Gender and The Law

This final [unit] addresses criticism of and efforts at overcoming the "essentialism" that may be associated with the
principles and
approaches presented in earlier [unit]s. Many "anti-essentialist" critiques implicitly or explicitly call for a more sophisticated
understanding of relations of power. When we think about oppression, we tend to assume there are people and groups who are
oppressed and people and groups who are oppressors. But it is possible for an individual or a group of people to be oppressed in some
ways and privileged in others? And is it possible for a person to benefit from oppression without actively or even knowingly being "an
oppressor?" This recognition may make the analysis of gender more difficult, but it may also open up possibilities for seeing new
connections between forms of oppression that initially look very different. In the last section of the [unit], we include readings that
emphasize the interconnectedness of different forms of oppression and the ways in which we can become aware of the coexistence of
privilege and oppression and other complexities of power. These readings ultimately ask us to think hard about what we mean when we
talk about "gender." For example, is it appropriate that this casebook on "gender and law" has focused mainly on women and law? Why
or why not?
Thus, this [unit] lays out, without resolving some of the self-contradictory aspects of gender theory. While exploring the potential role
of narrative in addressing essentialism critiques, it offers no counter-theory or alternative that entirely escapes the types of essentialism
it examines. How this can be done -- if it can be done -- is the continuing challenge left open by this [course].
Defining Violence Against Women

In 1993, the U.N. General Assembly adopted the non-binding Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women (DEVAW).
TheDeclaration, which was supported by the U.S. government, describes VAW as any act of gender-based violence that results in, or
is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary
deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.4 The DEVAW definition of VAW is broad, encompassing both
physical and psychological harm. It is used in this report because it is one of the most inclusive and widely agreed to international
definitions. In some contexts, VAW may be used synonymously with gender-based violence (GBV), which describes violence
perpetrated against an individual, regardless of sex, because of his or her gender.5
CHAPTER ONE: Gender and history girls-boys, old men-old women, etc. The female and breasts that may produce milk, men do not; they also
 Gender is a social attribute ascribing some male sexes are socialized into being one of these differ in their reproductive organs and their roles in
characteristics or norms and modes of behavior to the groups. The differences among these groups brought child bearing. Being a male or female is, therefore, a
female and other to the male sex. about by socio-cultural factors are often mistaken for natural phenomenon that we cannot change since the
 The gender of a person is determined by the society natural differences between the sexes or considered two sexes are born different.
and by its way of up bringing children. Gender is, as a God-given phenomena.  Gender roles refer to the expected duties and
therefore, the result of the interplay of culture, religion,  Sex is a natural attribute helping us to identify a person responsibilities, rights and privileges of men-women,
and similar factor of a society. as male or female. A male person biologically differs girls-boys, etc. that are specified by socio-religious and
 It refers to historically defined identities, roles and from a female. This is evident in that while males have cultural factors. The interplay of these factors
behaviors of different groups such as men-women, mustache, women do not; while women have big determines what kind of clothing is appropriate for the
This final [unit] addresses criticism of and efforts at overcoming the "essentialism" that may be associated with the principles and
or why not?

female and for the male sex. It also decides on the  Four world conferences on women convened by the Of the original 51 member states, only 30 allowed
amount of food necessary for each, the type of work United Nations in the past quarter of the century have women equal voting rights with men or permitted them
they perform, the time and the type of place they are been instrumental in elevating the cause of gender to hold public office.
supposed to be at, the type of grouping they can join, equality to the very centre of the global agenda. The  During the first three decades, the work of the United
etc. conferences have united the international community Nations on behalf of women focused primarily on the
Global and historical perspective on the legal status of behind a set of common objectives with an effective codification of women's legal and civil rights, and
women plan of action for the advancement of women the gathering of data on the status of women
1. Historical Perspective everywhere, in all spheres of public and private life. around the world. With time, however, it became
The four global womens conferences 1975-1995  The struggle for gender equality was still in its early increasingly apparent that laws, in and of them, were
stages at the inception of the United Nations in 1945. not enough to ensure the equal rights of women.
or why not?

 The struggle for equality entered a second stage with  the promotion of their right to full participation at all Conference, launched a new era in global efforts to
the convening of four world conferences by the United levels of human activity. promote the advancement of women by opening a
Nations to develop strategies and plans of action for 1. The Mexico City conference: Dialogue is open worldwide dialogue on gender equality.
the advancement of women. The efforts undertaken  The first world conference on the status of women,  A process was set in motion a process of learning
have gone through several phases and transformations observed to remind the international community that that would involve deliberation, negotiation, setting
 from regarding women almost exclusively in terms of discrimination against women continued to be a objectives, identifying obstacles and reviewing the
their development needs, persistent problem in much of the world. progress made.
 to recognizing their essential contributions to the entire  The Conference, along with the United Nations Decade  Was called for by the United Nations General
development process, for Women (1976-1985) proclaimed by the General Assembly to focus international attention on the need
 to seeking their empowerment and Assembly five months later at the urging of the
or why not?

