl" in latitude 1 degree ;I
minutes' The ancient Provincia* or rather the Partido del Ra%oso*
com%rehends the insalubrious land extending from the Rio (agua* or 0an
Buenaventura* to the Rio +scuande* the southern limit of $hoco'O This
alluvial Rone is from ten to t&elve leagues broadP its maximum of
%roductiveness lies bet&een the %arallels of 7 and L degrees latitudeP
it sensibl" im%overishes to&ards the north and south* and almost
entirel" disa%%ears bet&een 1 1M; degree north latitude and the
equator' The auriferous soil fills the basin of $auca* as &ell as the
ravines and %lains &est of the $ordillera of $hocoP it rises sometimes
nearl" L88 toises above the level of the sea* and descends at least ;8
toises'- N- C' $aldas assigns to the u%%er limit of the Rone of
goldH&ashings* onl" the height of !98 toises' 0emanario tome 1 %age
1IP but + found the 0eraderos:T< of Builichao* on the north of
Po%a"an* to be 9L9 toises high'O Platinum Nand this fact is &orth" of
attentionO has hitherto been found onl" on the &est of the $ordillera
of $hoco* and not on the east* not&ithstanding the analog" of the
fragments of rocks of greenstone* %honolite* trach"te* and ferruginous
quartR* of &hich the soil of the t&o slo%es is com%osed' /rom the
ridge of =os Robles* &hich se%arates the tableHland of Almaguer from
the basin of $auca* the &estern chain forms* first* in the $erros de
$ar%interia* east of the Rio 0an 6uan de Cica"* the continuation of
the $ordillera of 0indagua* broken b" the Rio PatiasP then* lo&ering
north&ard* bet&een $ali and =as 6untas de (agua* and at the elevation
of I88 to 288 toises* it sends out considerable s%urs Nlatitude ; 1M;
to 9 degreesO to&ards the source of the $alima* the Tamana and the
Andagueda' The t&o former of these auriferous rivers are tributar"
streams of the Rio 0an 6uan del $hocoP the second em%ties its &aters
into the Atrato' This &idening of the &estern chain forms the
mountainous %art of $hoco5 here* bet&een the Tado and Sitara* called
also /rancisco de Buibdo* lies the isthmus of Ras%adura* across &hich
a monk traced a navigable line of communication bet&een the t&o
oceans' The culminant %oint of this s"stem of mountains a%%ears to be
the Peak of Torra* situated southHeast of @ovita'
The northern extremit" of this enlargement of the $ordillera of $hoco*
&hich + have just described* corres%onds &ith the junction formed on
the east* bet&een the same $ordillera and the central chain* that of
Buindiu' The mountains of Antioquia* on &hich &e have the excellent
observations of Cr' Restre%o* ma" be called a knot of mountains* and
on the northern limit of the %lains of Buga* or the basin of $auca*
the" join the central and &estern chains' The ridge of the eastern
$ordillera is at the distance of thirt"Hfive leagues from this knot*
so that the contraction of the bed of the Rio Cagdalena* bet&een Honda
and Ambalema* is caused onl" b" the a%%roximation of the s%urs of
Cariquita and Guaduas' There is not* therefore* %ro%erl" s%eaking* a
grou% of mountains bet&een latitude 9 and 9 1M; degrees* uniting the
three chains at once' +n the grou% of the %rovince of Antioquia* &hich
forms the junction of the central and &estern $ordilleras* &e ma"
distinguish t&o great massesP one bet&een the Cagdalena and the $auca*
and the other bet&een the $auca and the Atrato' The first of these
masses* &hich is linked most immediatel" to the sno&" summits of
Herveo* gives birth on the east to the Rio de la Ciel and the @areP
and on the north to Porce and @echiP its average height is onl" from
1788 to 1!98 toises' The culminant %oint a%%ears to be near 0anta
Rosa* southH&est of the celebrated alle" of Bears Nalle de >sosO'
The to&ns of Rio @egro and Carinilla are built on tableHlands 18L8
toises high' The &estern mass of the knot of the mountains of
Antioquia* bet&een the $auca and the Atrato* gives rise* on its
&estern descent* to the Rio 0an 6uan* Bevara* and Curri' +t attains
its greatest height in the Alto del iento* north of ?rrao* kno&n to
the first conquistadores b" the name of the $ordilleras of Abide or
(abeida' This height Nlatitude 3 degrees 19 minutesO does not*
ho&ever* exceed 1988 toises' /ollo&ing the &estern slo%e of this
s"stem of mountains of Antioquia* &e find that the %oint of %artition
of the &aters that flo& to&ards the Pacific and the $aribbean 0ea
Nlatitude 9 1M7 and L degrees O nearl" corres%onds &ith the %arallel
of the isthmus of Ras%adura* bet&een the Rio 0an 6uan and the Atrato'
+t is remarkable that in this grou%* more than !8 leagues broad*
&ithout shar% summits* bet&een latitude 9 1M; and 3 degrees* the
highest masses rise to&ards the &estP &hile* further south* before the
union of the t&o chains of Buindiu and $hoco* &e sa& them on the east
of $auca'
The ramifications of the knot of Antioquia* on the north of the
%arallel 3 degrees* are ver" im%erfectl" kno&nP it is observed onl"
that their lo&ering is in general more ra%id and com%lete to&ards the
northH&est* in the direction of the ancient %rovince of Biruquete and
(arien* than to&ards the north and northHeast* on the side of SaragoRa
and 0imiti' /rom the northern bank of the Rio @are* near its
confluence &ith the 0amana* a s%ur stretches out* kno&n b" the name of
=a 0imitarra* and the Countains of 0an =ucar' .e ma" call it the first
branch of the grou% of Antioquia' + sa& it* in going u% the Rio
Cagdalena* on the &est* from the Regidor and the mouth of the Rio
0imiti* as far as 0an Bartolome Non the south of the mouth of the Rio
0ogamoRoOP &hile* east&ard* in latitude 3 !M; and I 1M; degrees* the
s%ur of the mountains of >cana a%%ear in the distanceP the" are
inhabited b" some tribes of Colitone +ndians' The second branch of the
grou% of Antioquia N&est of 0amitarraO commences at the mountains of
0anta Rosa* stretches out bet&een SaragoRa and $aceres* and terminates
abru%tl" at the confluence of the Rio @echi Nlatitude I degrees !!
minutesO5 at least if the hills* often conical* bet&een the mouth of
the Rio 0inu and the small to&n of Tolu* or even the calcareous
heights of Turbaco and Po%a* near $arthagena* ma" not be regarded as
the most northern %rolongation of this second branch' A third advances
to&ards the gulf of ?raba or (arien* bet&een the Rio 0an 6orge and the
Atrato' +t is linked south&ard &ith the Alto del iento* or 0ierra de
Abide* and is ra%idl" lost* advancing as far as the %arallel of I
degrees' /inall"* the fourth branch of the Andes of Antioquia*
situated &est&ard of Sitara and the Rio Atrato* undergoes* long before
it enters the isthmus of Panama* such a de%ression* that bet&een the
Gulf of $u%ica and the embarcadero of the Rio @ai%i%i* &e find onl" a
%lain across &hich C' Gogueneche has %rojected a canal for the
junction of the t&o seas' +t &ould be interesting to kno& the
configuration of the strata bet&een $a%e Garachine* or the Gulf of 0t'
Ciguel* and $a%e Tiburon* es%eciall" to&ards the source of the Rio
Tu"ra and $hucunaque or $hucunque* so as to determine &ith %recision
&here the mountains of the isthmus of Panama begin to riseP mountains
&hose elevation does not a%%ear to be more than 188 toises' The
interior of (arfur is not more unkno&n to geogra%hers than the humid*
insalubrious forestHland &hich extends on the northH&est of Betoi and
the confluence of the Bevara &ith the Atrato* to&ards the isthmus of
Panama' All that &e %ositivel" kno& of it hitherto is that bet&een
$u%ica and the left bank of the Atrato there is either a landHstrait*
or a total absence of the $ordillera' The mountains of the isthmus of
Panama* b" their direction and their geogra%hical %osition* ma" be
considered as a continuation of the mountains of Antioquia and $hocoP
but on the &est of BasHAtrato* there is scarcel" a ridge in the %lain'
.e do not find in this countr" a grou% of inter%osed mountains like
that &hich links Nbet&een Barquisimeto* @irgua and alenciaO the
eastern chain of @e& Grenada Nthat of 0uma PaR and the 0ierra @evada
de CeridaO to the $ordillera of the shore of eneRuela'
The $ordillera of the Andes* considered in its &hole extent* from the
rock" &all of the island of (iego RamireR to the isthmus of Panama* is
sometimes ramified into chains more or less %arallel* and sometimes
articulated b" immense knots of mountains' .e distinguish nine of
those knots* and consequentl" an equal number of branchingH%oints and
ramifications' The latter are generall" bifurcations' The Andes are
t&ice onl" divided into three chainsP in the knot of Huanuco* near the
source of the AmaRon* and the Huallaga Nlatitude 18 to 11 degreesO and
in the knot of the Paramo de las Pa%as Nlatitude 7 degreesO* near the
source of the Cagdalena and the $auca' Basins* almost shut in at their
extremities* %arallel &ith the axis of the $ordillera and bounded b"
t&o knots and t&o lateral chains* are characteristic features of the
structure of the Andes' Among these knots of mountains some* for
instance those of $uRco* =oxa and =os Pastos* com%rise !!88* 1988 and
11!8 square leagues* &hile others no less im%ortant in the e"e of the
geologist are confined to ridges or transversal d"kes' To the latter
belong the Altos de $hisinche Nlatitude 8 degrees ;8 minutes southO
and the =os Robles Nlatitude 7 degrees 78 minutes northO* on the south
of Buito and Po%a"an' The knot of $uRco* so celebrated in the annals
of Peruvian civiliRation* %resents an average height of from 1788 to
1;88 toises* and a surface nearl" three times greater than the &hole
of 0&itRerland' The ridge of $hisinche* &hich se%arates the basins of
Tacunga and Buito* is 19I8 toises high* but scarcel" a mile broad' The
knots or grou%s &hich unite several %artial chains have not the
highest summits* either in the Andes or* for the most %art* in the
great mountain ranges of the old continentP it is not even certain
that there is al&a"s in those knots a &idening of the chain' The
greatness of the mass* and the height so long attributed to %oints
&hence several considerable branches issue* &as founded either on
theoretic ideas or on false measures' The $ordilleras &ere com%ared to
rivers that s&ell as the" receive a number of tributar" streams'
Among the basins &hich the Andes %resent* and &hich form %robabl" as
man" lakes or small inland seas* those of Titicaca* Rio 6auja and the
?%%er Caranon* com%rise res%ectivel" !988* 1!88* and 7;88 square
leagues of surface'- N- + here subjoin some measures interesting to
geologists' Area of the Andes* from Tierra del /uego to the Paramo de
las Rosas Nlatitude 2 1M; degrees northO* &here the mountainous land
of Tocu"o and Barquesimeto begins* %art of the $ordillera of the shore
of eneRuela* 9I*288 square leagues* N78 to a degreeO the four s%urs
of $ordova* 0alta* $ochabamba and Beni alone* occu%" 7!*!88 square
leagues of this surface* and the three basins contained bet&een
latitude L and 78 degrees south measure 3788 square leagues' (educting
!!*788 square leagues for the &hole of the enclosed basins and s%urs*
&e find* in latitude L9 degrees* the area of the $ordilleras elevated
in the form of &alls* to be 79*388 square leagues* &hence results
Ncom%rehending the knots* and allo&ing for the inflexion of the
chainsO an average breadth of the Andes of 1I to 78 leagues' The
valle"s of Huallaga and the Rio Cagdalena are not com%rehended in
these 9I*288 square leagues* on account of the diverging direction of
the chain* east of $i%o%la"a and 0anta /e de Bogota'O The first is so
encom%assed that no dro% of &ater can esca%e exce%t b" eva%orationP it
is like the enclosed valle" of Cexico*- N- .e consider it in its
%rimitive state* &ithout res%ect to the ga% or cleft of the mountains*
kno&n b" the name of (esaghue de Huehuetoca'O and of those numerous
circular basins &hich have been discerned in the moon* and &hich are
surrounded b" loft" mountains' An immense al%ine lake characteriRes
the basin of Tiahuanaco or TiticacaP this %henomenon is the more
&orth" of attention* as in 0outh America there are scarcel" an" of
those reservoirs of fresh &ater &hich are found at the foot of the
Euro%ean Al%s* on the northern and southern slo%es* and &hich are
%ermanent during the season of drought' The other basins of the Andes*
for instance* those of 6auja* the ?%%er Caranon and $auca* %our their
&aters into natural canals* &hich ma" be considered as so man"
crevices situated either at one of the extremities of the basin* or on
its banks* nearl" in the middle of the lateral chain' + d&ell on this
articulated form of the Andes* on those knots or transverse ridges*
because* in the continuation of the Andes called the $ordilleras of
the shore of eneRuela* &e shall find the same transverse d"kes* and
the same %henomena'
The ramification of the Andes and of all the great masses of mountains
into several chains merits %articular consideration in reference to
the height more or less considerable of the bottom of the enclosed
basins* or longitudinal valle"s' Geologists have hitherto directed
more attention to the successive narro&ing of these basins* their
de%th com%ared &ith the &alls of rock that surround them* and the
corres%ondence bet&een the reHentering and the salient angles* than to
the level of the bottom of the valle"s' @o %recise measure has "et
fixed the absolute height of the three basins of Titicaca* 6auja and
the ?%%er CaranonP- N- + am inclined to believe that the southern %art
of the basin of the ?%%er Caranon* bet&een Huar" and Huacarachuco*
exceeds !98 toises'O but + &as fortunate enough to be able to
determine the six other basins* or longitudinal valle"s* &hich succeed
each other* as if b" ste%s* to&ards the north' The bottom of the
valle" of $uenca* bet&een the knots of =oxa and Assua"* is 1!98
toisesP the valle" of Allansi and of Hambato* bet&een the knot of the
Assua" and the ridge of $hisinche* 1!78 toisesP the valle" of Buito in
the eastern %art* 1!;8 toises* and in the &estern %art* 1;28 toisesP
the basin of Almaguer* 11L8 toisesP the basin of the Rio $auca*
bet&een the loft" %lains of $ali* Buga* and $artago* 988 toisesP the
valle" of Cagdalena* first bet&een @eiva and Honda* 788 toisesP and
further on* bet&een Honda and Com%ox* 188 toises of average height
above the level of the sea'- N- +n the region of the Andes
com%rehended bet&een ; degrees of south latitude and 7 degrees of
north* the longitudinal valle"s or basins inclosed b" %arallel chains
are regularl" bet&een 1788 and 1988 toises highP &hile the transversal
valle"s are remarkable for their de%ression* or rather the ra%id
lo&ering of their bottom' The valle" of Patias* for instance* running
from northHeast to southH&est is onl" !98 toises of absolute height*
even above the junction of the Rio Guachion &ith the Builquasi*
according to the barometric measures of C' $aldasP and "et it is
surrounded b" the highest summits* the Paramos de Puntaurcu and
Camacond"' Going from the %lains of =ombard"* and %enetrating into the
Al%s of the T"rol* b" a line %er%endicular to the axis of the chain*
&e advance more than 78 marine leagues to&ards the north* "et &e find
the bottom of the valle" of the Adige and of E"sack near BotRen* to be
onl" 1I7 toises of absolute height* an elevation &hich exceeds but 113
toises that of Cilan' /rom BotRen ho&ever* to the ridge of Brenner
Nculminant %oint 3;L toisesO is onl" 11 leagues' The alais is a
longitudinal valle"P and in a barometric measurement &hich + made ver"
recentl" from Paris to @a%les and Berlin* + &as sur%rised to find that
from 0ion to Brigg* the bottom of the valle" rises onl" to from 779 to
!98 toises of absolute heightP nearl" the level of the %lains of
0&itRerland* &hich* bet&een the Al%s and the 6ura* are onl" from 73;
to !88 toises'O +n this region* &hich has been carefull" measured* the
different basins lo&er ver" sensibl" from the equator north&ard' The
elevation of the bottom of enclosed basins merits great attention in
connection &ith the causes of the formation of the valle"s' + do not
den" that the de%ressions in the %lains ma" be sometimes the effect of
ancient %elagic currents* or slo& erosions' + am inclined to believe
that the transversal valle"s* resembling crevices* have been &idened
b" running &atersP but these h"%otheses of successive erosions cannot
&ell be a%%lied to the com%letel" enclosed basins of Titicaca and
Cexico' These basins* as &ell as those of 6auja* $uenca and Almaguer*
&hich lose their &aters onl" b" a lateral and narro& issue* o&e their
origin to a cause more instantaneous* more closel" linked &ith the
u%heaving of the &hole chain' +t ma" be said that the %henomenon of
the narro& declivities of the 0arenthal and of the valle" of E"sack in
the T"rol* is re%eated at ever" ste%* and on a grander scale* in the
$ordilleras of equinoctial America' .e seem to recogniRe in the
$ordilleras those longitudinal sinkings* those rock" vaults* &hich* to
use the ex%ression of a great geologist*- )are broken &hen extended
over a great s%ace* and leave dee% and almost %er%endicular rents') N-
on Buch* Tableau du T"rol meridional %age I 1I7!'O
+f* to com%lete the sketch of the structure of the Andes from Tierra
del /uego to the northern Polar 0ea* &e %ass the boundaries of 0outh
America* &e find that the &estern $ordillera of @e& Grenada* after a
great de%ression bet&een the mouth of the Atrato and the gulf of
$u%ica* again rises in the isthmus of Panama to I8 or 188 toises high*
augmenting to&ards the &est* in the $ordilleras of eragua and
0alamanca*- and extending b" Guatimala as far as the confines of
Cexico' N- +f it be true* as some navigators affirm* that the
mountains at the northH&estern extremit" of the re%ublic of $olumbia*
kno&n b" the names of 0illa de eragua* and $astillo del $hoco* be
visible at !L leagues distance* the elevation of their summits must be
nearl" 1;88 toises* little lo&er than the 0illa of $aracas'O .ithin
this s%ace it extends along the coast of the Pacific &here* from the
gulf of @ico"a to 0oconusco Nlatitude 2 1M7 to 1L degreesO is found a
long series of volcanoes*- most frequentl" insulated* and sometimes
linked to s%urs or lateral branches' N- 0ee the list of t&ent"Hone
volcanoes of Guatimala* %artl" extinct and %artl" still burning* given
b" Arago and m"self* in the Annuaire du Bureau des =ongitudes %our
1I7; %age 139' @o mountain of Guatimala having been hitherto measured*
it is the more im%ortant to fix a%%roximatel" the height of the olcan
de Agua* or the olcano of Paca"a* and the olcan de /uego* called
also olcano of Guatimala' Cr' 6uarros ex%ressl" sa"s that this
volcano &hich* b" torrents of &ater and stones* destro"ed* on the 11th
0e%tember* 19;1* the $iudad ieja* or Almolonga Nthe ancient ca%ital
of the countr"* &hich must not be confounded &ith the ancient
GuatimalaO* is covered &ith sno&* during several months of the "ear'
This %henomenon &ould seem to indicate a height of more than 1398
toises'O Passing the isthmus of Tehuante%ecor Huasacualco* on the
Cexican territor"* the $ordillera of central America extends on to&ard
the intendancia of >axaca* at an equal distance from the t&o oceansP
then from 1I 1M7 to 71 degrees latitude* from Cisteca to the mines of
Sima%an* it a%%roximates to the eastern coast' @earl" in the %arallel
of the cit" of Cexico* bet&een Toluca* Jala%a and $ordoba* it attains
its maximum heightP several colossal summits rising to 7;88 and 7338
toises' /arther north the chain called 0ierra Cadre runs north ;8
degrees &est to&ards 0an Ciguel el Grande and Guanaxuato' @ear the
latter to&n Nlatitude 71 degrees 8 minutes 19 secondsO &here the
richest silver mines of the kno&n &orld are situated* it &idens in an
extraordinar" degree and se%arates into three branches' The most
eastern branch advances to&ards $harcas and the Real de $atorce* and
lo&ers %rogressivel" Nturning to northHeastO in the ancient kingdom of
=eon* in the %rovince of $ohahuila and Texas' That branch is %rolonged
from the Rio $olorado de Texas* crossing the Arkansas near the
confluence of the Cississi%%i and the Cissouri Nlatitude !I degrees 91
minutesO' +n those countries it bears the name of the Countains of
>Rark*- and attains !88 toises of height' N- >Rark is at once the
ancient name of Arkansas and of the tribe of Bua&%a& +ndians &ho
inhabit the banks of that great river' The culminant %oint of the
Countains of >Rark is in latitude !3 1M7 degrees* bet&een the sources
of the .hite and >sage rivers'O +t has been su%%osed that on the east
of the Cississi%%i Nlatitude ;; to ;L degreesO the .isconsin Hills*
&hich stretch out to northHnorthHeast in the direction of =ake
0u%erior* ma" be a continuation of the mountains of >Rark' Their
metallic &ealth seems to denote that the" are a %rolongation of the
eastern $ordillera of Cexico' The &estern branch or $ordillera
occu%ies a %art of the %rovince of Guadalajara and stretches b"
$uliacan* Ari%e and the auriferous lands of the Pimeria Alta and =a
0onora* as far as the banks of the Rio Gila Nlatitude !! to !;
degreesO* one of the most ancient d&ellings of the ARtek nations' .e
shall soon see that this &estern chain a%%ears to be linked b" the
s%urs that advance to the &est* &ith the maritime Al%s of $alifornia'
/inall"* the central $ordillera of Anahuac* &hich is the most
elevated* runs first from southHeast to northH&est* b" Sacatecas
to&ards (urango* and after&ards from south to north* b" $hihuahua*
to&ards @e& Cexico' +t takes successivel" the names of 0ierra de Acha*
0ierra de =os Cimbres* 0ierra erde* and 0ierra de las Grullas* and
about the 72 and !2 degrees of latitude* it is connected b" s%urs &ith
t&o lateral chains* those of the Texas and =a 0onora* &hich renders
the se%aration of the chains more im%erfect than the trifurcations of
the Andes in 0outh America'
That %art of the $ordilleras of Cexico &hich is richest in silver beds
and veins* is com%rehended bet&een the %arallels of >axaca and
$osiquiriachi Nlatitude 1L 1M7 to 72 degreesOP the alluvial soil that
contains disseminated gold extends some degrees still further
north&ards' +t is a ver" striking %henomenon that the goldH&ashing of
$inaloa and 0onora* like that of Barbacoas and $hoco on the south and
north of the isthmus of Panama* is uniforml" situated on the &est of
the central chain* on the descent o%%osite the Pacific' The traces of
a stillHburning volcanic fire &hich &as no longer seen* on a length of
788 leagues* from Pasto and Po%a"an to the gulf of @ico"a Nlatitude 1
1M; to 2 1M7 degreesO* become ver" frequent on the &estern coast of
Guatimala Nlatitude 2 1M7 to 1L degreesOP these traces of fire again
cease in the gneissHgranite mountains of >axaca* and reHa%%ear*
%erha%s for the last time* to&ards the north* in the central
$ordillera of Anahuac* bet&een latitude 1I 1M; and 12 1M7 degrees*
&here the volcanoes of Taxtla* >riRaba* Po%ocate%etl* Toluca* 6orullo
and $olima a%%ear to be situated in a crevice- extending from
eastHsouthHeast to &estHnorthH&est* from one ocean to the other' N- >n
this Rone of volcanoes is the %arallel of the greatest heights of @e&
0%ain' +f the surve" of $a%tain Basil Hall afford results alike
certain in latitude and in longitude* the volcano of $olima is north
of the %arallel of Puerto de @avidad in latitude 12 degrees !L
minutesP and* like the volcano of Tuxtla* if not be"ond the Rone* at
least be"ond the average %arallel of the volcanic fire of Cexico*
&hich %arallel seems to be bet&een 1I degrees 92 minutes and 12
degrees 17 minutes'O This line of summits* several of &hich enter the
limit of %er%etual sno&* and &hich are the loftiest of the $ordilleras
from the %eak of Tolima Nlatitude ;8 degrees ;L minutes northO* is
almost %er%endicular to the great axis of the chain of Guatimala and
Anahuac* advancing to the 73th %arallel* uniforml" north ;7 degrees
east' A characteristic feature of ever" knot* or &idening of the
$ordilleras* is that the grou%ing of the summits is inde%endent of the
general direction of the axis' The backs of the mountains in @e& 0%ain
form ver" elevated %lains* along &hich carriages can roll for an
extent of ;88 leagues* from the ca%ital to 0antaH/e and Taos* near the
sources of Rio del @orte' This immense tableHland* in 12 and 7; 1M7
degrees* is constantl" at the height of from 298 to 1788 toises* that
is* at the elevation of the %asses of the Great 0aint Bernard and the
0%lugen' .e find on the back of the $ordilleras of Anahuac* &hich
lo&er %rogressivel" from the cit" of Cexico to&ards Taos* a succession
of basins5 the" are se%arated b" hills little striking to the e"e of
the traveller because the" rise onl" from 798 to ;88 toises above the
surrounding %lains' The basins are sometimes closed* like the valle"
of Tenochtitlan* &here lie the great Al%ine lakes* and sometimes the"
exhibit traces of ancient ejections* destitute of &ater'
Bet&een latitude !! and !I degrees* the Rio del @orte forms* in its
u%%er course* a great longitudinal valle"P and the central chain seems
here to be divided into several %arallel ranges' This distribution
continues north&ard* in the Rock" Countains*- &here* bet&een the
%arallels of !3 and ;1 degrees* several summits covered &ith eternal
sno& N0%anish Peak* 6ames Peak and Big HornO are from 1L88 to 1I38
toises of absolute height' N- The Rock" Countains have been at
different %eriods designated b" the names of $h"%e&"an* Cissouri*
$olumbian* $aous* 0ton"* 0hining and 0and" Countains'O To&ards
latitude ;8 degrees south of the sources of the Paduca* a tributar" of
the Rio de la Plata* a branch kno&n b" the name of the Black Hills*
detaches itself to&ards the northHeast from the central chain' The
Rock" Countains at first seem to lo&er considerabl" in ;L and ;I
degreesP and then rise to ;I and ;2 degrees* &here their to%s are from
1788 to 1!88 toises* and their ridge near 298 toises' Bet&een the
sources of the Cissouri and the River =e&is* one of the tributaries of
the >regon or $olumbia* the $ordilleras form in &idening* an elbo&
resembling the knot of $uRco' There* also* on the eastern declivit" of
the Rock" Countains* is the %artition of &ater bet&een the $aribbean
0ea and the Polar 0ea' This %oint corres%onds &ith those in the Andes
of 0outh America* at the s%ur of $ochabamba* on the east* latitude 12
degrees 78 minutes southP and in the Alto de los Robles Nlatitude 7
degrees 78 minutes northO* on the &est' The ridge that se%arates the
Rock" Countains extends from &est to east* to&ards =ake 0u%erior*
bet&een the basins of the Cissouri and those of =ake .inni%eg and the
0lave =ake' The central $ordillera of Cexico and the Rock" Countains
follo& the direction north 18 degrees &est* from latitude 79 to !I
degreesP the chain from that %oint to the Polar 0ea %rolongs in the
direction north 7; degrees &est* and ends in the %arallel L2 degrees*
at the mouth of the CackenRie River'-
N- The eastern boundar" of the Rock" Countains lies5HH
+n !I degrees latitude 5 183 degrees 78 minutes longitude'
+n ;8 degrees latitude 5 18I degrees !8 minutes longitude'
+n L! degrees latitude 5 17; degrees ;8 minutes longitude'
+n LI degrees latitude 5 1!8 degrees !8 minutes longitude'O
+n thus develo%ing the structure of the $ordilleras of the Andes from
9L degrees south to be"ond the Arctic circle* &e see that its northern
extremit" Nlongitude 1!8 degrees !8 minutesO is nearl" L1 degrees of
longitude &est of its southern extremit" Nlongitude L8 degrees ;8
minutesOP this is the effect of the longHcontinued direction from
southHeast to northH&est north of the isthmus of Panama' B" the
extraordinar" breadth of the @e& $ontinent* in the !8 and L8 degrees
north latitude* the $ordillera of the Andes* continuall" a%%roaching
nearer to the &estern coast in the southern hemis%here* is removed ;88
leagues on the north from the source of the Rio de la PaR' The Andes
of $hile ma" be considered as maritime Al%s*- N- Geognosticall"
s%eaking* a littoral chain is not a range of mountains forming of
itself the coastP this name is extended to a chain se%arated from the
coast b" a narro& %lain'O &hile* in their most northern continuation*
the Rock" Countains are a chain in the interior of a continent' There
is* no doubt* bet&een latitude 7! and L8 degrees from $a%e 0aint =ucas
in $alifornia* to Alaska on the &estern coast of the 0ea of
Aamschatka* a real littoral $ordilleraP but it forms a s"stem of
mountains almost entirel" distinct from the Andes of Cexico and
$anada' This s"stem* &hich &e shall call the $ordillera of $alifornia*
or of @e& Albion* is linked bet&een latitude !! and !; degrees &ith
the Pimeria alta* and the &estern branch of the $ordilleras of
AnahuacP and bet&een latitude ;9 and 9! degrees* &ith the Rock"
Countains* b" transversal ridges and s%urs that &iden to&ards the
east' Travellers &ho ma" at some future time %ass over the unkno&n
land bet&een $a%e Cendocino and the source of the Rio $olorado* ma"
%erha%s inform us &hether the connexion of the maritime Al%s of
$alifornia or @e& Albion* &ith the &estern branch of the $ordilleras
of Cexico* resembles that &hich* not&ithstanding the de%ression* or
rather total interru%tion observed on the &est of the Rio Atrato* is
admitted b" geogra%hers to exist bet&een the mountains of the isthmus
of Panama and the &estern branch of the Andes of @e& Grenada' The
maritime Al%s* in the %eninsula of >ld $alifornia* rise %rogressivel"
to&ards the north in the 0ierra of 0anta =ucia Nlatitude !; 1M7
degreesO* in the 0ierra of 0an Carcos Nlatitude !3 to !I degreesO and
in the 0no&" Countains near $a%e Cendocino Nlatitude !2 degrees ;1
minutesOP the last seem to attain at least the height of 1988 toises'
/rom $a%e Cendocino the chain follo&s the coast of the Pacific* but at
the distance of from t&ent" to t&ent"Hfive leagues' Bet&een the loft"
summits of Count Hood and Count 0aint Helen* in latitude ;9 !M;
degrees* the chain is broken b" the River $olumbia' +n @e& Hanover*
@e& $orn&all and @e& @orfolk these rents of a rock" coast are
re%eated* these geologic %henomena of the fjords that characteriRe
&estern Patagonia and @or&a"' At the %oint &here the $ordillera turns
to&ards the &est Nlatitude 9I !M; degrees* longitude 1!2 degrees ;8
minutesO there are t&o volcanic %eaks* one of &hich NCount 0aint
EliasO %erha%s equals $oto%axi in heightP the other N/airH.eather
CountainO equals the height of Count Rosa' The elevation of the former
exceeds all the summits of the $ordilleras of Cexico and the Rock"
Countains* north of the %arallel 12 1M; degreesP it is even the
culminant %oint in the northern hemis%here* of the &hole kno&n &orld
north of 98 degrees of latitude' @orthH&est of the %eaks of 0aint
Elias and /airH.eather the chain of $alifornia &idens considerabl" in
the interior of Russian America' olcanoes multi%l" in number as &e
advance &est&ard* in the %eninsula of Alaska and the /ox +slands*
&here the volcano Ajagedan rises to the height of 1139 toises above
the level of the sea' Thus the chain of the maritime Al%s of
$alifornia a%%ears to be undermined b" subterraneous fires at its t&o
extremitiesP on the north in L8 degrees of latitude* and on the south*
in 7I degrees* in the volcanoes of the irgins'- N- olcanes de las
irgenes' The highest summit of >ld $alifornia* the $erro de la
Giganta N388 toisesO* a%%ears to be also an extinguished volcano'O +f
it &ere certain that the mountains of $alifornia belong to the &estern
branch of the Andes of Anahuac* it might be said that the volcanic
fire* still burning* abandons the central $ordillera &hen it recedes
from the coast* that is* from the volcano of $olimaP and that the fire
is borne on the northH&est b" the %eninsula of >ld $alifornia* Count
0aint Elias* and the %eninsula of Alaska* to&ards the Aleutian +slands
and Aamschatka'
+ shall terminate this sketch of the structure of the Andes b"
reca%itulating the %rinci%al features that characteriRe the
$ordilleras* northH&est of (arien'
=atitude I to 11 degrees' Countains of the isthmus of Panama* eragua
and $osta Rica* slightl" linked to the &estern chain of @e& Grenada*
&hich is that of $hoco'
=atitude 11 to 1L degrees' Countains of @icaragua and GuatimalaP line
of volcanoes north 98 degrees &est* for the most %art still burning*
from the gulf of @ico"a to the volcano of 0oconusco'
=atitude 1L to 1I degrees' Countains of gneissHgranite in the %rovince
of >axaca'
=atitude 1I 1M7 to 12 1M7 degrees' Trach"tic knot of Anahuac* %arallel
&ith the @evados and the burning volcanoes of Cexico'
=atitude 12 1M7 to 78 degrees' Anot of the metaliferous mountains of
Guanaxuato and Sacatecas'
=atitude 71 !M; to 77 degrees' (ivision of the Andes of Anahuac into
three chains5
Eastern chain Nthat of Potosi and TexasO* continued b" the >Rark and
.isconsin mountains* as far as =ake 0u%erior'
$entral chain Nof (urango* @e& Cexico and the Rock" CountainsO*
sending on the north of the source of the river Platte Nlatitude ;7
degreesO a branch Nthe Black hillsO to northHeast* &idening greatl"
bet&een the %arallels ;L and 98 degrees* and lo&ering %rogressivel" as
it a%%roaches the mouth of CackenRie River Nlatitude LI degreesO'
.estern chain Nof $inaloa and 0onoraO' =inked b" s%urs to the maritime
Al%s* or mountains of $alifornia'
.e have "et no means of judging &ith %recision the elevation of the
Andes south of the knot of the mountains of =oxa Nsouth latitude !
