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 Test Bank for Biology: The Unity and Diversity of Life, 13th
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CHAPTER 1—INVITATION TO BIOLOGY

MULTIPLE CHOICE OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |

Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
The Secret Life of Earth
4. In order to survive and reproduce, a cell needs
1. How many species become extinct each minute a. an energy source.
in the rainforests alone? b. raw materials.
a. 1. c. a suitable environment.
b. 2 d. DNA.
c. 5 e. all of these.
d. 10 ANS: E PTS: 1
e. 20 DIF: Easy
ANS: E PTS: 1 OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge

Life is More Than the Sum of its Parts

2. Which is the smallest unit of life that can exist

as a separate entity?
a. a cell
b. a molecule
c. an organ
d. a population
e. an ecosystem
ANS: A PTS: 1
DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
5. The level of organization represented in the
figure is a(n)
Life is More Than the Sum of its Parts
a. atom.
b. tissue.
3. The most inclusive level of organization listed
c. molecule.
here is a(n)
d. organ.
a. heart.
e. cell.
b. carbon atom.
c. DNA. ANS: C PTS: 1
d. a zebra. DIF: Easy
e. red blood cell. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
Bloom's Taxonomy: Evaluation
ANS: D PTS: 1
DIF: Easy

Invitation to Biology 1
6. A community
a. includes all populations of all species in a 9. Living organisms are members of all of the
given area. levels listed below; however, rocks are
b. features the living organisms interacting components of
with the physical and chemical a. the community.
environment. b. the population.
c. is the sum of all places in Earth's c. the ecosystem.
atmosphere, crust, and waters where d. the biosphere.
organisms live. e. both the ecosystem and the biosphere.
d. includes members of only one species. ANS: E PTS: 1
e. is at a higher level of organization than an DIF: Difficult
ecosystem. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
ANS: A PTS: 1 Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | 10. A(n) ____ property is a characteristic of a
Bloom's Taxonomy: Evaluation system that does not appear in any of its
component parts.
a. efferent
b. emergent
c. elective
d. energetic
e. living
ANS: B PTS: 1
DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge

7. The above figure represents a(n) How Living Things are Alike
a. atom.
b. tissue. 11. All organisms are alike in their
c. molecule. a. requirements for energy.
d. organ. b. participation in one or more nutrient
e. cell. cycles.
ANS: E PTS: 1 c. ultimate dependence on the sun.
DIF: Easy d. interaction with other forms of life.
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: e. all of these.
Comprehension ANS: E PTS: 1
DIF: Moderate
8. The level of organization where factors such as OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
sunlight, rainfall, and temperature come into
play is the 12. Which of the following is NOT a key
a. digestive system. characteristic of "life"?
b. the flow of energy and recycling of a. organization into cells
nitrogen in a given area. b. response to environmental change
c. plants producing oxygen in the Amazon c. reproduction
basin is consumed by giraffes on the d. inability to change
Serengeti. e. using energy
d. glucose. ANS: D PTS: 1
e. clown fish, sharks, and coral living DIF: Easy
together at the Great Barrier reef. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge |
ANS: B PTS: 1 Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis
DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension | 13. Living organisms are different from inanimate
Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis objects because they

2 Chapter 1
 a. react to environmental stimuli. e. I and III
b. exhibit very high levels of complexity. ANS: B PTS: 1
c. possess molecules of deoxyribonucleic DIF: Moderate
acid. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
d. exhibit multiple levels of organization.
e. possess or exhibit all of these
ANS: E PTS: 1
DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis | Bloom's
Taxonomy: Evaluation

14. The conversion of solar energy to chemical

energy is known as
a. metabolism.
b. photosynthesis.
c. chemosynthesis.
d. catabolism.
e. anabolism.
ANS: B PTS: 1
DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge

15. Organisms sense and respond to changes both

inside and outside the body by way of
a. metabolism. 18. On the illustration, "A" and "B" should be
b. photosynthesis. labeled respectively
c. receptors. a. consumers; producers
d. catabolism. b. decomposers; producers
e. anabolism. c. producers; redistributors
ANS: C PTS: 1 d. producers; consumers
DIF: Moderate e. consumers; decomposers
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge ANS: D PTS: 1
DIF: Easy
16. DNA codes for the production of OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy:
a. proteins. Comprehension
b. minerals.
c. inorganic molecules. 19. No nonliving entity exhibits of possesses
d. vital gasses. which of the following?
e. water. a. energetic interactions.
ANS: A PTS: 1 b. DNA.
DIF: Moderate c. atoms.
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge d. heat energy
e. complexity
17. Which of the following do not depend directly ANS: B PTS: 1
on sunlight for energy? DIF: Moderate
I. terrestrial producers OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge |
II. animal consumers Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis
III. decomposers
20. The flow of nutrients through living organisms
a. I only is best characterized as
b. II and III only a. circular.
c. II only b. a ladder.
d. III only c. a web.

Invitation to Biology 3
 d. one way. b. limited range of variation
e. a funnel. c. rapid energy turnover
ANS: A PTS: 1 d. cycle of elements
DIF: Easy e. structural and functional units of life
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | ANS: B PTS: 1
Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
21. Homeostasis provides what kind of internal
environment? 25. The DNA molecule is most similar
a. positive functionally to a
b. relatively constant a. pair of scissors.
c. limiting b. flashlight battery.
d. changing c. computer memory chip.
e. chemical and physical d. ballpoint pen.
ANS: B PTS: 1 e. craft kit of ceramic tiles.
DIF: Easy ANS: C PTS: 1
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
22. Each cell is able to maintain a constant internal
environment. This condition is called 26. Energy sources are needed for which of the
a. metabolism. following processes?
b. homeostasis. I. reproduction
c. physiology. II. growth
d. adaptation. III. development
e. evolution.
ANS: B PTS: 1 a. I and II
DIF: Easy b. I and III
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | c. II only
Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension d. II and III
e. I, II, and III
23. About twelve to twenty-four hours after the ANS: E PTS: 1
previous meal, a person's blood-sugar level DIF: Easy
normally varies from 60 to 90 milligrams per OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
100 milliliters of blood, though it may rise to
130 mg/100 ml after meals high in How Living Things Differ
carbohydrates. That the blood-sugar level is
maintained within a fairly narrow range despite 27. Which of the following lacks a nucleus?
uneven intake of sugar is due to the body's a. bacterial cell.
ability to carry out b. fungus cell.
a. adaptation. c. animal cell.
b. inheritance. d. protist cell.
c. metabolism. e. all of these have a nucleus.
d. homeostasis. ANS: A PTS: 1
e. all of these processes. DIF: Moderate
ANS: D PTS: 1 OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | 28. Members of what domain are evolutionarily
Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's closest to eukaryotes?
Taxonomy: Evaluation a. Animalia
b. Protista
24. Which of the following phrases would most c. Fungi
likely be used in a discussion of homeostasis? d. Bacteria
a. respond to environmental stimuli e. Archaea