to develop future oriented goals, effective strategies  An increased contribution by women in the opportunities, political participation, health services,
and plans of action for the advancement of women. strengthening of world peace housing, nutrition and family planning.
 To this end, the General Assembly identified three key  The Conference responded by adopting a World Plan  The Conference called upon governments to formulate
objectives that would become the basis for the work of of Action, a document that offered guidelines for national strategies and identify targets and priorities in
the United Nations on behalf of women: governments and the international community to follow their effort to promote the equal participation of
 Full gender equality and the elimination of gender for the next ten years in pursuit of the three key women. By the end of the United Nations Decade for
discrimination; objectives set by the General Assembly. Women, 127 Member States had responded by
 The integration and full participation of women in  The Plan of Action set minimum targets, to be met by establishing some form of national machinery,
development; 1980, that focused on securing equal access for institutions dealing with the promotion of policy,
women to resources such as education, employment
or why not?

research and programs aimed at women's framework for research, training and operational  Sharp differences emerged among the women
advancement and participation in development. activities in the area of women and development. gathered at the Forum, reflecting the political and
 Within the United Nations system, in addition to the  An important facet of the meeting in Mexico City was economic realities of the times. Women from the
already existing Branch (now Division) for the that women themselves played an instrumental role in countries of the Eastern Block, for instance, were most
Advancement of Women, the Mexico City Conference shaping the discussion. Of the 133 Member State interested in issues of peace, while women from the
led to the establishment of the International Research delegations gathered there, 113 were headed by West emphasized equality and those from the
and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women women. Women also organized a parallel NGO Forum, developing world placed priority on development.
(INSTRAW) and the United Nations Development Fund the International Women's Year Tribune, which  Nevertheless, the Forum played an important role in
for Women (UNIFEM) to provide the institutional attracted approximately 4,000 participants. bringing together women and men from different
cultures and backgrounds to share information and
or why not?

opinions and to set in motion a process that would help Member States met in Copenhagen in 1980 for the Discrimination against Women, one of the most
unite the women's movement, which by the end of the second world conference on women to review and powerful instruments for women's equality.
Decade for Women would become truly international. appraise the 1975 World Plan of Action. Governments  The Convention, which has been termed the bill of
The Forum was also instrumental in opening up the and the international community had made strides rights for women", now legally binds 165 States, which
United Nations to NGOs, who provided access for the toward achieving the targets set out in Mexico City five have become States parties and obligates them to
voices of women to the Organization's policy-making years earlier. report within one year of ratification, and subsequently
process.  An important milestone had been the adoption by the every four years, on the steps they have taken to
2. The Copenhagen: The Review Process begins General Assembly in December 1979 of the remove obstacles they face in implementing the
 There was a general consensus that significant Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Convention.
progress had been made as representatives of 145
or why not?

 An Optional Protocol to the Convention, enabling beginning to emerge between rights secured and  The Conference came to a close with the adoption of a
women victims of sex discrimination to submit women's ability to exercise these rights. To address Program of Action, albeit not by consensus, which
complaints to an international treaty body, was opened this concern, the Conference pinpointed three areas cited a variety of factors for the discrepancy between
for signature on Human Rights Day, 10 December where specific, highly focused action was essential if legal rights and women's ability to exercise these
1999. Upon its entry into force, it will put the the broad goals of equality, development and peace, rights, including:
Convention on an equal footing with other international identified by the Mexico City Conference, were to be  Lack of sufficient involvement of men in improving
human rights instruments having individual complaints reached. These three areas were equal access to women's role in society;
procedures. education, employment opportunities and adequate  Insufficient political will;
 Despite the progress made, the Copenhagen health care services.  Lack of recognition of the value of women's
Conference recognized that signs of disparity were contributions to society;
or why not?

 Lack of attention to the particular needs of women in  To address these concerns, the Copenhagen Program women, The World Conference to Review and
planning; of Action called for, among other things, stronger Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations
 A shortage of women in decision-making positions; national measures to ensure women's ownership and Decade for Women: Equality, Development and
 Insufficient services to support the role of women in control of property, as well as improvements in Peace, was convened in Nairobi in 1985.
national life, such as co-operatives, day-care centers women's rights to inheritance, child custody and loss of  With 15,000 representatives of non-governmental
and credit facilities; nationality. Delegates at the Conference also urged an organizations attending the parallel NGO Forum, many
 Overall lack of necessary financial resources; end to stereotyped attitudes towards women. referred to the Conference as the "birth of global
 Lack of awareness among women about the 3. Nairobi: "The Birth of Global Feminism" feminism".
opportunities available to them.  The movement for gender equality had gained true  The women's movement, divided by world politics and
global recognition as the third world conference on economic realities at the Mexico Conference, had now
or why not?