degrees 9O* but &e kno& that on the north of that knot the $ordilleras
rise five times higher than the majestic elevation of 7L88 toises5
+n the grou% of Buito* 8 to 7 degrees south latitude N$himboraRo*
Antisano* $a"ambe* $oto%axi* $ollanes* ,liniRa* 0anga"* Tungurahua'O
+n the grou% of $undinamarca* latitude ; !M; degrees north N%eak of
Tolima* north of the Andes of BuindiuO'
+n the grou% of Anahuac* from latitude 1I degrees 92 minutes to 12
degrees 17 minutes NPo%ocate%etl or the Great olcano of Cexico* and
Peak of >riRabaO' +f &e consider the maritime Al%s or mountains of
$alifornia and @e& @orfolk* either as a continuation of the &estern
chain of Cexico* that of 0onora* or as being linked b" s%urs to the
central chain* that of the Rock" Countains* &e ma" add to the three
%receding grou%s5
The grou% of Russian America* from latitude L8 to 38 degrees NCount
0aint EliasO' >ver an extent of L! degrees of latitude* + kno& onl"
t&elve summits of the Andes &hich reach the height of 7L88 toises* and
consequentl" exceed b" 1;8 toises* the height of Cont Blanc' >nl"
three of these t&elve summits are situated north of the isthmus of
Panama'
7' +@0?=ATE( GR>?P >/ THE 0@>., C>?@TA+@0 >/ 0A@TA CARTA'
+n the enumeration of the different s"stems of mountains* + %lace this
grou% before the littoral chain of eneRuela* though the latter* being
a northern %rolongation of the $ordillera of $undinamarca* is
immediatel" linked &ith the chain of the Andes' The 0ierra @evado of
0anta Carta is encom%assed &ithin t&o divergent branches of the Andes*
that of Bogota* and that of the isthmus of Panama' +t rises abru%tl"
like a fortified castle* amidst the %lains extending from the gulf of
(arien* b" the mouth of the Cagdalena* to the lake of Caraca"bo' The
old geogra%hers erroneousl" considered this insulated grou% of
mountains covered &ith eternal sno&* as the extremit" of the high
$ordilleras of $hita and Pam%lona' The loftiest ridge of the 0ierra
@evada de 0anta Carta is onl" three or four leagues in length from
east to &estP it is bounded Nat nine leagues distance from the coastO
b" the meridians of the ca%es of 0an (iego and 0an Augustin' The
culminant %oints* called El Picacho and Horqueta* are near the &estern
border of the grou%P the" are entirel" se%arated from the %eak of 0an
=orenRo* also covered &ith eternal sno&* but onl" four leagues distant
from the %ort of 0anta Carta* to&ards the southHeast' + sa& this
latter %eak from the heights that surrounded the village of Turbaco*
south of $arthagena' @o %recise measurement has hitherto given us the
height of the 0ierra @evada* &hich (am%ier affirms to be one of the
highest mountains of the northern hemis%here' $alculations founded on
the maximum of distance at &hich the grou% is discerned at sea* give a
height of more than !88; toises' That the grou% of the mountains of
0anta Carta is insulated is %roved b" the hot climate of the lands
Ntierras calientesO that surround it' =o& ridges and a succession of
hills indicate* %erha%s* an ancient connection bet&een the 0ierra
@evada de 0anta Carta on one side* b" the Alto de las Cinas* &ith the
%honolitic and granitic rocks of the Penon and Banca* and on the
other* b" the 0ierra de Perija* &ith the mountains of $hiliguana and
>cana* &hich are the s%urs of the eastern chain of the Andes of @e&
Grenada' +n this latter chain* the febrifuge s%ecies of cinchona
Ncorollis hirsutis* staminibus inclusisO are found in the 0ierra
@evada de CeridaP but the real cinchona* the most northern of 0outh
America* is found in the tem%erate region of the 0ierra @evada de
0anta Carta'
!' =+TT>RA= $HA+@ >/ E@ES?E=A'
This is the s"stem of mountains the configuration and direction of
&hich have excited so %o&erful an influence on the cultivation and
commerce of the ancient $a%itania General of eneRuela' +t bears
different names* as the mountains of $oro* of $aracas* of the
Bergantin* of Barcelona* of $umana* and of PariaP but all these names
belong to the same chain* of &hich the northern %art runs along the
coast of the $aribbean 0ea' This s"stem of mountains* &hich is 1L8
leagues long*- is a %rolongation of the eastern $ordillera of the
Andes of $undinamarca' N- +t is more than double the length of the
P"renees* from $a%e $reux to the %oint of /iguera'O There is an
immediate connection of the littoral chain &ith the Andes* like that
of the P"renees &ith the mountains of Asturia and GaliciaP it is not
the effect of transversal ridges* like the connection of the P"renees
&ith the 0&iss Al%s* b" the Black Countain and the $evennes' The
%oints of junction are bet&een Truxillo and the lake of alencia'
The eastern chain of @e& Grenada stretches northHeast b" the 0ierra
@evada de Cerida* as &ell as b" the four Paramos of Timotes* @iquitao*
Bocono and =as Rosas* of &hich the absolute height cannot be less than
from 1;88 to 1L88 toises' After the Paramo of =as Rosas* &hich is more
elevated than the t&o %receding* there is a great de%ression* and &e
no longer see a distinct chain or ridge* but merel" hills* and high
tableHlands surrounding the to&ns of Tocu"o and Barquisimeto' .e kno&
not the height even of $erro del Altar* bet&een Tocu"o and $aranacatuP
but &e kno& b" recent measures that the most inhabited s%ots are from
!88 to !98 toises above seaHlevel' The limits of the mountainous land
bet&een Tocu"o and the valle"s of Aragua are* the %lains of 0an $arlos
on the south* and the Rio Tocu"o on the northP the Rio 0iquisique
flo&s into that river' /rom the $erro del Altar on the northHeast
to&ards Guigue and alencia* succeed* as culminant %oints* the
mountains of 0anta Caria Nbet&een Buria and @irguaOP then the Picacho
de @irgua* su%%osed to be L88 toises highP and finall" =as Palomeras
and El Torito Nbet&een alencia and @irguaO' The line of
&aterH%artition runs from &est to east* from Buibor to the loft"
savannahs of =ondon* near 0anta Rosa' The &aters flo& on the north*
to&ards the Golfo triste of the $aribbean 0eaP and on the south*
to&ards the basins of the A%ure and the >rinoco' The &hole of this
mountainous countr"* b" &hich the littoral chain of $aracas is linked
to the $ordilleras of $undinamarca* &as celebrated in Euro%e in the
middle of the nineteenth centur"P for that %art of the territor"
formed of gneissHgranite* and l"ing bet&een the Rio Tocu"o and the Rio
,aracui* contains the auriferous veins of Buria* and the co%%erHmine
of Aroa &hich is &orked at the %resent da"' +f* across the knot of the
mountains of Barquisimeto* &e trace the meridians of Aroa* @irgua and
0an $arlos* &e find that on the northH&est that knot is linked &ith
the 0ierra de $oro* and on the northHeast &ith the mountains of
$a%adare* Porto $abello and the illa de $ura' +t ma" be said to form
the eastern &all of that vast circular de%ression of &hich the lake of
Caraca"bo is the centre and &hich is bounded on the south and &est b"
the mountains of Cerida* >cana* Perija and 0anta Carta'
The littoral chain of eneRuela %resents to&ards the centre and the
east the same %henomena of structure as those observed in the Andes of
Peru and @e& GrenadaP namel"* the division into several %arallel
ranges and the frequenc" of longitudinal basins or valle"s' But the
irru%tions of the $aribbean 0ea having a%%arentl" over&helmed* at a
ver" remote %eriod* a %art of the mountains of the shore* the ranges
or %artial chains are interru%ted and some basins have become oceanic
gulfs' To com%rehend the $ordillera of eneRuela in mass &e must
carefull" stud" the direction and &indings of the coast from Punta
Tucacas N&est of Porto $abelloO as far as Punta de la Galera of the
island of Trinidad' That island* those of =os Testigos* Carguerita and
Tortuga constitute* &ith the micaHslates of the %eninsula of Ara"a*
one and the same s"stem of mountains' The granitic rocks &hich a%%ear
bet&een Buria* (uaca and Aroa cross the valle" of the Rio ,aracui and
dra& near the shore* &hence the" extend* like a continuous &all* from
Porto $abello to $a%e $odera' This %rolongation forms the northern
chain of the $ordillera of eneRuela and is traversed in going from
south to north* either from alencia and the valle"s of Aragua* to
Burburata and Turiamo* or from $aracas to =a Gua"ra' Hot s%rings-
issue from those mountains N- The other hot s%rings of the $ordillera
of the shore are those of 0an 6uan* Provisor* Brigantin* the gulf of
$ariaco* $umucatar and +ra%a' CC' Rivero and Boussingault* &ho visited
the thermal &aters of Cariara in /ebruar"* 1I7!* during their journe"
from $aracas to 0anta /e de Bogota* found their maximum to be L;
degrees centigrade' + found it at the same season onl" 92'7 degrees'
Has the great earthquake of the 7Lth Carch* 1I17* had an influence on
the tem%erature of these s%ringsT The able chemists above mentioned
&ere* like m"self* struck &ith the extreme %urit" of the hot &aters
that issue from the %rimitive rocks of the basin of Aragua' Those of
>noto* &hich flo& at the height of !L8 toises above the level of the
sea* have no smell of sul%huretted h"drogenP the" are &ithout taste*
and cannot be %reci%itated* either b" nitrate of silver or an" other
reHagent' .hen eva%orated the" have an ina%%reciable residue &hich
consists of a little silica and a trace of alkaliP their tem%erature
is onl" ;;'9 degrees* and the bubbles of air &hich are disengaged at
intervals are at >noto* as &ell as in the thermal &aters of Cariara*
%ure nitrogen' The &aters of Cariara N7;; toisesO have a faint smell
of sul%huretted h"drogenP the" leave* b" eva%oration* a slight
residuum* that "ields carbonic acid* sul%huric acid* soda* magnesia
and lime' The quantities are so small that the &ater is altogether
&ithout taste' +n the course of m" journe" + found onl" the s%rings of
$umangillas hotter than the thermal &aters of =as Trincheras5 the" are
situated on the south of Porto $abello' The &aters of $omangillas are
at the height of 18;8 toises and are alike remarkable for their %urit"
and their tem%erature of 2L'! degrees centigrade'O* those of =as
Trincheras N28'; degreesO on its southern slo%e and those of >noto and
Cariara on its southern slo%e' The former issue from a granite &ith
large grains* ver" regularl" stratifiedP the latter from a rock of
gneiss' .hat es%eciall" characteriRes the northern chain is a summit
&hich is not onl" the loftiest of the s"stem of the mountains of
eneRuela* but of all 0outh America* on the east of the Andes' The
eastern summit of the 0illa of $aracas* according to m" barometric
measurement made in 1I88* is 1!98 toises high*- N- The 0illa of
$aracas is onl" I8 toises lo&er than the $anigou in the P"renees'O and
not&ithstanding the commotion &hich took %lace on the 0illa during the
great earthquake of $aracas* that mountain did not sink 98 or L8
toises* as some @orth American journals asserted' /our or five leagues
south of the northern chain Nthat of Cariara* =a 0illa and $a%e
$oderaO the mountains of Guiri%a* >cumare and Panaquire form the
southern chain of the coast* &hich stretches in a %arallel direction
from Guigue to the mouth of the Rio Tu"* b" the Guesta of ,usma and
the Guacimo' The latitudes of the illa de $ura and 0an 6uan* so
erroneousl" marked on our ma%s* enabled me to ascertain the mean
breadth of the &hole $ordillera of eneRuela' Ten or t&elve leagues
ma" be reckoned as the distance from the descent of the northern chain
&hich bounds the $aribbean 0ea* to the descent of the southern chain
bounding the immense basin of the =lanos' This latter chain* &hich
also bears the name of the +nland Countains* is much lo&er than the
northern chainP and + can hardl" believe that the 0ierra de Gua"raima
attains the height of 1788 toises'
The t&o %artial chains* that of the interior* and that &hich runs
along the coast* are linked b" a ridge or knot of mountains kno&n b"
the names of Altos de las $ocu"Ras NI;9 toisesO and the Higuerote NI!9
toises bet&een =os Teques and =a ictoriaO in longitude L2 degrees !8
minutes and L2 degrees 98 minutes' >n the &est of this ridge lies the
enclosed basin- of the lake of alencia or the alles de Aragua N-
This basin contains a small s"stem of inland rivers &hich do not
communicate &ith the ocean' The southern chain of the litteral
$ordillera of eneRuela is so de%ressed on the southH&est that the Rio
Pao is se%arated from the tributar" streams of the lake of Tacarigua
or alencia' To&ards the east the Rio Tu"* &hich takes its rise on the
&estern declivit" of the knot of mountains of =as $ocu"Ras* a%%ears at
first to em%t" itself into the valle"s of AraguaP but hills of
calcareous tufa* forming a ridge bet&een $onsejo and ictoria* force
it to take its course southHeast'OP and on the east the basin of
$aracas and of the Rio Tu"' The bottom of the firstHmentioned basins
is bet&een 778 and 798 toises highP the bottom of the latter is ;L8
toises above the level of the $aribbean 0ea' +t follo&s from these
measures that the most &estern of the t&o longitudinal valle"s
enclosed b" the littoral $ordillera is the dee%estP &hile in the
%lains near the A%ure and the >rinoco the declivit" is from &est to
eastP but &e must not forget that the %eculiar dis%osition of the
bottom of the t&o basins* &hich are bounded b" t&o %arallel chains* is
a local %henomenon altogether se%arate from the causes on &hich the
general structure of the countr" de%ends' The eastern basin of the
$ordillera of eneRuela is not shut u% like the basin of alencia' +t
is in the knot of the mountains of =as $ocu"Ras* and of Higuerote*
that the 0errania de los Teques and >ri%oto* stretching east&ard* form
t&o valle"s* those of the Rio Gua"re and Rio Tu"P the former contains
the to&n of $aracas and both unite belo& the $aurimare' The Rio Tu"
runs through the rest of the basin* from &est to east* as far as its
mouth &hich is situated on the north of the mountains of Panaquire'
$a%e $odera seems to terminate the northern range of the littoral
mountains of eneRuela but this termination is onl" a%%arent' The
coast forms a vast nook* thirt"Hfive sea leagues in length* at the
bottom of &hich is the mouth of the Rio ?nare and the road of @ueva
Barcelona' 0tretching first from &est to east* in the %arallel of 18
degrees !3 minutes* this coast recedes at the %arallel 18 degrees L
minutes* and resumes its original direction N18 degrees !3 minutes to
18 degrees ;; minutesO from the &estern extremit" of the %eninsula of
Ara"a to the eastern extremities of Contana de Paria and the island of
Trinidad' /rom this dissection of the coast it follo&s that the range
of mountains bordering the shore of the %rovinces of $aracas and
Barcelona* bet&een the meridian LL degrees !7 minutes and LI degrees
72 minutes N&hich + sa& on the south of the ba" of Higuerote and on
the north of the =lanos of Pao and $achi%oO* must be considered as the
continuation of the southern chain of eneRuela and as being linked on
the &est &ith the 0ierras de Panaquire and >cumare' +t ma" therefore
be said that bet&een $a%e $odera and $ariaco the inland chain itself
forms the coast' This range of ver" lo& mountains* often interru%ted
from the mouth of the Rio Tu" to that of the Rio @everi* rises
abru%tl" on the east of @ueva Barcelona* first in the rock" island of
$himanas* and then in the $erro del Bergantin* elevated %robabl" more
than I88 toises* but of &hich the astronomical %osition and the
%recise height are "et alike unkno&n' >n the meridian of $umana the
northern chain Nthat of $a%e $odera and the 0illa of $aracasO again
a%%ears' The micaceous slate of the %eninsula of Ara"a and CaniquareR
joins b" the ridge or knot of mountains of Cea%ire the southern chain*
that of Panaquire the Bergantin* Turimiquiri* $ari%e and Guacharo'
This ridge* not more than 788 toises of absolute height* has* in the
ancient revolutions of our %lanet* %revented the irru%tion of the
ocean* and the union of the gulfs of Paria and $ariaco' >n the &est of
$a%e $odera the northern chain* com%osed of %rimitive granitic rocks*
%resents the loftiest summits of the &hole $ordillera of eneRuelaP
but the culminant %oints east of that ca%e are com%osed in the
southern chain of secondar" calcareous rocks' .e have seen above that
the %eak of Turimiquiri* at the back of the $ocollar* is 1898 toises*
&hile the bottoms of the high valle"s of the convent of $ari%e and of
Guardia de 0an Augustin are ;17 and 9!! toises of absolute height' >n
the east of the ridge of Cea%ire the southern chain sinks abru%tl"
to&ards the Rio Arco and the Guara%icheP but* on quitting the main
land* &e again see it rising on the southern coast of the island of
Trinidad &hich is but a detached %ortion of the continent* and of
&hich the northern side unquestionabl" %resents the vestiges of the
northern chain of eneRuela* that is* of the Contana de Paria Nthe
Paradise of $hristo%her $olumbusO* the %eninsula of Ara"a and the
0illa of $aracas' The observations of latitude + made at the illa de
$ura N18 degrees 7 minutes ;3 secondsO* the farm of $ocollar N18
degrees 2 minutes !3 secondsO and the convent of $ari%e N18 degrees 18
minutes 1; secondsO* com%ared &ith the more ancientl" kno&n %osition
of the south coast of Trinidad Nlatitude 18 degrees L minutesO* %rove
that the southern chain* south of the basins of alencia and of Tu"-
N- The bottom of the first of these four basins bounded b" %arallel
chains is from 7!8 to ;L8 toises above* and that of the t&o latter
from !8 to ;8 toises belo& the %resent seaHlevel' Hot s%rings gush
from the bottom of the gulf of the basin of $ariaco* as from the
bottom of the basin of alencia on the continent'O and of the gulfs of
$ariaco and Paria* is still more uniform in the direction from &est to
east than the northern chain from Porto $abello to Punta Galera' +t is
highl" im%ortant to kno& the southern limit of the littoral $ordillera
of eneRuela because it determines the %arallel at &hich the =lanos or
the savannahs of $aracas* Barcelona and $umana begin' >n some
&ellHkno&n ma%s &e find erroneousl" marked bet&een the meridians of
$aracas and $umana t&o $ordilleras stretching from north to south* as
far as latitude I !M; degrees* under the names of $erros de Alta
Gracia and del Bergantin* thus describing as mountainous a territor"
of 79 leagues broad* &here &e should seek in vain a hillock of a fe&
feet in height'
Turning to the island of Carguerita* com%osed* like the %eninsula of
Ara"a* of micaceous slate* and ancientl" linked &ith that %eninsula b"
the Corro de $haco%ata and the islands of $oche and $ubagua* &e seem
to recogniRe in the t&o mountainous grou%s of Cacanao and =a ega de
0an 6uan traces of a third coastHchain of the $ordillera of eneRuela'
(o these t&o grou%s of Carguerita* of &hich the most &esterl" is above
L88 toises high* belong to a submarine chain stretching b" the isle of
Tortuga* to&ards the 0ierra de 0anta =ucia de $oro* on the %arallel of
11 degreesT Cust &e admit that in latitude 11 1M; and 17 1M7 degrees a
fourth chain* the most northerl" of all* formerl" stretched out in the
direction of the island of Hermanos* b" Blanquilla* =os Roques*
>rchila* Aves* Buen A"re* $uracao and >ruba* to&ards $a%e $hichivacoaT
These im%ortant %roblems can onl" be solved &hen the chain of islands
%arallel &ith the coast has been %ro%erl" examined' +t must not be
forgotten that a great irru%tion of the ocean a%%ears to have taken
%lace bet&een Trinidad and Grenada*- and that no &here else in the
long series of the =esser Antilles are t&o neighbouring islands so far
removed from each other' N- +t is affirmed that the island of Trinidad
is traversed in the northern %art b" a chain of %rimitive slate* and
that Grenada furnishes basalt' +t &ould be im%ortant to examine of
&hat rock the island of Tobago is com%osedP it a%%eared to me of
daRRling &hitenessP and on &hat %oint* in going from Trinidad
north&ard* the trach"tic and tra%%ean s"stem of the =esser Antilles
begins'O .e observe the effect of the rotator" current in the
direction of the coast of Trinidad* as in the coasts of the %rovinces
of $umana and $aracas* bet&een $a%e Paria and Punta Ara"a and bet&een
$a%e $odera and Porto $abello' +f a %art of the continent has been
over&helmed b" the ocean on the north of the %eninsula of Ara"a it is
%robable that the enormous shoal &hich surrounds $ubagua* $oche the
island of Carguerita* =os /railes* =a 0ola and the Testigos marks the
extent and outline of the submerged land' This shoal or %lacer* &hich
is of the extent of 788 square leagues* is &ell kno&n onl" to the
tribe of the Gua"queriesP it is frequented b" these +ndians on account
of its abundant fisher" in calm &eather' The Gran Placer is believed
to be se%arated onl" b" some canals or dee% furro&s of the bank of
Grenada from the sandHbank that extends like a narro& d"ke from Tobago
to Grenada* and &hich is kno&n b" the lo&ering of the tem%erature of
the &ater and from the sandHbanks of =os Roques and Aves' The
Gua"querie +ndians and* generall" s%eaking* all the inhabitants of the
coast of $umana and Barcelona* are imbued &ith an idea that the &ater
of the shoals of Carguerita and the Testigos diminishes from "ear to
"earP the" believe that* in the la%se of ages* the Corro do $haco%ata
on the %eninsula of Ara"a &ill be joined b" a neck of land to the
islands of =obos and $oche' The %artial retreat of the &aters on the
coast of $umana is undeniable and the bottom of the sea has been
u%heaved at various times b" earthquakesP but these local %henomena*
&hich it is so difficult to account for b" the action of volcanic
force* the changes in the direction of currents* and the consequent
s&elling of the &aters* are ver" different from the effects manifested
at once over the s%ace of several hundred square leagues'
;' GR>?P >/ THE C>?@TA+@0 >/ PAR+CE'
+t is essential to mineralogical geogra%h" to designate b" one name
all the mountains that form one s"stem' To attain this end* a
denomination belonging to a %artial grou% onl" ma" be extended over
the &hole chainP or a name ma" be em%lo"ed &hich* b" reason of its
novelt"* is not likel" to give rise to homogenic mistakes'
Countaineers designate ever" grou% b" a s%ecial denominationP and a
chain is generall" considered as forming a &hole onl" &hen it is seen
from afar bounding the horiRon of the %lains' .e find the name of
sno&" mountains NHimala"a* +mausO re%eated in ever" Rone* &hite
NAl%es* AlbO* black and blue' The greater %art of the 0ierra Parime
is* as it &ere* edged round b" the >rinoco' + have* ho&ever* avoided a
denomination having reference to this circumstance* because the grou%
of mountains to &hich + am about to direct attention extends far
be"ond the banks of the >rinoco' +t stretches southHeast* to&ards the
banks of the Rio @egro and the Rio Branco* to the %arallel of 1 1M7
degrees north latitude' The geogra%hical name of Parime has the
advantage of reviving recollections of the fable of El (orado* and the
loft" mountains &hich* in the sixteenth centur"* &ere su%%osed to
surround the lake Ru%unu&ini* or the =aguna de Parime' The
missionaries of the >rinoco still give the name of Parime to the &hole
of the vast mountainous countr" com%rehended bet&een the sources of
the Erevato* the >rinoco* the $aroni* the Rio Parime- Na tributar" of
the Rio BrancoO and the Ru%unuri or Ru%unu&ini* a tributar" of the Rio
Essequibo' N- The Rio Parime* after receiving the &aters of the
?raricuera* joins the Tacutu* and forms* near the fort of 0an
6oacquim* the Rio Branco* one of the tributar" streams of the Rio
@egro'O This countr" is one of the least kno&n %arts of 0outh America
and is covered &ith thick forests and savannahsP it is inhabited b"
inde%endent +ndians and is intersected b" rivers of dangerous
navigation* o&ing to the frequenc" of shoals and cataracts'
The s"stem of the mountains of Parime se%arates the %lains of the
=o&er >rinoco from those of the Rio @egro and the AmaRonP it occu%ies
a territor" of tra%eRoidal form* com%rehended bet&een the %arallels of
! and I degrees* and the meridians of L1 and 38 1M7 degrees' + here
indicate onl" the elements of the loftiest grou%* for &e shall soon
see that to&ards southHeast the mountainous countr"* in lo&ering*
dra&s near the equator* as &ell as to /rench and Portuguese Guiana'
The 0ierra Parime extends most in the direction north I9 degrees &est
and the %artial chains into &hich it se%arates on the &est&ard
generall" follo& the same direction' +t is less a $ordillera or a
continuous chain in the sense given to those denominations &hen
a%%lied to the Andes and $aucasus than an irregular grou%ing of
mountains se%arated the one from the other b" %lains and savannahs' +
visited the northern* &estern and southern %arts of the 0ierra Parime*
&hich is remarkable b" its %osition and its extent of more than 79*888
square leagues' /rom the confluence of the A%ure* as far as the delta
of the >rinoco* it is uniforml" three or four leagues removed from the
right bank of the great riverP onl" some rocks of gneissHgranite*
am%hibolic slate and greenstone advance as far as the bed of the
>rinoco and create the ra%ids of Torno and of =a Boca del +nfierno'-
N- To this series of advanced rocks also belong those &hich %ierce the
soil bet&een the Rio Aquire and the Rio BarimaP the granitic and
am%hibolic rocks of the ieja Gua"ana and of the to&n of AngosturaP
the $erro de Cono on the southHeast of Cuitaco or Real $oronoP the
$erro of Taramuto near the Alta Gracia* etc'O + shall name
successivel"* from northHnorthHeast to southHsouthH&est* the different
chains seen b" C' Bon%land and m"self as &e a%%roached the equator and
the river AmaRon' /irst' The most northern chain of the &hole s"stem
of the mountains of Parime a%%eared to us to be that &hich stretches
Nlatitude 3 degrees 98 minutesO from the Rio Arui* in the meridian of
the ra%ids of $amiseta* at the back of the to&n of Angostura* to&ards
the great cataracts of the Rio $aron" and the sources of the +mataca'
+n the missions of the $atalonian $a%uchins this chain* &hich is not
!88 toises high* se%arates the tributar" streams of the >rinoco and
those of the Rio $u"uni* bet&een the to&n of ?%ata* $u%a%ui and 0anta
Carta' .est&ard of the meridian of the ra%ids of $amiseta Nlongitude
L3 degrees 18 minutesO the high mountains in the basin of the Rio
$aura onl" commence at 3 degrees 78 minutes of latitude* on the south
of the mission of 0an =uis Guaraguaraico* &here the" occasion the
ra%ids of Cura' This chain stretches &est&ard b" the sources of the
Rio $uchivero* the $erros del Cato* the $erbatana and Cania%ure* as
far as Te%u%ano* a grou% of strangel"Hformed granitic rocks
surrounding the Encaramada' The culminant %oints of this chain
Nlatitude 3 degrees 18 minutes to 3 degrees 7I minutesO are* according
to the information + gathered from the +ndians* situated near the
sources of $ano de la Tortuga' +n the chain of the Encaramada there
are some traces of gold' This chain is also celebrated in the
m"tholog" of the TamanacsP for the %ainted rocks it contains are
associated &ith ancient local traditions' The >rinoco changes its
direction at the confluence of the A%ure* breaking a %art of the chain
of the Encaramada' The latter mountains and scattered rocks in the
%lain of the $a%uchino and on the north of $abruta ma" be considered
either as the vestiges of a destro"ed s%ur or Non the h"%othesis of
the igneous origin of graniteO as %artial eru%tions and u%heavings' +
shall not here discuss the question &hether the most northerl" chain*
that of Angostura and of the great fall of $aron"* be a continuation
of the chain of Encaramada' Third' +n navigating the >rinoco from
north to south &e observe* alternatel"* on the east* small %lains and
chains of mountains of &hich &e cannot distinguish the %rofiles* that
is* the sections %er%endicular to their longitudinal axes' /rom the
mission of the Encaramada to the mouth of the Rio Bama + counted seven
recurrences of this alternation of savannahs and high mountains'
/irst* on the south of the isle $ucuru%aru rises the chain of
$haviri%e Nlatitude 3 degrees 18 minutesOP it stretches* inclining
to&ards the south Nlatitude L degrees 78 minutes to L degrees ;8
minutesO* b" the $erros del $oroRal* the Amoco* and the Curcielago* as
far as the Erevato* a tributar" of the $aura' +t there forms the
ra%ids of Paru and is linked &ith the summits of Catacuna' /ourth' The
chain of $haviri%e is succeeded b" that of the Baraguan Nlatitude L
degrees 98 minutes to 3 degrees 9 minutesO* celebrated for the strait
of the >rinoco* to &hich it gives its name' The 0araguaca* or mountain
of ?ruana* com%osed of detached blocks of granite* ma" be regarded as
a northern s%ur of the chain of the Baraguan* stretching southH&est
to&ards 0iamacu and the mountains Nlatitude 9 degrees 98 minutesO that
se%arate the sources of the Erevato and the $aura from those of the
entuari' /ifth' The chain of $arichana and of Paruaci Nlatitude L
degrees 79 minutesO* &ild in as%ect* but surrounded b" charming
meado&s' Piles of granite cro&ned &ith trees and insulated rocks of
%rismatic form Nthe Cogote of $ocu"Ra and the Carimaruta or $astillito
of the 6esuitsO belong to this chain' 0ixth' >n the &estern bank of
the >rinoco* &hich is lo& and flat* the Peak of ?niana rises abru%tl"
more than !888 feet high' The s%urs Nlatitude 9 degrees !9 minutes to
9 degrees ;8 minutesO &hich this %eak sends east&ard are crossed b"
the >rinoco in the first Great $ataract Nthat of Ca%ura or the
AturesOP further on the" unite together and* rising in a chain*
stretch to&ards the sources of the $atania%o* the ra%ids of entuari*
situated on the north of the confluence of the Asisi Nlatitude 9
degrees 18 minutesO and the $erro $unevo' 0eventh' /ive leagues south
of the Atures is the chain of Buittuna* or of Ca"%ures Nlatitude 19
degrees 1! minutesO* &hich forms the bar of the 0econd Great $ataract'
@one of those loft" summits are situated on the &est of the >rinocoP
on the east of that river rises the $unavami* the truncated %eak of
$alitamini and the 6ujamari* to &hich /ather Gili attributes an
extraordinar" height' Eighth' The last chain of the southH&est %art of
the 0ierra Parime is se%arated b" &ood" %lains from the chain of
Ca"%uresP it is the chain of the $erros de 0i%a%o Nlatitude ; degrees
98 minutesOP an enormous &all behind &hich the %o&erful chief of the
Gua"%unabi +ndians intrenched himself during the ex%edition of 0olano'
The chain of 0i%a%o ma" be considered as the beginning of the range of
loft" mountains &hich bound* at the distance of some leagues* the
right bank of the >rinoco* &here that river runs from southHeast to
northH&est* bet&een the mouth of the entuari* the 6ao and the Padamo
Nlatitude ! degrees 19 minutesO' +n ascending the >rinoco* above the
cataract of Ca"%ures* &e find* long before &e reach the %oint &here it
turns* near 0an /ernando del Ataba%o* the mountains disa%%earing from
the bed of the river* and from the mouth of the Sama there are onl"
insulated rocks in the %lains' The chain of 0i%a%o forms the
southH&est limit of the s"stem of mountains of Parime* bet&een 38 1M7
and LI degrees of longitude' Codem geologists have observed that the
culminant %oints of a grou% are less frequentl" found at its centre
than to&ards one of its extremities* %receding* and announcing in some
sort* a great de%ression- of the chain' N- As seen in Cont Blanc and
$himboraRo'O This %henomenon is again observed in the grou% of the
Parime* the loftiest summits of &hich* the (uida and the Caraguaca*
are in the most southerl" range of mountains* &here the %lains of the
$assiquiare and the Rio @egro begin'
These %lains or savannahs &hich are covered &ith forests onl" in the
vicinit" of the rivers do not* ho&ever* exhibit the same uniform
continuit" as the =lanos of the =o&er >rinoco* of the Ceta and of
Buenos A"res' The" are interru%ted b" grou%s of hills N$erros de
(ariba%aO and b" insulated rocks of grotesque form &hich %ierce the
soil and from a distance fix the attention of the traveller' These
granitic and often stratified masses resemble the ruins of %illars or
edifices' The same force &hich u%heaved the &hole grou% of the 0ierra
Parime has acted here and there in the %lains as far as be"ond the
equator' The existence of these stee%s and s%oradic hills renders it
difficult to determine the %recise limits of a s"stem in &hich the
mountains are not longitudinall" ranged as in a vein' As &e advance
to&ards the frontier of the Portuguese %rovince of the Rio @egro the
high rocks become more rare and &e no longer find the shelves or d"kes
of gneissHgranite &hich cause ra%ids and cataracts in the rivers'
0uch is the surface of the soil bet&een LI 1M7 and 38 1M7 degrees of
longitude* bet&een the meridian of the bifurcation of the >rinoco and
that of 0an /ernando de Ataba%oP further on* &est&ard of the ?%%er Rio
@egro* to&ards the source of that river* and its tributar" streams the
Jie and the ?au%es Nlatitude 1 to 7 1M; degrees* longitude 37 to 3;
degreesO lies a small mountainous tableland* in &hich +ndian
traditions %lace a =aguna de oro* that is* a lake surrounded &ith beds
of auriferous earth'- N- According to the journals of Acunha and /ritR
the Canao +ndians NCanoasO obtained from the banks of the ,quiari
N+guiare or +guareO gold of &hich the" made thin %lates' The
manuscri%t notes of (on A%ollinario also mention the gold of the Rio
?au%es' =a $ondamine* o"age a lGAmaRone' .e must not confound the
=aguna de >ro* &hich is said to be found in going u% the ?au%es Nnorth
latitude 8 degrees ;8 minutesO &ith another gold lake Nsouth latitude
1 degree 18 minutesO &hich =a $ondamine calls Carahi or Corachi
N&aterO* and &hich is merel" a tract often inundated bet&een the
sources of the 6urubech N?rubaxiO and the Rio Carahi* a tributar"
stream of the $aqueta'O At Caroa* the most &esterl" mission of the Rio
@egro* the +ndians assured me that that river as &ell as the +nirida
Na tributar" of the GuavareO rises at the distance of five da"sG
march* in a countr" bristled &ith hills and rocks' The natives of 0an
Carcellino s%eak of a 0ierra Tunuh"* nearl" thirt" leagues &est of
their village* bet&een the Jie and the +canna' =a $ondamine learned
also from the +ndians of the AmaRon that the Buiquiari comes from a
countr" of mountains and mines' @o&* the +quiari is %laced b" the
/rench astronomer bet&een the equator and the mouth of the Jie N+jieO*
&hich identifies it &ith the +guiare that falls into the +canna' .e
cannot advance in the geologic kno&ledge of America &ithout having
continuall" recourse to the researches of com%arative geogra%h"' The
small s"stem of mountains* &hich &e ma" %rovisionall" call that of the
sources of the Rio @egro and the ?au%es* and the culminant %oints of
&hich are not %robabl" more than 188 or 178 toises high* a%%ears to
extend south&ard to the basin of Rio ,u%ura* &here rock" ridges form
the cataracts of the Rio de los Enganos and the 0alto Grande de ,u%ura
Nsouth latitude 8 degrees ;8 minutes to north latitude 8 degrees 7I
minutesO* and the basin of the ?%%er Guaviare to&ards the &est' .e
find in the course of this river* from L8 to 38 leagues &est of 0an
/ernando del Ataba%o* t&o &alls of rocks bounding the strait Nnearl" !
degrees 18 minutes north latitude and 3! !M; degrees longitudeO &here
father Caiella terminated his excursion' That missionar" told me that*
in going u% the Guaviare* he %erceived near the strait NangosturaO a
chain of mountains bounding the horiRon on the south' +t is not kno&n
&hether those mountains traverse the Guaviare more to the &est* and
join the s%urs &hich advance from the eastern $ordillera of @e&
Grenada* bet&een the Rio ?madea and the Rio Ariari* in the direction
of the savannahs of 0an 6uan de los =lanos' + doubt the existence of
this junction' +f it reall" existed* the %lains of the =o&er >rinoco
&ould communicate &ith those of the AmaRon onl" b" a ver" narro&
landHstrait* on the east of the mountainous countr" &hich surrounds
the source of the Rio @egro5 but it is more %robable that this
mountainous countr" Na small s"stem of mountains* geognosticall"
de%endent on the 0ierra ParimeO forms as it &ere an island in the
=lanos of Guaviare and ,u%ura' /ather Pugnet* Princi%al of the
/ranciscan convent at Po%a"an* assured me* that &hen he &ent from the
missions settled on the Rio $aguan to Aramo* a village situated on the
Rio Gua"avero* he found onl" treeless savannahs* extending as far as
the e"e could reach' The chain of mountains %laced b" several modern
geogra%hers* bet&een the Ceta and the ichada* and &hich a%%ears to
link the Andes of @e& Grenada &ith the 0ierra Parime* is altogether
imaginar"'
.e have no& examined the %rolongation of the 0ierra Parime on the
&est* to&ards the source of the Rio @egro5 it remains for us to follo&
the same grou% in its eastern direction' The mountains of the ?%%er
>rinoco* east&ard of the Raudal of the Guaharibos Nnorth latitude 1
degree 19 minutes longitude L3 degrees !I minutesO* join the chain of
Pacaraina* &hich divides the &aters of the $aron" and the Rio Branco*
and of &hich the micaceous schist* res%lendent &ith silver" lustre*
figures so cons%icuousl" in RaleighGs El (orado' The %art of that
chain containing the sources of the >rinoco has not "et been ex%loredP
but its %rolongation more to the east* bet&een the meridian of the
militar" %ost of Guirior and the Ru%unuri* a tributar" of the
Essequibo* is kno&n to me through the travels of the 0%aniards Antonio
0antos and @icolas RodrigueR* and also b" the geodesic labours of t&o
Portuguese* Pontes and Almeida' T&o %ortages but little frequented-
are situated bet&een the Rio Branco and the Rio Essequibo* south of
the chain of PacarainaP the" shorten the landHroad leading from the
illa del Rio @egro to (utch Guiana' N- The %ortages of 0arauru and
the lake Amucu'O >n the contrar"* the %ortage bet&een the basin of the
Rio Branco and that of the $aron" crosses the summit of the chain of
Pacaraina' >n the northern slo%e of this chain rises the Anoca%ra* a
tributar" of the Paraguamusi or ParavamusiP and on the southern slo%e*
the Araicuque* &hich* &ith the ?rarica%ara* forms the famous alle" of
+nundations* above the destro"ed mission of 0anta Rosa Nlatitude !