4 Chapter 1
 ANS: E PTS: 1
DIF: Easy 33. A scientific name consists of which of the
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension | following?
Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis I. family name
II. genus name
III. species name

29. All of the following are domains of life a. I only

except? b. II only
a. Animalia c. III only
b. Bacteria d. I and II
c. Archaea e. II and III
d. Eukarya ANS: E PTS: 1
e. none of these are domains of life DIF: Easy
ANS: A PTS: 1 OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge |
DIF: Easy Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis 34. The plural for genus is
a. genus.
30. Members of what group are multicellular b. geni.
producers? c. genera.
a. Animalia d. gena.
b. Protista e. genae.
c. Fungi ANS: C PTS: 1
d. Plantae DIF: Easy
e. none of these are multicellular producers OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
ANS: D PTS: 1
DIF: Easy 35. The least inclusive of the taxonomic categories
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge listed here is
a. family.
31. Which of the following groups are made up of b. phylum.
almost exclusively decomposers? c. class.
a. Plantae d. order.
b. Fungi e. genus.
c. Animalia ANS: E PTS: 1
d. Monera DIF: Moderate
e. Protista OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
ANS: B PTS: 1
DIF: Easy 36. Which group includes all of the other groups?
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | a. domain
Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension b. order
c. family
32. Which of the following are NOT eukaryotes? d. genus
a. fungi e. species
b. bacteria ANS: A PTS: 1
c. plants DIF: Easy
d. animals OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
e. protistans
ANS: B PTS: 1 37. The hierarchical system of nomenclature
DIF: Easy a. allows diversity to be catalogued.
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge b. organizes knowledge about species
relationships.
Organizing Information About Species c. permits organisms to be identified.

Invitation to Biology 5
 d. sorts organisms into groups. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
e. includes all of these.
ANS: E PTS: 1
DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
42. Which represents the highest degree of
The Science of Nature certainty?
a. hypothesis
38. Of the following, which term means the b. deduction
judging of information before accepting it as c. assumption
fact? d. theory
a. Critical thinking e. prediction
b. Law ANS: D PTS: 1
c. Theory DIF: Moderate
d. Fact OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
e. Hypothesis
ANS: A PTS: 1 43. The control in an experiment
DIF: Moderate a. makes the experiment valid.
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge b. is an additional replicate for statistical
purposes.
39. Of the following, which is the first explanation c. reduces the experimental errors.
of a problem? (It is sometimes called an d. minimizes experimental inaccuracy.
"educated guess.") e. allows for comparison to the experimental
a. principle group.
b. law ANS: E PTS: 1
c. theory DIF: Moderate
d. fact OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge |
e. hypothesis Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
ANS: E PTS: 1
DIF: Moderate 44. As a result of experimentation,
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge a. more hypotheses may be developed.
b. more questions may be asked.
40. Hypotheses are c. a new biological principle could emerge.
a. often in the form of a statement. d. entire theories may be modified.
b. often expressed negatively. e. all of these can occur.
c. sometimes crude attempts to offer a ANS: E PTS: 1
possible explanation for observations. DIF: Moderate
d. testable predictions. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
e. all of these. Bloom's Taxonomy: Application
ANS: E PTS: 1
DIF: Easy 45. In an experiment, the control group is
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | a. not subjected to experimental error.
Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension b. exposed to experimental treatments.
c. maintained under strict laboratory
41. Which represents the lowest degree of conditions.
certainty? d. treated exactly the same as the
a. hypothesis experimental group, except for one
b. conclusion variable.
c. fact e. statistically the most important part of the
d. principle experiment.
e. theory ANS: D PTS: 1
ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
DIF: Moderate OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge |

6 Chapter 1
 Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension e. unpalatable species display distinctive
wings.
ANS: B PTS: 1
DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
46. The choice of whether a particular organism Bloom's Taxonomy: Application
belongs to the experimental group or the 50. The variable in the butterfly experiment is
control group should be based on a. butterfly wing pattern color.
a. age. b. butterfly species.
b. size. c. bird predator species.
c. chance. d. rainforest region used.
d. designation by the experimenter. e. percentage of survivors.
e. sex. ANS: A PTS: 1
ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
DIF: Easy OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge |
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
Bloom's Taxonomy: Application
51. How did the control group differ from the
Examples of Experiments in Biology experimental group in the butterfly
experiment?
47. Scientists are always thinking about ways to a. They were different species.
improve experimental design. In the text's b. Their native habitat area of the forest
potato chip experiment, which of these might differed.
do so? c. They tasted worse.
a. show a different movie d. They were white-patterned.
b. exclude teenagers as group members e. They preferred different flower species.
c. collect uneaten chip remains and weigh ANS: D PTS: 1
them for both groups DIF: Moderate
d. provide free drinks OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
e. use a smaller theater Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis
ANS: C PTS: 1
DIF: Difficult 52. The data from the butterfly experiment
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension | reflected which of the following?
Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's a. natural selection
Taxonomy: Analysis b. food choices by predators
c. the ability of birds to find the prey
48. Olestra chips did not cause cramps at a higher d. the role of mimicry
rate than normal chips. That was the e. all of these
_________ of this experiment ANS: E PTS: 1
a. Hypothesis c. Control DIF: Difficult
b. Prediction d. Conclusion OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
ANS: D PTS: 1 Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis
DIF: MODERATE
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: 53. The results of the butterfly experiment
Comprehension a. supported the hypothesis.
b. provided valuable quantitative data.
49. In the experiment with Peacock butterflies, the c. confirmed the prediction.
working hypothesis is that d. provided evidence of natural selection in
a. mimicry confuses both predator and prey. action.
b. mimicry conveys a selective advantage to e. are consistent with all of these.
the prey. ANS: E PTS: 1
c. birds are capable of learning. DIF: Moderate
d. birds are agents of evolution. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |

Invitation to Biology 7
 Bloom's Taxonomy: Application ANS: C PTS: 1
DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge

58. Which of the following can be changed based

54. Which of the following might be a possible on new evidence?
follow-up experiment? a. hypothesis
a. Repeat in a forest area totally devoid of b. theory
native butterflies. c. prediction
b. Repeat in a wildlife sanctuary aviary after d. experiment
giving birds a chance to learn about yellow e. all of these
H. eleuchia. ANS: E PTS: 1
c. Repeat using young, inexperienced birds. DIF: Easy
d. Repeat, but count survivors for three OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy:
weeks. Comprehension
e. Conduct all of these.
ANS: B PTS: 1 59. Which of the following should NOT be used in
DIF: Difficult the development of science?
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension | a. evaluation of data
Bloom's Taxonomy: Application b. personal conviction
c. prediction
Analyzing Experimental Results d. systematic observation
e. sharing ideas
55. Randomly selecting samples of experimental ANS: B PTS: 1
units from an environment can result in DIF: Moderate
a. sampling error. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
b. blind testing. Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis
c. evidence.
d. experimental design. 60. All of the following can strengthen a theory
e. consensus. EXCEPT
ANS: A PTS: 1 a. repetitions of experiments.
DIF: Easy b. increased observations.
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | c. time.
Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension d. faith.
e. confirmation by many scientists.
56. What is an acceptable probability of sampling ANS: D PTS: 1
error that may have skewed the results in most DIF: Easy
scientific studies? OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension |
a. 80% d. 10% Bloom's Taxonomy: Analysis
b. 50% e. 5%
c. 25% 61. The validity of scientific discoveries is not
ANS: E PTS: 1 based on
DIF: EASY a. morality.
OBJ: Blooms Taxonomy: Knowledge b. aesthetics.
c. philosophy.
The Nature of Science d. economics.
e. any of these.
57. Science is based on ANS: E PTS: 1
a. faith. DIF: Easy
b. authority. OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge
c. evidence.
d. force. 62. Copernicus, Galileo, and Darwin found that
e. facts. ____ caused their science to be controversial.

8 Chapter 1
 a. prevailing belief e. experimental design
b. objective data ANS: A PTS: 1
c. astronomy DIF: Moderate
d. the supernatural OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge

MATCHING

Matching. Match the following letters to the number with which they best correspond.
a. Observation e. Observational experiment
b. Question f. Laboratory experiment
c. Hypothesis g. Assessment
d. Prediction h. Report
63. Conduct a survey of individuals who smoke and individuals who do not smoke. Determine which
group has the highest incidence of cancers.
64. If smoking causes cancer, then individuals who smoke will get cancer more often than those who do
not.
65. Submit the results and the conclusions to the scientific community.
66. Establish identical groups of laboratory rats. Expose one group (the model system) to cigarette smoke
and compare the incidence of new cancers (if any) with the incidence in the control group.
67. Compile test results and draw conclusions from them.
68. Smoking cigarettes causes cancer.
69. Why do people get cancer?
70. People get cancer.

63. ANS: E PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult

OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice
64. ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice
65. ANS: H PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice
66. ANS: F PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice
67. ANS: G PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice
68. ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice
69. ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice
70. ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Difficult
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Application | Bloom's Taxonomy: Synthesis
TOP: THE SCIENCE OF NATURE MSC: Multiple Choice

Classification. Match the following descriptions to the most appropriate function, process, or trait
listed below.

Invitation to Biology 9
 a. inheritance b reproduction c. photosynthesi d growth e. homeostasis
. s .
71. a process found only in plants, some bacteria and some protists
72. a characteristic most organisms exhibit that tends to buffer the effects of environmental change
73. the passage of DNA from parent to offspring
74. process in which one generation replaces another

71. ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate

OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS ARE ALIKE
MSC: Classification
72. ANS: E PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS ARE ALIKE
MSC: Classification
73. ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS ARE ALIKE
MSC: Classification
74. ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS ARE ALIKE
MSC: Classification

Classification. Match the following descriptions with the most appropriate group listed below.
a. Bacteria b. Protista c. Plantae d. Fungi e. Animalia
75. multicellular producers
76. prokaryotic
77. unicellular organisms of considerable internal complexity
78. multicellular motile consumers
79. based on fossils, oldest, still living organisms
80. unicellular eukaryotic producers
81. most common multicellular decomposers

75. ANS: C PTS: 1 DIF: Easy

OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS DIFFER MSC: Classification
76. ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS DIFFER MSC: Classification
77. ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS DIFFER MSC: Classification
78. ANS: E PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS DIFFER MSC: Classification
79. ANS: A PTS: 1 DIF: Easy
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS DIFFER MSC: Classification
80. ANS: B PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS DIFFER MSC: Classification
81. ANS: D PTS: 1 DIF: Moderate
OBJ: Bloom's Taxonomy: Knowledge | Bloom's Taxonomy: Comprehension
TOP: HOW LIVING THINGS DIFFER MSC: Classification
10 Chapter 1
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order to leave the Turkish dominions. The sequel of that monarch’s
career presents a series of acts that abundantly justify the suspicion
that his mind was shattered by the reverses of fortune he had
undergone; for, after remaining five years in Turkey, and venturing
with a band of grooms and valets, secretaries and cooks to make a
stand against an army of janissaries, spahis, and Tatars he fled in
the disguise of a courier to his own kingdom, where he had not been
seen during that long interval and where his death had for some time
been currently believed in.
The battle of the Pruth, so fatal in its results to Peter, was a very
destructive engagement. If the statements of the czar be correct, his
army, on the first day of the engagement, consisted of 31,554
infantry, and 6,692 cavalry, and was reduced on the last day to
22,000 men, which would make his loss amount to 16,246. The loss
sustained by the Turks was still greater in consequence of their
irregular and scattered method of attack. But numerical details
cannot always be relied upon, since they are frequently modified to
suit the views of one party or the other. There can be no doubt,
however, that the czar fought at an extraordinary disadvantage, and
that the losses on both sides were dreadful.
When the treaty was concluded, Peter returned into Russia,
causing the fortresses of Samara and Kamenka to be demolished;
but, as some unavoidable delay occurred in the surrender of Azov
and Taganrog, the sultan became dissatisfied, and Peter entered into
a fresh treaty, by which he pledged himself to evacuate Poland
within three months; stipulating, however, that Charles, who was still
intriguing with the Divan, should be required immediately to withdraw
from Turkey. The fatigues of the campaign required repose; and
Peter, who had suffered considerably by ill health, rested for some
time at Carlsbad for the benefit of the waters.
When Peter returned to St. Petersburg, he again solemnised his
wedding with the czarina, and held a festival in that city which was
remarkable for its pomp and the expression it drew forth of the
popular confidence. But this was only the prelude to fresh labours.
He renewed his plans for the improvement of the country, laid down
a number of new roads, cut several canals, enlarged his navy, and
encouraged the erection of more substantial dwellings in the new
city. His ultimate design of establishing St. Petersburg as the capital
of the empire now gradually developed itself; and the first open
measure he adopted towards the accomplishment of that object was
the removal of the senate from Moscow. The commercial
advantages the people had already gained through their
communication with the Baltic had reconciled them to the change,
and the opposition with which the return had been originally received
was now considerably relaxed. But much remained yet to be done
before the prosperity of the new capital could be secured.
Resistance from without was more to be apprehended than
remonstrances at home; and Peter was not slow to act upon the
necessity of circumstances.