become an international force unified under the banner  Improvements in the situation of women in the an updated blueprint for the future of women to the end
of equality, development and peace. developing world had been marginal at best. The of the century. It broke new ground as it declared all
 A lot of information, knowledge and experience had objectives of the second half of the United Nations issues to be women's issues. Women's participation in
been gathered through the process of discussion, Decade for Women had not been met. decision-making and the handling of all human affairs
negotiation and revision. At the same time, delegates  The Nairobi Conference was given the mandate to was recognized not only as their legitimate right but as
were confronted with shocking reports. Data gathered seek new ways to overcome the obstacles to achieving a social and political necessity that would have to be
by the United Nations revealed that improvements in the Decade's goals equality, development and peace. incorporated in all institutions of society.
the status of women and efforts to reduce  The Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies to the Year  At the heart of the document was a series of measures
discrimination had benefited only a small minority of 2000, the strategy developed and adopted by for achieving equality at the national level.
women. consensus by the 157 participating governments, was
or why not?

Governments were to set their own priorities, based on Assembly asked the United Nations to establish, where was essential if the goals and objectives of the Decade
their development policies and resource capabilities. they did not already exist, focal points on women's for Women were to be attained.
 Three basic categories of measures were identified: issues in all sectors of the work of the Organization. 4. Beijing: Legacy of Success
 Constitutional and legal steps;  The Nairobi Conference had introduced a wider  While the efforts of the previous two decades had
 Equality in social participation; approach to the advancement of women. It was now helped to improve women's conditions and access to
 Equality in political participation and decision-making. recognized that women's equality, far from being an resources, they had not been able to change the basic
 Accordingly, the Nairobi Conference urged isolated issue, encompassed every sphere of human structure of inequality in the relationship between men
governments to delegate responsibilities for women's activity. Therefore, women's perspective and active and women. Decisions that affected all people's lives
issues to all institutional offices and programs. involvement on all issues, not only women's issues, were still being made mostly by men.
Moreover, following the Conference, the General
or why not?

 Recognition of the need to involve women in decision-  However, it was with the next in the series of re-evaluated. Only by such a fundamental restructuring
making had begun to emerge during the course of the conferences, the Fourth World Conference on Women of society and its institutions could women be fully
series of global conferences held by the United Nations held in Beijing in 1995, that a new chapter in the empowered to take their rightful place as equal
in the early 1990s on various aspects of development struggle for gender equality can truly be said to have partners with men in all aspects of life. This change
such as the environment, human rights, population and begun. represented a strong reaffirmation that women's rights
social development. All the conferences had stressed  The fundamental transformation that took place in were human rights and that gender equality was an
the importance of women's full participation in decision- Beijing was the recognition of the need to shift the issue of universal concern, benefiting all.
making, and women's perspectives were incorporated focus from women to the concept of gender,  The legacy of the Beijing Conference was to be that it
into the deliberations and the documents that were recognizing that the entire structure of society, and all sparked a renewed global commitment to the
adopted. relations between men and women within it, had to be
or why not?

empowerment of women everywhere and drew action by Governments and civil society: Women and institutions, policies, planning and decision-making.
unprecedented international attention. poverty Education and training of women; Women and What this in effect meant was that before decisions
 The Conference unanimously adopted the Beijing health; Violence against women; Women and armed were to be made or plans to be implemented, an
Declaration and Platform for Action, which was in conflict; Women and the economy; Women in power and analysis should always be made of the effects on, and
essence an agenda for women's empowerment and decision-making; Institutional mechanisms for the needs of, both women and men.
stands as a milestone for the advancement of women advancement of women; Human rights of women; Women  The introduction of gender mainstreaming called for
in the twenty-first century. and the media; Women and the environment; The girl child. the re-examination of society in its entirety and its
 The Platform for Action specified twelve critical areas  By adopting the Beijing Platform for Action, basic structure of inequality. The focus was, therefore,
of concern considered to represent the main obstacles governments committed themselves to the effective no longer limited to women and their status in society
to women's advancement and which required concrete inclusion of a gender dimension throughout all their but was committed to restructuring institutions and
or why not?

political and economic decision-making in society as a representatives ever held, with 17,000 in attendance,  Horrendous traditional practices, such as female
whole. including representatives of 189 governments. The genital mutilation, abduction, marital rape and early
 In endorsing the Platform for Action, the United Nations NGO Forum held parallel to the Conference also broke marriages would require an attitudinal change not only
General Assembly called upon all States, the UN all records, bringing the combined number of on the part of men, but also on the part of women.
system and other international organizations, as well participants to over 47,000.  Some progress has been made despite great socio-
as NGOs and the private sector to take action to economic, political and cultural odds. The minimum
implement its recommendations. Historical perspectives on the legal status of women in punishment for rape is five years, whereas previously it
 The Beijing Conference was considered a great Ethiopia was the payment of a camel. A new family code has
success, both in terms of its size and its outcome. It  The Ethiopian society can be regarded as a been adopted by some of the regional states and a
was the largest gathering of government and NGO traditional, ancient and conservative one. new criminal code has come into effect.
or why not?