degrees ;L minutes* longitude L9 degrees 18 minutesO' The %rinci%al
$ordillera* &hich a%%ears of little breadth* stretches on a length of
I8 leagues* from the %ortage of Anoca%ra Nlongitude L9 degrees !9
minutesO to the left bank of the Ru%unuri Nlongitude L1 degrees 98
minutesO* follo&ing the %arallels of ; degrees ; minutes and ; degrees
17 minutes' .e there distinguish from &est to east the mountains of
Pacaraina* Ti%ique* Tau"ana* among &hich rises the Rio Parime Na
tributar" of the ?raricueraO* Tubachi* $hristaux Nlatitude ! degrees
9L minutes* longitude L7 degrees 97 minutesO and $ano%iri' The 0%anish
traveller* RodrigueR* marks the eastern %art of the chain b" the name
of Buimiro%acaP but %referring to ado%t general names* + continue to
give the name of Pacaraina to the &hole of this $ordillera &hich links
the mountains of the >rinoco to the interior of (utch and /rench
Guiana* and &hich Raleigh and Ae"mis made kno&n in Euro%e at the end
of the 1Lth centur"' This chain is broken b" the Ru%unuri and the
Essequibo* so that one of their tributar" streams* the Tavaricuru*
takes its rise on the southern declivit"* and the other* the 0ibarona*
on the northern' >n a%%roaching the Essequibo* the mountains are more
develo%ed to&ards the southHeast* and extend be"ond 7 1M7 degrees
north latitude' /rom this eastern branch of the chain of Pacaraina the
Rio Ru%unuri rises near the $erro ?assari' >n the right bank of the
Rio Branco* in a still more southern latitude Nbet&een 1 and 7 degrees
northO is a mountainous territor" in &hich the $aritamini* the
Padaviri* the $ababuri N$avaburisO and the Pacimoni take their source*
from east to &est' This &estern branch of the mountains of Pacaraina
se%arates the basin of Rio Branco from that of the ?%%er >rinoco* the
sources of &hich are %robabl" not found east of the meridian of LL 19
minutes5 it is linked &ith the mountains of ?nturan and ,umariquin*
situated southHeast of the mission of Esmeralda' Thence it results
that* &hile on the &est of the $assiquiare* bet&een that river* the
Ataba%o* and the Rio @egro* &e find onl" vast %lains* in &hich rise
some little hills and insulated rocksP real s%urs stretch east&ard of
the $assiquiare* from northH&est to southHeast* and form a continued
mountainous territor" as far as 7 degrees north latitude' The basin
onl"* or rather the transversal valle" of the Rio Branco* forms a kind
of gulf* a succession of %lains and savannahs Ncam%osO several of
&hich %enetrate from south to north* into the mountainous land bet&een
the eastern and &estern branches of the chain of Pacaraina* to the
distance of eight leagues north of the %arallel of 0an 6oaquin'
.e have just examined the southern %art of the vast s"stem of the
mountains of Parime* bet&een 7 and ; degrees of latitude* and bet&een
the meridians of the sources of the >rinoco and the Essequibo' The
develo%ment of this s"stem of mountains north&ard bet&een the chain of
Pacaraina and Rio $u"uni* and bet&een the meridians LL and L1 !M;
degrees* is still less kno&n' The onl" road frequented b" &hite men is
that of the river Paragua* &hich receives the Paraguamusi* near the
Guirior' .e find indeed* in the journal of @icolas RodrigueR* that he
&as constantl" obliged to have his canoe carried b" men NarrastrandoO
%ast the cataracts &hich interce%t the navigationP but &e must not
forget a circumstance of &hich m" o&n ex%erience furnished me &ith
frequent %roofsHHthat the cataracts in this %art of 0outh America are
often caused onl" b" ridges of rocks &hich do not form mountains'
RodrigueR names but t&o bet&een Barceloneta and the mission of 0an
6oseP &hile the missionaries %lace more to the east* in L degrees
latitude* bet&een the Rio $aroni and the $u"uni* the 0erranias of
?su%ama and Rinocote' The latter crosses the CaRaruni* and forms
thirt"Hnine cataracts in the Essequibo* from the militar" %ost of
Arinda Nlatitude 9 degrees !8 minutesO to the mouth of Ru%unuri'
.ith res%ect to the continuation of the s"stem of the mountains of
Parime* southHeast of the meridian of the Essequibo* the materials are
entirel" &anting for tracing it &ith %recision' The &hole interior of
(utch* /rench and Portuguese Guiana is a terra incognitaP and the
astronomical geogra%h" of those countries has scarcel" made an"
%rogress during the s%ace of thirt" "ears' +f the American limits
recentl" fixed bet&een /rance and Portugal should one da" cease to be
mere di%lomatic illusions and acquire realit" in being traced on the
territor" b" means of astronomical observations Nas &as %rojected in
1I13O* this undertaking &ould lead geogra%hical engineers to that
unkno&n region &hich* at ! 1M7 degrees &est of $a"enne* divides the
&aters bet&een the coast of Guiana and the AmaRon' Till that %eriod*
&hich the %olitical state of BraRil seems to retard* the geognostic
table of the grou% of Parime can onl" be com%leted b" scattered
notions collected in the Portuguese and (utch colonies' +n going from
the ?assari mountains Nlatitude 7 degrees 79 minutes* longitude L1
degrees 98 minutesO &hich form a %art of the eastern branch of the
$ordillera of Pacaraina* &e find to&ards the east a chain of
mountains* called b" the missionaries Acara" and Tumucuraque' Those
t&o names are found on our ma%s bet&een 1M7 and ! degrees north
latitude' Raleigh first made kno&n* in 192L* the s"stem of the
mountains of Parime* bet&een the sources of the Rio $aron" and the
Essequibo* b" the name of .acarima NPacarimaO* and the 6esuits Acunha
and Artedia furnished* in 1L!2* the first %recise notions of that %art
of this s"stem &hich extends from the meridian of Essequibo to that of
>"a%oc' There the" %lace the mountains of ,guaracuru and Paraguaxo*
the former of &hich gives birth to a gold river NRio de oroO* a
tributar" of the $uru%atubaP- N- .hen &e kno& that in Tamanac gold is
called caricuriP in $arib* caricura5 in Peruvian* cori NcuriO* &e
easil" recogniRe in the names of the mountains and rivers
N,guaraHcuru* $uraH%atubaO &hich &e have just marked* the indication
of auriferous soil' 0uch is the analog" of the im%orted roots in the
American tongues* &hich other&ise differ altogether from each other*
that !88 leagues &est of the mountain ,garacuru* on the banks of the
$aqueta* Pedro de ?rsua heard of the %rovince of $aricuri* rich in
gold &ashings' The $uru%atuba falls into the AmaRon near the illa of
Conte Alegre* northHeast of the mouth of the Rio To%a"os'OP and
according to the assertion of the natives* subterraneous noises are
sometimes heard from the latter' The ridge of this chain of mountains*
&hich runs in a direction south I9 degrees east from the %eak of (uida
near the Esmeralda Nlatitude ! degrees 12 minutesO* to the ra%ids of
the Rio Cana"e near $a%e @ord Nlatitude 1 degree 98 minutesO* divides*
in the %arallel of 7 degrees* the northern sources of the Essequibo*
the Caroni and the >"a%oc* from the southern sources of the Rio
Trombetas* $uru%atuba and Paru' The most southern s%urs of this chain
a%%roach nearer to the AmaRon* at the distance of fifteen leagues'
These are the first heights &hich &e %erceived after having left
Jeberos and the mouth of the Huallaga' The" are constantl" seen in
navigating from the mouth of the Rio To%a"o to&ards that of Paru* from
the to&n of 0antarem to Almeirim' The %eak Tri%ou%ou is nearl" in the
meridian of the former of those to&ns and is celebrated among the
+ndians of ?%%er Caroni' +t is said that farther east&ard* at Celgaco*
the 0erras do elho and do Paru are still distinguished in the
horiRon' The real boundaries of this series of sources of the Rio
Trombetas are better kno&n south&ard than north&ard* &here a
mountainous countr" a%%ears to advance in (utch and /rench Guiana* as
far as &ithin t&ent" to t&ent"Hfive leagues of the coast' The numerous
cataracts of the rivers of 0urinam* Caroni and >"a%oc* %rove the
extent and the %rolongation of rock" ridgesP but in those regions
nothing indicates the existence of continued %lains or tableHlands
some hundred toises high* fitted for the cultivation of the %lants of
the tem%erate Rone'
The s"stem of the mountains of Parime sur%asses in extent nineteen
times that of the &hole of 0&itRerland' Even considering the
mountainous grou% of the sources of the Rio @egro and the Jie as
inde%endent or insulated amidst the %lains* &e still find the 0ierra
Parime Nbet&een Ca"%ures and the sources of the >"a%ocO to be !;8
leagues in lengthP its greatest breadth Nthe rocks of +mataca* near
the delta of the >rinoco* at the sources of the Rio ParuO is 1;8
leagues' +n the grou% of the Parime* as &ell as in the grou% of the
mountains of central Asia* bet&een the Himala"a and the Altai* the
%artial chains are often interru%ted and have no uniform %arallelism'
To&ards the southH&est* ho&ever Nbet&een the strait of Baraguan* the
mouth of the Rio Sama and the EsmeraldaO* the line of the mountains is
generall" in the direction of north 38 degrees &est' 0uch is also the
%osition of a distant coast* that of Portuguese* /rench* (utch and
English Guiana* from $a%e @orth to the mouth of the >rinocoP such is
the mean direction of the course of the Rio @egro and ,u%ura' +t is
desirable to fix our attention on the angles formed b" the %artial
chains* in different regions of America* &ith the meridiansP because
on less extended surfaces* for instance in German"* &e find also this
singular coHexistence of grou%s of neighbouring mountains follo&ing
la&s of direction altogether different* though ever" se%arate grou%
exhibits the greatest uniformit" in the line of chains'
The soil on &hich the mountains of Parime rise* is slightl" convex' B"
barometric measures + found that* bet&een ! and ; degrees north
latitude* the %lains are elevated from 1L8 to 1I8 toises above
seaHlevel' This height &ill a%%ear considerable if &e reflect that at
the foot of the Andes of Peru* at Tome%enda* 288 leagues from the
coast of the Atlantic >cean* the =lanos or %lains of the AmaRon rise
onl" to the height of 12; toises' The distinctive characteristics of
the grou% of the mountains of Parime are the rocks of granite and
gneissHgranite* the total absence of calcareous secondar" formations*
and the shelves of bare rock Nthe ts" of the $hinese desertsO* &hich
occu%" immense s%aces in the savannahs'
9' GR>?P >/ THE BRAS+= C>?@TA+@0'
This grou% has hitherto been marked on the ma%s in a ver" erroneous
&a"' The tem%erate tableHlands and real chains of !88 to 988 toises
high have been confounded &ith countries of exceedingl" hot
tem%erature* and of &hich the undulating surface %resents onl" ranges
of hills variousl" grou%ed' But the observations of scientific
travellers have recentl" thro&n great light on the orogra%h" of
Portuguese America' The mountainous region of BraRil* of &hich the
mean height rises at least to ;88 toises* is com%rehended &ithin ver"
narro& limits* nearl" bet&een 1I and 7I degrees south latitudeP it
does not a%%ear to extend* bet&een the %rovinces of Go"aR and
Catogrosso* be"ond longitude 9! degrees &est of the meridian of Paris'
.hen &e regard in one vie& the eastern configuration of @orth and
0outh America* &e %erceive that the coast of BraRil and Guiana* from
$a%e 0aint Roque to the mouth of the >rinoco Nstretching from
southHeast to northH&estO* corres%onds &ith that of =abrador* as the
coast from $a%e 0aint Roque to the Rio de la Plata corres%onds &ith
that of the ?nited 0tates Nstretching from southH&est to northHeastO'
The chain of the Alleghenies is o%%osite to the latter coast* as the
%rinci%al $ordilleras of BraRil are nearl" %arallel to the shore of
the %rovinces of Porto 0eguro* Rio 6aneiro and Rio Grande' The
Alleghenies* generall" com%osed of grau&acke and transition rocks* are
some&hat loftier than the almost %rimitive mountains Nof granite*
gneiss and micaHslateO of the BraRilian grou%P the" are also of a far
more sim%le structure* their chains l"ing nearer to each other and
%reserving* as in the 6ura* a more uniform %arallelism'
+f* instead of com%aring those %arts of the ne& continent situated
north and south of the equator* &e confine ourselves to 0outh America*
&e find on the &estern and northern coasts in their &hole length* a
continued chain near the shore Nthe Andes and the $ordillera of
eneRuelaO* &hile the eastern coast %resents masses of more or less
loft" mountains onl" bet&een the 17 and !8 degrees south latitude' +n
this s%ace* !L8 leagues in length* the s"stem of the BraRil mountains
corres%onds geologicall" in form and %osition &ith the Andes of $hile
and Peru' +ts most considerable %ortion lies bet&een the %arallels 19
and 77 degrees* o%%osite the Andes of Potosi and =a PaR* but its mean
height is five toises less* and cannot even be com%ared &ith that of
the mountains of Parime* 6ura and Auvergne' The %rinci%al direction of
the BraRilian chains* &here the" attain the height of from four to
five hundred toises* is from south to north* and from southHsouthH&est
to northHnorthHeastP but* bet&een 1! and 12 degrees the chains are
considerabl" enlarged* and at the same time lo&ered to&ards the &est'
Ridges and ranges of hills seem to advance be"ond the landHstraits
&hich se%arate the sources of the Rio Aragua"* Parana* To%a"os*
Paragua"* Gua%ore and Agua%eh"* in L! degrees longitude' As the
&estern &idening of the BraRilian grou%* or rather the undulations of
the soil in the $am%os Parecis* corres%ond &ith the s%urs of 0anta
$ruR de la 0ierra* and Beni* &hich the Andes send out east&ard* it &as
formerl" concluded that the s"stem of the mountains of BraRil &as
linked &ith that of the Andes of ?%%er Peru' + m"self laboured under
this error in m" first geologic studies'
A coast chain N0erra do CarO runs nearl" %arallel &ith the coast*
northHeast of Rio 6aneiro* lo&ering considerabl" to&ards Rio (oce* and
losing itself almost entirel" near Bahia Nlatitude 17 degrees 9I
minutesO' According to C' Esch&ege- some small ridges reach $a%e 0aint
Roque Nlatitude 9 degrees 17 minutesO' N- Geognostiches Gemulde von
Brasilien* 1I77' The limestone of Bahia abounds in fossil &ood'O
0outhHeast of Rio 6aneiro the 0erra do Car follo&s the coast behind
the island of 0aint $atherine as far as Torres Nlatitude 72 degrees 78
minutesOP it there turns &est&ard and forms an elbo& stretching b" the
$am%os of acaria to&ards the banks of the 6acu"'
Another chain is situated &est&ard of the shoreHchain of BraRil' This
is the most loft" and considerable of all and is called the chain of
illarica' Cr' Esch&ege distinguishes it b" the name of 0erra do
Es%inhaco and considers it as the %rinci%al %art of the &hole
structure of the mountains of BraRil' This $ordillera loses itself
north&ard*- bet&een Cinas @ovas and the southern extremit" of the
$a%itania of Bahia* in 1L degrees latitude' N- The rock" ridges that
form the cataract of Paulo Affonso* in the Rio 0an /rancisco* are
su%%osed to belong to the northern %rolongation of the 0erra do
Es%inhaco* as a series of heights in the %rovince of 0eara Nfetid
calcareous rocks containing a quantit" of %etrified fishO belong to
the 0erra dos ertentes'O +t is there more than L8 leagues removed
from the coast of Porto 0eguroP but south&ard* bet&een the %arallels
of Rio 6aneiro and 0aint Paul Nlatitude 77 to 7! degreesO* in the knot
of the mountains of 0erra da Cantiquiera* it dra&s so near to the
$ordillera of the shore N0erra do CarO* that the" are almost
confounded together' +n the same manner the 0erra do Es%inhaco follo&s
constantl" the direction of a meridian* to&ards the northP &hile
to&ards the south it runs southHeast* and terminates about 79 degrees
latitude' The chain reaches its highest elevation bet&een 1I and 71
degreesP and there the s%urs and tableHlands at its back are of
sufficient extent to furnish lands for cultivation &here* at
successive heights* there are tem%erate climates com%arable to the
delicious climates of Jala%a* Guaduas* $aracas and $ari%e' This
advantage* &hich de%ends at once on the &idening of the mass of the
chain and of its s%urs* is no&here found in the same degree east of
the Andes* not even in chains of more considerable absolute height* as
those of eneRuela and the >rinoco' The culminant %oints of the 0erra
do Es%inhaco* in the $a%itania of Cinas Geraes* are the +tambe N2!7
toisesO* the 0erra da Piedade* near 0abara N218 toisesO* the
+tacolumi* %ro%erl" +tacunumi N288 toisesO* the Pico of +tabira NI1L
toisesO* the 0erras of $araca* +biti%oca and Pa%aga"o' 0aint Hilaire
felt %iercing cold in the month of @ovember Ntherefore in summerO in
the &hole $ordillera of =a%a* from the illa do Princi%e to the Corro
de Gas%ar 0uares'
.e have just noticed t&o chains of mountains nearl" %arallel but of
&hich the most extensive Nthe littoral chainO is the least loft"' The
ca%ital of BraRil is situated at the %oint &here the t&o chains dra&
nearest together and are linked together on the east of the 0erra de
Cantiqueira* if not b" a transversal ridge* at least b" a mountainous
territor"' >ld s"stematic ideas res%ecting the rising of mountains in
%ro%ortion as &e advance into a countr"* &ould have &arranted the
belief that there existed* in the $a%itania of Cato Grosso* a central
$ordillera much loftier than that of illarica or do Es%inhacoP but &e
no& kno& Nand this is confirmed b" climateric circumstancesO that
there exists no continued chain* %ro%erl" s%eaking* &est&ard of Rio
0an /rancisco* on the frontiers of Cinas Geraes and Go"aR' .e find
onl" a grou% of mountains* of &hich the culminant %oints are the
0erras da $anastra NsouthH&est of ParacatuO and da Carcella Nlatitude
1I 1M7 and 12'18 degreesO* and* further north* the P"renees stretching
from east to &est Nlatitude 1L degrees 18 minutesO bet&een illaboa
and Ceja%onteO' C' Esch&ege has named the grou% of mountains of Go"aR
the 0erra dos ertentes* because it divides the &aters bet&een the
southern tributar" streams of the Rio Grande or Parana* and the
northern tributar" streams of Rio Tucantines' +t runs south&ard be"ond
the Rio Grande NParanaO* and a%%roaches the chain of Es%in%a%o in 7!
degrees latitude* b" the 0erra do /ranca' +t attains onl" the height
of !88 or ;88 toises* &ith the exce%tion of some summits northH&est of
Paracatu* and is consequentl" much lo&er than the chain of illarica'
/urther on* &est of the meridian of illaboa* there are onl" ridges
and a series of lo& hills &hich* on a length of 17 degrees* form the
division of &ater Nlatitude 1! to 13 degreesO bet&een the Aragua" and
the Paranaiba Na tributar" of the ParanaO* bet&een the Rio To%a"os and
the Paragua"* bet&een the Gua%ore and the Agua%eh"' The 0erra of 0an
Carta Nlongitude 19 1M7 degreesO is some&hat loft"* but ma%s have
vastl" exaggerated the height of the 0erras or $am%os Parecis north of
the to&ns of $u"aba and illabella Nlatitude 1! to 1; degrees*
longitude 9I to L7 degreesO' These $am%os* &hich take their name from
that of a tribe of &ild +ndians* are vast* barren tableHlands*
entirel" destitute of vegetationP and in them the sources of the
tributar" streams of three great rivers* the To%a"os* the Cadeira and
the Paragua"* take their rise'
According to the measures and geologic observations of C' Esch&ege*
the high summits of the 0erra do Car Nthe coastHchainO scarcel" attain
LL8 toisesP those of the 0erra do Es%inhaco Nchain of illaricaO* 298
toisesP those of 0erra de los ertentes Ngrou% of $anastra and the
BraRilian P"reneesO* ;98 toises' /urther &est the surface of the soil
seems to %resent but slight undulationsP but no measure of height has
been made be"ond the meridian of illaboa' $onsidering the s"stem of
the mountains of BraRil in their real limits* &e find* exce%t some
conglomerates* the same absence of secondar" formations as in the
s"stem of the mountains of the >rinoco Ngrou% of ParimeO' These
secondar" formations* &hich rise to considerable heights in the
$ordillera of eneRuela and $umana* belong onl" to the lo& regions of
BraRil'
B' P=A+@0 N==A@>0O >R BA0+@0'
+n that %art of 0outh America situated on the east of the Andes &e
have successivel" examined three s"stems of mountains* those of the
shore of eneRuela* of the Parime and BraRil5 &e have seen that this
mountainous region* &hich equals the $ordillera of the Andes* not in
mass* but in area and horiRontal section of surface* is three times
less elevated* much less rich in %recious metals adhering to the rock*
destitute of recent traces of volcanic fire and* &ith the exce%tion of
the coast of eneRuela* little ex%osed to the violence of earthquakes'
The average height of the three s"stems diminishes from north to
south* from 398 to ;88 toisesP those of the culminant %oints Nmaxima
of the height of each grou%O from 1!98 to 1888 or 288 toises' Hence it
results that the loftiest chain* &ith the exce%tion of the small
insulated s"stem of the 0ierra @evada of 0anta Carta* is the
$ordillera of the shore of eneRuela* &hich is itself but a
continuation of the Andes' (irecting our attention north&ard* &e find
in $entral America Nlatitude 17 to !8 degreesO and @orth America
Nlatitude !8 to 38 degreesO* on the east of the Andes of Guatimala*
Cexico and ?%%er =ouisiana* the same regular lo&ering &hich struck us
to&ards the south' +n this vast extent of land* from the $ordillera of
eneRuela to the %olar circle* eastern America %resents t&o distinct
s"stems* the grou% of the mountains of the .est +ndies N&hich in its
eastern %art is volcanicO and the chain of the Alleghenies' The former
of these s"stems* %artl" covered b" the ocean* ma" be com%ared* &ith
res%ect to its relative %osition and form* to the 0ierra ParimeP the
latter* to the BraRil chains* running also from southH&est to
northHeast' The culminant %oints of those t&o s"stems rise to 11!I and
18;8 toises' 0uch are the elements of this curve* of &hich the convex
summit is in the littoral chain of eneRuela5
ACER+$A* EA0T >/ THE A@(E0'
$>=?C@ 1 5 0,0TEC0 >/ C>?@TA+@0'
$>=?C@ 7 5 CAJ+CA >/ HE+GHT0 +@ T>+0E0'
BraRil Grou% 5 +tacolumi 288 Nsouth latitude 78 1M7 degreesO'
Parime Grou% 5 (uida 1!88 Nnorth latitude ! 1M; degreesO'
=ittoral $hain of eneRuela 5 0illa of $aracas 1!98 Nnorth latitude 18
1M7 degreesO'
Grou% of the .est +ndies 5 Blue Countains 11!I Nnorth latitude 1I 1M9
degreesO'
$hain of the Alleghenies 5 Count .ashington 18;8 Nnorth latitude ;;
1M; degreesO'
+ have %referred indicating in this table the culminant %oints of each
s"stem to the mean height of the line of elevationP the culminant
%oints are the results of direct measures* &hile the mean height is an
abstract idea some&hat vague* %articularl" &hen there is onl" one
grou% of mountains* as in BraRil* Parime and the .est +ndies* and not
a continued chain' Although it cannot be doubted that* among the five
s"stems of mountains on the east of the Andes* of &hich one onl"
belongs to the southern hemis%here* the littoral chain of eneRuela is
the most elevated Nhaving a culminant %oint of 1!98 toises* and a mean
height from the line of elevation of 398O* &e "et recognise &ith
sur%rise that the mountains of eastern America N&hether continental or
insularO differ ver" inconsiderabl" in their height above the level of
the sea' The five grou%s are all nearl" of an average height of from
988 to 388 toisesP and the culminant %oints Nmaxima of the lines of
elevationO from 1888 to 1!88 toises' That uniformit" of structure* in
an extent t&ice as great as Euro%e* a%%ears to me a ver" remarkable
%henomenon' @o summit east of the Andes of Peru* Cexico and ?%%er
=ouisiana rises be"ond the limit of %er%etual sno&'- N- @ot even the
.hite Countains of the state of @e& Ham%shire* to &hich Count
.ashington belongs' =ong before the accurate measurement of $a%tain
Partridge + had %roved Nin 1I8;O* b" the la&s of the decrement of
heat* that no summit of the .hite Countains could attain the height
assigned to them b" Cr' $utler* of 1L88 toises'O +t ma" be added that*
&ith the exce%tion of the Alleghenies* no sno& falls s%oradicall" in
an" of the eastern s"stems &hich &e have just examined' /rom these
considerations it results* and above all* from the com%arison of the
@e& $ontinent &ith those %arts of the old &orld &hich &e kno& best*
&ith Euro%e and Asia* that America* thro&n into the aquatic
hemis%here- of our %lanet* is still more remarkable for the continuit"
and extent of the de%ressions of its surface* than for the height and
continuit" of its longitudinal ridge' Be"ond and &ithin the isthmus of
Panama* but east&ard of the $ordillera of the Andes* the mountains
scarcel" attain* over an extent of L88*888 square leagues* the height
of the 0candinavian Al%s* the $ar%athians* the ContsH(ores Nin
AuvergneO and the 6ura' N- The southern hemis%here* o&ing to the
unequal distribution of seas and continents* has long been marked as
eminentl" aquaticP but the same inequalit" is found &hen &e consider
the globe as divided not according to the equator but b" meridians'
The great masses of land are stinted bet&een the meridian of 18
degrees &est* and 198 degrees east of Paris* &hile the hemis%here
eminentl" aquatic begins &est&ard of the meridian of the coast of
Greenland* and ends on the east of the meridian of the eastern coast
of @e& Holland and the Aurile +sles' This unequal distribution of land
and &ater has the greatest influence on the distribution of heat over
the surface of the globe* on the inflexions of the isothermal lines*
and the climateric %henomena in general' /or the inhabitants of the
central %arts of Euro%e the aquatic hemis%here ma" be called &estern*
and the land hemis%here easternP because in going to the &est &e reach
the former sooner than the latter' +t is the division according to the
meridians* &hich is intended in the text' Till the end of the 19th
centur" the &estern hemis%here &as as much unkno&n to the nations of
the eastern hemis%here* as one half of the lunar globe is to us at
%resent* and &ill %robabl" al&a"s remain'O >ne s"stem onl"* that of
the Andes* com%rises in America* over a long and narro& Rone of !888
leagues* all the summits exceeding 1;88 toises high' +n Euro%e* on the
contrar"* even considering the Al%s and the P"renees as one sole line
of elevation* &e still find summits far from this line or %rinci%al
ridge* in the 0ierra @evada of Grenada* 0icil"* Greece* the A%ennines*
%erha%s also in Portugal* from 1988 to 1I88 toises high'- N- $ulminant
%ointsP Calhacen of Grenada* 1I7L toisesP Etna* according to $a%tain
.illiam Henr" 0mith* 1388 toisesP Conte $orno of the A%ennines* 1;I2
toises' +f Count Tomoros in Greece and the 0erra Gaviarra of Portugal
enter* as is alleged* into the limit of %er%etual sno&* those summits*
according to their %osition in latitude* should attain from 1;88 to
1L88 toises' ,et on the loftiest mountains of Greece* Tomoros* >l"m%us
in Thessal"* Pol"anos in (olo%e and Count Parnassus* C' Pouqueville
sa&* in the month of August* sno& l"ing onl" in %atches* and in
cavities sheltered from the ra"s of the sun'O The contrast bet&een
America and Euro%e* &ith res%ect to distribution of the culminant
%oints* &hich attain from 1!88 to 1988 toises* is the more striking*
as the lo& eastern mountains of 0outh America* of &hich the maximum of
elevation is onl" from 1!88 to 1;88 toises* are situated beside a
$ordillera of &hich the mean height exceeds 1I88 toises* &hile the
secondar" s"stem of the mountains of Euro%e rises to maxima of
elevation of 1988 to 1I88 toises* near a %rinci%al chain of at least
1788 toises of average height'
CAJ+CA >/ THE =+@E >/ E=EAT+>@ +@ THE 0ACE PARA==E=0'
Andes of $hile* ?%%er Peru' Anots of the mountains of Porco and $uRco*
7988 toises' 5 Grou% of the BraRil CountainsP a little lo&er than the
$evennes 288 to 1888 toises'
Andes of Po%a"an and $undinamarca' $hain of Guacas* Buindiu* and
Antioquia' Core than 7I88 toises' 5 Grou% of Parime CountainsP little
lo&er than the $ar%athiansP 1!88 toises'
+nsulated grou% of the 0no&" Countains of 0anta Carta' +t is believed
to be !888 toises high' 5 =ittoral $hain of eneRuelaP I8 toises lo&er
than the 0candinavian Al%sP 1!98 toises'
olcanic Andes of Guatimala* and %rimitive Andes of >axaca* from 1388
to 1I88 toises' 5 Grou% of the .est +ndies* 138 toises higher than the
mountains of Auvergne* 11;8 toises'
Andes of @e& Cexico and ?%%er =ouisiana NRock" CountainsO and further
&est' The Caritime Al%s of @e& Albion* 1L88 to 1288 toises' 5 $hain of
the AllegheniesP 1L8 toises higher than the chains of 6ura and the
Gates of CalabarP 18;8 toises'
This table contains the &hole s"stem of mountains of the @e&
$ontinentP namel"5 the Andes* the maritime Al%s of $alifornia or @e&
Albion and the five grou%s of the east'
+ ma" subjoin to the facts + have just stated an observation equall"
strikingP in Euro%e the maxima of secondar" s"stems* &hich exceed 1988
toises* are found solel" on the south of the Al%s and P"renees* that
is* on the south of the %rinci%al continental ridge' The" are situated
on the side &here that ridge a%%roaches nearest the shore* and &here
the Cediterranean has not over&helmed the land' >n the north of the
Al%s and P"renees* on the contrar"* the most elevated secondar"
s"stems* the $ar%athian and the 0candinavian mountains- do not attain
the height of 1!88 toises' N- The =omnitRer 0%itR of the $ar%athians
is* according to C' .ahlenberg* 17;9 toisesP 0neehattan* in the chain
of (ovrefjeld in @or&a" Nthe highest summit of the old continent*
north of the %arallel of 99 degreesO* is 1738'O The de%ression of the
line of elevation of the second order is consequentl" found in Euro%e
as &ell as in America* &here the %rinci%al ridge is farthest removed
from the shore' +f &e did not fear to subject great %henomena to too
small a scale* &e might com%are the difference of the height of the
Al%s and the mountains of eastern America* &ith the difference of
height observable bet&een the Al%s or the P"renees* and the Conts
(ores* the 6ura* the osges or the Black /orest'
.e have just seen that the causes &hich u%heaved the oxidated crust of
the globe in ridges* or in grou%s of mountains* have not acted ver"
%o&erfull" in the vast extent of countr" stretching from the eastern
%art of the Andes to&ards the >ld .orldP that de%ression and that
continuit" of %lains are geologic facts* the more remarkable* as the"
extend no&here else in other latitudes' The five mountain s"stems of
eastern America* of &hich &e have stated the limits* divide that %art
of the continent into an equal number of basins of &hich onl" that of
the $aribbean 0ea remains submerged' /rom north to south* from the
%olar circle to the 0traits of Cagellan* &e see in succession5
1' THE BA0+@ >/ THE C+00+00+PP+ A@( >/ $A@A(A'
An able geologist* Cr' Ed&in 6ames* has recentl" sho&n that this basin
is com%rehended bet&een the Andes of @e& Cexico* or ?%%er =ouisiana*
and the chains of the Alleghenies &hich stretch north&ard in crossing
the ra%ids of Buebec' +t being quite as o%en north&ard as south&ard*
it ma" be designated b" the collective name of the basin of the
Cississi%%i* the Cissouri* the river 0t' =a&rence* the great lakes of
$anada* the CackenRie river* the 0askatche&an and the coast of
HudsonGs Ba"' The tributar" streams of the lakes and those of the
Cississi%%i are not se%arated b" a chain of mountains running from
east to &est* as traced on several ma%sP the line of %artition of the
&aters is marked b" a slight ridge* a rising of t&o counterHslo%es in
the %lain' There is no chain bet&een the sources of the Cissouri and
the Assineboine* &hich is a branch of the Red River and of HudsonGs
Ba"' The surface of these %lains* almost all savannah* bet&een the
%olar sea and the gulf of Cexico* is more than 738*888 square sea
leagues* nearl" equal to the area of the &hole of Euro%e' >n the north
of the %arallel of ;7 degrees the general slo%e of the land runs
east&ardP on the south of that %arallel it inclines south&ard' To form
a %recise idea ho& little abru%t are these slo%es &e must recollect
that the level of =ake 0u%erior is 188 toisesP that of =ake Erie* II
toises* and that of =ake >ntario* !L toises above the level of the
sea' The %lains around $incinnati Nlatitude !2 degrees L minutesO are
scarcel"* according to Cr' (rake* I8 toises of absolute height'
To&ards the &est* bet&een the >Rark mountains and the foot of the
Andes of ?%%er =ouisiana NRock" Countains* latitude !9 to !I degreesO*
the basin of the Cississi%%i is considerabl" elevated in the vast
desert described b" Cr' @uttal' +t %resents a series of small
tableHlands* graduall" rising one above another* and of &hich the most
&esterl" Nthat nearest the Rock" Countains* bet&een the Arkansas and
the PadoucaO* is more than ;98 toises high' Cajor =ong measured a base
to determine the %osition and height of 6ames Peak' +n the great basin
of the Cississi%%i the line that se%arates the forests and the
savannahs runs* not* as ma" be su%%osed* in the manner of a %arallel*
but like the Atlantic coast* and the Alleghen" mountains themselves*
from northHeast to southH&est* from Pittsburg to&ards 0aint =ouis* and
the Red River of @achitoches* so that the northern %art onl" of the
state of +llinois is covered &ith gramina' This line of demarcation is
not onl" interesting for the geogra%h" of %lants* but exerts* as &e
have said above* great influence in retarding culture and %o%ulation
northH&est of the =o&er Cississi%%i' +n the ?nited 0tates the %rairie
countries are more slo&l" coloniRedP and even the tribes of
inde%endent +ndians are forced b" the rigour of the climate to %ass
the &inter on the banks of rivers* &here %o%lars and &illo&s are
found' The basins of the Cississi%%i* of the lakes of $anada and the
0t' =a&rence* are the largest in AmericaP and though the total
%o%ulation does not rise at %resent be"ond three millions* it ma" be
considered as that in &hich* bet&een latitude 72 and ;9 degrees
Nlongitude 3; to 2; degreesO* civiliRation has made the greatest
%rogress' +t ma" even be said that in the other basins Nof the
>rinoco* the AmaRon and Buenos A"resO agricultural life scarcel"
existsP it begins* on a small number of %oints onl"* to su%ersede
%astoral life* and that of fishing and hunting nations' The %lains
bet&een the Alleghenies and the Andes of ?%%er =ouisiana are of such
vast extent that* like the Pam%as of $hoco and Buenos A"res* bamboos
N=udolfia miegaO and %almHtrees gro& at one extremit"* &hile the
other* during a great %art of the "ear* is covered &ith ice and sno&'
7' THE BA0+@ >/ THE G?=/ >/ CEJ+$>* A@( >/ THE $AR+BBEA@ 0EA'
This is a continuation of the basin of the Cississi%%i* =ouisiana and
HudsonGs Ba"' +t ma" be said that all the lo& lands on the coast of
eneRuela situated north of the littoral chain and of the 0ierra
@evada de Cerida belong to the submerged %art of this basin' +f +
treat here se%aratel" of the basin of the $aribbean 0ea* it is to
avoid confounding &hat* in the %resent state of the globe* is %artl"
above and %artl" belo& the ocean' The recent coincidence of the
%eriods of earthquakes observed at $aracas and on the banks of the
Cississi%%i* the Arkansas and the >hio* justifies the geologic
theories &hich regard as one basin the %lains bounded on the south* b"
the littoral $ordillera of eneRuelaP on the east* b" the Alleghenies
and the series of the volcanoes of the .est +ndiesP and on the &est*
b" the Rock" Countains NCexican AndesO and b" the series of the
volcanoes of Guatimala' The basin of the .est +ndies forms* as &e have
alread" observed* a Cediterranean &ith several issues* the influence
of &hich on the %olitical destinies of the @e& $ontinent de%ends at
once on its central %osition and the great fertilit" of its islands'
The outlets of the basin* of &hich the four largest- are 39 miles
broad* are all on the eastern side* o%en to&ards Euro%e* and agitated
b" the current of the tro%ics' N- Bet&een Tobago and GrenadaP 0aint
Cartin and the irgin +slesP Porto Rico and 0aint (omingoP and bet&een
the =ittle Bank of Bahama and $a%e $anaveral of /lorida'O +n the same
manner as &e recogniRe* in our Cediterranean* the vestiges of three
ancient basins b" the %roximit" of Rhodes* 0car%anto* $andia* and
$erigo* as &ell as b" that of $a%e 0orello of 0icil"* the island of
Pantelaria and $a%e Bon* in AfricaP so the basin of the .est +ndia
+slands* &hich exceeds the Cediterranean in extent* seems to %resent
the remains of ancient d"kes &hich join- $a%e $atoche of ,ucatan to
$a%e 0an Atonio of the island of $uba N- + do not %retend that this
h"%othesis of the ru%ture and the ancient continuit" of lands can be
extended to the eastern foot of the basin of the .est +ndies* that is*
to the series of the volcanic islands in a line from Trinidad to Porto
Rico'OP and that island to $a%e Tiburon of 0t' (omingoP 6amaica* the
Bank of =a ibora and the rock of 0erranilla to $a%e Gracias a (ios on
the Cosquito 0hore' /rom this situation of the most %rominent islands
and ca%es of the continent* there results a division into three
%artial basins' The most northerl" has long been distinguished b" a
%articular denomination* that of the Gulf of CexicoP the intermediar"
or central basin ma" be called the 0ea of Honduras* on account of the
gulf of that name &hich makes a %art of itP and the southern basin*
com%rehended bet&een the $aribbean +slands and the coast of eneRuela*
the isthmus of Panama* and the countr" of the Cosquito +ndians* &ould
form the $aribbean 0ea' The modern volcanic rocks distributed on the
t&o o%%osite banks of the basin of the .est +ndies on the east and
&est* but not on the north and south* is also a %henomenon &orth" of
attention' +n the $aribbean +slands* a grou% of volcanoes* %artl"
extinct and %artl" burning* stretches from 17 to 1I degreesP and in
the $ordilleras of Guatimala and Cexico from latitude 2 to 12 1M7
degrees' + noticed on the northH&est extremit" of the basin of the
.est +ndies that the secondar" formations di% to&ards southHeastP
along the coast of eneRuela rocks of gneiss and %rimitive micaHslate
di% to northH&est' The basalts* am"gdaloids* and trach"tes* &hich are
often surmounted b" tertiar" limestones* a%%ear onl" to&ards the
eastern and &estern banks'
!' THE BA0+@ >/ THE =>.ER >R+@>$>* >R THE P=A+@0 >/ E@ES?E=A'
This basin* like the %lains of =ombard"* is o%en to the east' +ts
limits are the littoral chain of eneRuela on the north* the eastern
$ordillera of @e& Grenada on the &est* and the 0ierra Parime on the
southP but as the latter grou% extends on the &est onl" to the
meridian of the cataracts of Ca"%ures Nlongitude 38 degrees !3
minutesO* there remains an o%ening or landHstrait* running from north
to south* b" &hich the =lanos of eneRuela communicate &ith the basin
of the AmaRon and the Rio @egro' .e must distinguish bet&een the basin
of the =o&er >rinoco* %ro%erl" so called Nnorth of that river and the
Rio A%ureO* and the %lains of Ceta and Guaviare' The latter occu%" the