WAR WITH SWEDEN (1714 A.D.)

The possession of Pomerania, the most

[1714 a.d.] northerly of the German provinces, was
necessary to the projects of the czar, who
desired as much to humiliate the king of Sweden as to secure the
safety of his establishment on the embouchure of the Neva.
Pomerania, which lies north and south between the Baltic and
Mecklenburg, had passed through the hands of several masters, and
had at last been ceded to Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years’
War. In order to render his design more certain, Peter entered into a
league with the electors of Brandenburg and Hanover, and the king
of Denmark, drawing up the articles himself, and the details of the
necessary operations. Stralsund was first blockaded, and the allied
forces proceeded along the Wismar road, followed at a distance by
the Swedish troops under the command of Count Stenbock, who,
coming up with the Danish and Saxon divisions before the Russians
had time to join them, completely routed them in a few hours. This
slight check to their progress was soon repaired by a victory
obtained by Peter over Stenbock (whose march was signalised by
disgraceful excesses), in the little town of Altona, close to Hamburg,
which he reduced to ashes.
 The Russian army went into quarters for the winter, and the
campaign was again renewed with vigour in the following year, when
Stenbock was compelled to abandon the town of Tenningen, into
which he had obtained entrance by the intrigues of Baron Görtz, one
of the most crafty and unprincipled diplomatists of his age. Stenbock
and eleven thousand Swedes surrendered themselves prisoners of
war, and although the ransom demanded for the liberation of that
general was only 8,000 imperial crowns, he was suffered to linger in
the dungeons of Copenhagen until the day of his death. Nearly the
whole of Pomerania was overrun and partitioned amongst the allies,
scarcely a place remaining in the possession of Sweden except
Stralsund, the siege of which Peter confided to Menshikov, while he
returned to St. Petersburg to make preparations for a descent upon
Helsingfors in the gulf of Finland. His operations along the whole line
of that coast were equally successful. He soon mastered Bergo and
Åbo, the capital; and, transferring to St. Petersburg from the latter
town a magnificent library, he raised a building for its reception,
which still remains a witness to his enterprise and the spirit of
improvement which seemed to preside over all his actions.

A Naval Victory; Peter’s Triumph

But the Swedes, viewing the encroachments of the czar in Finland

with terror, and resolving to spare no means to arrest his progress,
fitted out a considerable squadron to cruise in the gulf. The czar,
however, was ready to meet them; and, setting sail from Kronstadt,
fell in with them close to the island of Åland, where, after a severe
engagement, he destroyed several of their ships, and took the
admiral prisoner. The consternation which the news of this victory
spread over Sweden was so great that even Stockholm trembled for
its safety.
His return to St. Petersburg on this occasion was an ovation of
more than ordinary magnificence. The czarina had just given birth to
a daughter; and, upon his triumphal entry, Peter instituted the order
of St. Catherine to commemorate his sense of her devotion and
magnanimity. The galleys of the conquerors and the conquered
sailed up the Neva in procession, and the czar, in his capacity of
rear-admiral, presented to the senate a report of the battle, and was
immediately created vice-admiral, amidst the rejoicings of the
people. It was not the least remarkable feature in the character of
this great man that he set the example, in his own person, of
ascending through the different grades of the service by the force of
his individual claims. At Pultowa he served as major-general, and in
the action in the gulf of Finland he acted as rear-admiral, under the
command of Admiral Apraxin. This precedent could not fail to have
due weight with a people who had been so long accustomed to
oppression and the right of the strong hand. It had more effect in
generating a spirit of emulation, and in eradicating the prejudices
and vices of feudal slavery, than a code of the wisest laws could
have accomplished.
St. Petersburg presented a scene of festivity such as had never
been known in Russia before. The intercourse of the people with
other nations had in a few years changed the whole character of
society. Balls and entertainments, upon a large scale, diffused
amongst the inhabitants a taste for pleasures that had been hitherto
unknown to them. Public dinners were given in the palace of the
czar, to which all classes of persons were invited, and at which the
different ranks were appropriately divided at separate tables, the
czar passing from table to table, freely conversing with his subjects
on matters connected with their particular trade or occupations.
Civilisation was thus promoted in detail, and insinuated in the most
agreeable shape into the domestic usages of the citizens.