s%ace bet&een the mountains of Parime and @e& Grenada' The t&o %arts
of this basin have an o%%osite directionP but being alike covered &ith
gramina* the" are usuall" com%rehended in the countr" under the same
denomination' Those =lanos extend* in the form of an arch* from the
mouth of the >rinoco* b" 0an /ernando de A%ure* to the confluence of
the Rio $aguan &ith the 6u%ura* consequentl" along a length of more
than !L8 leagues'
N!a'O PART >/ THE BA0+@ >/ E@ES?E=A R?@@+@G /R>C EA0T T> .E0T'
The general slo%e is east&ard* and the mean height from ;8 to 98
toises' The &estern bank of that great sea of verdure Nmar de "erbasO
is formed b" a grou% of mountains* several of &hich equal or exceed in
height the Peak of Teneriffe and Cont Blanc' >f this number are the
Paramos del AlmorRadero* $acota* =aura* Porquera* Cucuchies* Timotes*
and =as Rosas' The height of the northern and southern banks is
generall" less than 988 or L88 toises' +t is some&hat extraordinar"
that the maximum of the de%ression of the basin is not in its centre*
but on its southern limit* at the 0ierra Parime' +t is onl" bet&een
the meridians of $a%e $odera and $umana* &here a great %art of the
littoral $ordillera of eneRuela has been destro"ed* that the &aters
of the =lanos Nthe Rio ?nare and the Rio @everiO reach the northern
coast' The %artition ridge of this basin is formed b" small
tableHlands* kno&n b" the names of Cesas de Amana* Guani%a and 6onoro'
+n the eastern %art* bet&een the meridians L! and LL degrees* the
%lains or savannahs run south&ard be"ond the bed of the >rinoco and
the +mataca* and form Nas the" a%%roach the $ujuni and the EssequiboO
a kind of gulf along the 0ierra Pacaraina'
N!b'O PART >/ THE BA0+@ >/ E@ES?E=A R?@@+@G /R>C 0>?TH T> @>RTH'
The great breadth of this Rone of savannahs Nfrom 188 to 178 leaguesO
renders the denomination of landHstrait some&hat im%ro%er* at least if
it be not geognosticall" a%%lied to ever" communication of basins
bounded b" high $ordilleras' Perha%s this denomination more %ro%erl"
belongs to that %art in &hich is situated the grou% of almost unkno&n
mountains that surround the sources of the Rio @egro' +n the basin
com%rehended bet&een the eastern declivit" of the Andes of @e& Grenada
and the &estern %art of the 0ierra Parime* the savannahs* as &e have
observed above* stretch far be"ond the equatorP but their extent does
not determine the southern limits of the basin here under
consideration' These limits are marked b" a ridge &hich divides the
&aters bet&een the >rinoco and the Rio @egro* a tributar" stream of
the AmaRon' The rising of a counterHslo%e almost im%erce%tible to the
e"e* forms a ridge that seems to join the eastern $ordillera of the
Andes to the grou% of the Parime' This ridge runs from $eja Nlatitude
1 degree ;9 minutesO* or the eastern slo%e of the Andes of Timana*
bet&een the sources of the Gua"avero and the Rio $aguan* to&ards the
isthmus that se%arates the Tuamini from Pimichin' +n the =lanos*
consequentl"* it follo&s the %arallels of 78 degrees !8 minutes and 7
degrees ;9 minutes' +t is remarkable that &e find the divortia aquarum
further &est&ard on the back of the Andes* in the knot of mountains
containing the sources of the Cagdalena* at a height of 288 toises
above the level of the =lanos* bet&een the $aribbean 0ea and the
Pacific ocean* and almost in the same latitude N1 degree ;9 minutes to
7 degrees 78 minutesO' /rom the isthmus of 6avita to&ards the east*
the line of the %artition of &aters is formed b" the mountains of the
Parime grou%P it first rises a little on the northHeast to&ards the
sources of the >rinoco Nlatitude ! degrees ;9 minutes TO and the chain
of Pacaraina Nlatitude ; degrees ; minutes to ; degrees 17 minutesOP
then* during a course of I8 leagues* bet&een the %ortage of the
Anoca%ra and the banks of the Ru%unuri* it runs ver" regularl" from
&est to eastP and finall"* be"ond the meridian L1 degrees 98 minutes*
it again deviates to&ards lo&er latitudes* %assing bet&een the
northern sources of the Rio 0uriname* the Caroni* the >"a%oc and the
southern sources of Rio Trombetas* $uru%atuba* and Paru Nlatitude 7
degrees to 1 degree 98 minutesO' These facts suffice to %rove that
this first line of %artition of the &aters of 0outh America Nthat of
the northern hemis%hereO traverses the &hole continent bet&een the
%arallels of 7 and ; degrees' The $assiquiare alone has cut its &a"
across the ridge just described' The h"draulic s"stem of the >rinoco
dis%la"s the singular %henomenon of a bifurcation &here the limit of
t&o basins Nthose of the >rinoco and the Rio @egroO crosses the bed of
the %rinci%al reci%ient' +n that %art of the basin of the >rinoco
&hich runs in the direction of from south to north* as &ell as in that
running from &est to east* the maxima of de%ression are found at the
foot of the 0ierra Parime* &e ma" even sa"* on its outline'
;' THE BA0+@ >/ THE R+> @EGR> A@( THE ACAS>@'
This is the central and largest basin of 0outh America' +t is ex%osed
to frequent equatorial rains* and the hot and humid climate develo%s a
force of vegetation to &hich nothing in the t&o continents can be
com%ared' The central basin* bounded on the north b" the Parime grou%*
and on the south b" the mountains of BraRil* is entirel" covered b"
thick forests* &hile the t&o basins at the extremities of the
continent Nthe =lanos of eneRuela and the =o&er >rinoco* and the
Pam%as of Buenos A"res or the Rio de la PlataO are savannahs or
%rairies* %lains &ithout trees and covered &ith gramina' This
s"mmetric distribution of savannahs bounded b" im%enetrable forests*
must be connected &ith %h"sical revolutions &hich have o%erated
simultaneousl" over great surfaces'
N;a'O PART >/ THE BA0+@ >/ THE ACAS>@* R?@@+@G /R>C EA0T T> .E0T*
BET.EE@ 7 (EGREE0 @>RTH A@( 17 (EGREE0 0>?THP II8 =EAG?E0 +@ =E@GTH'
The &estern shore of this basin is formed b" the chain of the Andes*
from the knot of the mountains of Huanuco to the sources of the
Cagdalena' +t is enlarged b" the s%urs of the Rio Beni*- N- The real
name of this great river* res%ecting the course of &hich geogra%hers
have been so long divided* is ?cha%aru* %robabl" &ater N%araO of ?chaP
Peni also signifies river or &aterP for the language of the Ca"%ures
has ver" man" analogies &ith that of the CoxosP and veni NoueniO
signifies &ater in Ca"%ure* as una in Coxo' Perha%s the river retained
the name of Ca"%ure* after the +ndians &ho s%oke that language had
emigrated north&ard in the direction of the banks of the >rinoco'O
rich in gemHsalt* and com%osed of several ranges of hills Nlatitude I
degrees 11 minutes southO &hich advance into the %lains on the eastern
bank of the Paro' These hills are transformed on our ma%s into ?%%er
$ordilleras and Andes of $uchao' To&ards the north the basin of the
AmaRon* of &hich the area N7;;*888 square leaguesO is onl" oneHsixth
less than the area of all Euro%e* rises in a gentle slo%e to&ards the
0ierra Parime' At LI degrees of &est longitude the elevated %art of
this 0ierra terminates at ! 1M7 degrees north latitude' The grou% of
little mountains surrounding the source of the Rio @egro* the +nirida
and the Jie Nlatitude 7 degreesO the scattered rocks bet&een the
Ataba%o and the $assiquiare* a%%ear like grou%s of islands and rocks
in the middle of the %lain' 0ome of those rocks are covered &ith signs
or s"mbolical scul%ture' @ations* ver" different from those &ho no&
inhabit the banks of the $assiquiare* %enetrated into the savannahsP
and the Rone of %ainted rocks* extending more than 198 leagues in
breadth* bears traces of ancient civiliRation' >n the east of the
s%oradic grou%s of rocks Nbet&een the meridian of the bifurcation of
the >rinoco and that of the confluence of the Essequibo &ith the
Ru%unuriO the loft" mountains of the Parime commence onl" in ! degrees
north latitudeP &here the %lains of the AmaRon terminate'
The limits of the %lains of the AmaRon are still less kno&n to&ards
the south than to&ards the north' The mountains that exceed ;88 toises
of absolute height do not a%%ear to extend in BraRil north&ard of the
%arallels 1; or 19 degrees of south latitude* and &est of the meridian
of 97 degreesP but it is not kno&n ho& far the mountainous countr"
extends* if &e ma" call b" that name a territor" bristled &ith hills
of one hundred or t&o hundred toises high' Bet&een the Rio dos
ertentes and the Rio de Tres Barras Ntributar" streams of the Aragua"
and the To%a"osO several ridges of the Conts Parecis run north&ard' >n
the right bank of the To%a"os a series of little hills advance as far
as the %arallel of 9 degrees south latitude* to the fall NcachoeiraO
of CaracanaP &hile further &est* in the Rio Cadeira* the course of
&hich is nearl" %arallel &ith that of the To%a"os* the ra%ids and
cataracts indicate no rock" ridges be"ond the %arallel of I degrees'
The %rinci%al de%ression of the basin of &hich &e have just examined
the outline* is not near one of its banks* as in the basin of the
=o&er >rinoco* but at the centre* &here the great reci%ient of the
AmaRon forms a longitudinal furro& inclining from &est to east* under
an angle of at least 79 degrees' The barometric measurements &hich +
made at 6avita on the banks of the Tuamini* at asivia on the banks of
the $assiquiare and at the cataract of Rentema* in the ?%%er Caranon*
seem to %rove that the rising of the =lanos of the AmaRon north&ard
Nat the foot of the 0ierra ParimeO is 198 toises* and &est&ard Nat the
foot of the $ordillera of the Andes of =oxaO* 128 toises above the
seaHlevel'
N;b'O PART >/ THE BA0+@ >/ THE ACAS>@ 0TRET$H+@G /R>C 0>?TH T> @>RTH'
This is the Rone or landHstrait b" &hich* bet&een 17 and 78 degrees of
south latitude* the %lains of the AmaRon communicate &ith the Pam%as
of Buenos A"res' The &estern bank of this Rone is formed b" the Andes*
bet&een the knot of Porco and Potosi* and that of Huanuco and Pasco'
Part of the s%urs of the Rio Beni* &hich is but a &idening of the
$ordilleras of A%olobamba and $uRco and the &hole %romontor" of
$ochabamba* advance east&ard into the %lains of the AmaRon' The
%rolongation of this %romontor" has given rise to the idea that the
Andes are linked &ith a series of hills &hich the 0erras dos Parecis*
the 0erra Celgueira* and the su%%osed $ordillera of 0an /ernando*
thro& out to&ards the &est' This almost unkno&n %art of the frontiers
of BraRil and ?%%er Peru merits the attention of travellers' +t is
understood that the ancient mission of 0an 6ose de $hiquitos Nnearl"
latitude 13 degrees* longitude L3 degrees 18 minutes* su%%osing 0anta
$ruR de la 0ierra* in latitude 13 degrees 79 minutes* longitude LL
degrees ;3 minutesO is situated in the %lains* and that the mountains
of the s%ur of $ochabamba terminate bet&een the Gua%aix NRio de
CiRqueO and the Para%iti* &hich lo&er do&n takes the names of Rio 0an
Ciguel and Rio 0ara' The savannahs of the %rovince of $hiquitos
communicate on the north &ith those of Coxos* and on the south &ith
those of $hacoP but a ridge or line of %artition of the &aters is
formed b" the intersection of t&o gentl" slo%ing %lains' This ridge
takes its origin on the north of =a Plata N$huquisacaO bet&een the
sources of the Gua%aix and the $achima"o* and it ascends from the
%arallel of 78 degrees to that of 19 1M7 degrees south latitude*
consequentl" on the northHeast* to&ards the isthmus of illabella'
/rom this %oint* one of the most im%ortant of the &hole h"drogra%h" of
America* &e ma" follo& the line of the %artition of the &ater to the
$ordillera of the shore N0erra do CarO' +t is seen &inding Nlatitude
13 to 78 degreesO bet&een the northern sources of the Aragua"* the
Caranhao or Tocantines* the Rio 0an /rancisco and the southern sources
of the Parana' This second line of %artition &hich enters the grou% of
the BraRil mountains on the frontier of $a%itania of Go"aR se%arates
the flo&ings of the basin of the AmaRon from those of the Rio de la
Plata* and corres%onds* south of the equator* &ith the line &e have
indicated in the northern hemis%here Nlatitude 7 to ; degreesO* on the
limits of the basins of the AmaRon and the =o&er >rinoco'
+f the %lains of the AmaRon Ntaking that denomination in the
geognostic sense &e have given itO are in general distinguished from
the =lanos of eneRuela and the Pam%as of Buenos A"res* b" the extent
and thickness of their forests* &e are the more struck b" the
continuit" of the savannahs in that %art running from south to north'
+t &ould seem as though this sea of verdure stretched forth an arm
from the basin of Buenos A"res* b" the =lanos of Tucuman* Canso*
$huco* the $hiquitos* and the Coxos* to the Pam%as del 0acramento and
the savannahs of @a%o* Guaviare* Ceta and A%ure' This arm crosses*
bet&een 3 and ! degrees south latitude* the basin of the forests of
the AmaRonP and the absence of trees on so great an extent of
territor"* together &ith the %re%onderance &hich the small
monocot"ledonous %lants have acquired* is a %henomenon of the
geogra%h" of %lants &hich belongs %erha%s to the action of ancient
%elagic currents or other %artial revolutions of our %lanet'
9' P=A+@0 >/ THE R+> (E =A P=ATA* A@( >/ PATAG>@+A* /R>C THE
0>?THH.E0TER@ 0=>PE >/ THE GR>?P >/ THE BRAS+= C>?@TA+@0 T> THE 0TRA+T
>/ CAGE==A@P /R>C 78 T> 9! (EGREE0 >/ =AT+T?(E'
These %lains corres%ond &ith those of the Cississi%%i and of $anada in
the northern hemis%here' +f one of their extremities a%%roaches less
nearl" to the %olar regions* the other enters much further into the
region of %almHtrees' That %art of this vast basin extending from the
eastern coast to&ards the Rio Paragua" does not %resent a surface so
%erfectl" smooth as the %art situated on the &est and the southHeast
of the Rio de la Plata* and &hich has been kno&n for ages b" the name
of Pam%as* derived from the Peruvian or Buichua language'- N- Hatan
Pam%a signifies in that language* a great %lain' .e find the &ord
Pam%a also in Riobamba and GuallabambaP the 0%aniards* in order to
soften the geogra%hical names* changing the % into b'O Geognosticall"
s%eaking these t&o regions of east and &est form onl" one basin*
bounded on the east b" the 0ierra de illarica or do Es%inhaco* &hich
loses itself in the $a%itania of 0an Paul* near the %arallel of 7;
degreesP issuing on the northHeast b" little hills* from the 0erra da
$anastra and the $am%os Parecis to&ards the %rovince of Paragua"P on
the &est b" the Andes of ?%%er Peru and $hileP and on the northH&est
b" the ridge of the %artition of the &aters &hich runs from the s%ur
of 0anta $ruR de la 0ierra* across the %lains of the $hiquitos*
to&ards the 0erras of Albuquerque Nlatitude 12 degrees 7 minutesO and
0an /ernando' That %art onl" of this basin l"ing on the &est of the
Rio Paragua"* and &hich is entirel" covered &ith gramina* is 38*888
square leagues' This surface of the Pam%as or =lanos of Canse*
Tucuman* Buenos A"res and eastern Patagonia is consequentl" four times
greater than the surface of the &hole of /rance' The Andes of $hile
narro& the Pam%as b" the t&o s%urs of 0alta and $ordovaP the latter
%romontor" forms so %rojecting a %oint that there remains Nlatitude !1
to !7 degreesO a %lain onl" ;9 leagues broad bet&een the eastern
extremit" of the 0ierra de $ordova and the right bank of the river
Paragua"* stretching in the direction of a meridian* from the to&n of
@ueva $oimbra to Rosario* belo& 0anta /e' /ar be"ond the southern
frontiers of the old vicero"alt" of Buenos A"res* bet&een the Rio
$olorado and the Rio @egro Nlatitude !I to !2 degreesO grou%s of
mountains seem to rise in the form of islands in the middle of a
muriatiferous %lain' A tribe of +ndians of the south NTehuelletO have
there long borne the characteristic name of men of the mountains
N$allilehetO or 0erranos' /rom the %arallel of the mouth of the Rio
@egro to that of $abo Blanco Nlatitude ;1 to ;3 degreesO scattered
mountains on the eastern Patagonian coast denote more considerable
inequalities inland' All that %art* ho&ever* of the 0traits of
Cagellan* from the irginsG $a%e to the @orth $a%e* on the breadth of
more than !8 leagues* is surrounded b" savannahs or Pam%asP and the
Andes of &estern Patagonia onl" begin to rise near the latter ca%e*
exercising a marked influence on the direction of that %art of the
strait nearest the Pacific* %roceeding from southHeast to northH&est'
+f &e have given the %lains or great basins of 0outh America the names
of the rivers that flo& in their longitudinal furro&s* &e have not
meant b" soHdoing to com%are them to mere valle"s' +n the %lains of
the =o&er >rinoco and the AmaRon all the lines of the declivit"
doubtless reach a %rinci%al reci%ient* and the tributaries of
tributar" streams* that is the basins of different orders* %enetrate
far into the grou% of the mountains' The u%%er %arts or high valle"s
of the tributar" streams must be considered in a geological table as
belonging to the mountainous region of the countr"* and be"ond the
%lains of the =o&er >rinoco and the AmaRon' The vie&s of the geologist
are not identical &ith those of the h"drogra%her' +n the basin of the
Rio de la Plata and Patagonia the &aters that follo& the lines of the
greatest declivities have man" issues' The same basin contains several
valle"s of riversP and &hen &e examine nearl" the %ol"edric surface of
the Pam%as and the %ortion of their &aters &hich* like the &aters of
the ste%%es of Asia* do not go to the sea* &e conceive that these
%lains are divided b" small ridges or lines of elevation* and have
alternate slo%es* inclined* &ith reference to the horiRon* in o%%osite
directions' +n order to %oint out more clearl" the difference bet&een
geological and h"drogra%hic vie&s* and to %rove that in the former*
abstracting the course of the &aters &hich meet in one reci%ient* &e
obtain a far more general %oint of vie&* + shall here again recur to
the h"drogra%hic basin of the >rinoco' That immense river rises on the
southern slo%e of the 0ierra Parime' +t is bounded b" %lains on the
left bank* from the $assiquiare to the mouth of the Ataba%o* and flo&s
in a basin &hich* geologicall" s%eaking* according to one great
division of the surface of 0outh America into three basins* &e have
called the basin of the Rio @egro and the AmaRon' The lo& regions*
&hich are bounded b" the southern and northern declivities of the
Parime and BraRil mountains* and &hich the geologist ought to mark b"
one name* contain* according to the no less %recise language of
h"drogra%h"* t&o basins of rivers* those of the ?%%er >rinoco and the
AmaRon* se%arated b" a ridge that runs from 6avita to&ards Esmeralda'
/rom these considerations it results that a geological basin Nsit
venia verboO ma" have several reci%ients and several emissaries*
divided b" small ridges almost im%erce%tibleP it ma" at the same time
contain &aters that flo& to the sea b" different furro&s inde%endent
of each other* and the s"stems of inland rivers flo&ing into lakes
more or less charged &ith saline matter' A basin of a river* or
h"drogra%hic basin* has but one reci%ient* one emissar"P if* b" a
bifurcation* it gives a %art of its &aters to another h"drogra%hic
basin* it is because the bed of the river* or the %rinci%al reci%ient*
a%%roaches so near the banks of the basin or the ridge of %artition
that the ridge %artl" crosses it'
The distribution of the inequalities of the surface of the globe does
not %resent an" strongl" marked limits bet&een the mountainous countr"
and the lo& regions* or geologic basins' Even &here real chains of
mountains rise like rock" d"kes issuing from a crevice* s%urs more or
less considerable* seem to indicate a lateral u%heaving' .hile + admit
the difficult" of %ro%erl" defining the grou%s of mountains and the
basins or continuous %lains* + have attem%ted to calculate their
surfaces according to the statements contained in the %receding
sheets'
TAB=E >/ AREA0 />R 0>?TH ACER+$A'
$>=?C@ 1 5 GE>GRAPH+$A= =>$AT+>@'
$>=?C@ 7 5 AREA +@ 0B?ARE CAR+@E =EAG?E0'
1' C>?@TA+@>?0 PART5
Andes 5 9I*288'
=ittoral $hain of eneRuela 5 1*288'
0ierra @evada de Cerida 5 788'
Grou% of the Parime 5 79*I88'
0"stem of the BraRil mountains 5 73*L88'
T>TA= 5 11;*;88'
7' P=A+@05
=lanos of the =o&er >rinoco* the Ceta* 5 72*888'
and the Guaviare
Plains of the AmaRon 5 7L8*;88'
Pam%as of Rio de la Plata and Patagonia 5 1!9*788'
Plains bet&een the eastern chain of the
Andes of $undinamarca and the chain of $hoco 5 17*!88'
Plains of the shore on the &est of the Andes 5 78*888'
T>TA= 5 ;9L*288'
The &hole surface of 0outh America contains 931*!88 square leagues N78
to a degreeO* and the %ro%ortion of the mountainous countr" to the
region of the %lains is as 1 to !'2' The latter region* on the east of
the Andes* com%rises more than ;7;*L88 square leagues* half of &hich
consists of savannahsP that is to sa"* it is covered &ith gramina'
0E$T+>@ 7'
GE@ERA= PART+T+>@ >/ GR>?@('
(+RE$T+>@ A@( +@$=+@AT+>@ >/ THE 0TRATA'
RE=AT+E HE+GHT >/ THE />RCAT+>@0 AB>E THE =EE= >/ THE >$EA@'
+n the %receding section &e have examined the inequalities of the
surface of the soil* that is to sa"* the general structure of the
mountains and the form of the basins rising bet&een those variousl"
grou%ed mountains' These mountains are sometimes longitudinal* running
in narro& bands or chains* similar to the veins that %reserve their
directions at great distances* as the Andes* the littoral chain of
eneRuela* the 0erra do Car of BraRil* and the Alleghenies of the
?nited 0tates' 0ometimes the" are in masses &ith irregular forms* in
&hich u%heavings seem to have taken %lace as on a lab"rinth of
crevices or a hea% of veins* as for exam%le in the 0ierra Parime and
the 0erra dos ertentes' These modes of formation are linked &ith a
geognostic h"%othesis* &hich has at least the recommendation of being
founded on facts observed in remote times* and &hich strongl"
characteriRe the chains and grou%s of mountains' $onsiderations on the
as%ect of a countr" are inde%endent of those &hich indicate the nature
of the soil* the heterogeneit" of matter* the su%er%osition of rocks
and the direction and inclination of strata'
+n taking a general vie& of the geological constitution of a chain of
mountains* &e ma" distinguish five elements of direction too often
confounded in &orks of geognos" and %h"sical geogra%h"' These elements
are5HH
1' The longitudinal axis of the &hole chain'
7' The line that divides the &aters Ndivortia aquarumO'
!' The line of ridges or elevation %assing along the maxima of height'
;' The line that se%arates t&o contiguous formations into horiRontal
sections'
9' The line that follo&s the fissures of stratification'
This distinction is the more necessar"* there existing %robabl" no
chain on the globe that furnishes a %erfect %arallelism of all these
directing lines' +n the P"renees* for instance* 1* 7* !* do not
coincide* but ; and 9 Nthat is* the different formations &hich come to
light successivel"* and the direction of the strataO are obviousl"
%arallel to 1* or to the direction of the &hole chain' .e find so
often in the most distant %arts of the globe* a %erfect %arallelism
bet&een 1 and 9* that it ma" be su%%osed that the causes &hich
determine the direction of the axis Nthe angle under &hich that axis
cuts the meridianO are generall" linked &ith causes that determine the
direction and inclination of the strata' This direction of the strata
is inde%endent of the line of the formations* or their visible limits
at the surface of the soilP the lines ; and 9 sometimes cross each
other* even &hen one of them coincides &ith 1* or &ith the direction
of the longitudinal axis of the &hole chain' The RE=+E/ of a countr"
cannot be %recisel" ex%lained on a ma%* nor can the most erroneous
o%inions on the localit" and su%er%osition of the strata be avoided*
if &e do not a%%rehend &ith clearness the relation of the directing
lines just mentioned'
+n that %art of 0outh America to &hich this memoir %rinci%all"
relates* and &hich is bounded b" the AmaRon on the south* and on the
&est b" the meridian of the 0no&" Countains N0ierra @evadaO of Cerida*
the different bands or Rones of formations N;O are sensibl" %arallel
&ith the longitudinal axis N1O of the chains of mountains* basins or
inter%osed %lains' +t ma" be said in general that the granitic Rone
Nincluding under that denomination the rocks of granite* gneiss and
micaHslateO follo&s the direction of the $ordillera of the shore of
eneRuela* and belongs exclusivel" to that $ordillera and the grou% of
the Parime mountainsP since it no&here %ierces the secondar" and
tertiar" strata in the =lanos or basin of the =o&er >rinoco' Thence it
results that the same formations do not constitute the region of
%lains and that of mountains'
+f &e ma" be allo&ed to judge of the structure of the &hole 0ierra
Parime* from the %art &hich + examined in L degrees of longitude* and
; degrees of latitude* &e ma" believe it to be entirel" com%osed of
gneissHgraniteP + sa& some beds of greenstone and am%hibolic slate*
but neither micaHslate* cla"Hslate* nor banks of green limestone*
although man" %henomena render the %resence of micaHslate %robable on
the east of the Ca"%ures and in the chain of Pacaraina' The geological
formation of the Parime grou% is consequentl" still more sim%le than
that of the BraRilian grou%* in &hich granites* gneiss and micaHslate
are covered &ith thonschiefer* chloritic quartR N+tacolumiteO*
grau&acke and transitionHlimestoneP but those t&o grou%s exhibit in
common the absence of a real s"stem of secondar" rocksP &e find in
both onl" some fragments of sandstone or silicious conglomerate' +n
the littoral $ordillera of eneRuela the granitic formations
%redominateP but the" are &anting to&ards the east* and es%eciall" in
the southern chain* &here &e observe Nin the missions of $ari%e and
around the gulf of $ariacoO a great accumulation of secondar" and
tertiar" calcareous rocks' /rom the %oint &here the littoral
$ordillera is linked &ith the Andes of @e& Grenada Nlongitude 31 1M7
degreesO &e observe first the granitic mountains of Aroa and 0an
/eli%e* bet&een the rivers ,aracui and Tocu"oP these granitic
formations extend on the east of the t&o coasts of the basin of the
alle"s of Aragua* in the northern chain* as far as $a%e $oderaP and
in the southern as far as the mountains Naltas savanasO of >cumare'
After the remarkable interru%tion of the littoral $ordillera in the
%rovince of Barcelona* granitic rocks begin to a%%ear in the island of
Carguerita and in the isthmus of Ara"a* and continue* %erha%s* to&ards
the Boca del (ragoP but on the east of the meridian of $a%e $odera the
northern chain onl" is granitic Nof micaceous slateOP the southern
chain is entirel" com%osed of secondar" limestone and sandstone'
+f* in the granitic series* &here a ver" com%lex formation* &e &ould
distinguish mineralogicall" bet&een the rocks of granite* gneiss* and
micaHslate* it must be borne in mind that coarseHgrained granite* not
%assing to gneiss* is ver" rare in this countr"' +t belongs %eculiarl"
to the mountains that bound the basin of the lake of alencia to&ards
the northP for in the islands of that lake* in the mountains near the
illa de $ura* and in the &hole northern chain* bet&een the meridian
of ittoria and $a%e $odera* gneiss %redominates* sometimes
alternating &ith granite* or %assing to micaHslate' CicaHslate is the
most frequent rock in the %eninsula of Ara"a and the grou% of Cacanao*
&hich forms the &estern %art of the island of Carguerita' >n the &est
of CaniquareR the micaHslate of the %eninsula of Ara"a loses b"
degrees its semiHmetallic lustreP it is charged &ith carbon* and
becomes a cla"Hslate NthonschieferO even an am%elite NalaunschieferO'
Beds of granular limestone are most common in the %rimitive northern
chainP and it is some&hat remarkable that the" are found in gneiss*
and not in micaHslate'
.e find at the back of this granitic* or rather micaHslateHgneiss soil
of the southern chain* on the south of the illa de $ura* a transition
stratum* com%osed of greenstone* am%hibolic ser%entine* micaceous
limestone* and green and carburetted slate' The most southern limit of
this district is marked b" volcanic rocks' Bet&een Para%ara* >rtiR and
the $erro de /lores Nlatitude 2 degrees 7I minutes to 2 degrees !;
minutesP longitude 38 degrees 7 minutes to 38 degrees 19 minutesO
%honolites and am"gdaloids are found on the ver" border of the basin
of the =lanos* that vast inland sea &hich once filled the &hole s%ace
bet&een the $ordilleras of eneRuela and Parime' According to the
observations of Cajor =ong and (r' 6ames* tra%Hformations Nbulleuses
dolerites and am"gdaloids &ith %"roxeneO also border the %lains or
basin of the Cississi%%i* to&ards the &est* at the declivit" of the
Rock" Countains' The ancient %"rogenic rocks &hich + found near
Para%ara &here the" rise in mounds &ith rounded summits* are the more
remarkable as no others have hitherto been discovered in the &hole
eastern %art of 0outh America' The close connection observed in the
strata of Para%ara* bet&een greenstone* am%hibolic ser%entine* and
am"gdaloids containing cr"stals of %"roxeneP the form of the Corros of
0an 6uan* &hich rise like c"linders above the tableHlandP the granular
texture of their limestone* surrounded b" tra% rocks* are objects
&orth" the attention of the geologist &ho has studied in the southern
T"rol the effects %roduced b" the contact of %oroxenic %or%h"ries'- N-
=eo%old von Buch' Tableau geologique du T"rol %age 13' C' Boussingault
states that these singular Corros de 0an 6uan* &hich furnish a
limestone &ith cr"stalline grains* and thermal s%rings* are hollo&*
and contain immense grottos filled &ith stalactites* &hich a%%ear to
have been ancientl" inhabited b" the natives'O
The calcareous soil of the littoral $ordillera %revails most on the
east of $a%e ?nare* in the southern chainP it extends to the gulf of
Paria* o%%osite the island of Trinidad* &here &e find g"%sum of Guire*
containing sul%hur' + have been informed that in the northern chain
also* in the Contana de Paria* and near $aru%ana* secondar" calcareous
formations are found* and that the" onl" begin to sho& themselves on
the east of the ridge of rock called the $erro de Cea%ire* &hich joins
the calcareous grou% of Guacharo to the micaHslate grou% of the
%eninsula of Ara"aP but + have not had an o%%ortunit" of ascertaining
the accurac" of this information' The calcareous stratum of the
southern chain is com%osed of t&o formations &hich a%%ear to be ver"
distinct the one from the other5 namel" limestone of $umanacoa and
that of $ari%e' .hen + &as on the s%ot the former a%%eared to me to
have some analog" &ith Rechstein* or Al%ine limestoneP the latter &ith
6ura limestoneP + even thought that the granular g"%sum of Guire might
be that &hich belongs in Euro%e to Rechstein* or is %laced bet&een
Rechstein and variegated sandstone' 0trata of quartRose sandstone*
alternating &ith slat" cla"* cover the limestone of $umanacoa* $erro
del +m%osible* Turimiquiri* Guarda de 0an Agustin* and the 6ura
limestone in the %rovince of Barcelona NAguas $alientesO' According to
their %osition these sandstones ma" be considered as belonging to the
formation of green sandstone* or sandstone &ith lignites belo& chalk'
But if* as + thought + observed at $ocollar* sandstone forms strata in
the Al%ine limestone before it is su%er%osed* it a%%ears doubtful
&hether the sandstone of the +m%osible* and of Aguas $alientes*
constitute one series' Curiatiferous cla" N&ith %etroleum and lamellar
g"%sumO covers the &estern %art of the %eninsula of Ara"a* o%%osite to
the to&n of $umana* and in the centre of the island of Carguerita'
This cla" a%%ears to lie immediatel" over the micaHslate* and under
the calcareous breccia of the tertiar" strata' + cannot decide &hether
Ara"a* &hich is rich in disseminated muriate of soda* belongs to the
sandstone formation of the +m%osible* &hich from its %osition ma" be
com%ared to variegated sandstone Nred marlO'
There is no doubt that fragments of tertiar" strata surround the
castle and to&n of $umana N$astillo de 0an AntonioO and the" also
a%%ear at the southH&estern extremit" of the %eninsula of Ara"a N$erro
de la ela et del BarigonOP at the ridge of the $erro de Cea%ire* near
$ariacoP at $abo Blanco* on the &est of =a Gua"ra* and on the shore of
Porto $abelloP the" are consequentl" found at the foot of the t&o
slo%es of the northern chain of the $ordillera of eneRuela' This
tertiar" stratum is com%osed of alternate beds of calcareous
conglomerate* com%act limestone* marl* and cla"* containing selenite
and lamellar g"%sum' The &hole s"stem Nof ver" recent bedsO a%%ears to
me to constitute but one formation* &hich is found at the $erro de la
Po%a* near $arthagena* and in the islands of Guadalou%e and Cartinico'
0uch is the geological distribution of strata in the mountainous %art
of eneRuela* in the grou% of the Parime and in the littoral
$ordillera' .e have no& to characteriRe the formations of the =lanos
Nor of the basin of the =o&er >rinoco and the A%ureOP but it is not
eas" to determine the order of their su%er%osition* because in this
region ravines or beds of torrents and dee% &ells dug b" the hands of
man are entirel" &anting' The formations of the =lanos are* first* a
sandstone or conglomerate* &ith rounded fragments of quartR* ="dian
stone* and kieselschiefer* united b" a ferruginous cla"e" cement*
extremel" tenacious* oliveHbro&n* sometimes of a vivid redP second* a
com%act limestone Nbet&een Tisnao and $alaboRoO &hich* b" its smooth
fracture and lithogra%hic as%ect* a%%roaches the 6ura limestone5
third* alternate strata of marl and lamellar g"%sum NCesa de 0an
(iego* >rtiR* $achi%oO' These three formations a%%eared to me to
succeed each other in the order + have just described* the sandstone
inclining in a concave %osition* north&ard* on the transitionHslates
of Cal%asso* and south&ard* on the gneissHgranite of Parime' As the
g"%sum often immediatel" covers the sandstone of $alaboRo* &hich
a%%eared to me* on the s%ot* to be identical &ith our red sandstone* +
am uncertain of the age of its formation' The secondar" rocks of the
=lanos of $umana* Barcelona and $aracas occu%" a s%ace of more than
9888 square leagues' Their continuit" is the more remarkable* as the"
a%%ear to have no existence* at least on the east of the meridian of
Porto $abello N38 degrees !3 minutesO in the &hole basin of the AmaRon
not covered b" granitic sands' The causes &hich have favoured the
accumulation of calcareous matter in the eastern region of the coast
chain* in the =lanos of eneRuela Nfrom 18 1M7 to I degrees northO*
cannot have o%erated nearer the equator* in the grou% of the mountains
of the Parime and in the %lains of the Rio @egro and the AmaRon
Nlatitude 1 degree north to 1 degree southO' The latter %lains*
ho&ever* furnish some ledges of fragmentar" rocks on the southH&est of
0an /ernando de Ataba%o* as &ell as on the southHeast* in the lo&er
%art of the Rio @egro and the Rio Branco' + sa& in the %lains of 6aen
de Bracamoros a sandstone &hich alternates &ith ledges of sand and
conglomerate nodules of %or%h"r" and ="dian stone' CC' 0%ix and
Cartius affirm that the banks of the Rio @egro on the south of the
equator are com%osed of variegated sandstoneP those of the Rio Branco*
6u%ura and A%o%oris of quadersandsteinP and those of the AmaRon* on
several %oints* of ferruginous sandstone'- N- Braunes eisenschussiges
0andsteinH$onglomerat N+ronHsand of the English geologists* bet&een
the 6ura limestone and green sandstone'O CC' 0%ix and Cartius found on
rocks of quadersandstein* bet&een the A%o%oris and the 6a%ura* the
same scul%tures &hich &e have %ointed out from the Essequibo to the
%lains of $assiquiare* and &hich seem to %rove the migrations of a
%eo%le more advanced in civiliRation than the +ndians &ho no& inhabit
those countries'O +t remains to examine if Nas + am inclined to
su%%oseO the limestone and g"%sum formations of the eastern %art of
the littoral $ordillera of eneRuela differ entirel" from those of the
=lanos* and to &hat series belongs that rock" &all- named the Galera*
&hich bounds the ste%%es of $alaboRo to&ards the northT N- +s this
&all a succession of rocks of dolomite or a d"ke of quadersandstein*
like the (evilGs .all NTeufelsmauerO* at the foot of the HartRT
$alcareous shelves Ncoral banksO* either ledges of sandstone Neffects
of the revulsion of the &avesO or volcanic eru%tions* are commonl"
found on the borders of great %lains* that is* on the shores of
ancient inland seas' The =lanos of eneRuela furnish exam%les of such
eru%tions near ParaNTO like Harudje NCons Ater* Plin'O on the northern
boundar" of the African desert Nthe 0aharaO' Hills of sandstone rising
like to&ers* &alls and fortified castles and offering great analog" to
quadersandstein* bound the American desert to&ards the &est* on the
south of Arkansas'O The basin of the ste%%es is itself the bottom of a
sea destitute of islandsP it is onl" on the south of the A%ure*
bet&een that river and the Ceta* near the &estern bank of the 0ierra*
that a fe& hills a%%ear* as Conte Parure* la Galera de 0inaruco and
the $erritos de 0an icente' .ith the exce%tion of the fragments of
tertiar" strata above mentioned there is* from the equator to the
%arallel of 18 degrees north Nbet&een the meridian of 0ierra @evada de
Cerida and the coast of GuianaO* if not an absence* at least a
scarcit" of those %etrifactions* &hich strikes an observer recentl"
arrived from Euro%e'
The maxima of the height of the different formations diminish
regularl" in the countr" &e are describing &ith their relative ages'
These maxima* for gneissHgranite NPeak of (uida in the grou% of
Parime* 0illa de $aracas in the coast chainO are from 1!88 to 1!98
toisesP for the limestone of $umanacoa Nsummit or $ucurucho of
TurimiquiriO* 1898 toisesP for the limestone of $ari%e Nmountains
surrounding the tableHland of the Guarda de 0an AugustinO* 398 toisesP
for the sandstone alternating &ith the limestone of $umanacoa
N$uchilla de GuanaguanaO* 998 toisesP for the tertiar" strata NPunta
Ara"aO* 788 toises'
The tract of countr" of &hich + am here describing the geological
constitution is distinguished b" the astonishing regularit" observed
in the direction of the strata of &hich the rocks of different eras
are com%osed' + have alread" often %ointed the attention of m" readers
to a geognostic la&* one of the fe& that can be verified b" %recise
measurements' >ccu%ied since the "ear 1327 b" the %arallelism* or
rather the loxodromism of the strata* examining the direction and
inclination of the %rimitive and transition beds* from the coast of
Genoa across the chain of the Bochetta* the %lains of =ombard"* the
Al%s of 0aint Gothard* the tableHland of 0&abia* the mountains of
Bareuth* and the %lains of @orthern German"* + &as struck &ith the
extreme frequenc"* if not the uniformit"* of the horar" directions !
and ; of the com%ass of /reiberg Ndirection from southH&est to
northHeastO' This research* &hich + thought might lead to im%ortant
discoveries relating to the structure of the globe* had then such
attractions for me that it &as one of the most %o&erful incentives of
m" vo"age to the equator' C" o&n observations* together &ith those of
man" able geologists* convince me that there exists in no hemis%here a
general and absolute uniformit" of directionP but that in regions of
ver" considerable extent* sometimes over several thousand square
leagues* &e observe that the direction and Nthough more rarel"O the
inclination have been determined b" a s"stem of %articular forces' .e
discover at great distances a %arallelism NloxodromismO of the strata*
a direction of &hich the t"%e is manifest amidst %artial %erturbations
and &hich often remains the same in %rimitive and transition strata' A
fact &hich must have struck Palasson and 0aussure is that in general
the direction of the strata* even in those &hich are far distant from
the %rinci%al ridges* is identical &ith the direction of mountain
chainsP that is to sa"* &ith their longitudinal axis'
eneRuela is one of the countries in &hich the %arallelism of the
strata of gneissHgranite* micaHslate and cla"Hslate* is most strongl"
marked' The general direction of these strata is north 98 degrees
east* and the general inclination from L8 to 38 degrees northH&est'
Thus + observed them on a length of more than a hundred leagues* in
the littoral chain of eneRuelaP in the stratified granite of =as
Trincheras at Porto $abelloP in the gneiss of the islands of the lake
of alencia* and in the vicinit" of the illa de $uraP in the
transitionHslate and greenstone on the north of Para%araP in the road
from =a Gua"ra to the to&n of $aracas* and through all the 0ierra de
Avila in $a%e $oderaP and in the micaHslate and cla"Hslate of the
%eninsula of Ara"a' The same direction from northHeast to southH&est*
and this inclination to northH&est* are also manifest* although less
decidedl"* in the limestones of $umanacoa at $uchivano and bet&een
Guanaguana and $ari%e' The exce%tions to this general la& are
extremel" rare in the gneissHgranite of the littoral $ordilleraP it
ma" even be affirmed that the inverse direction Nfrom southHeast to
northH&estO often bears &ith it the inclination to&ards southH&est'
As that %art of the grou% of the 0ierra Parime over &hich + %assed
contains much more granite- than gneiss N- >nl" the granite of the
Baragon is stratified* as &ell as crossed b" veins of granite5 the
direction of the beds is north 78 degrees &estO* and other rocks
distinctl" stratified* the direction of the la"ers could be observed
in this grou% onl" on a small number of %ointsP but + &as often struck
in this region &ith the continuit" of the %henomenon of loxodromism'
The am%hibolic slates of Angostura run north ;9 degrees east* like the
gneiss of Gua%asoso &hich forms the bed of the Ataba%o* and like the
micaHslate of the %eninsula of Ara"a* though there is a distance of
1L8 leagues bet&een the limits of those rocks'
The direction of the strata* of &hich &e have just noticed the
&onderful uniformit"* is not entirel" %arallel &ith the longitudinal
axes of the t&o coast chains* and the chain of Parime' The strata
generall" cut the former of those chains at an angle of !9 degrees*
and their inclination to&ards the northH&est becomes one of the most
%o&erful causes of the aridit" &hich %revails on the southern
declivit"- of the mountains of the coast' N- This southern declivit"
is ho&ever less ra%id than the northern'O Ca" &e conclude that the
direction of the eastern $ordillera of @e& Grenada* &hich is nearl"
north ;9 degrees east from 0anta /e de Bogota* to be"ond the 0ierra
@evada de Cerida* and of &hich the littoral chain is but a
continuation* has had an influence on the direction Nhor' ! to ;O of
the strata in eneRuelaT That region %resents a ver" remarkable
loxodromism &ith the strata of micaHslate* grau&acke* and the
orthoceratite limestone of the Alleghenies* and that vast extent of
countr" Nlatitude 9L to LI degreesO latel" visited b" $a%tain
/ranklin' The direction northHeast to southH&est %revails in ever"
%art of @orth America* as in Euro%e in the /itchtelgebirge of
/ranconia* in Taunus* .ester&ald* and EifelP in the Ardennes* the
osges* in $otentin* in 0cotland and in the Tarentaise at the
southH&est extremit" of the Al%s' +f the strata of rocks in eneRuela
do not exactl" follo& the direction of the nearest $ordillera* that of
the shore* the %arallelism bet&een the axis of one chain* and the
strata of the formations that com%ose it* are manifest in the BraRil
grou%'- N- The strata of the %rimitive and intermediar" rocks of
BraRil run ver" regularl"* like the $ordillera of illarica N0erra do
Es%inhacoO hor' 1'; or hor' 7 of the com%ass of /reiberg Nnorth 7I
degrees east'OO
0E$T+>@ !'
@AT?RE >/ THE R>$A0'
RE=AT+E AGE A@( 0?PERP>0+T+>@ >/ THE />RCAT+>@0'
PR+C+T+E* TRA@0+T+>@* 0E$>@(AR,* TERT+AR,* A@( >=$A@+$ 0TRATA'
The %receding section has develo%ed the geogra%hical limits of the
formations* the extent of the direction of the Rones of
gneissHgranite* micaHslateHgneiss* cla"Hslate* sandstone and
intermediar" limestone* &hich come successivel" to light' .e &ill no&
indicate succinctl" the nature and relative age of these formations'
To avoid confounding facts &ith geologic o%inions + shall describe
these formations* &ithout dividing them* according to the method
generall" follo&ed* into five grou%sHH%rimitive* transition*
secondar"* tertiar" and volcanic rocks' + &as fortunate enough to
discover the t"%es of each grou% in a region &here* before + visited
it* no rock had been named' The great inconvenience of the old
classification is that of obliging the geologist to establish fixed
demarcations* &hile he is in doubt* if not res%ecting the s%ot or the
immediate su%er%osition* at least res%ecting the number of the
formations &hich are not develo%ed' Ho& can &e in man" circumstances
determine the analog" existing bet&een a limestone &ith but fe&
%etrifactions and an intermediar" limestone and Rechstein* or bet&een
a sandstone su%er%osed on a %rimitive rock and a variegated sandstone
and quadersandstein* or finall"* bet&een muriatiferous cla" and the
red marl of England* or the gemHsalt of the tertiar" strata of +tal"T
.hen &e reflect on the immense %rogress made &ithin t&ent"Hfive "ears
in the kno&ledge of the su%er%osition of rocks* it &ill not a%%ear
sur%rising that m" %resent o%inion on the relative age of the
formations of Equinoctial America is not identicall" the same &ith
&hat + advanced in 1I88' To boast of a stabilit" of o%inion in geolog"
is to boast of an extreme indolence of mindP it is to remain
stationar" amidst those &ho go for&ard' .hat &e observe in an" one
%art of the earth on the com%osition of rocks* their subordinate
strata and the order of their %osition are facts immutabl" true* and
inde%endent of the %rogress of %ositive geolog" in other countriesP
&hile the s"stematic names a%%lied to an" %articular formation of
America are founded onl" on the su%%osed analogies bet&een the
formations of America and those of Euro%e' @o& those names cannot
remain the same if* after further examination* the objects of
com%arison have not retained the same %lace in the geologic seriesP if
the most able geologists no& take for transitionHlimestone and green
sandstone* &hat the" took formerl" for Rechstein and variegated
sandstone' + believe the surest means b" &hich geologic descri%tions
ma" be made to survive the change &hich the science undergoes in
%ro%ortion to its %rogress* &ill be to substitute %rovisionall" in the
descri%tion of formations* for the s"stematic names of red sandstone*
variegated sandstone* Rechstein and 6ura limestone* names derived from
American localities* as sandstone of the =lanos* limestone of
$umanacoa and $ari%e* and to se%arate the enumeration of facts
relative to the su%er%osition of soils* from the discussion on the
analog" of those soils &ith those of the >ld .orld'-
N- Positive geogra%h" being nothing but a question of the series or
succession Neither sim%le or %eriodicalO of certain terms re%resented
b" the formations* it ma" be necessar"* in order to understand the
discussions contained in the third section of this memoir* to
enumerate succinctl" the table of formations considered in the most
general %oint of vie&'
1' 0trata commonl" called PrimitiveP granite* gneiss and micaHslate
Nor gneiss oscillating bet&een granite and micaHslateOP ver" little
%rimitive cla"HslateP &eisstein &ith ser%entineP granite &ith
disseminated am%hiboleP am%hibolic slateP veins and small la"ers of
greenstone'
7' Transition strata* com%osed of fragmentar" rocks Ngrau&ackeO*
calcareous slate and greenstone* earliest remains of organiRed
existence5 bamboos* madre%ores* %roducta* trilobites* orthoceratites*
evam%halitesO' $om%lex and %arallel formationsP NaO Alternate beds of
gre" and stratified limestone* anthracitic micaHslate* anh"drous
g"%sum and grau&ackeP NbO cla"Hslate* black limestone* grau&acke &ith
greenstone* s"enite* transitionHgranite and %or%h"ries &ith a base of
com%act fels%arP NcO Eu%hotides* sometimes %ure and covered &ith
jas%er* sometimes mixed &ith am%hibole* h"%erstein and gre" limestoneP
NdO P"roxenic %or%h"ries &ith am"gdaloides and Rirconian s"enites'
!' 0econdar" strata* %resenting a much smaller number of
monocot"ledonous %lantsP NaO $oHordinate and almost contem%orar"
formations &ith red sandstone Nrothe todtes liegendeO* quartRH%or%h"r"
and fernHcoal' These strata are less connected b" alternation than b"
o%%osition' The %or%h"ries issue Nlike the trach"tes of the AndesO in
domes from the bosom of intermediar" rocks' Por%h"ritic breccias &hich
envelo%e the quartRose %or%h"ries' NbO Sechstein or Al%ine limestone
&ith marl"* bituminous slate* fetid limestone and variegated g"%sum
NProductus aculeatusO' NcO ariegated sandstone Nbunter sandsteinO
&ith frequent beds of limestoneP false oolitesP the u%%er beds are of
variegated marl* often muriatiferous Nred marl* salRthonO &ith
h"drated g"%sum and fetid limestone' The gemHsalt oscillates from
Rechstein to muschelkalk' NdO =imestone of Gottingen or muschelkalk
alternating to&ards the to% &ith &hite sandstone or brittle sandstein'
NAmmonitis nodosus* encrinites* C"tilus socialisO5 cla"e" marl is
found at the t&o extremities of muschelkalk' NeO .hite sandstone*
brittle sandstein* alternating &ith lias* or limestone &ith gra%hitesP
a quantit" of dicot"ledonous mixed &ith monocot"ledonous %lants' NfO
6ura limestone of com%lex formationP a quantit" of sand" intercalated
marl' .e most frequentl" observe* counting from belo& u%&ardsP lias
Nmarl" limestone &ith gr"%hitesO* oolites* limestone &ith %ol"%i*
slat" limestone &ith fish* crustacea* and globules of oxide of iron
NAmonites %lanulatus* Gr"%haea arcuataO' NgO 0econdar" sandstone &ith
lignitesP iron sandP .ealden cla"P greensand or green sandstoneP NhO
$hloriteP tufted and &hite chalkP N%lanerkalk* limestone of erona'O
;' Tertiar" strata* sho&ing a much smaller number of dicot"ledonous
%lants' NaO $la" and tertiar" sandstone &ith lignitesP %lastic cla"P
mollasse and nagelfluhe* sometimes alternating &here chalk is &anting*
&ith the last beds of 6ura limestoneP amber' NbO =imestone of Paris or
coarse limestone* limestone &ith circles* limestone of Bolca*
limestone of =ondon* sand" limestone of BognorP lignites' NcO
0ilicious limestone and g"%sum &ith fossil bones alternating &ith
marl' NdO 0andstone of /ontainebleau' NeO =acustrine soil &ith %orous
millstone grit' NeO Alluvial de%osits'O
1' $>H>R(+@ATE />RCAT+>@0 >/ GRA@+TE* G@E+00 A@( C+$AH0=ATE'
There are countries Nin /rance* the vicinit" of ="onsP in German"*
/reiberg* @aundorfO &here the formations of granite and gneiss are
extremel" distinctP there are others* on the contrar"* &here the
geologic limits bet&een those formations are slightl" marked* and
&here granite* gneiss and micaHslate a%%ear to alternate b" la"ers or
%ass often from one to the other' These alternations and transitions
a%%eared to me less common in the littoral $ordillera of eneRuela
than in the 0ierra Parime' .e recognise successivel"* in the former of
these t&o s"stems of mountains* above all in the chain nearest the
coast* as %redominating rocks from &est to east* granite Nlongitude 38
to 31 degreesO* gneiss Nlongitude LI 1M7 to 38 degreesO* and
micaHslate Nlongitude L9 !M; to LL 1M7 degreesOP but considering
altogether the geologic constitution of the coast and the 0ierra
Parime* &e %refer to treat of granite* gneiss and micaHslate* if not
as one formation* at least as three coHordinate formations closel"
linked together' The %rimitive cla"Hslate NurthonschieferO is
subordinate to micaHslate* of &hich it is onl" a modification' +t no
more forms an inde%endent stratum in the @e& $ontinent* than in the
P"renees and the Al%s'
NaO GRA@+TE &hich does not %ass to gneiss is most common in the
&estern %art of the coastHchain bet&een Turmero* alencia and Porto
$abello* as &ell as in the circle of the 0ierra Parime* near the
Encaramada* and at the Peak of (uida' At the Rincon del (iablo*
bet&een Cariara and Hacienda de $ura* and at $huao* it is
coarseHgrained* and contains fine cr"stals of fels%ar* 1 1M7 inches
long' +t is divided in %risms b" %er%endicular vents* or stratified
regularl" like secondar" limestone* at =as Trincheras* the strait of
Baraguan in the valle" of the >rinoco* and near Gua%asoso* on the
banks of the Ataba%o' The stratified granite of =as Trincheras* giving
birth to ver" hot s%rings Nfrom 28'9 degrees centigradeO* a%%ears from
the inclination of its la"ers to be su%er%osed on gneiss &hich is seen
further south&ard in the islands of the lake of alenciaP but
conjectures of su%er%osition founded onl" on the h"%othesis of an
indefinite %rolongation of the strata are doubtfulP and %ossibl" the
granite masses &hich form a small %articular Rone in the northern
range of the littoral $ordillera* bet&een 38 degrees ! minutes and 38
degrees 98 minutes longitude* &ere u%heaved in %iercing the gneiss'
The latter rock is %revalent* both in descending from the Rincon del
(iablo south&ard to the hotHs%rings of Cariara* and to&ards the banks
of the lake of alencia* and in advancing on the east to&ards the
grou% of Buenavista* the 0illa of $aracas and $a%e $odera' +n the
region of the littoral chain of eneRuela* &here granite seems to
constitute an inde%endent formation from 19 to 1L leagues in length* +
sa& no foreign or subordinate la"ers of gneiss* micaHslate or
%rimitive limestone'- N- Primitive limestone* ever"&here so common in
micaHslate and gneiss* is found in the granite of the P"renees* at
Port dG>o* and in the mountains of =abourd'O
The 0ierra Parime is one of the most extensive granitic strata
existing on the globeP- but the granite* &hich is seen alike bare on
the flanks of the mountains and in the %lains b" &hich the" are
joined* often %asses into gneiss' N- To %rove the extent of the
continuit" of this granitic stratum* it &ill suffice to observe that
C' =eschenault de la Tour collected in the bars of the river Cana* in
/rench Guiana* the same gneissHgranites N&ith a little am%hiboleO
&hich + observed three hundred leagues more to the &est* near the
confluence of the >rinoco and the Guaviare'O Granite is most commonl"
found in its granular com%osition and inde%endent formation* near
Encaramada* at the strait of Baraguan* and in the vicinit" of the
mission of the Esmeralda' +t often contains* like the granites of the
Rock" Countains Nlatitude !I to ;8 degreesO* the P"renees and 0outhern
T"rol* am%hibolic cr"stals*- disseminated in the mass* but &ithout
%assing to s"enite' N- + did not observe this mixture of am%hibole in
the granite of the littoral chain of eneRuela exce%t at the summit of
the 0illa of $aracas'O Those modifications are observed on the banks
of the >rinoco* the $assiquiare* the Ataba%o* and the Tuamini' The
blocks hea%ed together* &hich are found in Euro%e on the ridge of
granitic mountains Nthe Riesengebirge in 0ilesia* the >chsenko%f in
/ranconiaO* are es%eciall" remarkable in the northH&est %art of the
0ierra Parime* bet&een $a"cara* the Encaramada and ?ruana* in the
cataracts of the Ca"%ures and at the mouth of the Rio ichada' +t is
doubtful &hether these masses* &hich are of c"lindrical form*
%arallelo%i%edons rounded on the edge* or balls of ;8 to 98 feet in
diameter* are the effect of a slo& decom%osition* or of a violent and
instantaneous u%heaving' The granite of the southHeastern %art of
0ierra Parime sometimes %asses to %egmatite*- com%osed of laminar"
fels%ar* enclosed in curved masses of cr"stalline quartR' N-
0chriftHgranit' +t is a sim%le modification of the com%osition and
texture of granite* and not a subordinate la"er' +t must not be
confounded &ith the real %egmatite* generall" destitute of mica* or
&ith the geogra%hic stones N%iedras ma%ajasO of the >rinoco* &hich
contain streaks of dark green mica irregularl" dis%osed'O + sa& gneiss
onl" in subordinate la"ersP- N- The magnetic sands of the rivers that
furro& the granitic chain of the Encaramada seem to denote the
%roximit" of am%hibolic or chloritic slate Nhornblende or
chloritschieferO* either in la"ers in the granite* or su%er%osed on
that rock'OP but* bet&een 6avita* 0an $arlos del Rio @egro* and the
Peak of (uida* the granite is traversed b" numerous veins of different
ages* abounding &ith rockHcr"stal* black tourmalin and %"rites' +t
a%%ears that these o%en veins become more common on the east of the
Peak of (uida* in the 0ierra Pacaraina* es%eciall" bet&een Jurumu and
Ru%unuri Ntributaries of the Rio Branco and the EssequiboO* &here
Hortsmann discovered* instead of diamonds- and emeralds* a mine NfourO
of rockHcr"stal' N- These legends of diamonds are ver" ancient on the
coast of Paria' Petrus Cart"r relates that* at the beginning of the
sixteenth centur"* a 0%aniard named Andres Corales bought of a "oung
+ndian of the coast of Paria admantem mire %retiosum* duos infantis
digiti articulos longum* magni autem %ollicis articulum aequantem
crassitudine* acutum utrobique et costis octo %ulchre formatis
constantem' :A diamond of marvellous value* as long as t&o joints of
an infantGs finger* and as thick as one of the joints of its thumb*
shar% on both sides* and of a beautiful octagonal sha%e'< This
%retended adamas juvenis %ariensis resisted the action of lime' Petrus
Cart"r distinguishes it from to%aR b" adding offenderunt et to%aRios
in littore* :the" %a" no heed to to%aRes on the coast< that is of
Paria* 0aint Carta and eragua' 0ee >ceanica (ec' ! lib' ; %age 9!'O
NbO G@E+00 %redominates along the littoral $ordillera of eneRuela*
&ith the a%%earance of an inde%endent formation* in the northern chain
from $erro del $huao* and the meridian of $horoni* as far as $a%e
$oderaP and in the southern chain* from the meridian of Guigne to the
mouth of the Rio Tu"' $a%e $odera* the great mass of the 0illa of
Gali%ano* and the land bet&een Gua"ra and $aracas* the tableHland of
Buenavista* the islands of the lake of alencia* the mountains bet&een
Guigne* Caria Cagdalena and the $erro do $hacao are com%osed of
gneissP- N- + have been assured that the islands >rchila and =os
/railes are also com%osed of gneissP $uracao and Bonaire are
calcareous' +s the island of >ruba Nin &hich nuggets of native gold of
considerable siRe have been foundO %rimitiveTOP "et amidst this soil
of gneiss* inclosed micaHslate reHa%%ears* often talcous in the alle
de $aurimare* and in the ancient Provincia de =os CarichesP at $abo
Blanco* &est of =a Gua"raP near $aracas and Antimano* and above all*
bet&een the tableland of Buenavista and the valle"s of Aragua* in the
Contana de las $ocu"Ras* and at Hacienda del Tu"' Bet&een the limits
here assigned to gneiss* as a %redominant rock Nlongitude LI 1M7 to 38
1M7 degreesO* gneiss %asses sometimes to micaHslate* &hile the
a%%earance of a transition to granite is onl" found on the summit of
the 0illa of $aracas'- N- The 0illa is a mountain of gneiss like Adams
Peak in the island of $e"lon* and of nearl" the same height'O +t &ould
require a more careful examination than + &as able to devote to the
subject* to ascertain &hether the granite of the %eak of 0t' Gothard*
and of the 0illa of $aracas* reall" lies over micaHslate and gneiss*
or if it has merel" %ierced those rocks* rising in the form of needles
or domes' The gneiss of the littoral $ordillera* in the %rovince of
$aracas* contains almost exclusivel" garnets* rutile titanite and
gra%hite* disseminated in the &hole mass of the rock* shelves of
granular limestone* and some metalliferous veins' + shall not decide
&hether the granitiferous ser%entine of the tableHland of Buenavista
is inclosed in gneiss* or &hether* su%er%osed u%on that rock* it does
not rather belong to a formation of &eisstein Nhe%tiniteO similar to
that of Penig and Citt&e"de in 0axon"'
+n that %art of the 0ierra Parime &hich C' Bon%land and m"self
visited* gneiss forms a less marked Rone* and oscillates more
frequentl" to&ards granite than micaHslate' + found no garnets in the
gneiss of Parime' There is no doubt that the gneissHgranite of the
>rinoco is slightl" auriferous on some %oints'
NcO C+$AH0=ATE* &ith cla"Hslate NthonschieferO* forms a continuous
stratum in the northern chain of the littoral $ordillera* from the
%oint of Ara"a* be"ond the meridian of $ariaco* as &ell as in the
island of Carguerita' +t contains* in the %eninsula of Ara"a* garnets
disseminated in the mass* c"anite and* &hen it %asses to cla"e"Hslate*
small la"ers of native alum' CicaHslate constituting an inde%endent
formation must be distinguished from micaHslate subordinate to a
stratum of gneiss* on the east of $a%e $odera' The micaHslate
subordinate to gneiss %resents* in the valle" of Tu"* shelves of
%rimitive limestone and small strata of gra%hic am%elite
NReicheschieferOP bet&een $abo Blanco and $atia la"ers of chloritic*
granitiferous slate* and slat" am%hiboleP and bet&een $aracas and
Antimano* the more remarkable %henomenon of veins of gneiss inclosing
balls of granitiferous diorite NgrunsteinO'
+n the 0ierra Parime* micaHslate %redominates onl" in the most eastern
%art* &here its lustre has led to strange errors'
The am%hibolic slate of Angostura* and masses of diorite in balls*
&ith concentric la"ers* near Cuitaco* a%%ear to be su%er%osed* not on
micaHslate* but immediatel" on gneissHgranite' + could not* ho&ever*
distinctl" ascertain &hether a %art of this %"ritous diorite &as not
enclosed on the banks of the >rinoco* as it is at the bottom of the
sea near $abo Blanco* and at the Contana de Avila* in the rock &hich
it covers' er" large veins* &ith an irregular direction* often assume
the as%ect of short la"ersP and the balls of diorite hea%ed together
in hillocks ma"* like man" cones of basalt* issue from the crevices'
CicaHslate* chloritic slate and the rocks of slat" am%hibole contain
magnetic sand in the tro%ical regions of eneRuela* as in the most
northern regions of Euro%e' The gannets are there almost equall"
disseminated in the gneiss N$aracasO* the micaHslate N%eninsula of
Ara"aO* the ser%entine NBuenavistaO* the chloritic slate N$abo
BlancoO* and the diorite or greenstone NAntimanoO' These garnets
reHa%%ear in the trach"tic %or%h"ries that cro&n the celebrated
metalliferous mountain of Potosi* and in the black and %"roxenic
masses of the small volcano of ,anaH?rca* at the back of $himboraRo'
Petroleum Nand this %henomenon is &ell &orth" of attentionO issues
from a soil of micaHslate in the gulf of $ariaco' /urther east* on the
banks of the Arco* and near $ariaco* it seems to gush from secondar"
limestone formations* but %robabl" that ha%%ens onl" because those
formations re%ose on micaHslate' The hot s%rings of eneRuela have
also their origin in* or rather belo&* the %rimitive rocks' The" issue
from granite N=as TrincherasO* gneiss NCariara and >notoO and the
calcareous and arenaceous rocks that cover the %rimitive rocks NCorros
de 0an 6uan* Bergantin* $ariacoO' The earthquakes and subterraneous
detonations of &hich the seat has been erroneousl" sought in the
calcareous mountains of $umana have been felt &ith most violence in
the granitic soils of $aracas and the >rinoco' +gneous %henomena Nif
their existence be reall" &ell certifiedO are attributed b" the %eo%le
to the granitic %eaks of (uida and Guaraco* and also to the calcareous
mountain of $uchivano'
/rom these observations it results that gneissHgranite %redominates in
the immense grou% of the mountains of the Parime* as micaHslateHgneiss
%revails in the $ordillera of the coastP that in the t&o s"stems the
granitic soil* unmixed &ith gneiss and micaHslate* occu%ies but a ver"
small extent of countr"P and that in the coastHchain the formations of
cla"e" slate NthonschieferO* micaHslate* gneiss and granite succeed
each other in such a manner on the same line from east to &est
N%resenting a ver" uniform and regular inclination of their strata
to&ards the northH&estO* that* according to the h"%othesis of a
subterraneous %rolongation of the strata* the granite of =as
Trincheras and the Rincon del (iablo ma" be su%er%osed on the gneiss
of the illa de $ura* of Buenavista and $aracasP and the gneiss
su%er%osed in its turn on the micaHslate and cla"Hslate of CaniquareR
and $hu%aru%aru in the %eninsula of Ara"a' This h"%othesis of a
%rolongation of ever" rock* in some sort indefinite* founded on the
angle of inclination %resented b" the strata a%%earing at the surface*
is not admissibleP and according to similar equall" vague reasoning &e
should be forced to consider the %rimitive rocks of the Al%s of
0&itRerland as su%er%osed on the formation of the com%act limestone of
Achsenberg* and that :transition* or identical &ith RechsteinT< in
turn* as being su%er%osed on the molassus of the tertiar" strata'
7' />RCAT+>@ >/ THE $=A,H0=ATE NTH>@0$H+E/ERO >/ CA=PA00>'
+f* in the sketch of the formations of eneRuela* + had follo&ed the
received division into %rimitive* intermediar"* secondar" and tertiar"
strata* + might be doubtful &hat %lace the last stratum of micaHslate
in the %eninsula of Ara"a should occu%"' This stratum* in the ravine
Naro"oO of Robalo* %asses insensibl" in a carburetted and shining
slate* into a real am%elite' The direction and inclination of the
stratum remain the same* and the thonschiefer* &hich takes the look of
a transitionHrock* is but a modification of the %rimitive micaHslate
of CaniquareR* containing garnets* c"anite* and rutile titanite' These
insensible %assages from %rimitive to transition strata b" cla"Hslate*
&hich becomes carburetted at the same time that it %resents a
concordant %osition &ith micaHslate and gneiss* have also been
observed several times in Euro%e b" celebrated geologists' The
existence of an inde%endent formation of %rimitive slate
NurthonschieferO ma" even be doubted* that is* of a formation &hich is
not joined belo& b" strata containing some vestiges of monocot"ledonous
%lants'
The small thonschiefer bed of Cal%asso Nin the southern chain of the
littoral $ordilleraO is se%arated from micaHslateHgneiss b" a
coHordinate formation of ser%entine and diorite' +t is divided into
t&o shelves* of &hich the u%%er %resents green steatitous slate mixed
&ith am%hibole* and the lo&er* darkHblue slate* extremel" fissile* and
traversed b" numerous veins of quartR' + could discover no fragmentar"
stratum Ngrau&ackeO nor kieselschiefer nor chiastolite' The
kieselschiefer belongs in those countries to a limestone formation' +
have seen fine s%ecimens of the chiastolite NmacleO &hich the +ndians
&ore as amulets and &hich came from the 0ierra @evada de Cerida' This
substance is %robabl" found in transitionHslate* for CC' Rivero and
Boussingault observed rocks of cla"Hslate at the height of 7178
toises* in the Paramo of Cucuchies* on going from Truxillo to Cerida'-
N- +n Galicia* in 0%ain* + sa& the thonschiefer containing
chiastholite alternate &ith grau&ackeP but the chiastolite
unquestionabl" belongs also to rocks &hich all geologists have
hitherto called %rimitive rocks* to micaHschists intercalated like
la"ers in granite* and to an inde%endent stratum of micaHslate'O
!' />RCAT+>@ >/ 0ERPE@T+@E A@( (+>R+TE NGREE@H0T>@E >/ 6?@$A=+T>'O
.e have indicated above a la"er of granitiferous ser%entine inclosed
in the gneiss of Buenavista* or %erha%s su%er%osed on that rockP &e
here find a real stratum of ser%entine alternating &ith diorite* and
extending from the ravine of Tucutunemo as far as 6uncalito' (iorite
forms the great mass of this stratumP it is of a dark green colour*
granular* &ith small grains* and destitute of quartRP its mass is
formed of small cr"stals of fels%ar intermixed &ith cr"stals of
am%hibole' This rock of diorite is covered at its surface* b" the
effect of decom%osition* &ith a "ello&ish crust* like that of basalts
and dolerites' 0er%entine* of a dull oliveHgreen and smooth fracture*
mixed &ith bluish steatite and am%hibole* %resents* like almost all
the coHordinate formations of diorite and ser%entine Nin 0ilesia* at
/ichtelgebirge* in the valle" of Baigorr"* in the P"renees* in the
island of $"%rus and in the $o%%er Countains of circum%olar AmericaO*-
traces of co%%er' N- /ranklinGs 6ourne" to the Polar 0ea %age 972'O
.here the diorite* %artl" globular* a%%roaches the green slate of
Cal%asso* real beds of green slate are found inclosed in diorite' The
fine saussurite &hich &e sa& in the ?%%er >rinoco in the hands of the
+ndians* seems to indicate the existence of a soil of eu%hotide*
su%er%osed on gneissHgranite* or am%hibolic slate* in the eastern %art
of the 0ierra Parime'
;' GRA@?=AR A@( C+$A$E>?0 =+CE0T>@E >/ THE C>RR>0 >/ 0A@ 6?A@'
The Corros of 0an 6uan rise like ruinous to&ers in a soil of diorite'
The" are formed of a cavernous gre"ish green limestone of cr"stalline
texture* mixed &ith some s%angles of mica* and are destitute of
shells' .e see in them masses of hardened cla"* black* fissile*
charged &ith iron* and covered &ith a crust* "ello& from
decom%osition* like basalts and am%hiboles' A com%act limestone
containing vestiges of shells adjoins this granular limestone of the
Corros of 0an 6uan &hich is hollo& &ithin' Probabl" on a further
examination of the extraordinar" strata bet&een illa de $ura and
>rtiR* of &hich + had time onl" to collect some fe& s%ecimens* man"
%henomena ma" be discovered analogous to those &hich =eo%old von Buch
has latel" described in 0outh T"rol' C' Boussingault* in a memoir
&hich he has recentl" addressed to me* calls the rock of the Corros a
%roblematic calcariferous gneiss' This ex%ression seems to %rove that
the %lates of mica take in some %arts a uniform direction* as in the
greenish dolomite of al Toccia'
9' /E=0PATH+$ 0A@(0T>@E >/ THE >R+@>$>'
The gneissHgranite of the 0ierra Parime is covered in some fe& %laces
Nbet&een the Encaramada and the strait of Baraguan and in the island
of GuachacoO in its &estern %art &ith an oliveHbro&n sandstone*
containing grains of quartR and fragments of fels%ar* joined b" an
extremel" com%act cla"e" cement' This cement* &here it abounds* has a
conchoidal fracture and %asses to jas%er' +t is crossed b" small veins
of bro&n ironHore* &hich se%arate into ver" thin %lates or scales' The
%resence of fels%ar seems to indicate that this small formation of
sandstone Nthe sole secondar" formation hitherto kno&n in the 0ierra
ParimeO belongs to red sandstone or coal'- N- Broken and intact
cr"stals of felds%ar are found in the todte liegende coalHsandstone of
Thuringia' + observed in Cexico a ver" singular agglomerated fels%ar
formation su%er%osed u%on N%erha%s inclosed inO red sandstone* near
Guanaxuato'O + hesitate to class it &ith the sandstone of the =lanos*
the relative antiquit" of &hich a%%ears to me to be less
satisfactoril" verified'
L' />RCAT+>@ >/ THE 0A@(0T>@E >/ THE ==A@>0 >/ $A=AB>S>'
+ arrange the various formations in the order &hich + fancied + could
discern on the s%ot' The carburetted slate NthonschieferO of the
%eninsula of Ara"a connects the %rimitive rocks of gneissHgranite and
micaHslateHgneiss &ith the transition strata Nblue and green slate*
diorite* ser%entine mixed &ith am%hibole and granular greenishHgre"
limestoneO of Cal%asso* Tucutunemo and 0an 6uan' >n the south the