PETER AT THE HEIGHT OF POWER

But while amusements occupied a part of the czar’s time, he was

not forgetful of the more important affairs that demanded
consideration. The necessity of establishing a naval force had
always been apparent, and his recent victories over the Swedes
sufficiently testified the facility with which it might be rendered
available for the ulterior projects which the extension and security of
the empire required. He accordingly devoted much care to the
subject, and in an incredibly short period was master of so large a
fleet that he contemplated a descent upon Sweden, and even
calculated upon the possibility of entering Stockholm. Besides a
variety of galleys and other vessels, he built fifty ships of war, which
were all ready for sea within a twelvemonth.
The discovery of some large peculations amongst the ministers
and several favourites of the court just at this juncture directed the
czar’s proceedings, for a short time, into an unexpected channel. It
appeared that Menshikov, Apraxin, and others who held high offices
of trust and responsibility had, either by themselves or through their
servants, embezzled a part of the finances of the empire; that the
revenues were consequently in a state of confusion, that trade was
greatly deranged, and that the payments to the army had been made
very irregularly. The ministers, availing themselves of the new outlet
for commerce, had monopolised its chief advantages; and the Dutch
merchants complained bitterly of a system by which they were
deprived of the greater part of their profits. Peter at once established
an inquisition into the facts, and proceeded to act with the utmost
rigour. He felt that the prosperity of his new capital depended mainly
upon the justice with which its affairs were administered, and that its
geographical position, which afforded it so complete a command of
maritime resources, must cease to attract a foreign trade unless its
fiscal officers possessed the confidence of the merchants.
Menshikov and the rest pleaded that they had been engaged abroad
in the service of the country, and could not be aware of the
malpractices of their servants. The czar admitted that their plea was
in some measure founded in justice; but, resolved to make an
example, he confiscated the greater part of the property of those
whose agents were proved to be guilty. The estates of the remainder
were wholly forfeited; some individuals were sentenced to the knout,
and others were banished to Siberia. This measure was loudly called
for by the necessities of the case, and the inflexible honesty of the
sovereign was never exercised with a more beneficial result.
The unhappy wife of Alexis, who had been treated by her husband
with the most cruel neglect, expired in a few days after having given
birth to a son, whose fortunes she committed to the guardianship of
the czar. The court was plunged into deep affliction by this
melancholy circumstance, and the czar in particular exhibited
profound grief. But the birth of a prince to the czarina converted their
mourning into congratulations, and the most extravagant festivities
were held in honour of the event.
St. Petersburg had now gradually become the capital of Russia.
Foreign merchandise imported at Archangel was prohibited from
being sent to Moscow, and was consequently transmitted to St.
Petersburg, which was the residence of the court, of the principal
nobility, and of all the ambassadors from other powers, including at
this period two from the East. The rapidity with which its prosperity
advanced was unparalleled. Its manufactures increased with its
external trade, and it soon assumed a rank equal to that of some of
the most important cities in Europe. The fame and power of Peter
were attaining their utmost height. Livonia, Esthonia, Karelia, Ingria,
and nearly the whole of Finland were now annexed to the Russian
Empire. He had established outlets to the sea by which he could
communicate in security with civilised Europe; and within his own
territories he had created new establishments adapted to the various
departments of industry, to the army, the navy, and the laws. Prince
Galitzin occupied Finland with a disciplined army; generals Bruce
and Bauer had the command of thirty thousand Russians, who were
scattered through Poland; Marshal Sheremetrev lay in Pomerania
with a large force; Weimar had surrendered by capitulation, and all
the sovereigns of the north were either his allies or his instruments.
The dream of Russian aggrandisement appeared now to be realised
almost in full by the sleepless activity and fertile genius of the czar. It
was not surprising, therefore, that the people of Stockholm daily
expected that he would appear before their gates, and, taking
advantage of the disasters of their fugitive monarch, reduce Sweden
to subjection, as he had previously laid waste the provinces that
separated him from the coast of the Baltic Sea on the one side, and
the Black Sea on the other. He was master of both shores of the gulf
of Finland, and the possession of Sweden would have given him the
entire command of the Baltic and the gulf of Bothnia, over which,
even as it was, his flag ranged in freedom. But Peter was too politic
to attempt at this juncture so enormous an extension of power. He
was aware of the jealousies which such a disposition must have
excited in Germany and Poland, and he wisely contented himself
with the acquisitions he had already secured; suffering the
headstrong Charles to bring his kingdom into greater jeopardy, in the
hope, probably, that it might ultimately fall to pieces by its own
weakness.
At this crisis of affairs the unprincipled Görtz endeavoured to effect
a union between the two monarchs; and negotiations, having that
object in view, were actually commenced, and might have been
carried to a more decisive conclusion but for events which diverted
the attention of both sovereigns into other channels. Görtz has been
blamed for projecting this treaty of reconciliation, and accused of
desiring to accomplish through its means a variety of results, such as
the restoration of Pomerania to Sweden and the crown of Poland to
Stanislaus, the dethronement of the king of England, and, by a
conspiracy against the duke of Orléans, the reduction of France
under a Spanish regency. It is very probable that the subtle minister
might have contemplated some of these projects, that he might have
anticipated from the combined armies of the two northern heroes the
rescue of Spain and the advancement of Alberoni, and that he might
have even calculated upon the cession of Pomerania and the
recognition of Stanislaus. But, as the adviser of Charles XII, he was
justified in seeking an alliance which must in any case have greatly
benefited his master and protected his country against those
imminent dangers that appeared to be impending over it at the
moment; and if he looked beyond immediate advantages, to remote
contingencies, the design was not, on that account, the less worthy
of applause. As it was, it had the effect of openly confirming the
dispositions of Peter towards Sweden, the czar declaring that he did
not enter into war for the sake of glory, but for the good of the
empire, and that he had no desire to exhibit any feelings of animosity
against an enemy whom he had deprived of the power of doing
mischief. Whatever faults may be charged upon Görtz—and there is
no doubt that they were numerous enough—history must pronounce
his conduct upon this occasion to have been guided by a sagacious
policy.
PETER’S SECOND EUROPEAN TOUR (1717 A.D.)
 Satisfied with the circumstances of the
[1717 a.d.] empire, and anxious to improve his knowledge
of other nations, Peter now resolved to
undertake a second tour through Europe. His first tour had been
limited to practical inquiries into the useful arts; but his second was
mainly addressed to an examination of the political systems of the
European cabinets. When he first left his own country to acquire
information abroad, he was young, ardent, uninstructed, and
undistinguished; but now he had achieved a name that was famous
all over the world, and he was regarded, with justice, as one of the
most extraordinary persons of the age. During the nineteen years
that had elapsed, in the interval, he had strengthened and enlarged
his dominions, had traversed and subjugated many provinces, had
succeeded in accomplishing the great purposes of his wise ambition,
and had experienced amidst the splendid triumphs of his career
some serious reverses, from which such a mind as his could not fail
to extract useful admonitions. He went forth, followed by the
gratitude of Russia, to improve his knowledge of the means by which
he could contribute still more largely to her prosperity. The czarina
accompanied him upon this journey, but being in her third pregnancy
she rested for a short time at Schwerin, whence she soon afterwards
set out to rejoin her husband at Holland. On her way, however, she
was again taken ill, and delivered at Wesel of a prince, who died on
the following day. This event, it appears, did not delay her intention