sandstone of the =lanos rests on this transition strataP it is
destitute of shells and com%osed* like the savannahs of $alaboRo* of
rounded fragments of quartR*- kieselschiefer and ="dian stone*
cemented b" a ferruginous oliveHbro&n cla"' N- +n German" sandstones
&hich belong unquestionabl" to red sandstone contain also Nnear
.eiderstadt* in ThuringiaO nodules* and rounded fragments' + shall not
cite the %uddingHstone subordinate to the red sandstone of the
P"renees because the age of that sandstone destitute of coal ma" be
dis%uted' =a"ers of ver" large rounded nodules of quartR are inclosed
in the coal sandstone of Thuringia* and in ?%%er 0ilesia'O .e there
find fragments of &ood* in great %art monocot"ledonous* and masses of
bro&n ironHore' 0ome strata* as in the Cesa de Paja* %resent grains of
ver" fine quartRP + sa& no fragments of %or%h"r" or limestone' Those
immense beds of sandstone that cover the =lanos of the =o&er >rinoco
and the AmaRon &ell deserve the attention of travellers' +n a%%earance
the" a%%roximate to the %uddingHstones of the molassus stratum* in
&hich calcareous vestiges are also often &anting* as at 0chott&"l and
(iesbach in 0&itRerlandP but the" a%%eared to me b" their %osition to
have more relation to red sandstone' @o&here can the" be confounded
&ith the grau&ackes Nfragmentar" transitionHrocksO &hich CC'
Boussingault and Rivero found along the $ordilleras of @e& Grenada*
bordering the ste%%es on the &est' (oes the &ant of fragments of
granite* gneiss and %or%h"r"* and the frequenc" of %etrified &ood*- N-
The %eo%le of the countr" attribute those &oods to the Alcornoco*
Bo&dichia virgilioides N0ee @ova Gen' et 0%ec' Plant' volume ! %age
!33O* and to the $ha%arro bovo* Rho%ala com%licata' +t is believed in
eneRuela as in Eg"%t that %etrified &ood is formed in our times' +
found this dicot"ledonous %etrified &ood onl" at the surface of the
soil and not inclosed in the sandstone of the =lanos' C' $aillaud made
the same observation on going to the >asis of 0i&a' The trunks of
trees* ninet" feet long* inclosed in the red sandstone of Aifhauser
Nin 0axon"O* are* according to the recent researches of on Buch*
divided into joints* and are certainl" monocot"ledonous'O sometimes
dicot"ledonous* indicate that those sandstones belong to the more
recent formations &hich fill the %lains bet&een the $ordillera of the
Parime and the coast $ordillera* as the molassus of 0&itRerland fills
the s%ace bet&een the 6ura and the Al%sT +t is not eas"* &hen several
formations are not %erfectl" develo%ed* to determine the age of
arenaceous rocks' The most able geologists do not concur in o%inion
res%ecting the sandstone of the Black /orest and of the &hole countr"
southH&est of the Thuringer .aldgebirge' C' Boussingault* &ho %assed
through a %art of the ste%%es of eneRuela long after me* is of
o%inion that the sandstone of the =lanos of 0an $arlos* that of the
valle" of 0an Antonio de $ucuta and the tableHlands of Barquisimeto*
Tocu"o* Cerida and Truxillo belong to a formation of old red sandstone
or coal' There is in fact real coal near $arache* southH&est of the
Paramo de las Rosas'
Before a %art of the immense %lains of America &as geologicall"
examined* it might have been su%%osed that their uniform and continued
horiRontalit" &as caused b" alluvial soils* or at least b" arenaceous
tertiar" strata' The sands &hich in the Baltic %rovinces and in all
the north of German"* cover coarse limestone and chalk* seem to
justif" these s"stematic ideas* &hich have been extended to the 0ahara
and the ste%%es of Asia' But the observations &hich &e have been able
to collect sufficientl" %rove that both in the >ld and the @e& .orld*
both %lains* ste%%es* and deserts contain numerous formations of
different eras* and that these formations often a%%ear &ithout being
covered b" alluvial de%osits' 6ura limestone* gemHsalt N%lains of the
Ceta and PatagoniaO and coalHsandstone are found in the =lanos of
0outh AmericaP quadersandstein*- N- The forms of these rocks in &alls
and %"ramids* or divided in rhomboid blocks* seems no doubt to
indicate quadersandsteinP but the sandstone of the eastern declivit"
of the Rock" Countains in &hich the learned traveller Cr' 6ames found
saltHs%rings NlicksO* strata of g"%sum and no coal* a%%ear rather to
belong to variegated sandstone NbuntersandsteinO'O a saliferous soil*
beds of coal*- N- This coal immediatel" covers* as in Belgium* the
grau&acke* or transitionHsandstone'O and limestone &ith trilobites*-
N- +n the %lains of the ?%%er Cissouri the limestone is immediatel"
covered b" a secondar" limestone &ith turritulites* believed to be
6urassic* &hile a limestone &ith gr"%heae* rich in leadHore and &hich
+ should have believed to be still more ancient than oolitic
limestone* and analogous to lias* is described b" Cr' 6ames as l"ing
above the most recent formation of sandstone' Has this su%er%osition
been &ell ascertainedTO fill the vast %lains of =ouisiana and $anada'
+n examining the s%ecimens collected b" the indefatigable $aillaud in
the ="bian desert and the >asis of 0i&a* &e recogniRe sandstone
similar to that of ThebesP fragments of %etrified dicot"ledonous &ood
Nfrom thirt" to fort" feet longO* &ith rudiments of branches and
medullar" concentric la"ers* coming %erha%s from tertiar" sandstone
&ith lignitesP- N- /ormation of molassus'OP chalk &ith s%atangi and
anach"tes* 6ura limestone &ith nummulites %artl" agatiRedP another
fineHgrained limestone- em%lo"ed in the construction of the tem%le of
6u%iter Ammon N>mmHBe"dahO N- C' von Buch ver" reasonabl" inquires
&hether this statuar" limestone* &hich resembles Parian marble* and
limestone become granular b" contact &ith the s"stematic granite of
PredaRRo* is a modification of the limestone &ith nummulites* of 0i&a'
The %rimitive rocks from &hich the fineHgrained marble &as believed to
be extracted* if there be no dece%tion in its granular a%%earance* are
far distant from the >asis of 0i&a'OP and gemHsalt &ith sul%hur and
bitumen' These exam%les sufficientl" %rove that the %lains NllanosO*
ste%%es and deserts have not that uniform tertiar" formation &hich has
been too generall" su%%osed' (o the fine %ieces of ribandHjas%er* or
Eg"%tian %ebbles* &hich C' Bon%land %icked u% in the savannahs of
Barcelona Nnear $urataquicheO* belong to the sandstone of the =lanos
of $alaboRo or to a stratum su%er%osed on that sandstoneT The former
of these su%%ositions &ould a%%roach* according to the analog" of the
observations made b" C' RoRiere in Eg"%t* the sandstone of $alaboRo*
or tertiar" nagelfluhe'
3' />RCAT+>@ >/ THE $>CPA$T =+CE0T>@E >/ $?CA@A$>A'
A bluishHgre" com%act limestone* almost destitute of %etrifactions*
and frequentl" intersected b" small veins of carburetted lime* forms
mountains &ith ver" abru%t ridges' These la"ers have the same
direction and the same inclination as the micaHslate of Ara"a' .here
the flank of the limestone mountains of @e& Andalusia is ver" stee% &e
observe* as at Achsenberg* near Altdorf in 0&itRerland* la"ers that
are singularl" arched or turned' The tints of the limestone of
$umanacoa var" from darkish gre" to bluish &hite and sometimes %ass
from com%act to granular' +t contains* as substances accidentall"
disseminated in the mass* bro&n ironHore* s%athic iron* even
rockHcr"stal' As subordinate la"ers it contains N1O numerous strata of
carburetted and slat" marl &ith %"ritesP N7O quartRose sandstone*
alternating &ith ver" thin strata of cla"e" slateP N!O g"%sum &ith
sul%hur near Guire in the Golfo Triste on the coast of Paria' As + did
not examine on the s%ot the %osition of this "ello&ishH&hite
fineHgrained g"%sum + cannot determine &ith an" certaint" its relative
age'
N:/ootnote not indicated5< This sandstone contains s%rings' +n general
it onl" covers the limestone of $umanacoa* but it a%%eared to me to be
sometimes enclosed'O
The onl" %etrifactions of shells &hich + found in this limestone
formation consist of a hea% of turbinites and trochites* on the flank
of Turimiquiri* at more than LI8 toises high* and an ammonite seven
inches in diameter* in the Contana de 0anta Caria* northHnorthH&est of
$ari%e' + no&here sa& the limestone of $umanacoa Nof &hich + treat
s%eciall" in this articleO resting on the sandstone of the =lanosP if
there be an" such su%er%osition it must be found on descending the
tableHland of $ocollar to&ards the Cesa de Amana' >n the southern
coast of the gulf of $ariaco the limestone formation %robabl" covers*
&ithout the inter%osition of another rock* a micaHslate &hich %asses
to carburetted cla"Hslate' +n the northern %art of the gulf +
distinctl" sa& this cla"e" formation at the de%th of t&o or three
fathoms in the sea' The submarine hot s%rings a%%eared to me to gush
from micaHslate like the %etroleum of CaniquareR' +f an" doubts remain
as to the rock on &hich the limestone of $umanacoa is immediatel"
su%er%osed* there is none res%ecting the rocks &hich cover it* such as
N1O the tertiar" limestone of $umana near Punta (elgada and at $erro
de Cea%ireP N7O the sandstone of Buete%e and Turimiquiri* &hich*
forming la"ers also in the limestone of $umanacoa* belongs %ro%erl" to
the latter soilP the limestone of $ari%e &hich &e have often
identified in the course of this &ork &ith 6ura limestone* and of
&hich &e shall s%eak in the follo&ing article'
I' />RCAT+>@ >/ THE $>CPA$T =+CE0T>@E >/ $AR+PE'
(escending the $uchillo de Guanaguana to&ards the convent of $ari%e*
&e find another more recent formation* &hite* &ith a smooth or
slightl" conchoidal fracture* and divided in ver" thin la"ers* &hich
succeeds to the bluish gre" limestone formation of $umanacoa' + call
this in the first instance the limestone formation of $ari%e* on
account of the cavern of that name* inhabited b" thousands of
nocturnal birds' This limestone a%%eared to me identical N1O &ith the
limestone of the Corro de Barcelona and the $himanas +slands* &hich
contains small la"ers of black kieselschiefer Nslat" jas%erO &ithout
veins of quartR* and breaking into fragments of %arallelo%i%ed formP
N7O &ith the &hitish gre" limestone &ith smooth fracture of Tisnao*
&hich seems to cover the sandstone of the =lanos' .e find the
formation of $ari%e in the island of $uba Nbet&een the Havannah and
Batabano and bet&een the %ort of Trinidad and Rio GuauraboO* as &ell
in the small $a"man +slands'
+ have hitherto described the secondar" limestone formations of the
littoral chain &ithout giving them the s"stematic names &hich ma"
connect them &ith the formations of Euro%e' (uring m" sta" in America
+ took the limestone of $umanacoa for Rechstein or Al%ine limestone*
and that of $ari%e for 6ura limestone' The carburetted and slightl"
bituminous marl of $umanacoa* analogous to the strata of bituminous
slate* &hich are ver" numerous- in the Al%s of southern Bavaria N- +
found them also in the Peruvian Andes near Contau* at the height of
1L88 toises'O* a%%eared to me to characteriRe the former of these
formationsP &hile the daRRling &hiteness of the cavernous stratum of
$ari%e* and the form of those shelves of rocks rising in &alls and
cornices* forcibl" reminded me of the 6ura limestone of 0treitberg in
/ranconia* or of >itRo& and ArResso&ic in ?%%er 0ilesia' There is in
eneRuela a su%%ression of the different strata &hich* in the old
continent* se%arate Rechstein from 6ura limestone' The sandstone of
$ocollar* &hich sometimes covers the limestone of $umanacoa* ma" be
considered as variegated sandstoneP but it is more %robable that in
alternating b" la"ers &ith the limestone of $umanacoa* it is sometimes
thro&n to the u%%er limit of the formation to &hich it belongs' The
Rechstein of Euro%e also contains a ver" quartRose sandstone' The t&o
limestone strata of $umanacoa and $ari%e succeed immediatel" each
other* like Al%ine and 6ura limestone* on the &estern declivit" of the
Cexican tableHland* bet&een 0o%ilote* Cescala and Tehuilote%ec' These
formations* %erha%s* %ass from one to the other* so that the latter
ma" be onl" an u%%er shelf of Rechstein' This immediate covering* this
su%%ression of inter%osed soils* this sim%licit" of structure and
absence of oolitic strata* have been equall" observed in ?%%er 0ilesia
and in the P"renees' >n the other hand the immediate su%er%osition of
the limestone of $umanacoa on micaHslate and transition
cla"HslateHHthe rarit" of the %etrifactions &hich have not "et been
sufficientl" examinedHHthe strata of silex %assing to ="dian stone*
ma" lead to the belief that the soils of $umanacoa and $ari%e are of
much more ancient formation than the secondar" rocks' .e must not be
sur%rised that the doubts &hich arise in the mind of the geologist
&hen endeavouring to decide on the relative age of the limestone of
the high mountains in the P"renees* the A%ennines Nsouth of the lake
of PerugiaO and in the 0&iss Al%s* should extend to the limestone
strata of the high mountains of @e& Andalusia* and ever"&here in
America &here the %resence of red sandstone is not distinctl"
recogniRed'
2' 0A@(0T>@E >/ THE BERGA@T+@'
Bet&een @ueva Barcelona and the $erro del Bergantin a quartRose
sandstone covers the 6ura limestone of $umanacoa' +s it an arenaceous
rock analogous to green sandstone* or does it belong to the sandstone
of $ocollarT +n the latter case its %resence seems to %rove still more
clearl" that the limestones of $umanacoa and $ari%e are onl" t&o %arts
of the same s"stem* alternating &ith sandstone* sometimes quartRose*
sometimes slat"'
18' G,P0?C >/ THE ==A@>0 >/ E@ES?E=A'
(e%osits of lamellar g"%sum* containing numerous strata of marl* are
found in %atches on the ste%%es of $aracas and BarcelonaP for
instance* in the tableHland of 0an (iego* bet&een >rtiR and the Cesa
de PajaP and near the mission of $achi%o' The" a%%eared to me to cover
the 6ura limestone of Tisnao* &hich is analogous to that of $ari%e*
&here &e find it mixed &ith masses of fibrous g"%sum' + have not given
the name formation either to the sandstone of the >rinoco* of
$ocollar* of Bergantin or to the g"%sum of the =lanos* because nothing
as "et %roves the inde%endence of those arenaceous and g"%sous soils'
+ think it &ill one da" be ascertained that the g"%sum of the =lanos
covers not onl" the 6ura limestone of the =lanos* but that it is
sometimes enclosed in it like the g"%sum of the Golfo Triste on the
east of the Al%ine limestone of $umanacoa' The great masses of sul%hur
found in the la"ers* almost entirel" cla"e"* of the ste%%es Nat
Gua"uta* valle" of 0an Bonifacio* Buen Pastor* confluence of the Rio
Pao &ith the >rinocoO ma" %ossibl" belong to the marl of the g"%sum of
>rtiR' These cla"e" beds are more &orth" of attention since the
interesting observations of on Buch and several other celebrated
geologists res%ecting the cavernosit" of g"%sum* the irregularit" of
the inclination of its strata and its %arallel %osition &ith the t&o
declivities of the HartR and the u%heaved chain of the Al%sP &hile the
simultaneous %resence of sul%hur* oligist iron and the sul%hurous acid
va%ours &hich %recede the formation of sul%huric acid* seem to
manifest the action of forces %laced at a great de%th in the interior
of the globe'
11' />RCAT+>@ >/ C?R+AT+/ER>?0 $=A, N.+TH B+T?CE@ A@( =ACE==AR G,P0?CO
>/ THE PE@+@0?=A >/
ARA,A'
This soil %resents a striking analog" &ith salRthon or leberstein
Nmuriatiferous cla"O &hich + have found accom%an"ing gemHsalt in ever"
Rone' +n the saltH%its of Ara"a NHaraiaO it attracted the attention of
Peter Cart"r dGAnghiera at the beginning of the sixteenth centur"' +t
%robabl" facilitated the ru%ture of the earth and the formation of the
gulf of $ariaco' This cla" is of a smok" colour* im%regnated &ith
%etroleum* mingled &ith lamellar and lenticular g"%sum and sometimes
traversed b" small veins of fibrous g"%sum' +t incloses angular and
less friable masses of dark bro&n cla" &ith a slat" and sometimes
conchoidal fracture' Curiate of soda is found in %articles invisible
to the naked e"e' The relations of %osition or su%er%osition bet&een
this soil and the tertiar" rocks does not a%%ear sufficientl" clear to
enable me to %ronounce &ith certaint" on this element* the most
im%ortant of %ositive geolog"' The coHordinate la"ers of gemHsalt*
muriatiferous cla" and g"%sum %resent the same difficulties in both
hemis%heresP these masses* the forms of &hich are ver" irregular*
ever"&here exhibit traces of great commotions' The" are scarcel" ever
covered b" inde%endent formationsP and after having been long
believed* in Euro%e* that gemHsalt &as exclusivel" %eculiar to Al%ine
and transition limestone* it is no& still more generall" admitted*
either from reasoning founded on analog" or from su%%ositions on the
%rolongation of the strata* that the true location of gemHsalt is
found in variegated sandstone NbuntersandsteinO' 0ometimes gemHsalt
a%%ears to oscillate bet&een variegated sandstone and muschelkalk'
+ made t&o excursions on the %eninsula of Ara"a' +n the first + &as
inclined to consider the muriatiferous cla" as subordinate to the
conglomerate Nevidentl" of tertiar" formationO of the Barigon and of
the mountain of the castle of $umana* because a little to the north of
that castle + had found shelves of hardened cla" containing lamellar
g"%sum inclosed in the tertiar" strata' + believed that the
muriatiferous cla" might alternate &ith the calcareous conglomerate of
BarigonP and near the fishermenGs huts situated o%%osite Cacanao*
conglomerate rocks a%%eared to me to %ierce through the strata of
cla"' (uring a second excursion to CaniquareR and the aluminiferous
slates of $ha%aru%aru* the connexion bet&een tertiar" strata and
bituminous cla" seemed to me some&hat %roblematical' + examined more
%articularl" the Penas @egras near the $erro de la ela*
eastHsouthHeast of the ruined castle of Ara"a' The limestone of the
Penas is com%act* bluish gre" and almost destitute of %etrifactions'
+t a%%eared to me to be much more ancient than the tertiar"
conglomerate of Barigon* and + sa& it covering* in concordant
%osition* a slat" cla"* some&hat analogous to muriatiferous cla"' +
&as greatl" interested in com%aring this latter formation &ith the
strata of carburetted marl contained in the Al%ine limestone of
$umanacoa' According to the o%inions no& most generall" received* the
rock of the Penas @egras ma" be considered as re%resenting muschelkalk
Nlimestone of GottingenOP and the saliferous and bituminous cla" of
Ara"a* as re%resenting variegated sandstoneP but these %roblems can
onl" be solved &hen the mines of those countries are &orked' Those
geologists &ho are of o%inion that the gemHsalt of +tal" %enetrates
into a stratum above the 6ura limestone* and even the chalk* ma" be
led to mistake the limestone of the Penas @egras for one of the strata
of com%act limestone &ithout grains of quartR and %etrifactions* &hich
are frequentl" found amidst the tertiar" conglomerate of Barigon and
of the $astillo de $umanaP the saliferous cla" of Ara"a &ould a%%ear
to them analogous to the %lastic cla" of Paris*- N- Tertiar" sandstone
&ith lignites* or molassus of Argovia'O or to the cla"e" shelves Ndief
et tourtiaO of secondar" sandstone &ith lignites* containing
saltHs%rings* in Belgium and .est%halia' Ho&ever difficult it ma" be
to distinguish se%aratel" the strata of marl and cla" belonging to
variegated sandstone* muschelkalk* quadersandstein* 6ura limestone*
secondar" sandstone &ith lignites Ngreen and iron sandO and the
tertiar" strata l"ing above chalk* + believe that the bitumen &hich
ever"&here accom%anies gemHsalt* and most frequentl" saltHs%rings*
characteriRes the muriatiferous cla" of the %eninsula of Ara"a and the
island of Carguerita* as linked &ith formations l"ing belo& the
tertiar" strata' + do not sa" that the" are anterior to that
formation* for since the %ublication of C' von BuchGs observations on
the T"rol* &e must no longer consider &hat is belo&* in s%ace* as
necessaril" anterior* relativel" to the e%och of its formation'
Bitumen and %etroleum still issue from the micaHslateP these
substances are ejected &henever the soil is shaken b" a subterranean
force Nbet&een $umana* $ariaco and the Golfo TristeO' @o&* in the
%eninsula of Ara"a* and in the island of Carguerita* saliferous cla"
im%regnated &ith bitumen is met &ith in connexion &ith this earl"
formation* nearl" as gemHsalt a%%ears in $alabria in flakes* in basins
inclosed in strata of granite and gneiss' (o these circumstances serve
to su%%ort that ingenious s"stem* according to &hich all the
coHordinate formations of g"%sum* sul%hur* bitumen and gemHsalt
Nconstantl" anh"drousO result from floods %assing across the crevices
&hich have traversed the oxidated crust of our %lanet* and %enetrating
to the seat of volcanic action' The enormous masses of muriate of soda
recentl" thro&n u% b" esuvius*- N- The ejected masses in 1I77 &ere so
considerable that the inhabitants of some villages round esuvius
collected them for domestic %ur%oses'O the small veins of that salt
&hich + have often seen traverse the most recentl" ejected lavas* and
of &hich the origin Nb" sublimationO a%%ears similar to that of
oligist iron de%osited in the same vents*- N- Ga"H=ussac on the action
of volcanoes in the Annales de $himie volume 77 %age ;1I'O the la"ers
of gemHsalt and saliferous cla" of the trach"tic soil in the %lains of
Peru and around the volcano of the Andes of Buito are &ell &orth" the
attention of geologists &ho &ould discuss the origin of formations' +n
the %resent sketch + confine m"self to the mere enumeration of the
%henomena of %osition* indicating* at the same time* some theoretic
vie&s* b" &hich observers in more advantageous circumstances than +
&as m"self ma" direct their researches'
17' AGG=>CERATE =+CE0T>@E >/ THE BAR+G>@* >/ THE $A0T=E >/ $?CA@A* A@(
>/ THE +$+@+T, >/ P>RT> $ABE==>'
This is a ver" com%lex formation* %resenting that mixture and that
%eriodical return of com%act limestone* quartRose sandstone and
conglomerates Nlimestone brecciaO &hich in ever" Rone %eculiarl"
characterises the tertiar" strata' +t forms the mountain of the castle
of 0an Antonio near the to&n of $umana* the southH&est extremit" of
the %eninsula of Ara"a* the $erro Cea%ire* south of $araco and the
vicinit" of Porto $abello' +t contains N1O a com%act limestone*
generall" of a &hitish gre"* or "ello&ish &hite N$erro del BarigonO*
some ver" thin la"ers of &hich are entirel" destitute of
%etrifactions* &hile others are filled &ith cardites* ostracites*
%ectens and vestiges of litho%h"te %ol"%i5 N7O a breccia in &hich an
innumerable number of %elagic shells are found mixed &ith grains of
quartR agglutinated b" a cement of carbonate of lime5 N!O a calcareous
sandstone &ith ver" fine rounded grains of quartR NPunta Arenas* &est
of the village of CaniquareRO and containing masses of bro&n iron ore5
N;O banks of marl and slat" cla"* containing no s%angles of mica* but
enclosing selenite and lamellar g"%sum' These banks of cla" a%%eared
to me constantl" to form the lo&er strata' There also belongs to this
tertiar" stratum the limestone tufa NfreshH&ater formationO of the
valle"s of Aragua near ittoria* and the fragmentar" rock of $abo
Blanco* &est&ard of the %ort of =a Gua"ra' + must not designate the
latter b" the name of nagelfluhe* because that term indicates rounded
fragments* &hile the fragments of $abo Blanco are generall" angular*
and com%osed of gneiss* h"aline quartR and chloritic slate* joined b"
a limestone cement' This cement contains magnetic sand*- N- This
magnetic sand no doubt o&es its origin to chloritous slate* &hich* in
these latitudes* forms the bed of the sea'O madre%ores* and vestiges
of bivalve sea shells' The different fragments of tertiar" strata
&hich + found in the littoral $ordillera of eneRuela* on the t&o
slo%es of the northern chain* seem to be su%er%osed near $umana
Nbet&een Bordones and Punta (elgadaOP in the $erro of Cea%ireP on the
:Al%ine< limestone of $umanacoaP bet&een Porto $abello and the Rio
Gua"guaRaP as &ell as in the valle"s of AraguaP on graniteP on the
&estern declivit" of the hill formed b" $abo Blanco* on gneissP and in
the %eninsula of Ara"a* on saliferous cla"' But this is %erha%s merel"
the effect of a%%osition'- N- AnHnicht Auflagerung* according to the
%recise language of the geologists of m" countr"'O +f &e &ould range
the different members of the tertiar" series according to the age of
their formation &e ought* + believe* to regard the breccia of $abo
Blanco &ith fragments of %rimitive rocks as the most ancient* and make
it be succeeded b" the arenaceous limestone of the castle of $umana*
&ithout horned silex* "et some&hat analogous to the coarse limestone
of Paris* and the freshH&ater soil of ictoria' The cla"e" g"%sum*
mixed &ith calcareous breccia &ith madre%ores* cardites and o"sters*
&hich + found bet&een $arthagena and the $erro de la Po%a* and the
equall" recent limestones of Guadalo%e and Barbadoes Nlimestones
filled &ith seashells resembling those no& existing in the $aribbean
0eaO %rove that the latest de%osited strata of the tertiar" formation
extend far to&ards the &est and north'
These recent formations* so rich in vestiges of organiRed bodies*
furnish a vast field of observation to those &ho are familiar &ith the
Roological character of rocks' To examine these vestiges in strata
su%er%osed as b" ste%s* one above another* is to stud" the /auna of
different ages and to com%are them together' The geogra%h" of animals
marks out limits in s%ace* according to the diversit" of climates*
&hich determine the actual state of vegetation on our %lanet' The
geolog" of organiRed bodies* on the contrar"* is a fragment of the
histor" of nature* taking the &ord histor" in its %ro%er acce%tation5
it describes the inhabitants of the earth according to succession of
time' .e ma" stud" genera and s%ecies in museums* but the /auna of
different ages* the %redominance of certain shells* the numerical
relations &hich characteriRe the animal kingdom and the vegetation of
a %lace or of a %eriod* should be studied in sight of those
formations' +t has long a%%eared to me that in the tro%ics as &ell as
in the tem%erate Rone the s%ecies of univalve shells are much more
numerous than bivalves' /rom this su%eriorit" in number the organic
fossil &orld furnishes* in ever" latitude* a further analog" &ith the
intertro%ical shells that no& live at the bottom of the ocean' +n
fact* C' (efrance* in a &ork- full of ne& and ingenious ideas* not
onl" recogniRes this %re%onderance of the univalves in the number of
the s%ecies* but also observes that out of 9988 fossil univalve*
bivalve and multivalve shells* contained in his rich collections*
there are !8LL univalve* 718I bivalve* and !7L multivalveP the
univalve fossils are therefore to the bivalve as three to t&o' N-
Table of >rganiRed /ossil Bodies* 1I7;'O
1!' />RCAT+>@ >/ P,R>JE@+$ AC,G(A=>+( A@( PH>@>=+TE* BET.EE@ >RT+S A@(
$ERR> (E /=>RE0'
+ %lace %"roxenic am"gdaloid and %honolite N%or%h"rschieferO at the
end of the formations of eneRuela* not as being the onl" rocks &hich
+ consider as %"rogenous* but as those of &hich the volcanic origin is
%robabl" %osterior to the tertiar" strata' This conclusion is not
deduced from the observations + made at the southern declivit" of the
littoral $ordillera* bet&een the Corros of 0an 6uan* Para%ara and the
=lanos of $alaboRo' +n that region local circumstances &ould %ossibl"
lead us to regard the am"gdaloids of >rtiR as linked to a s"stem of
transition rocks Nam%hibolic ser%entine* diorite* and carburetted
slate of Cal%assoOP but the eru%tion of the trach"tes across rocks
%osterior to the chalk Nin the Euganean Countains and other %arts of
Euro%eO joined to the %henomenon of total absence of fragments of
%"roxenic %or%h"r"* trach"te* basalt and %honolite NThe fragments of
these rocks a%%ear onl" in tufas or conglomerates &hich belong
essentiall" to basaltic formations or surround the most recent
volcanoes' Ever" volcanic formation is envelo%ed in breccia* &hich is
the effect of the eru%tion itself'O* in the conglomerates or
fragmentar" rocks anterior to the recent tertiar" strata* renders it
%robable that the a%%earance of tra% rocks at the surface of the earth
is the effect of one of the last revolutions of our %lanet* even &here
the eru%tion has taken %lace b" crevices NveinsO &hich cross
gneissHgranite* or the transition rocks not covered b" secondar" and
tertiar" formations'
The small volcanic stratum of >rtiR Nlatitude 2 degrees 7I minutes to
2 degrees !L minutesO formed the ancient shore of the vast basin of
the =lanos of eneRuela5 it is com%osed on the %oints &here + could
examine it of onl" t&o kinds of rocks* namel"* am"gdaloid and
%honolite' The gre"ish blue am"gdaloid contains fendilated cr"stals of
%"roxene and mesot"%e' +t forms balls &ith concentric la"ers of &hich
the flattened centre is nearl" as hard as basalt' @either olivine nor
am%hibole can be distinguished' Before it sho&s itself as a se%arate
stratum* rising in small conic hills* the am"gdaloid seems to
alternate b" la"ers &ith the diorite* &hich &e have mentioned above as
mixed &ith carburetted slate and am%hibolic ser%entine' These close
relations of rocks so different in a%%earance and so likel" to
embarrass the observer give great interest to the vicinit" of >rtiR'
+f the masses of diorite and am"gdaloid* &hich a%%ear to us to be
la"ers* are ver" large veins* the" ma" be su%%osed to have been formed
and u%heaved simultaneousl"' .e are no& acquainted &ith t&o formations
of am"gdaloidP one* the most common* is subordinate to the basalt5 the
other* much more rare*- N- .e find exam%les of the latter in @or&a"
Nardekullen* near 0keenO* in the mountains of the Thuringer&aldP in
0outh T"rolP at Hefeld in the HartR* at Bolanos in Cexico etc'O
belongs to the %"roxenic %or%h"r"'- N- Black %or%h"ries of C' von
Buch'O The am"gdaloid of >rtiR a%%roaches* b" its or"ctognostic
characters* to the former of those formations* and &e are almost
sur%rised to find it joining* not basalt* but %honolite*- an eminentl"
fels%athic rock* in &hich &e find some cr"stals of am%hibole* but
%"roxene ver" rarel"* and never an" olivine' N- There are %honolites
of basaltic strata Nthe most ancientl" kno&nO and %honolites of
trach"tic strata NAndes of CexicoO' The former are generall" above the
basaltsP and the extraordinar" develo%ment of fels%ar in that union*
and the &ant of %"roxene* have al&a"s a%%eared to me ver" remarkable
%henomena'O The $erro de /lores is a hill covered &ith tabular" blocks
of greenish gre" %honolite* enclosing long cr"stals Nnot fendillatedO
of vitreous fels%ar* altogether analogous to the %honolite of
Cittelgebirge' +t is surrounded b" %"roxenic am"gdaloidP it &ould no
doubt be seen belo&* issuing immediatel" from gneissHgranite* like the
%honolite of Biliner 0tein* in Bohemia* &hich contains fragments of
gneiss embedded in its mass'
(oes there exist in 0outh America another grou% of rocks* &hich ma" be
%referabl" designated b" the name of volcanic rocks* and &hich are as
distinct from the chain of the Andes* and advance as far to&ards the
east as the grou% that bounds the ste%%es of $alaboRoT >f this +
doubt* at least in that %art of the continent situated north of the
AmaRon' + have often directed attention to the absence of %"roxenic
%or%h"r"* trach"te* basalt and lavas N+ range these formations
according to their relative ageO in the &hole of America east&ard of
the $ordilleras' The existence even of trach"te has not "et been
verified in the 0ierra @evada de Cerida &hich links the Andes and the
littoral chain of eneRuela' +t &ould seem as if volcanic fire* after
the formation of %rimitive rocks* could not %ierce into eastern
America' Possibl" the scarcit" of argentiferous veins observed in
those countries ma" be o&ing to the absence of more recent volcanic
%henomena' C' Esch&ege sa& at BraRil some la"ers NveinsTO of diorite*
but neither trach"te* basalt* dolerite* nor am"gdaloidP and he &as
therefore much sur%rised to see* in the vicinit" of Rio 6aneiro* an
insulated mass of %honolite* exactl" similar to that of Bohemia*
%iercing through gneiss' + am inclined to believe that America* on the
east of the Andes* &ould have burning volcanoes if* near the shore of
eneRuela* Guiana and BraRil* the series of %rimitive rocks &ere
broken b" trach"tes* for these* b" their fendillation and o%en