of meeting her husband in Holland, as we find that in ten days
afterwards she arrived in Amsterdam.
In the meantime Peter had visited Stralsund, Mecklenburg,
Hamburg, and Pyrmont, and subsequently proceeded to
Copenhagen, where he was received with great distinction by the
king of Denmark. On this occasion, a squadron of British ships,
under the command of Sir John Norris, and a squadron of Dutch
ships, commanded by Rear-Admiral Grave, arrived at Copenhagen;
and, it being understood that a Swedish fleet was out at sea, the four
armaments, Russian, Danish, Dutch, and English, united under the
standard of the czar, and put out to sea. Not falling in with the
Swedes, who had secured their safety in Karlskrona, the fleets
separated, and Peter, taking leave of the court of Denmark,
proceeded to Hamburg. This incident was always referred to by
Peter as one of the most gratifying circumstances of his life, and
even his proudest victories appeared to afford him less pleasure
than the recollection of the moment when he raised his flag as
commander-in-chief of the united fleets.
From Hamburg he continued his route to Lubeck, and had a
private interview with the king of Prussia at Havelberg, whence he
returned by the Elbe to Hamburg. The anecdotes of his journey that
have been preserved in a variety of personal memoirs are all
calculated to show the simplicity of his manners and his natural
aversion to parade and ceremony. At Nimeguen, where he arrived
late at night in a common postchaise, accompanied by only two
attendants, he is said to have supped upon poached eggs and a little
bread and cheese, for which the landlord charged 100 ducats the
next morning. Peter remonstrated against the demand, and inquired
if eggs were so very scarce in that place. “No,” replied the landlord,
“but emperors are.” Peter paid the bill, and was well satisfied to have
purchased such a hint of European tactics at so small a rate.
At Amsterdam he was received with a feeling of delight almost
approaching idolatry. The people regarded him as their pupil in the
arts of commerce and ship-building; and shared in the glories of the
victor of Pultowa, as if he were one of themselves. Nor did Peter
hesitate in putting them as much at their ease in his presence as he
had done when he had formerly lived amongst them, working like
themselves and participating in their hard labour and rude fare. The
cottage in which he had resided when he was learning the art of
ship-building he now found just as he had left it, but distinguished by
the name of the Prince’s House, and preserved in order by the
affectionate people with unabated interest. Upon entering this
humble scene, he was deeply affected, and desired to be left alone.
The recollections that pressed upon him at that moment were not
amongst the least impressive of his busy life.
His residence in Holland, where he remained for three months,
exhibited a succession of trivial incidents connected with his former
associates, all of whom were recognised by the czar with the
greatest cordiality; but while he was thus engaged in revisiting the
dockyards, in examining models, and receiving small tokens of
popular attachment, he was not indifferent to matters of higher
importance. The Hague, from the time of the Peace of Nimeguen,
had acquired the reputation of being the centre of the negotiations of
Europe, and was crowded with travellers and foreign ministers. The
foundations of a European revolution were then being laid in the
diplomatic circles of that place; and the czar prolonged his stay in the
Netherlands, with a view to assure himself more clearly of the state
of parties in the south and in the north, and to prepare for the side
which, in the course of time, it might become advisable for him to
take.
Keeping himself aloof from the intrigues by which he was
surrounded, and availing himself of all the opportunities within his
reach of improving his information respecting the state of Europe, he
proceeded to fulfil his intention of visiting France, after he had
satisfied his curiosity in Holland. Vast preparations, worthy of the
occasion, were made in France for his reception; but Peter, with his
accustomed contempt of splendour, desired to avoid the display as
much as possible. Accompanied by four gentlemen, he outstripped
the escorts, and entered Paris without ostentation. His journey was a
succession of fêtes; wherever he appeared he was treated with
magnificence. His fame had penetrated the haunts of art and
science, as well as the halls of palaces; portraits of himself and the
czarina, medals with flattering inscriptions, and the most ingenious
devices, representing some of the events of his life, started up
before him in places where he least expected to meet such
evidences of his greatness. He stepped in the midst of triumphs, and
renewed, in his ovation at the French capital, the whole history of his
glories as a hero and a legislator. But he could not be flattered out of
his simplicity. Declining the offers of the court, he retired to a private
hotel in a remote quarter of the town, in order that he might employ
his time agreeably to his own wishes, instead of being trammelled by
the fatiguing and idle ceremonies of the Louvre.
He left Catherine behind him in Holland on this occasion,
apprehending that the witty court of France, with its sarcasms and its
ceremonials, might possibly wound by neglect the delicacy of a
woman whose greatness of soul elevated her above the conventions
of the palace. The marriage of Louis XIV with Madame de Maintenon
bore some resemblance, it is true, to his own union with Catherine;
but Madame de Maintenon was an accomplished person, and
Catherine’s merits were of a different order. Catherine was a heroine,
Madame de Maintenon a fascinating woman. Catherine had perilled
life by the side of her husband, from the Pruth to the Baltic, upon
land and sea; Madame de Maintenon, retreating from political
display, was content to attest her devotion, and preserve her
supremacy, in retirement. Catherine was of obscure origin, Madame
de Maintenon was of noble birth; and while the czarina was publicly
acknowledged by Peter, Madame de Maintenon became the wife of
Louis XIV in private. Yet, although Peter determined not to risk the
feelings of the czarina in the French court, especially as the death of
Louis XIV had removed Madame de Maintenon from the position
which she had previously held, the last wish he expressed on leaving
Paris was to see that celebrated woman, the widow of the king.
Peter was not only a practical artist, but was well acquainted with
those sciences upon which the practical arts are based. He
possessed a mathematical mind and a skilful hand. The rapidity with
which he accumulated knowledge could be paralleled only by the
tenacity with which he retained it, and the facility with which he could
employ it as the occasion served. At the Academy of Sciences they
placed before him, amongst other curiosities, a map of Russia, which
he instantly discovered to be full of errors, and pointed out to the
exhibitors the mistakes they had made in the geography of his
dominions, and of the tracts on the borders of the Caspian Sea. He
afterwards accepted at their hands the honour of being admitted as a
member of their body. He visited the manufactories and mercantile
depots, and carried away all the information he could glean from
them; had several private conferences with the French ministers in
relation to the subsisting peace between the northern powers; and
drew up the minutes of a treaty of commerce, which he caused to be
shaped into regular form, and negotiated on his return to St.
Petersburg.
 Every moment was filled with business. He visited the tapestry of
the Gobelins, the carpets of the Savonnerie, the residences of the
goldsmiths, painters, sculptors, and mathematical instrument
makers; and so far overcame his scruples against appearing in
public that he went to see the French parliament, and attended
public worship on two occasions in state. Amongst the objects that
extracted unbounded admiration from him was the tomb of Cardinal
Richelieu, one of the richest specimens of sculpture in Paris. But it
was not on account of the glories of the chisel that it occupied his
attention. He is said to have exclaimed, upon seeing it, “Great man! I
would have given half of my empire to learn of thee how to govern
the other half!”
Having satisfied his curiosity in France, he took his leave of that
country, carrying with him several artisans for the purpose of
establishing their different crafts in Russia. During the period of his
short residence in the French capital he inspired a universal
sentiment of respect. Although he did not hesitate to protest against
the luxurious extravagance of the court, and even carried the
expression of his opinions so far as to say that he “grieved for
France and its infant king, and believed that the latter was on the
point of losing his kingdom through luxury and superfluities”; yet the
witty and satirical courtiers, who observed him closely, were
compelled to bear testimony to the magnanimity of his nature.
Contemporary criticism is of so much value in the attempt to
determine historical character that the opinions which were
pronounced concerning him at this period cannot be excluded from
the estimate which posterity will make of his faults and merits.
Louville,l who was attached to the court, describes him thus:
“His deportment is full of dignity and confidence, as becomes an
absolute master. He has large and bright eyes, with a penetrating
and occasionally stern glance. His motions, which are abrupt and
hasty, betray the violence of his passions and the impetuosity of his
disposition; his orders succeed each other rapidly and imperiously;
he dismisses with a word, with a sign, without allowing himself to be
thwarted by time, place, or circumstance, now and then forgetting
even the rules of decorum; yet with the regent and the young king he
maintains his state, and regulates all his movements according to
the points of a strict and proud etiquette. For the rest, the court
discovered in him more great qualities than bad ones; it considered
his faults to be merely trivial and superficial. It remarked that he was
usually sober, and that he gave way only now and then to excessive
intemperance; that, regular in his habits of living, he always went to
bed at nine o’clock, rose at four, and was never for a moment
unemployed; and, accordingly, that he was well-informed, and
seemed to have a better knowledge of naval affairs and fortification
than any man in France.” The writers of that period, who possessed
the best opportunities of becoming acquainted with his movements,
speak in terms of admiration of the experienced glance and skilful
hand with which he selected the objects most worthy of admiration,
and of the avidity with which he examined the studios of the artists,
the manufactories, and the museums. The searching questions
which he put to learned men afforded sufficient proof, they observe,
of the sagacity of a capacious mind, which was as prompt to acquire
knowledge as it was eager to learn.
The journey of the czar through France, to rejoin the czarina at
Amsterdam, was distinguished by the same insatiable love of inquiry.
Sometimes he used to alight from his carriage, and wander into the
fields to converse with the husbandmen, taking notes of their
observations, which he treasured up for future use. The
improvement of his empire was always present to his thoughts, and
he never suffered an occasion to pass away, however trivial, from
which he could extract a practical hint, without turning it to account.
His activity appeared to be incapable of fatigue. From Amsterdam,
accompanied by Catherine, he passed on to Prussia. Upon his
arrival at Berlin he went at once to a private lodging; but the king
sending his master of the ceremonies to attend upon him, the czar
informed that officer that he would wait upon his majesty the next
day at noon. Two hours before the time, a magnificent cortège of
royal carriages appeared before the door of the czar’s lodging; but
when noon arrived, they were informed that the czar was already
with the king. He had gone out by a private way, to avoid the
magnificence which he regarded as an impediment to action.
 The character of Frederick of Prussia was distinguished by the
same blunt, persevering, military qualities which belonged to that of
Peter. He lived plainly, dressed like a common soldier, was extremely
abstemious, and exhibited in his habits even a needless severity of
discipline. The meeting, therefore, between sovereigns who so
closely resembled each other in their tastes, who were equally self-
devoted to the good of their people, and equally uncorrupted by the
pomp and temptations of power, was a spectacle such as history
rarely presents. The czarina was worthy of entering into the scene,
for she was the only female sovereign in Europe who could share,
without shrinking, the toils and difficulties of their career. Voltaire
remarks that if Charles XII had been admitted to the group, four
crowned heads would have been seen together, surrounded by less
luxury than a German bishop or a Roman cardinal.
But, while Peter, Catherine, and Frederick entertained an utter
contempt for ostentatious display, the fashion of the court, which was
probably directed by the queen, rendered it necessary that the
illustrious visitors should be treated with a show of grandeur and
parade which they despised. They were entertained in a costly style
at the palace; and their manners did not fail to excite the sarcasms
and gossip of the courtiers, who were incapable of comprehending
the real dignity of their character, and who were disappointed to find
in the czar and czarina of Russia a couple of plain, rough, and,
agreeably to their notions, vulgar persons. The particulars of this visit
to the court of Prussia are minutely commemorated in the loose and
satirical memoirs of the day; while the visits to Paris, Amsterdam,
and London are recorded, without a single exception, in a spirit of
grave admiration, that exhibits a curious contrast to the flippant
tracasseries of Berlin.
Amongst the most pert and lively writers who chronicled the visit
and caricatured the czar and his simple train of followers, is the
markgräfin von Bayreuth. She gives a very amusing account in her
memoirs of the reception at court; and says that when Peter
approached to embrace the queen, her majesty looked as if she
would rather be excused. Their majesties were attended, she
informs us, by a whole train of what were called ladies, as part of
their suite, consisting chiefly of young German women, who
performed the part of ladies’ maids, chamber-maids, cook-maids,
and washerwomen; almost every one of whom had a richly clothed
child in her arms. The queen, it is added, refused to salute these
creatures. At table the czar was seized with one of his convulsive
fits, at a moment when he happened to have a knife in his hand, and
the queen was so frightened that she attempted to leave the table;
but Peter told her not to be uneasy, assuring her that he would do
her no harm. On another occasion, he caught her by the hand with
such force that she was obliged to desire him to be more respectful;
on which he burst out into a loud fit of laughter, and said that she
was much more delicate than his Catherine. But the most
entertaining part of the whole is a sketch of the personal appearance
of the uncultivated sovereigns. “The czarina,” says the markgräfin,
“is short and lusty, remarkably coarse, and without grace or
animation. One needs only see her to be satisfied of her low birth. At
the first blush one would take her for a German actress. Her clothes
looked as if bought at a doll-shop, everything was so old-fashioned
and so bedecked with silver and tinsel. She was decorated with a
dozen orders, portraits of saints, and relics, which occasioned such a
clatter that when she walked one would suppose an ass with bells
was approaching. The czar, on the contrary, is tall and well made.
His countenance is handsome; but there is something in it so rude
that it inspires one with dread. He was dressed like a seaman, in a
frock, without lace or ornament.” The spirit of the tiring-woman
shines through the whole of this saucy and superficial description.
The markgräfin took the measure of the illustrious visitors as she
would of her lady’s robe—colour, spangles, and shape. It never
occurred to her that, in the little coarse woman who looked so like a
German actress, she saw the heroine of the Pruth; and that the rude
seaman who frightened the queen was the man who, amidst
ignorant wonder and superstitious resistance, laid the foundations of
the most gigantic empire that the world has ever seen! But the
circumstances under which the markgräfin obtained her impressions
were unfavourable to the formation of a just opinion, or, indeed, of
any opinion at all. She was only eight years of age when she saw
Peter and Catherine, although she had arrived at a mature age when
she wrote her memoirs. She retained no more than the silly whispers
and jests of the ante-chamber. She noted down what she heard
rather than what she thought; but it serves to show very clearly the
sort of atmosphere in which the eccentric Frederick moved, and the
courtly weaknesses against which, in his own person, he must have
been compelled to sustain a continual warfare.
On Peter’s return through Holland, he purchased a variety of
pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools, several zoölogical,
entomological, and anatomical cabinets, and a large collection of
books. With the treasures thus accumulated he laid the foundation of
the imperial Academy of Sciences, the plan of which he drew up
himself. He would probably have lingered longer in those countries,
but for the intelligence which he received concerning the conduct of
his son Alexis, which induced him to hasten to St. Petersburg under
the agitation of bitter feelings, in which the natural dispositions of the
father were drawn into direct collision with the duty of the sovereign.c