crevices* seem to establish that %ermanent communication bet&een the
surface of the soil and the interior of the globe* &hich is the
indis%ensable condition of the existence of a volcano' +f &e direct
our course from the coast of Paria b" the gneissHgranite of the 0illa
of $aracas* the red sandstone of Barquisimeto and Tocu"o* the slat"
mountains of the 0ierra @evada de Cerida* and the eastern $ordillera
of $undinamarca to Po%a"an and Pasto* taking the direction of
&estHsouthH&est* &e find in the vicinit" of those to&ns the first
volcanic vents of the Andes still burning* those &hich are the most
northerl" of all 0outh AmericaP and it ma" be remarked that those
craters are found &here the $ordilleras begin to %resent trach"tes* at
a distance of eighteen or t&ent"Hfive leagues from the %resent coast
of the Pacific >cean'- N- + believe the first h"%otheses res%ecting
the relation bet&een the burning of volcanoes and the %roximit" of the
sea are contained in Aetna (ialogus* a ver" eloquent though
littleHkno&n &ork b" $ardinal Bembo'O Permanent communications* or at
least communications frequentl" rene&ed* bet&een the atmos%here and
the interior of the globe* have been %reserved onl" along that immense
crevice on &hich the $ordilleras have been u%heavedP but subterranean
volcanic forces are not less active in eastern America* shaking the
soil of the littoral $ordillera of eneRuela and of the Parime grou%'
+n describing the %henomena &hich accom%anied the great earthquake of
$aracas*- on the 7Lth Carch* 1I17* + mentioned the detonations heard
at different %eriods in the mountains Naltogether graniticO of the
>rinoco' N- + stated in another %lace the influence of that great
catastro%he on the counterHrevolution &hich the ro"alist %art"
succeeded in bringing about at that time in eneRuela' +t is
im%ossible to conceive an"thing more curious than the negociation
o%ened on the 9th of A%ril* b" the re%ublican government* established
at alencia in the valle"s of Aragua* &ith Archbisho% Prat N(on
@arciso $oll " PratO* to engage him to %ublish a %astoral letter
calculated to tranquiliRe the %eo%le res%ecting the &rath of the
deit"' The Archbisho% &as %ermitted to sa" that this &rath &as merited
on account of the disorder of moralsP but he &as enjoined to declare
%ositivel" that %olitics and s"stematic o%inions on the ne& social
order had nothing in common &ith it' Archbisho% Prat lost his libert"
after this singular corres%ondence'O The elastic forces &hich agitate
the ground* the stillHburning volcanoes* the hot sul%hurous s%rings*
sometimes containing fluoric acid* the %resence of as%haltum and
na%htha in %rimitive strata* all %oint to the interior of our %lanet*
the high tem%erature of &hich is %erceived even in mines of little
de%th* and &hich* from the times of Heraclitus of E%hesus* and
Anaxagoras of $laRomenae* to the Plutonic theor" of modern da"s* has
been considered as the seat of all great disturbances of the globe'
The sketch + have just traced contains all the formations kno&n in
that %art of Euro%e &hich has served as the t"%e of %ositive geolog"'
+t is the fruit of sixteen monthsG labour* often interru%ted b" other
occu%ations' /ormations of quartRose %or%h"r"* %"roxenic %or%h"r" and
trach"te* of grau&acke* muschelkalk and quadersandstein* &hich are
frequent to&ards the &est* have not "et been seen in eneRuelaP but it
ma" be also observed that in the s"stem of secondar" rocks of the old
continent muschelkalk and quadersandstein are not al&a"s clearl"
develo%ed* and are often* b" the frequenc" of their marls* confounded
&ith the lo&er la"ers of 6ura limestone' The muschelkalk is almost a
lias &ith encrinitesP and quadersandstein Nfor there are doubtless
man" above the lias or limestone &ith gr"%hitesO seems to me to
re%resent the arenaceous la"ers of the lo&er shelves of 6ura
limestone'
+ have thought it right to give at some length this geologic
descri%tion of 0outh America* not onl" on account of the novel
interest &hich the stud" of the formations in the equinoctial regions
is calculated to excite* but also on account of the honourable efforts
&hich have recentl" been made in Euro%e to verif" and extend the
&orking of the mines in the $ordilleras of $olumbia* Cexico* $hile and
Buenos A"res' ast sums of mone" have been invested for the attainment
of this useful end' +n %ro%ortion as %ublic confidence has enlarged
and consolidated those enter%rises* from &hich both continents ma"
derive solid advantage* it becomes the dut" of %ersons &ho have
acquired a local kno&ledge of these countries to %ublish information
calculated to create a just a%%reciation of the relative &ealth and
%osition of the mines in different %arts of 0%anish America' The
success of a com%an" for the &orking of mines* and that of &orks
undertaken b" the order of free governments* is far from de%ending
solel" on the im%rovement of the machines em%lo"ed for draining off
the &ater* and extracting the mineral* on the regular and economical
distribution of the subterraneous &orks* or the im%rovements in
%re%aration* amalgamation* and melting5 success de%ends also on a
thorough kno&ledge of the different su%er%osed strata' The %ractice of
the science of mining is closel" linked &ith the %rogress of geolog"P
and it &ould be eas" to %rove that man" millions of %iastres have been
rashl" ex%ended in 0outh America from com%lete ignorance of the nature
of the formations* and the %osition of the rocks* in directing the
%reliminar" researches' At the %resent time it is not %recious metals
solel" &hich should fix the attention of ne& mining com%aniesP the
multi%lication of steamHengines renders it indis%ensable* &herever
&ood is not abundant or eas" of trans%ort* to seek at the same time to
discover coal and lignites' +n this %oint of vie& the %recise
kno&ledge of the red sandstone* coalHsandstone* quadersandstein and
molassus Ntertiar" formation of lignitesO* often covered &ith basalt
and dolerite* is of great %ractical im%ortance' +t is difficult for a
Euro%ean miner* recentl" arrived* to judge of a countr" %resenting so
novel an as%ect* and &hen the same formations cover an immense extent'
+ ho%e that the %resent &ork* as &ell as m" Political Essa" on @e&
0%ain* and m" &ork on the Position of Rocks in the T&o Hemis%heres*
&ill contribute to diminish those obstacles' The" ma" be said to
contain the earliest geologic information res%ecting %laces &hose
subterraneous &ealth attracts the attention of commercial nationsP and
the" &ill assist in the classification of the more %recise notions
&hich later researches ma" add to m" labours'
The re%ublic of $olombia* in its %resent limits* furnishes a vast
field for the enter%rising s%irit of the miner' Gold* %latinum*
silver* mercur"* co%%er* gemHsalt* sul%hur and alum ma" become objects
of im%ortant &orkings' The %roduction of gold alone amounted* before
the outbreak of the %olitical dissensions* on the average* to ;388
kilogrammes N78*988 marks of $astileO %er annum' This is nearl" half
the quantit" furnished b" all 0%anish America* a quantit" &hich has an
influence the more %o&erful on the variable %ro%ortions bet&een the
value of gold and silver* as the extraction of the former metal has
diminished at BraRil* for fort" "ears %ast* &ith sur%rising ra%idit"'
The quint Na tax &hich the government raises on goldH&ashingsO &hich
in the $a%itania of Cinas Geraes &as* in 139L* 13L1 and 13L3* from
11I* 187 and I9 arobas of gold Nof 1; !M9 kilogrammesO* has fallen*
during 1I88* 1I1! and 1I1I* to !8* 78 and 2 arobasP an arob of gold
having* at Rio 6aneiro* the value of 19*888 cruRados' According to
these estimates the %roduce of gold in BraRil* making deductions for
fraudulent ex%ortation* &as* in the middle of the eighteenth centur"*
the "ears of the greatest %ros%erit" of the goldH&ashings* LL88
kilogrammes* and in our da"s* from 1I13 to 1I78* L88 kilogrammes less'
+n the %rovince of 0an Paulo the extraction of gold has entirel"
ceasedP in the %rovince of Go"aR* it &as I8! kilogrammes in 132! and
in 1I12 scarcel" 39' +n the %rovince of Cato Grosso it is almost
nothingP and C' Esch&ege is of o%inion that the &hole %roduce of gold
in BraRil does not amount at %resent to more than L88*888 cruRados
Nscarcel" ;;8 kilogrammesO' + d&ell on these %articulars because* in
confounding the different %eriods of the riches and %overt" of the
goldH&ashings of BraRil* it is still affirmed in &orks treating of the
commerce of the %recious metals* that a quantit" of gold equivalent to
four millions of %iastres N9I88 kilogrammes of gold-O flo&s into
Euro%e annuall" from Portuguese America' N- This error is t&ofold5 it
is %robable that BraRilian gold* %a"ing the quint* has not* during the
last fort" "ears* risen to 9988 kilogrammes' + heretofore shared this
error in common &ith &riters on %olitical econom"* in admitting that
the quint in 1I18 &as still Ninstead of 7L arrobas or !32 kilogrammesO
91*788 Portuguese ounces* or 1;!! kilogrammesP &hich su%%osed a
%roduct of 31L9 kilogrammes' The ver" correct information afforded b"
t&o Portuguese manuscri%ts on the goldH&ashings of Cinas Geraes* Cinas
@ovas and Go"aR* in the Bullion Re%ort for the House of $ommons* 1I18*
acc' %age 72* goes as far onl" as 132;* &hen the quinto do ouro of
BraRil &as 9! arrobas* &hich indicates a %roduce of more than !288
kilogrammes %a"ing the quint' +n Cr' TookeGs im%ortant &ork* >n High
and =o& Prices %art 7 %age 7O this %roduce is still estimated Nmean
"ear 1I18 to 1I71O at 1*3!L*888 %iastresP &hile* according to official
documents in m" %ossession* the average of the quint of those ten
"ears amounted onl" to 19 arrobas* or a %roduct quint of 1829
kilogrammes* or 399*888 %iastres' Cr' 6ohn Allen reminded the
$ommittee of the Bullion Re%ort* in his $ritical @otes on the table of
C' Brongniart* that the decrease of the %roduce of the goldH&ashings
of BraRil had been extremel" ra%id since 132;P and the notions given
b" C' Auguste de 0aint Hilaire indicate the same desertion of the
goldHmines of BraRil' Those &ho &ere miners have become cultivators'
The value of an arroba of gold is 19*888 BraRilian cruRados Neach
cruRado being 98 sousO' According to C' /ranRini the Portuguese onca
is equal to 8'87I of a kilogramme* and I oncas make 1 markP 7 marks
make 1 arratel* and !7 arratels 1 arroba'O +f* in commercial value*
gold in grains %revails* in the re%ublic of $olumbia* over the value
of other metals* the latter are not on that account less &orth" to fix
the attention of government and of individuals' The argentiferous
mines of 0anta Anna* Canta* 0anto $hristo de las =axas* Pam%lona* 0a%o
and =a ega de 0a%ia afford great ho%e' The facilit" of the
communications bet&een the coast of $olumbia and that of Euro%e
im%arts the same interest to the co%%erHmines of eneRuela and @e&
Grenada' Cetals are a merchandiRe %urchased at the %rice of labour and
an advance of ca%italP thus forming in the countries &here the" are
%roduced a %ortion of commercial &ealthP &hile their extraction gives
an im%etus to industr" in the most barren and mountainous districts'
+@(EJ'
Ace%hali'
Action5
electric* similarit" of* in the electric eel and the voltaic batter"'
volcanic* centre of'
connexion of'
Acosta* travels of'
Adansonia* or baobab of* 0enegal'
Acuvajos* countr" of the'
Aerolites'
Africa5
travels in'
deserts of'
Aguas $alientes5
ravine of'
river of'
Agriculture5
tro%ical'
earl" %ractice of'
influence of on individuals'
mean tem%erature required for the success of'
geolog" a%%lied to'
in the island of $uba'
Rone of* in 0%anish America'
Aguatire* the'
Ajuntas'
Alcaldes* or +ndian magistrates'
AlegranRa* island of'
Algodonal5
crocodiles of'
Aloe* see Cague"'
Alligators'
AlmondHtrees'
Al%habet* a%%lication of the* in +ndian languages'
Alta ista5
%lain of'
natural iceHhouse of'
Gracia'
Alum5
Euro%ean'
mines'
Amalivaca'
Amasonia* arborea'
AmaRon river5
falls of the'
valle" of the'
navigation of'
tributar" streams of'
bridges over the'
course of the'
basin of the'
%lains of the'
stones'
localit" of'
AmaRons* traditions of the'
Am"gdaloide'
America5
discover" of'
ra%idit" of vegetation in'
0avannahs of'
geological structure of'
earl" colonists of'
traditons of'
ancient name of'
su%%osed identit" of* &ith Asia'
east of the Andes'
English'
%o%ulation of'
Portuguese'
%o%ulation of'
0outh'
%lants of'
forests of'
missions of'
natives of'
&aters of'
%am%as of'
geogra%h" of'
geognostic descri%tion of'
configuration of'
mountains of'
extent of'
%lains of +bib* boundaries of'
America* 0%anish5
inhabitants of'
civil &ars of'
state of societ" in'
%roductions of'
boundaries of'
frontier %osts of'
%o%ulation of'
extent of'
re%ublics of'
commerce of'
agriculture of'
%olitical %osition of'
Amerigo* es%ucci'
Andalusia* @e&5
coasts of'
mountains of'
ca%ital of'
inhabitants of'
earthquakes in'
extent of'
Andes5
ascent of the'
branches of the'
structure of'
elevation of'
et"molog" of the name'
im%ortance of the'
of $hili'
Angostura5
commerce of'
geolog" of'
bark'
Anil* see +ndigo'
Animals5
effects of heat and cold u%on'
organiRation of'
contem%lations on the nature of'
hemis%herical distribution of'
geogra%h" of'
domestic'
&ild* herds of'
Animals* %ainted re%resentations of* b" native +ndians'
Anthro%o%hag"'
Antidotes* to %oisons'
Antiles* the'
Antimano'
Ants5
of the torrid Rone'
use of b" the natives as food'
A%es* different s%ecies of'
A%%aratus* electrical'
A%%les* American'
A%ure river5
vo"age on the'
channel of'
navigation of'
junction of* &ith the >rinoco'
fetid &aters of'
rise of the'
A%urito* island of'
Aquio* river'
Aradores'
Aragua5
cotton %lantations of'
boundaries of'
forests of'
%lains of'
indigo grounds of'
cacao %lantations of'
geolog" of'
vultures of'
Araguatos'
Ara"a5
salt &orks of'
Peninsula of'
castle of'
%earls of'
inhabitants of'
scarcit" of rain in'
geolog" of'
Archi%elago5
of 0t' Bernard'
of $honos'
of Rosario'
Arenas'
Areverians* tribe of'
Areo* river'
Aroa5
co%%er mines of'
river of'
Aro&aks* tribe of the'
Arrua* the'
Artabrum* %romontor" of'
Arvi* the'
Asia* ste%%es of'
As%haltum* lake of'
Assua"* mountains of'
Astorga'
Astronom"* stud" of'
Ataba%o* the5
%ure &aters of the'
banks of the'
Atari%e* cavern of'
Atlantic5
tem%erature of the'
currents in the'
%henomena* in the'
Atlantis'
Atmos%here5
ra%id changes in the'
serenit" of the'
greatest heat of the'
observations on the'
Atmos%heric trans%arenc"* effects of* on mental and vegetable
%ro%erties'
Atrato'
Aturajos* countr" of the'
Atures5
ra%ids of'
mission of'
%revalence of fevers at'
vegetation of'
church of'
tribes of'
language of'
Arauca* river5
birds of the'
Avila* mountain of'
ARores5
ne& island of the'
sea around the'
BalsamHtrees* groves of'
Bamboos5
furniture made from'
region of'
BananaHtree'
Bandits of the %lains'
Baracoa* commerce of'
Baragnan* %assage of'
Barba de Tigre'
Barbarian* origin of the term'
Barbarism* regions in &hich it most %revails'
Barbula* cotton %lantations of'
Barcelona* @e&5
native %o%ulation of'
languages of'
%ort of'
fort of'
earthquakes at'
%lains of'
to&n of'
Barigon* limestones of the'
Bark5
medicinal'
trees'
Barometer5
variations of* %revious to earthquakes'
horar" variations of'
Barquisimeto'
Baru5
%eninsula of'
island of'
Basalt'
Batabano5
route to'
gulf of'
rocks of'
Batavia* sugar cane of'
Bathing* methods of* %ractised b" the +ndians'
Bats'
Baudin* $a%tain5
ex%edition of to the 0outh 0eas'
ascent of %eak of Teneriffe* b"'
Baxo de la $otua'
Bears'
Beaut"* national ideas of'
Bees5
%eculiar to the @e& .orld'
Euro%ean im%ortation of'
BeetHroot sugar'
Benedictus Alexander* %h"siological %henomenon related b"'
Beni* river'
BenRoni Girolamo5
vo"age of'
Berbice'
Bergantin5
excursion to'
sandstone of the'
Bermuda* islands of'
Berrio* Antonio de5
ex%edition of'
Bertholletia excelsa* or BraRil nut tree'
Bird island'
Birds of 0outh America5
domestic'
migrations of'
fishing'
granivorous'
nocturnal* see Guacharo'
Bisho%Gs lake'
Bitumen s%rings'
Blo&Htubes of the +ndians'
Boats of $umana'
Bobadilla /rancisco* mission founded b"'
Boca de Arichuna5
$hica'
del (rago'
Grande of $arthagena'
de la Tortuga'
Bochica* or +ndacanRas* %riests of'
Bod"H%ainting5
%ractice of'
methods of'
Bohemia* mountains of'
Bombax'
Bon%land* C'5
intre%idit" of'
tree dedicated to NBon%landia trifoliataO'
Boracha* island of'
Borachita* island of'
Botan"5
descri%tive'
of the $anar" islands'
of the $oral islands'
Bougainville* dissemination of the sugar cane b"'
Bovadillo* ex%edition of'
Branco river'
BraRil5
boundaries of'
extent of'
%o%ulation of'
mountains of'
frontiers of'
gold of'
BraRilHnut trees NBertholletia excelsaO5
nut* harvest of'
BreadHfruit'
Breschet* C'
Bridges5
over the AmaRon'
of =ianas'
Brigantine5
situation of the'
conjunction of* &ith the $ocolla'
descent of the'
Bru"ere* descri%tion of slaves b"'
Bro&nea* or mountain roses'
Buen Pastor* mineral s%rings of'
Buenos A"res5
ex%orts of'
extent of'
%o%ulation of'
situation of'
%am%as of'
Burro* isle of'
Butterflies* American'
Butter5
tree'
from birds'
from %almHfruit'
from the tortoise egg'
$abo Blanco5
summit of'
climate of'
$abrera* %romontor" of'
$abruta* to&n of'
$abullure* river'
$acao5
%ort of'
ex%ort of'
adulteration of'
harvest of'
of $umana'
trees* %ro%agation of'
%lants having the same %ro%erties'
of Barcelona'
&ild'
%lantations'
$actus5
American'
forests of'
varieties of'
%lantations of'
$alaboRo5
de%arture from'
%lains of'
$alabur" river'
$aldera* of Peak of Teneriffe'
$aledonia* @e&'
$amels5
first introduction of* in America'
of /orteventura'
of Teneriffe'
$am%each"'
$am%oma* lake of'
$anada5
basin of'
lakes of'
$ananivacari* ra%ids of'
$anaries of >rotava5
of Contana $lara'
$anar" +slands5
birds of the'
ancient historical notices of'
geolog" of the'
fruits and %lants of'
aborigines of'
inhabitants of'
government of the'
hot s%rings of'
$annibal5
origin of the term'
chief'
tribes'
$annibalism5
tribes most addicted to'
in Eg"%t'
$ano de la Tigre'
$anoes5
+ndian'
modes of conve"ing them overland'
of @orfolk +sland'
$a%arro monke"'
$a%ana%aro* lake of'
$a%e5
Ara"a* saltH%its of'
Baco'
Barima'
(e la Brea'
$irial'
$odera'
/inistere'
Guaratarito'
Cacanao'
Catahambre'
@egril'
Portland'
Canas'
0otto'
0t' incent'
Three Points'
ela'
$a%e erd +slands'
$a%itania* General of $aracas'
government of'
%o%ulation of'
ex%ortation of hides from'
annexation of &ith @e& Granada'
$a%s* of bark'
$a%uchin Hos%ital* near $umana'
$a%uchins5
missions of'
indigo* manufactures of'
government of'
influence of'
$aracas5
cit" of'
saltH&orks of'
%o%ulation of'
valle"s of'
climate of'
vegetable %roductions of'
tem%erature of'
state of societ" in'
intelligence of the inhabitants'
%rinting office in'
mines of'
earthquakes at'
effects of the'
de%arture from'
flora of'
$acao* %lantations of'
commerce of'
%lains of'
=a enta* or large +nn of'
islands of'
$ara%a'
$arata%ona* granite islands of'
$aravalleda* sugar %lantations of'
$aravanserai of 0an /ernando'
$ari5
missions of'
inhabitants of'
$ariaco5
to&n of'
valle" of'
climate of'
%o%ulation of'
$ariaco* gulf of'
$aribbean 0ea5
basins of the'
$aribbees* see $aribs'
$aribs5
language of the'
tribes of'
native &hite race of'
migrations of'
ferocit"'
missions of'
customs of'
characteristics of'
extermination of the'
origin of the term'
government of'
la&s of'
$arib5
chief'
slaveHdealers'
&omen'
language of the'
$arichana5
mission of'
%ort of'
$ari%e5
convent of'
valle" of'
climate of'
cavern of'
oil harvest of'
river of'
geolog" of'
$ariRales* island of'
$arlos5
del Pino'
PoRo'
$arolinas'
$aron"* river5
course of the'
falls of'
tributar" streams of'
$arthagena* %ort of'
$ascabel* or rattlesnake'
$ascades'
$ascarillaHbark* see $inchona'
$assime* or Sodiacal =ight'
$assi%agotos* tribe of'
$assiquiare5
river banks of the'
encam%ment on the'
branch of the'
fertilit" of the'
general as%ect of'
tem%erature of'
navigation of'
$astanos* el Conte de'
$astile* climate of'
$astle of 0an Antonio5
hos%ital of the'
$ataracts5
latitude of the'
of Atures'
of $ariven'
of $unuri'
of Guaharibos'
of Ca"%ures'
of the >rinoco'
navigation of the'
scener" of the'
of Rio $aroni'
of Buittuna'
$atia'
$attle5
of the %lains'
ex%ortation of hides'
Euro%ean'
$avern5
of Atari%e'
of $ari%e'
of (antoe'
of the Guacharo'
$averns5
origin of'
geological formations of'
of (erb"shire'
of /ranconia'
$a"man* see $rocodile5
islands'
geolog" of'
situation of'
$a"manbrack'
$a"o5
Bonito'
de $ristoval'
/lamenco'
Piedras'
de PereR'
$ecro%ia* the'
$edeno* river'
$enturion* (on C'* ex%edition of'
$eremonies* religious* of the +ndians'
$erro de /lores'
$erros de 0i%a%o'
$e"lon* %earl fisheries of'
$hacaito* river of'
$hamberg* island of'
$harts5
inaccuracies of'
of es%ucci'
$ha"mas5
missions of the'
nation of'
%h"siognom" of'
habits of'
%h"sical conformation of'
mental ina%titude of'
language of'
colour of'
$ha"ma &omen'
$hemistr"* vegetable'
$hiquires* or &ater hogs'
$hile5
mountains of'
$himanas* grou%s of'
$himboraRo* chain of'
$hurches5
of $umana'
of $aracas'
$hocolate* %re%aration of'
$igars* ex%ortation of* from $uba'
$inchona* or $ascarilla bark'
$innamon* or $anela tree'
$iviliRation5
causes &hich tend to retard the %rogress of'
advance of* bet&een the tro%ics'
effects of* on the human countenance'
%h"sical evils attending'
grades of'
course of'
humaniRing influence of'
%romoted b" riverHintercourse'
and slaver"'
$la"stone NThonschieferO5
muriatiferous'
$limate of America5
causes of the variableness of* in corres%onding latitudes'
$loquet* C'* on %h"siognom"'
$ocoa* see cacao'
$ocollar5
ascent of the'
climate of'
elevation of the'
$ocu"* harem of'
$ocu"Ra* %eak of'
$offee trees5
%ro%agation of'
cultivation of* at $ari%e'
at $aracas'
%lantations of'
abundant %roduce of'
berries'
of the Havannah'
$olonies5
American societ" in the'
$astilian'
(utch'
English'
/rench'
0%anish'
$olonists of America'
$olorado river'
$oloniRation* %rogress of'
$olour5
causes of the different shades of* in the human famil"'
of the native +ndians'
aristocrac" of'
$olumbia5
re%ublic of'
mines of'
$olumbus* $hristo%her5
earl" discoveries of'
his estimation of gold'
tomb of'
journal of'
$olumbus* /erdinand* descri%tion of the +ndians b"'
$ombustion* volcanic'
$ommerce* future advantages to'
$once%cion de ?rban'
$oncervo* island of'
$ongo river'
$onorichite* river'
$onquistadores'
$onsejo* see Cammon'
$onstellations of the torrid Rone'
$ontagion5
of fevers* facts relating to'
of the %lague'
(r' Baile"Gs o%inion on the'
$onvent of $ari%e'
$onuco* or /arm of BermudeR'
$oral5
formation of'
rocks'
snake'
$ordillera5
of the Andes'
of Baraguaro'
near $umana'
native inhabitants of the'
climate of'
volcanic nature of the'
of the coast'
Real de @eve'
$orn5
Euro%ean'
cultivation of* in the equinoctial regions'
limits of the gro&th of'
$orteR* Hernan'
$ortex Angosturae'
$orunna5
%ort of'
mountains of'
light house of'
de%arture from'
$osmogon"* theor" of'
$oto%axi* mountain of'
$otton5
native manufactures of'
trees of America'
cultivation of'
%lantations of'
$ourbrail* the'
$o&Htree NPalo de acaO'
$o&s in the torrid Rone'
$reole sugar cane* introduction of the* into .est +ndies'
$reoles* nobilit" of the'
$rocodiles5
grou%s of'
ferocit" of'
summer slee% of'
instinct of'
oil of* used medicinall"'
effect of heat and cold u%on'
food of'
flesh of* sold for food'
habits of'
modes of destro"ing'
of Algodonol'
of the Havannah'
of =atie alencia'
of CanRanares'
of the @ile'
of Rio Adeuas $alentes'
of Rio $abulare'
of Rio @everi'
of the >rinoco'
of ?ritucu'
$r"stals5
formation of'
$uba5
coffee %lantations of'
agriculture of'
extent of'
%o%ulation of'
%olitical im%ortance of'
inhabitants of'
%osition of'
geolog" of'
minerals of'
climate of'
turtles of'
vo"age of $orteR to'
%orts of'
shores of'
tem%erature of'
dioceses of'
government of'
coloniRation of'
%ublic institutions of'
commerce of'
tobacco %lantations of'
%roductions of'
revenue of'
$uba and the slave trade'
$ubagua5
island of'
%earls of'
native deer of'
$uchivano5
Risco or crevice of'
tigers of the'
forests of'
gold mines of'
caverns of'
$ulebra* island of'
$ulimacari* rock of'
$umana5
cit" of'
geolog" of'
forests of'
frequenc" of earthquakes in'
%o%ulation of'
%lains of'
%ort of'
climate of'
ancient name of'
slave market of'
government of'
mountains of'
cacao of'
languages of'
trading boats of'
de%arture from'
return to'
geolog" of'
governor of'
$umanacoa5
to&n of'
tobacco %lantations of'
indigo %lantations of'
geolog" of'
$umanagoto5
subdued tribes of'
$unavami* mountains of'
$uneva'
$unucunumo river'
$unuri* cataract of'
$ura* the'
$urare* or vegetable %oison* see Poisons'
$uracicanas* cotton manufactures of the'
$urrents5
equinoctial* in the Atlantic'
causes of'
variations of the'
seeds and fruits* de%osited b"'
$urrenc"'
$us%a* or $inchona tree* medicinal %ro%erties of'
$uRco* cit" of'
(ag"sa notata* a mollusc* discovered b" 0ir 6' Banks'
(arien5
coast of'
gold of the'
gulf of'
(airies of Andalusia'
(ances of the +ndians'
(a%a* island of'
(a%icho* or fossil +ndiaHrubber'
%re%aration of'
gro&th of'
(ari%e* 0an Ciguel de'
(ecrement of heat* la&s of the'
(eer* American'
(eformities* natural* total absence of* among the +ndians'
(eit"* ideas of the* held b" native +ndians'
(el%eche* %rinting office established b"'
(elta* the %lains of the'
(eluge* traditions of the'
(emerara5
settlement of'
(e%ons* C'* o%inions of* on =ake of alencia'
(eserts of the @e& .orld5
dangers of travelling in'
(evilGs @ook NRincon del (iabloO'
(ialects* +ndian5
analog" of'
affinit" of'
diversit" of'
(iamante5
island of'
sugar %lantations of'
(iamonds5
cutting of* first invented'
legends of'
(iego de =osada* to&n founded b"'
(iego de >rdaR'
(irtHeating* a custom of the >ttomacs'
(iseases most %revalent in America'
(ivinit"* native ideas of'
(ol%hins5
of the river CanRanares'
of the Temi'
(ornajito* s%ring of'
(on Alexandro Cexia'
(on 6ose de Canterola'
(on @icolas 0oto* travels &ith'
(on incent Em%aran* Governor of $umana5
intelligence and hos%italit" of'
(orado5
district of'
ex%editions to'
de la Parima'
(oubts* geogra%hical* res%ecting the junction of great rivers'
(ragonHtree5
height and antiquit" of'
juice of the'
(resses of the native +ndians'
(uida5
volcano of'
%eak of the'
(urasno* hill of* levelled b" the Carquis de @ava'
(utch5
settlements'
Guiana'
Earth5
oscillation of the'
undulations of'
effects of* on men and animals'
EarthHeating5
%ractice of'
effects of'
in Asia'
among animals'
Earths* odoriferous'
Earthquakes5
causes of'
connection of* &ith the atmos%here* %receding the shock'
connection of* &ith volcanic eru%tions'
frequent shocks of* in to&ns distant from volcanoes'
effects of* on the sea'
on the shoals'
annual indications of'
atmos%heric indications of'
%henomena of'
theories of'
at $aracas'
at $umana'
at =ima'
in Cexico'
at Corro Roxo'
in Peru'
at Riobamba'
Ecli%se5
of the moon'
of the sun* effects of'
Eels5
electric'
varied s%ecies of'
modes of fishing for'
habits of the'
dangers attending the shock from'
medicinal %ro%erties of the'
Eggs of the turtle5
fisheries of* on the river >rinoco'
harvest of'
season for la"ing'
method of de%ositing'
immense numbers of'
Eg"%t5
crocodiles of'
traditions of'
El $astillo'
El $astillito* rock of'
El $ucurucho de $oco* mountain of'
El (orado5
legends of'
et"molog" of'
traditions of'
legendar" cit" of'
El Coro* or fort of Barcelona'
El Penol de los Banos'
El Roncador'
Electricit"5
theor" of'
+ndian kno&ledge of'
effects of* on horses'
transmission of the shock'
dangerous effects of'
atmos%heric'
Elevation of mountains* maxima of'
Emanci%ation of slaves'
Emeralds* su%%osed mines of'
Encam%ments* +ndian'
Encaramada5
%ort of'
mountains of'
natives of'
legends of'
Endava'
E%idemics'
Equator* crossing the'
Equinox5
autumnal'
vernal'
Errors* geogra%hical'
Eru%tions* volcanic5
connection of* &ith earthquakes'
Er"thrina* the'
Esmeralda5
mission of'
origin of the colon"'
monke"s of'
villa of'
native tribes of'
de%arture from'
mosquitos of'
longitude of'
Essa"* %olitical* on the island of $uba'
Essequibo5
English colon" of'
missionaries of'
river'
Estevan5
river'
acqueducts of'
Esquimaux5
countries of the'
colour of the'
Etna* eru%tions* and lava of'
Euro%e* de%arture of the author from'
Euro%eans5
dangers of a tro%ical climate to'
influence of'
on slaver"'
Eva%oration5
theor" of'
effects of* on the atmos%here'
Exhalations* inflammable'
E"eHstones* remarkable %ro%erties of the'
/acts* %athological* relating to fevers'
/allingHstars5
observations on'
/axardo* /rancisco5
to&n founded b"'
island of'
/eatures* mobilit" and immobilit" of* in men and animals'
/emales* +ndian* condition of'
/ernando* $orteR'
/erns5
arborescent'
geogra%hical distribution of'
/errol* %ort of'
/ever5
American t"%hus'
%ro%agation of'
"ello&* first a%%earance of the'
limits and s%read of'
%roximate cause of'
%revalence of'
treatment of'
/evers5
%revalence of* in the islands of the >rinoco'
remedies for'
%athological facts relating to'
e%idemic* in the region of $ariaco'
/ig tree'
/ires5
nocturnal* in the =lanos'
subterranean'
/ish5
caribe or cannibal'
electrical'
action of'
of the @ile'
fl"ing* formation of'
flour'
bread'
/ishes* res%iration of'
/ishing* singular methods of'
/lorida5
bees of'
/lour5
of the ?nited 0tates'
stores of $aracas
/orests5
American'
Rone of'
effects of the diminution of'
on the $aribbean 0ea'
of $atuaro'
of cedar'
of mahogan"'
of %alm trees'
of Pimichin'
of PunRera'
of eneRuela'
/ormations5
geologic'
volcanic'
/orteventura'
/ortunate +slands'
/ossil remains5
discover" of'
stud" of'
/rancisco* =oRano5
remarkable %h"siological %henomenon of'
of Pam%eluna'
/ra" Ramon Bueno5
residence of'
remarks of* on the habits of the >ttomacs'
/ruits5
of Antimano'
of Ara"a'
of $aracas'
of Cacarao'
/ucus* or seaH&eed* banks of* in the Atlantic'
/uente de 0anchorquiR'
Galicia5
scener" of'
mines'
%lants of'
Gali%ano* mountain of'
Gallitos* or rock manikin'
Gardens* botanical* of >rotava'
Garnets'
GarRes* or &hite herons'
Geognos"5
of America'
la&s of'
Geolog"5
queries in'
%roblem of'
basis of the stud" of'
of America'
of Aragua'
of the $anar" +slands'
of $umana'
a%%lied to mining and agriculture'
of Cariara'
of Peak of Teneriffe'
of volcanoes'
Geo%hag"* details of'
Geogra%h"5
errors in'
nature of'
b" C' =eschenault'
of America'
of %lants'
Girolamo* BenRoni5
account of the slave trade b"'
vo"age of'
Glass* volcanic'
Glorieta de $ocu"'
Glue* natural'
Gneiss'
strata of'
formation of'
strata of'
Goats* of Peak of Teneriffe'
Gold'
earl" use of* as a medium of exchange'
of BraRil'
districts'
their legends'
mines of Baruta'
of Buria'
of $uba'
of Paria'
of Rincomada'
of 0an 6uan'
of the valle" of Tu"'
ornaments* &orn b" native +ndians'
&ashings'
of BraRil'
%roduce of'
Golfo5
de las (amas'
,eguas'
Triste'
Gomara* histor" of the Parians b"'
Gomora* island of'
GonRales PiRarro'
Govierno de $umana5
%revailing languages in the'
Graciosa* island of'
Grammars* American* collected b" the authorGs brother'
Granite5
formations'
varieties of'
of $a%e /inisterre'
of Guiana'
islands'
mountains'
rocks'
Gravina* Admiral'
Greenland5
language of'
inhabitants of'
Greenstone* strata of'
Grenada* @e&5
connexion of* &ith foreign colonies'
commerce of'
extent of'
%o%ulation of'
mountains of'
Grenada* island of'
Grotto5
of $ari%e'
of Cuggendorf'
Grottoes5
formation of'
varied structure of* in both hemis%heres'
Guacara* +ndians'
Guachaco* island of'
Guacharo* or nocturnal bird5
cavern of the'
descri%tion of the'
oil or butter %rocured from'
%"ramid of'
majestic %eak of'
Guadalou%e5
hot s%rings of'
volcano of'
Guahaibos5
natives of'
cataract of'
Guaineres* tribe of'
Guamo +ndians* tribe of'
habits of the'
Guanaguana5
mission of'
fertile valle" of'
mules of'
geological formations of'
Guanches'
origin of the'
extinction of the race'
la&s of'
mumm" caves of'
language of'
successors of the'
Guantanamo'
Guaraons5
tribe of'
character and habits of the'
habitations of'
Guara%iche* river'
Guardia'
Guatavita* sacred lake of'
Guatimala* extent and %o%ulation of'
Guatiaos'
Guaurabo* river'
Guaviare5
river of'
%lains of'
Guaiana* >ld5
fort of'
Gua"anos* tribes of'
Gua"avo'
Gua"guaRa* river5
fords of the'
Gua"%unaves* &arlike chief of'
Gua"queria +ndians5
district of the'
origin of'
habits of'
language of'
Gua"ra* =a5
vo"age to'
fevers in'
%ort of'
climate of'
valle"s of'
fortifications of'
coasts of'
earthquakes at'
ex%orts of'
Gua"ra river5
source of the'
s&ells of the'