THE CZAREVITCH ALEXIS DISINHERITED (1718 A.D.)

The czar arrived at St. Petersburg from his foreign tour on the 21st
of October, 1717. Twenty years before he had signalised his return
from a first visit to civilised countries by the inhuman butchery of the
strelitz, and now he was about to give still more appalling evidence
of the deep depravity of his heart.
Peter’s early aversion to Eudoxia had a most deplorable influence
on Alexis, the son she bore him in 1690. The dissensions between
the father and the mother speedily diminished the father’s affection
for Alexis. Moreover, as Peter’s vast labours prevented him from
paying much attention to the education of his son, Alexis at first grew
up under female tuition, and then fell into the hands of some of the
clergy, under whose guidance he daily conceived a greater
abhorrence for his father. This being observed by Peter, he put an
end to the spiritual education, and appointed Menshikov
superintendent of the prince’s preceptors.
 Menshikov was no friend to Alexis, and the latter had been early
inspired by his mother with contempt and aversion for the favourite
of his father. The tutors who were now placed about the prince were
not able to eradicate the prejudices impressed on his mind from his
infancy, and now grown inveterate; besides, he had an
unconquerable dislike to them as foreigners. The future sovereign of
so vast an empire that was now reformed in all its parts, and by
prosperous wars still further enlarged; the heir of a throne whose
possessor ruled over many millions of people, had been brought up
from his birth as if designed for a Russian bishop; theology
continued to be his favourite study. With a capacity for those
sciences which are useful in government, he discovered no
inclination to them. Moreover, he addicted himself early in life to
drunkenness and other excesses. There were not wanting such as
flattered his perverse dispositions, by representing to him that the
Russian nation was dissatisfied with his father, that it was impossible
for him to be suffered long in his career of innovation, that even his
life was not likely to hold out against so many fatigues, with many
other things of a like nature.
The conduct of Alexis, particularly his indolence and sloth, were
highly displeasing to Peter. Menshikov, from political motives, to
preserve himself and Catherine, was constantly employed in fanning
the czar’s resentment, while the adherents of Alexis, on the other
hand, seized every opportunity to increase the aversion of the
prince, who, from his very cradle, had never known what it was to
love, and had only dreaded his father. Alexis at times even gave
plain intimations that he would hereafter undo all that his father was
so sedulously bringing about. Nay, when the latter, in 1711,
appointed the prince regent during his absence, in the campaign of
the Pruth, Alexis made it his first business to alter many things in
behalf of the clergy, so as clearly to evince in what school he had
been brought up.
The czar was in hopes of reforming his son by uniting him with a
worthy consort; but even this attempt proved fruitless. The princess
of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, who was selected for his bride, and to
whom Alexis was married at Torgau, in 1711, notwithstanding all her
eminent qualities of mind and heart and her great beauty, could
make no impression on him, and sank under the load of grief brought
on by this unhappy connection, soon after giving birth to a prince,
who was called by the name of his grandfather, Peter (1715). By a
continuance in his dissolute mode of life, by his bad behaviour
towards his spouse, and his intercourse with persons who were
notorious for their hatred of Peter and his reforms, Alexis seemed
bent upon augmenting his father’s displeasure.
After the death of the princess, Peter wrote his son a letter, the
conclusion of which ran thus: “I will still wait awhile, to see if you will
amend; if not, know that I will deprive you of the succession, as a
useless limb is cut off. Do not imagine I am only frightening you; nor
would I have you rely on the title of being my eldest son; for since I
do not spare my own life for the good of my country and the
prosperity of my people, why should I spare yours? I shall rather
commit them to a stranger deserving such a trust than to my own
undeserving offspring.”
At this very juncture the empress Catherine was delivered of a
prince, who died in 1719. Whether the above letter disheartened
Alexis, or whether it was imprudence or bad advice, he wrote to his
father that he renounced the crown, and all hopes of reigning. “God
is my witness,” said he, “and I swear upon my soul, that I will never
claim the succession; I commit my children into your hands, and for
myself desire only a subsistence during life.”
His father wrote to him a second time. “I observe,” says he, “that
all you speak of in the letter is the succession, as if I stood in need of
your consent. I have represented to you what grief your behaviour
has given me for so many years, and not a word do you say of it; the
exhortations of a father make no impression on you. I have brought
myself to write to you once more; but for the last time. If you despise
my counsels now I am living, what regard will be paid to them after
my death? Though you may now mean not to violate your promises,
yet those bushy beards will be able to wind you as they please, and
force you to break your word. It is you those people rely on. You
have no gratitude to him who gave you life. Since you have been of
proper age, did you ever assist him in his labours? Do you not find
fault with, do you not detest everything I do for the good of my
people? I have all the reason in the world to believe that, if you
survive me, you will overthrow all that I have been doing. Amend,
make yourself worthy of the succession, or turn monk. Let me have
your answer either in writing, or personally, or I will deal with you as
a malefactor.”
Though this letter was harsh, the prince might easily have
answered that he would alter his behaviour; but he only acquainted
his father, in a few lines, that he would turn monk. This assurance
did not appear natural; and it is something strange that the czar,
going to travel, should leave behind him a son so obstinate, but this
very journey proves that the czar was in no manner of apprehension
of a conspiracy from his son. He went to see him before he set out
for Germany and France; the prince being ill, or feigning to be so,
received him in bed, and confirmed to him, by the most solemn
oaths, that he would retire into a convent. The czar gave him six
months for deliberation, and set out with his consort.
He had scarcely reached Copenhagen when he received advice
(which was no more than he might well expect) that Alexis admitted
into his presence only evil-minded persons, who humoured his
discontent; on this the czar wrote to him that he must choose the
convent or the throne, and, if he valued the succession, to come to
him at Copenhagen.
The prince’s confidants instilled into him a suspicion that it would
be dangerous for him to put himself into the hands of a provoked
father and a mother-in-law, without so much as one friend to advise
with. He therefore feigned that he was going to wait on his father at
Copenhagen, but took the road to Vienna, and threw himself on the
protection of the emperor Charles VI, his brother-in-law, intending to
continue at his court till the czar’s death.
This was an adventure something like that of Louis XI, who, whilst
he was dauphin, withdrew from the court of Charles VII, his father, to
the duke of Burgundy. Louis was, indeed, much more culpable than
the czarevitch, by marrying in direct opposition to his father, raising
troops, and seeking refuge with a prince, his father’s natural enemy,