Gua"u%es'
Guainia river5
frontier %osts on the'
Guiana5
su%%osed mineral &ealth of'
natives of'
missions of'
%o%ulation of'
ma%s of'
granites of'
auriferous soil of'
English'
0%anish'
ca%itals of'
commerce of'
Guigue5
mountains of'
village of'
Guines5
%ort of'
canal of'
Gulf 0tream5
tem%erature of the'
breadth of the'
course of the'
Gulf5
of $ariaco'
traditions of the'
hot s%rings of'
cacao %lantations of'
coasts of'
of Batabano'
of (arien'
of Caraca"bo'
of Cexico'
of Cochima'
of Panama'
of Paria'
of 0anta /e'
of 0anta Carta'
of ?raba'
Gulfs* subterranean'
Gums'
G"mnotus5
ex%eriments on the'
influence of* on other fish'
shocks from the'
electrical a%%aratus of the'
G"%sum5
of Ara"a'
of the ==anos'
Hacienda de $ura'
HailHstorms* %henomena of'
Hanno* earl" travels of'
Hateros* or farmers* &ealth of the'
Hato5
de Alta Gracia'
del $a"man* inhabitants of the'
del $ocollar'
Havannah* The5
state of societ" in'
fevers of'
vo"age to'
arrival at'
commerce of'
to&n of'
climate of'
%o%ulation of'
slave %o%ulation of'
fortifications of'
sugar %lantations of'
conquest of'
coffee %lantations of'
%ort of'
&ealth of'
revenue of'
Havaneros'
Haiti NHa"tiO5
language of'
co%%er of'
%o%ulation of'
Ha" tree'
Heat5
decrement of'
atmos%heric* %arts of the @e& .orld most ex%osed to'
Heaths5
arborescent'
of Teneriffe'
existence of'
Rone of'
Hercules* to&er of* in Galicia'
Hernan $orteR5
discoveries of'
shi%&reck of'
PereR de Buesada'
Herons'
Herrera* AlonRo de* ex%edition of'
Hides* ex%ortation of'
Hierogl"%hic rockHmarks'
Higuerote5
ba" of'
de%arture from'
mountains'
vegetation on the'
Himala"a mountains5
height of the'
Histor"* natural* museum of* at Cadrid'
Hocco* or American %heasant'
Homes of native +ndians'
Honda'
Hondius5
ma% of America* b"'
errors of'
Honduras'
HoriRon* distant visibilit" of the'
Horticulture'
Hortsmann'
Horses of the =lanos5
contests of* &ith electric eels'
Hos%ital at $ari%e'
HotHs%rings'
Huanta'
Huarocheri'
Hua"tecas'
HudsonGs Ba"'
Hunger* %h"siolog" of'
Huten* /eli%e de* ex%edition of'
Huts of the natives'
Huttonian theor"'
H"alites'
+celand* introduction of $hristianit" into'
+ceHhouse* natural* of Peak of Teneriffe'
+da%a* mouth of the'
+dioms5
American'
grammatical s"stem of'
+guana* nests of the'
+m%osible* mountain5
geological conformation of the'
+ndians of the missions5
com%ared &ith free tribes'
great age attained b"'
language of'
+ndians5
first meeting &ith'
festivals of'
settlement of* on the salt lakes'
su%erstitions of'
characteristic traits of'
religious instruction of'
religious %rinci%les of'
rencontre &ith'
manners of'
food of'
tribes of'
a%ath" of'
%h"siolog" of'
colour of'
s"stem of navigation %ractised b"'
districts of the'
hire of* as beasts of burden'
languages of'
intellectual develo%ment of'
encam%ments of'
intre%idit" of'
cannibalism of the'
+ndians5
of Barcelona'
co%%er coloured* districts of'
of $uba'
d&arf* tribes of'
fair* tribes of'
countr" of'
of the Guainia'
of Caguiritares'
of the >rinoco'
distribution of the hordes'
of Pana%ana'
of Pararuma'
of Rio @egro'
+ndigo* or Anil5
culture and manufacture of'
ex%ortation of'
earl" use of b" the Cexicans'
of Aragua'
of Batabano'
of Guainia'
of Cijagual'
+ndios andantes* or &andering tribes of +ndians'
+nfanticide* +ndian %ractice of'
+nfierno* or Hell rock'
+nheritance* la&s of'
+nsectHfood* used b" the +ndians'
+nsects5
American'
%hos%horescent* of the Torrid Sone'
%lague of'
+nstruments* musical* of the +ndians'
+nsurrections* +ndian'
+nterment* +ndian modes of'
+nter%reters'
+nundations5
causes of'
+sla5
$lara'
de ?ruana'
vieja de la Canteca'
+slands5
origin of'
of the 0outh 0ea'
volcanic'
+slote* granite island of'
+tal"* travels in'
6ava'
6avanavo* island of'
6aguar tigers5
siRe of'
haunts of'
rencontre &ith'
intre%idit" of'
familiarit" of'
varieties of'
6amaica5
coffee %lantations of'
slave trade of'
sugar %lantations of'
6ames* Cr' Ed&in* geolog" of the Cississi%%i b"'
6ardinillos5
coral rocks of'
flats of the'
6avariveni5
island of'
ra%ids of'
6avita5
the +ndian chief'
0an Antonio de* mission of'
forests of'
salt manufactures of'
isthmus of'
6ehemani'
6esuit Cissions* destruction of the'
6esuits5
su%%ression of'
&ars of the'
6oval* tigers of the'
6uagua* river'
6uan GonRales* intelligence and %remature death of'
6arumo tree'
6uliac* C'* skilful treatment of the "ello& fever b"'
6unction of rivers* doubts res%ecting the'
6u%ura* river'
6uruario* river'
Aeri5
valle" of'
rocks of'
Ae"mis* =a&rence* travels of'
Aings5
of the Guanches'
of Cexico'
of the Canitivitanos'
=a Boca'
=a $abrera* %eninsula of'
=a $once%cion de Piritu'
=a Gua"ra* see Gua"ra'
=a Cina* ravine of'
=a alle* medicated &aters of'
=a ega'
=a enta of $aracas'
=a ibora'
=a ictoria* road to'
=afa"ette* on the emanci%ation of slaves'
=agartero'
=aguna5
situation of'
to&n of'
climate of'
$hica'
Grande* %ort of'
del >bis%o'
Parima'
=ake5
Amucu'
of as%haltum'
of $am%oma'
of $a%ana%aro'
$assi%a'
Erie'
Canoa'
>ntario'
Parima'
traditions of'
first geogra%hical notice of'
Putacuao'
0u%erior'
Jara"es'
=ancerota5
volcanic region of'
inhabitants of'
ca%ital of'
=andmarks* natural'
=anguage5
influence of* on the diversit" of nations'
construction and mechanism of'
Arabic'
Bisca"an'
of the $aribbees'
$ha"ma'
its relation to the Tamanac'
grammatical construction of'
$o%tic'
of Greenland'
Ca"%ure'
Tamanac'
=anguages5
varieties of* in the @e& $ontinent'
analog" of'
affinit" of'
classification of'
grammatical construction of'
stud" of'
difficult" of acquiring* ex%erienced b" the +ndian'
American'
Euro%ean'
=a%landers'
=as5
$ocu"Ras'
=agunetes'
=ata'
=atin* earl" kno&ledge of'
=aurels* Rone of'
=ava5
strata of'
%rimitive rock in'
=ea% of the Toucan'
=egends5
of the deluge'
of the gold districts'
of headless men'
of the +ndians'
of monke"s'
of the salvaje'
=eschenault* C'* on geo%hag"'
=ichens* Rone of'
=ight5
%hos%horic'
of the stars* intensit" of'
volcanic* cause of'
Rodiacal'
variations of'
=ima5
state of societ" in'
to&n of'
=imestone5
formations of'
of $ari%e'
of $umanacoa'
secondar"'
of Penas @egras'
=ines* isothermal'
=iRards'
=laneros5
characteristics of the'
=lano del Retama'
=lanos5
latitude of the'
basins of the'
arid %lains of'
banks of the'
landsca%e of'
subdivisions of the'
origin of the'
re%tiles of the'
electric eels of the'
geological construction of'
hot &inds of the'
cattle of the'
%ro%ortions of the'
of @e& Barcelona'
of $aracas'
of $umana'
del Pao'
of Rio de la Plata'
of eneRuela'
=obelia'
=obos* island of'
=omas of 0t' 6uan'
=o%eR de Aguirre'
=os A%arecidos'
=os Budares'
=os Penones'
=os Teques* mountains of'
=os ueltas'
Caelstrom* doubted existence of the'
Cacarao* fruits of'
Caca&s'
Cachine* electrical* invented b" a native'
Caco +ndians5
habits of the'
Cacusis* tribe of'
Cagdalena* river5
course of the'
navigation of'
ser%ents of the'
Cadrid* visit of the author to'
Cagellan* straits of'
Cague"* or Aloe5
cord from the fibres of the'
Cahates* to&n of'
Cahogan"5
forests of'
of $uba'
of Pinos'
Caiquetia* cocoa trees of'
Cairan on Rodiacal light'
CaiRe'
Calaria* su%%osed causes of'
Cal%asso* geolog" of'
Cal%a"s'
Cammee tree'
Cammon or $onsejo5
miraculous image of the irgin at'
Canimi* mountain of'
Can5
geogra%hical distribution of the races of'
difference of colour in'
%h"sical effects of civiliRation u%on'
different characteristics of'
Cana%iari river'
Canco* +nca* flight of'
Candavaca* mission of'
Cangroves'
Canatee NCanatiO5
of the river A%ure'
of the island of $uba'
Canitivitanos'
CaniquareR5
inhabitants of'
village of'
%otteries of'
%etroleum* s%rings of'
Canoa* ex%edition to'
CanRanares* the5
bar of the'
banks of the'
+ndian custom of bathing in'
Ca%ara* cataract of'
Ca%s5
of America'
of $uba'
Car Blanco'
Caraca"5
inhabitants of'
situation of'
Caraca"bo NCaracaiboO* %ort of'
Caravaca* or 0ierra Cariguaca'
Care%iRanas* tribe of'
Cargareta NCargaritaO* island of'
Carguerita* island of'
Cariara5
%eaks of'
geological construction of'
hot s%rings of'
medicinal &aters of'
Carl formations'
Caroa* mission of'
Car"land'
Catacona* river'
Catagorda'
Cataveni* river'
CatanRas'
hamlet of'
origin of the name'
Catuna'
Catunilla'
CauritiaH%alm* or sagoHtree'
Cauritius* sugar canes* first brought to the'
Cavaca* river'
Caxima of mountain elevation'
Ca"%ures5
climate of'
luxuriant vegetation of'
village of'
cataract of'
inhabitants of'
%otteries of'
birds of'
animals of'
language'
Cenagerie'
Ceat5
consum%tion of'
Cediterranean 0ea5
formation of the'
basins of the'
of the &est'
Cedusas* or seaHnettles5
%hos%horic %ro%erties of'
Cemnon* statue of* %robable cause of the sounds issuing from'
CendoRa'
Ceso%otamia'
CestiRoes'
Ceta* river5
%lains of the'
Ceteorolog"* main %roblem of'
Ceteors5
connection of* &ith the undulations of the earth'
falling'
fier"* seen at $umana'
luminous'
Cexico* or @e& 0%ain5
connection of* &ith foreign colonies'
native %o%ulation of'
state of societ" in'
nobilit" of'
&heat of'
government of'
agriculture of'
extent of'
Ciasma* ex%eriments on'
CicaHslate* formations of'
Ciddleberg'
Cigration5
of nations'
of insects'
of %lants'
difficulties of the theor"'
Cilk5
distribution of animals "ielding'
vegetable'
anal"sis of'
tree'
Cinerals'
Cines5
of alum'
of Aroa'
of Buria'
of $aracas'
of $olumbia'
of co%%er'
of emeralds'
deserted'
of gold'
of Granada'
of Guanaxuato'
of =os Teques'
of 0anta Rosa'
of silver'
Cining* geolog" a%%lied to'
Cirage5
effects of'
%henomena of'
Cission5
of Atures'
of $arichana'
of the $a%uchins'
inhabitants of the'
ca%ital of'
government of the'
of $aron"'
of $atuaro'
of the $ha"ma +ndians'
of Guanaguana'
of 6avita'
of Caroa'
of Pararuma'
of Piritu'
native tribes of the'
of 0an Antonio'
of 0an Balthasar* on the >rinoco'
of 0an Borja* of 0anta $ruR'
of ?ruana'
Cissionar"5
life of the'
influence of'
general character of the'
Cissions5
first establishment of in America'
et"molog" of the names'
inter%reters of the'
of the ?%%er >rinoco'
Cississi%%i5
earthquakes in the valle"s of the'
basin of the'
Cochima* gulf of'
Cocundo* sugar %lantations of'
Conke"s5
anatomical cause of the cr" of'
natural %henomena of'
distance at &hich the cr" ma" be heard'
rare s%ecies of'
legends of'
$a%uchin'
of alencia'
of uelta Basilio'
Conks5
of the $ataracts'
$atalonian'
Com%ox'
Contana $lara'
canar" birds of'
de Paria* strata of'
Conte erde'
Contserrat'
Coon5
%rismatic colours round the'
total ecli%se of the'
names for the'
Corro Roxo'
Corros of 0an 6uan'
Cosquitos'
%lague of'
various s%ecies'
effects of the sting of'
migration of'
voracit" of'
sting of'
scourge of'
disa%%earance of'
of Ca"%ure'
Countain5
scener"'
chains'
geological constitution of'
chains* transverse'
vegetation'
ridges'
Countaineers* district of'
Countains5
origin of'
structure of'
s"stems of'
maxima of the heights of'
of Andalusia'
of Ara"a'
of Avila'
basaltic'
of BraRil'
of Buenavista'
calcareous'
conical* %eculiarities of'
of $umana'
of $ariaco'
of Encaramada'
of Guanaja'
of Higuerote'
of Cea%era'
of Parime'
of 0anta Caria'
of 0anta Carta'
of 0illa and $ordera'
of eneRuela'
volcanic* sha%e of'
geolog" of'
isolated %osition of'
sinking of* during an earthquake'
of ,umariquin'
Cucuju river'
Culattoes5
of Ara"a'
of Guadalou%e'
characteristics of'
Cules* American'
Cummies of Atarui%e'
Cumm"Hcaves of the Guanches'
Cusic of the +ndians'
C"tholog"'
C"ths* ancient'
@aga* %eak of'
@ao* lake of'
@a%htha* natural s%rings of'
@ations5
of the @e& .orld* su%%osed origin of'
causes of the shades of colour in the'
Anthro%o%hragitic'
+ndian'
@ative5
boatmen'
hordes* distribution of'
+ndians* subtlet" of'
varied colour of'
manner of living'
characteristics of'
legends of the'
rafts of the'
infanticide encouraged b"'
%ol"gam" of the'
%o%ulation'
&hite race'
&orshi%* objects of'
@ature5
tranquillit" of'
immutable la&s of'
@avigation5
ne& s"stem of'
+ndian mode of'
@eedle* magnetic* variations in the'
@egress'
@egro %o%ulation'
@egroes5
sale of'
festivals of'
munici%alit" of'
mortalit" of'
moral condition of'
emanci%ation of'
im%ortation of'
@egroes of valle" of Tu"'
@egro* Rio* the5
its source'
tributaries of the'
oscillations of'
basin of the'
@eiva* valle" of'
@ettles* see Cedusas'
@ueva5
Barcelona* see Barcelona'
alencia* see alencia'
@everi* river'
@e&5
$adiR'
Grenada* see Grenada'
0%ain* see Cexico'
Toledo* see Toledo'
@iger* sands of the'
@ight in the &oods of America'
@iguator* mountain of'
@ile5
crocodiles of the'
%eriodical risings of the'
@io%o* or +ndian snuff'
@obilit"5
of 0%anish America'
badge of'
of com%lexion'
@oon* in the tro%ics'
@umbers* difficult" of acquiring a kno&ledge of'
>ak* magnitude and antiquit" of the'
>bservations5
astronomical'
meteorological'
>bsidian5
&ea%ons made of'
varieties of'
origin of'
>cean5
tem%erature of the'
currents in the'
%hos%horesence of the* see HumboldtGs ie&s of @ature'
aerial'
>chsenberg* mountain of'
>cumare'
>il5
obtained from the birds of $ari%e'
of the cocoa nut'
of the crocodile* medicinal %ro%erties of the'
of the manatee'
of the turtle egg'
sale of'
>maguas* %rovince of the'
>%tical illusion'
>rangHotang* the'
>range trees5
of America'
of $uba'
of 0%ain'
>rchila5
island of'
geolog" of'
>rdaR* ex%editions of'
>rinoco5
course of the'
&aters of the'
&ater levels of'
navigation of'
junctions of the'
celebrated bifurcation of the'
sinuosities of the'
breadth of'
tem%erature of'
insalubrious &inds of the'
connection of* &ith the AmaRon'
source of'
confluence of'
%eriodical s&ellings of'
current of'
branches of the'
origin of the name'
ancient name of'
tributar" streams of'
accident on the'
as%ect of the* from ?ruana'
coast scener" of the'
district of the'
great cataracts of the'
islands of the'
mountains of the'
monke"s of the'
vegetation on the banks of the'
=o&er* dangerous navigation of'
basin of the'
?%%er* course of the'
cataracts of'
mountains of'
valle" of'
>rotava5
%ort of'
to&n of'
fruits of'
societ" in'
>rtiR* volcanic strata of'
>taheite* sugar canes of* first introduced into America'
>tters'
>ttomac +ndians5
customs of'
%h"siological %henomena of'
character and habits of'
>uava%avi monke"'
>viedo " Banos* the historiogra%her5
descri%tion of =ake alencia* b"'
>xen'
Pacimoni river'
Padaviri river'
PalmHtrees5
forests of'
groves of'
classification of'
utilit" of the'
of $uba'
of the =lanos'
of Piritu'
cordage'
cabbage'
oil'
&ine'
Palo de aca* see $o&Htree'
Pam%as* or ste%%es5
origin of the term'
extent of'
of Buenos A"res'
Panama* isthmus of'
Panthers'
Panumana* island of'
Pao5
to&n of'
river of'
Pa%a&Htrees'
Pa%er* substitutes for'
Paragua" river'
Pararuma* encam%ment of +ndians at'
Paria5
%romontor" of'
coast of'
origin of the name'
inhabitants of'
Parians* histor" of the'
Parima5
district of'
river'
lake of'
traditions of'
Parkinsonia aculeata'
Parnati river'
Parroquets* flocks of'
Pascua* valle" of'
Pasto* to&n of'
Pasturage5
region of'
cultivation of the'
Patagonia5
mountains of'
%lains of'
Patagonians* origin of'
Patholog" of fevers'
Pa"s de aud* scener" of* com%ared &ith alencia'
Peak5
of A"ad"rma* or Echerdo'
of $alitamini'
of $ocunRa'
of $u%tano'
of (uida'
of Guacharo'
of the 0illa* see 0illa'
of Teneriffe'
ascent of'
scener" of the'
crater of'
tem%erature of the'
descent from'
structure of'
geolog" of'
historical notice of'
eru%tions of'
vegetation on the'
of Te"de'
?riana'
Pearls5
earl" use of* b" the Americans'
revenue arising from the sale of'
modes of %rocuring'
Pearl coast5
situation of the'
fisheries of $ubagua'
ra%id diminution of'
of $e"lon'
of Cargareta'
of Panama'
o"ster* methods of taking the'
destruction of'
Pedro5
Ae"s'
shoals'
Penns"lvania'
Pericantral'
Peru5
summits of'
nobilit" of'
government of'
extent of'
%o%ulation of'
mountains of'
frontiers of'
Petare'
Petrifactions'
Petroleum5
origin of'
s%rings'
of CaniquareR'
Pheasant* American'
Phenomena5
atmos%heric'
of earthquakes'
electric'
geognostic'
geological'
of hailstones'
magnetic'
meteorological'
natural'
%h"siological'
of vegetable slee%'
Phenomenon5
volcanic* series of'
luminous'
o%tical'
%h"sical'
Phonolite'
Phos%horesence of the sea'
Ph"siognom"5
causes of tribal features'
shades of'
Ph"siolog"5
of man'
of animals'
Piedra5
ra%ids of the'
de la Paciencia* a rock in the middle of the >rinoco'
Raton'
del Tigre'
Pigments5
+ndian'
general use of'
Pimichin* forests of'
PineHa%%les5
of Baruto'
&ild'
Pino del (ornajito5
s%ring of'
Pinos* island of'
Pirijao %alm'
Piritu5
islands of'
%alm trees of'
Piton5
of Teneriffe
of the Te"de'
Plain5
of $haras'
of Retama'
Plains5
culture and %o%ulation of'
continuit" of'
of the AmaRon'
of $aracas'
of Euro%e'
of Rio de la Plata'
of the Tu"* of eneRuela'
PlaneHtree* antiquit" of the'
Plants5
%henomena of the slee% of'
ex%eriments on the air from'
distribution of'
migration of'
malaria of'
cordage from'
milk of'
arborescent'
aromatic'
cruciform'
of the island of Teneriffe'
of the islands of alencia'
medicinal'
of @orth America'
%arasitic'
resinous'
of 0outh America'
succulent'
Plantains'
Plata5
Rio de la'
%lains of the'
Poison5
$urare* %re%aration of the'
effects of* on the s"stem'
Poisons* vegetable* %eculiar to the @e& .orld'
Pol"gam"* +ndian %ractice of'
Po%a* convent de la'
Po%ulation* com%ared &ith territor"'
of Angostura'
of BraRil'
of Buenos A"res'
of $aracas'
of $ariaco'
of $hile'
of the colonies'
of $uba'
of $umana'
of Grenada'
of Guatimala'
of Guiana'
of Cexico'
native'
of Peru'
of Porto Rico'
of Buito'
of 0%anish America'
of the ?nited 0tates'
of ?%ata'
of eneRuela'
Por%oises5
%hos%horesence caused b"'
of the river A%ure'
Portachuelo* %romontor" of'
Portages on the rivers'
Portland Rock'
Porto $abello5
salt&orks of'
de%arture from'
geolog" of'
Rico* extent of'
%o%ulation of'
Portuguese5
settlements of'
colonists'
Portus Cagnus'
Potato* cultivation of the'
Potter"* earl" manufacture of'
Potteries* +ndian'
Po&ders* intoxicating* used b" the +ndians'
Po"a* or balls of earth* consum%tion of'
Prairies'
Priests of Tomo'
PrintingHoffice* of $aracas'
Prognostications b" the author of the great earthquake at $aracas'
Prussic acid* discover" of'
Puerto de Arriba'
PumiceHstones'
Punta5
Samuro'
%lantations of'
Ara"a'
PunRera5
%lains of'
&ild silk of'
P"thon* the'
P"ramid of Guacharo'
Buaquas* &arlike tribe of'
BuartR* veins of'
Buebrada* or ravines5
de Aguas $alientes'
del >ro'
de 0eca'
de Ti%e'
Buebranta'
Bueries* geological'
Buete%e5
%lain and s%ring of'
vie& of'
BuinceHtree5
fruit of the'
Buindiu5
mountains of'
Buinsa"'
Bui%os* or knotted cords* use of'
Buirabuena* see Candavaca'
Buito5
%rovince of'
summits of'
volcanic nature of the kingdom'
earthquakes in'
to&n of'
state of societ" in'
civiliRation of'
shee% of'
extent of'
%o%ulation of'
%olitical %osition'
Buittuna* cataract of'
Races5
antiquit" of'
differences of'
%ro%ortion of'
jealousies of'
disa%%earance of'
Anglo 0axon'
mixed'
native* affinit" of'
native* &hite'
Rafts5
+ndian'
natural* of the >rinoco'
Rain5
scarcit" of* in Ara"a'
frequenc" of* at $aracas'
%eriodical seasons of'
electrical'
equatorial'
%rognostics of'
tro%ical'
causes of'
Raleigh* 0ir .'5
vo"ages of'
ex%editions of'
Rambleta* %lain of'
Ranges* volcanic'
Ra%ids5
navigation and causes of'
of Atures'
of Piedra'
Raudal5
of $ameji'
of $anucari'
of $ariven'
of Garcita'
of 6avariveni'
of Carimara'
of Tobaje'
Raudals* elevation of* see $ataracts'
Ra"a* +ndians'
Reactions* volcanic'
Redoute* C'* &ork of* on Roses'
Reeds'
Region of %er%etual sno&'
Religion of the +ndians'
Re%ublics of 0%anish America'
Resins'
Retama* %lain of'
Rhododendrons* Rone of'
Rialexo de Aboxo'
Rinconada* gold mines of'
Rincon del (iablo* see (evilGs @ook'
Rivers5
junctions of'
advantages of'
changes in the courses of'
causes of the s&elling of'
source of the five great streams'
of $uba'
of hot &ater'
The follo&ing rivers are referred to under their res%ective
al%habetical entries5
Rio A%ure* Aguas $alientes* AmaRon* Aquio* Areo* Aroa* Ataba%o*
Arauca* Beni* $abullare* $alaburg* $hacaito* $ongo* $aron"* Esteven*
Essequibo* Guiamo Gua"re* Guaura%o* 6agua* 6u%ura* 6uruario*
CanRanares* Catacona* Cataveni* @egro* @everi* >rinoco* Parima* Plata*
0inu* 0i%a%o* 0odomoni* 0ua%ure* Tocu"o* Tomo'
Roca5
de Afuera'
del +nfierno'
RockHmanikin'
Rocks5
strata of'
classification of'
geological arrangement of'
incrustations of'
nature of'
subterranean fires in'
caverns of'
varieties of'
&orshi% of'
antediluvian'
auriferous'
of $abo Blanco'
&hich com%ose the island of Teneriffe'
of the %lains'
%ainted NTe%uHmeremeO'
%honolitic'
%"rogenic'
scul%tured'
volcanic'
Rum* manufacture of'
0abrina5
island of'
origin and destruction of'
0acrifices* human'
0agoHtrees* see Cauritia %alm'
0alive +ndians'
0alt5
geognostical %henomena of'
substitutes for'
lake of Penon Blanco'
marshes* of $erro de la ela'
&orks of Ara"a'
revenue "ielded to the government b"'
of $aracas'
of Porto $abello'
of 0an Antonio de 6avita'
0alvaje* or &ild man of the &oods'
0an5
Antonio* castle of'
geolog" of'
$arlos'
(omingo'
coffee %lantations of'
sugar %lantations of'
/ernando'
/ernando de A%ure'
tem%erature of* trade of'
de Ataba%o'
%olitical im%ortance of'
%lantations of'
/rancisco* 0olano'
6osef* island of'
6uan river'
6uan de los Remedios'
6uanillo* ravine of'
=uis de $ura* see illa $ura'
del Encaramada'
Cateo'
Pedro* valle" of'
0anchorquiR* s%ring of'
0andstone5
formations'
varieties of'
of the =lanos'
of the >rinoco'
0anscrit language'
0anta Barbara'
0anta $ruR5
situation of'
to&n of'
HumboldtGs de%arture from'
+ndian village of'
de $achi%o'
0anta /e de Bogota5
gulf of'
0antiago5
ruins of'
%resent name of'
0antos* (on Antonio'
0arsa%arilla NSarRaO5
varieties of'
0avages5
countries of'
character of'
state of* in the torrid and tem%erate Rones'
mental ina%titude of'
difference of colour in'
encam%ment of'
festivals of'
food of'
origin of'
0avannahs5
origin of'
floods in'
extent of'
distribution of'
of Atures'
of $ari%e'
of +nvernadero del GarRel'
of =agartero'
of =ouisiana'
of =o&er >rinoco'
0chonbrunn* conservatories of'
0c"lax* travels of'
0ea5
vegetation in the'
%hos%horescence of the'
volcanic shocks in the'
tem%erature of* see >cean'
$aribbean'
&eeds'
distinct banks of'
remarkable s%ecimen of'
shores'
0easons5
changes in the'
of rain and storm'
0eeds* tideHborne'
0er%ents5
summer slee% of'
0erritos'
0harks'
0hells* %etrifactions of'
0hi%Hbuilding* American'
0hirtHtrees'
0hocks5
electric'
dangerous effects of'
transmission of'
theor" of'
of the g"mnotus'
0hrubs5
mountain'
aromatic'
0ia%a* see +da%a'
0ienega of Batabano'
0ierra5
de $ochabamba'
del Guacharo'
Cariare'
de Cea%ire* cacao %lantations of'
@evada de 0anta Caria'
de la Parime'
strata of the'
0ilk of the %almHtree'
0illa of $aracas5
ascent of the'
%eaks of the'
summit of the'
%reci%ice of'
descent from the'
strata of'
0i%a%o* river5
forests of'
mountains of'
0inu* river'
0keletons* +ndian'
0lates5
strata of'
formations'
0laves5
elevation of* to farmers and lando&ners'
manumission of'
im%ortation of'
rights of'
%unishment of'
0abbath of'
of the $anar" +slands'
of $umana'
of eneRuela'
of ictoria'
fugitive* ca%ture of'
0lave dealers5
routes of the'
food'
labour'
%rice of'
0lave la&s5
English'
0%anish'
0lave5
market* at $umana'
trade'
commercial establishments to facilitate the'
causes &hich led to the abolition of'
BenRoni* on the'
0%anish'
0laver"* statistics of'
0nakes* antidote to the venom of'
0oa%Hberr"'
0ociet"5
Rones of'
three ages of'
effects of earthquakes u%on'
0odomoni river'
0oils* auriferous'
0olano5
ex%editions of'
residence of'
0ombreroH%alm'
0ounds5
analog" of'
%ro%agation of'
ra%id transmission of'
resemblance of'
nocturnal %ro%agation of'
subterranean'
0outh 0ea +slands'
0%ain5
journe" through'
%ossessions of* in America'
0%aniards5
first settlement of'
descendants of'
0%eier* George von'
0%rings5
of Euro%e and America'
tem%erature of'
of &arm &ater'
origin of'
of hot &ater'
of bitumen'
of $aracas'
of $ari%e'
of Cariara'
medicinal %ro%erties of'
of mineral tar* see Petroleum'
of Count +m%osible'
of Buete%e'
sul%hureous'
0tabroek'
0talactites'
0tars5
constellations of'
radiance of'
falling'
magnitude of'
0tates* American'
0tone5
of the e"e'
butter'
0tones5
AmaRon'
localit" of'
%ainted* localit" of'
&orshi% of'
0t' 6uan de la Rambla* malmse" &ine of'
0t' Cichael'
0t' Thomas de la Guiana'
0trata5
inclination of'
maxima of'
enumeration of'
%arallelism of'
calcareous'
%rimitive'
of 0ierra Parime'
secondar"'
tertiar"'
transition'
0t"lites* sect of'
0t"%tic* natural'
0ua%ure river'
0uccession* la&s of'
0ugar5
manufacture of'
%rices of'
%re%arations from'
refining of'
%rofits of'
machiner" for'
from beetHroot'
of $uba'
of 0t' (omingo'
of slave colonies'
of Trinidad'
0ugar cane5
%lantations of'
cultivation of the'
first introduction of* to America'
geogra%hical distribution of the'
$reole'
0ul%hur* beds of'
0un5
effects of the* on %lants'
ecli%se of the'
+ndian names for the'
&orshi% of the'
tem%le of the'
0urinam'
0&allo&s* migration of'
0&ine* &ild* herds of'
Tacarigua5
lake of'
mountains of'
Tacoronte* valle" of'
Tamanac5
nation and language'
historical tradition of the'
Tarragona'
Ta"uchuc'
Teguisa'
Temanfa"a* volcano of'
Temi river5
navigation of the'
Teneriffe5
%eak of'
camels of'
island of'
tem%erature of'
botanical gardens of'
geognos" of'
fruits and %lants of'
aborigines of'
feudal government of'
Termites* ravages of the'
Terra /irma5
old and ne& routes to'
situation of* in relation to the island of $uba'
insalubrit" of'
seven %rovinces of'
seasons in'
coast defences of'
Tetas5
de Canagua'
de Tolu'
Te"de* %eak of'
Theatre of $aracas'
Theocritus* translations from'
Theories5
of earthquakes'
of electricit"'
of migration'
Thermometer* use of* in navigation'
Thonschiefer* see $la"Hslate'
Thunder* subterranean'
Tibitibies'
TideHborne fruits'
Tierra del /uego5
straits of'
islands of'
Tiger* ravine'
Tigers* see 6aguar'
black'
Timber5
luxuriance of'
abundance of'
Titis'
Tivitivas* see Tibitibies'
Tobacco5
origin of the &ord'
cultivation of* in $umana and Cexico'
%lantations of* in alencia'
in Guiania'
in $umanacoa'
in the island of $uba'
statistics of'
Tobago5
situation of'
Tocu"o river'
Tomatoes* cultivation of'
Tombs* +ndian'
Tomo river'
Torito'
Tor%edo* ex%eriments on the'
Torrid Rone* see Sone'
Toucan* natural histor" of the'
Tovar* $ount* generous treatment of slaves b"'
To&er of Hercules5
lighthouse of the'
Trade &inds5
latitudes of the'
Traditions5
Eg"%tian'
TreeHfrogs'
TreeHinhabiting +ndians'
Trees5
antiquit" of'
alimentar" %ro%erties of'
the follo&ing American trees are referred to under their res%ective
al%habetical entries5 the Aloe* Aguatire* Almond* Balsam* Barba de
Tigre* Bombax* Bon%landia trifoliata* BraRil @ut* $us%a* $ortex
Angosturae* $ecro%ia* $ottonHtree* $anela or $innamon* $uraca"*
$ourbaril* $acao* $offee* $o&Htree* $arolinea %rince%s*
(ragonGsHblood* Er"thrina* /igHtree* Guarumo or 6arumo* Ha"Htree*
Cammea* Cauritia* Cangrove* Palms* Palo de aca* Parkinsonia aculeata*
0hirtHtree* olador* and SamangHtree'
Tribes5
various* of native +ndians'
migrations of'
intelligence of'
%ro%ortion of the different castes'
aboriginal'
h"%erborean'
Trincheras* =as* hot s%rings of'
Trinidad5
to&n of'
commerce of'
HumboldtGs de%arture from'
Tro%ics5
atmos%here of the'
noon in the'
Tro%ical5
climate* dangers of* to Euro%eans* from variable tem%erature'
fever'
fatal effects of'
vegetation'
Turmero5
+ndians of'
militia of'
Tuamini* isthmus of'
Tunales* or cactus groves'
Turimiquiri5
mountain of'
ascent of the'
loft" %eaks of'
Turmero'
Turner* Cr'* on 0ea egetation'
Turtle fisheries'
Turtles5
different s%ecies of'
instinct of'
eggs of the'
fisheries for'
ca%ture of'
abundance of'
Tu"* valle" of the'
T"%hus fevers'
?au%es* see Guaua%es'
?cucuamo* mountain of'
?ita'
?lloa5
observations on the native +ndians b"'
statistics of the "ello& fever* b"'
notices of monke"s* b"'
?niana* %eak of'
?nited 0tates5
savages of the'
ne&s%a%ers of'
district of the'
%o%ulation of'
extent of the'
slaves of the'
slave trade of the'
%rairies of the'
?nona x"lo%ioides'
?%%er >rinoco5
course of the'
cataracts of the'
mountains of'
valle" of'
?raba* gulf of'
?raria%ara* the'
?rbana* =a $once%cion de'
?rijino* s%rings of'
?ritucu river5
cacao of'
crocodiles of'
?ruana5
turtle fisheries of'
mission of'
inhabitants of'
achaco* island of'
alencia5
lake of'
ancient extent of'
retreat of the &aters'
su%%osed outlet of'
tem%erature of'
islands of'
@euva'
%romontor" of'
cit" of'
histor" of'
alle"s5
general descri%tion of the'
of $aracas'
of $ariaco'
of Guanaguana'
of =a Pascua* or $ortes'
configuration of'
of Tacoronte'
of Rio Tu"'
gold mines of the'
al%araiso'
am%ireHbats'
a%ours5
%henomena of'
ex%losions of'
sul%hureous'
arinas'
ases* or funeral urns'
egetable5
glue'
milk'
egetables* American'
egetation5
various Rones of'
total absence of'
remarkable %o&er of'
of @orth and 0outh America com%ared'
on the Higuerote'
on the mountains of Andalusia'
in the seas'
tro%ical'
eneRuela5
ca%ital of'
%rovinces of'
coasts of'
to&ns of'
mines of'
earthquake in'
%lains of'
geolog" of'
%olitical state of'
extent of'
%roductions of'
commerce of'
%olitical institutions of'
mountains of'
basin of'
hot s%rings of'
entuari river'
era $ruR5
%ort of'
erbs* inflexions of'
es%ucci* charts of'
esuvius'
ibora* =a'
ichada* or isita river'
ictoria5
corn of'
to&n of'
ieja Gua"ana'
illa5
de $ura'
de /ernando de A%ure'
de =aguna'
de >rotava'
de ?%ata'
illages5
of Cissions'
native* of 0outh America'
migrator" character of'
ines5
Rone of'
of $uba'
i%ers'
irginia'
iruelas mountains'
iudita* or .ido& Conke"'
olador* the5
geogra%hical distribution of the s%ecies'
olcanic eru%tions* see Eru%tions'
olcano5
of $a"amba'
of $oto%axi'
of Guadalou%e'
of 6orullo'
of =ancerote'
of Pasto'
of 0t' incent'
of Teneriffe'
of Tungurahua'
olcanoes5
effects of* on the earth'
structure of'
action of'
isolated %osition of'
submarine effects of'
stud" of'
o"ages5
of $olumbus'
of 0ir .alter Raleigh'
uelta de Basilio'
del $ochino Roto'
del 6oval'
ultures'
.alls* $"clo%ean'
.ars* religious'
.as%s* fatal effects of the sting'
.ater5
search for* in the %lains'
varied colours of'
causes of the'
scarcit" of* after earthquakes'
varieties of* in the streams of the >rinoco'
theor" of the diminution of'
%ro%er%erties of* as a conductor of electricit"'
tem%erature of'
hogs* see $higuires'
melons'
s%outs'
snakes'
.aters5
medicinal'
thermal'
.ea%ons* American'
.ells* affected b" earthquakes'
.est +ndia +slands5
commerce of the'
old and ne& route to'
%revalence of fevers in'
volcanoes of'
e%idemics of'
%rimitive %o%ulation of'
sugars of the'
slaves of'
basin of the'
.est rock'
.estern continent* first indications of the'
.heat5
cultivation of* in the $anar" +slands'
in Cexico'
%roduce of'
limits of the gro&th of'
of the ?nited 0tates'
.hite 0ea5
native tribes'
.ind&ard $hannel'
.inds5
insalubrious* of $aracas and +tal"'
of sand'
.ine5
of the island of $uba'
+ndian'
from the %almHtree'
.ild5
beasts of America'
man of the &oods'
.ood5
varied colours of'
%etrifactions of'
of fruits'
.omen5
native +ndian'
language %eculiar to'
exclusion of* from religious services'
%redilections of'
condition of'
inequalit" in the rights of'
$aribbean'
6avanese'
.ords5
identit" of* in different languages'
grammatical construction of'
com%ounds of'
analog" of'
Jala%a5
climate of'
vegetation of'
Jagua5
ba" of'
fresh &ater s%rings in the'
%ort of'
Jara"es* lake of'
Jeberos'
JeRemani'
Jurumu* the'
,aracu"5
valle"s of'
timber of'
,aruro +ndians'
,auli'
,ellalas* or ra%ids'
,ello&Hfever* statistics of the'
,genris5
language of the'
conquest of'
,eguas* gulf of'
,ucatan* %olitical %osition of'
,usma mountains'
Sacatecas'
Sama river'
SamangHtree'
Sambo $aribs'
+ndian* dangerous rencontre &ith'
Samboes5
hamlet of'
re%ublic of'
characteristics of'
banishment of the'
Samuro vultures'
Sancudos'
Sa%ote'
village of'
road to'
SarRa* see 0arsa%arilla'
Sealand* settlement of'
Senu* gold of'
Sere%e* +ndian'
Si%aquira* mines of'
Sodiac5
Eg"%tian'
signs used in the'
Cexican'
Sone5
of grasses and lichens'
of heaths'
of laurels'
Tem%erate'
vegetable %h"siognom" of'
Torrid'
tem%erature of'
effects of* on the constitution'
atmos%herical %urit" of the'
s%rings in the'
organic richness of'
scener" of'
vegetable %h"siognom" of'
rivers of the'
insects of the'
constellations of the'
agriculture of'
Sones* distinct demarcation of* Terra /irma'
Sum%ango'
E@( >/ >=?CE !'
End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Equinoctial Regions of America !
b" Alexander von Humboldt
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