 Womens rights had first been recognized as a result of and protection of civil, political, economic, and social variety of political, social, economic, and legislative
their military contribution to fighting a fascist regime rights of people. Though the UDHR prohibits all forms issues that States have to work on to eliminate
and further progress would only be realized by their of discrimination based on sex, an additional discrimination against women and create equality
continued hard work and toil. instrument was necessary, to accommodate the between men and women. It also reiterates that state
 Human Rights of Women: Ethiopia has ratified both special situation and needs of women, and accelerate parties will adopt the necessary measures to achieve
the UN Charter adopted in 1948 and the Universal the process of closing the gap between men and human rights of women identified in the Convention.
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1949. Both women. Accordingly the Convention on the Elimination CEDAW also discusses a procedure for reporting and
these international instruments prohibit the negative of All forms of Discrimination against Women follow up of the measures states have taken in order to
discrimination of women based on their sex. The (CEDAW) was adopted in 1981. Ethiopia ratified the eliminate discrimination against women.
UDHR identifies targets and requires the promotion convention in the same year. CEDAW outlines a
or why not?

 The Constitution adopted in 1995 by the FDRE has the past few years in amending discriminatory laws. Action. The Platform showed a renewed commitment
amplified the provisions given to women, and assures Now the pension benefits of women civil servants is to the goals of equality, development, and peace for all
women of equal rights with men in every sphere and given to their survivors, maternity leave has been women. It was divided into six chapters and identified
affirmative actions would be taken in order to remedy extended from 45 days to 3 months, and the family law 12 critical areas of concern that were thought to be the
the sufferings of women because of past inequalities. It has been revised. However, there is still a lot to be main barriers to the advancement of women. These
also reiterates the rights of women to own and done. For example, women who marry foreigners are were poverty, education and training, health, violence,
administer property. It sounds womens right to family still losing their Ethiopian nationality. armed conflict, economic participation, power sharing
planning services and to paid pre-and post-delivery  Beijing plat form: The United Nations Fourth World and decision-making; women focused institutions,
maternity leaves. Since the ratification of the 1995 Conference, held in Beijing, in September 1995 came human rights, mass media, environment, and the girl
Constitution, a number of strides have been made in up with the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for child. In October 1998, the UN Division for the
or why not?

Advancement of Women (UN/DAW) sent out a  Attempts have been made to implement policies and  The UN held five preparatory meetings and at the
questionnaire to all United Nations Member States proclamations aimed at bringing about gender equality meeting of March 2000, 'the outcome document' was
requesting a report on the implementation of the though not much progress has been observed. The produced. The document reaffirms the 12 areas of the
Beijing Platform. The responses showed that, except constraints include high illiteracy rate, deep-rooted Platform for Action, including measures to:
for a few isolated examples where women's lives have gender stereotyped cultural beliefs and practices, and  identify violence against women as a human rights
improved, in many cases progress has been slow. lack of resources including qualified human labor. In violation;
 Many of the concerns that were included in the Beijing preparation for the Beijing plat form, countries the  address the issue of honor killings;
Platform had been considered and placed at the world developed ways of measuring their countries'  monitor trafficking of women and condemn exploitation
priority list of the Ethiopian government. progress for women. of women and girls for economic and sexual
purposes;
or why not?

 respond to the impact of HIV/AIDS on the health of  Ethiopia has committed itself to take the measures eliminating the gender gap at all levels of education, by
women and girls included in the document. What needs to be assessed the year 2015. Though the goals are highly ambitious
 internationally, particularly in Africa; is the progress that the country is making in for most developing countries including Ethiopia, they
 expand entrepreneurship and credit availability, implementing the provisions outlined in the outcome would reinforce the implementation of CEDAW, Beijing
including micro-credit; document. plat form and other national instruments.
 emphasize "gender mainstreaming" in all economic  The Millennium Development Goal (MDG): is  Labor Law Proclamation: The Civil Service
policies, institutions, and resource allocations; another instrument that Ethiopia ratified with the aim of Proclamation of January, 2002, cover issues of
 Promote women's role in conflict resolutions and reducing poverty. The goals include, among others, employment, salary, promotion, performance
peace-building, and the role of men in promoting enabling all children, both boys and girls, in the world evaluation, training, leave and disciplinary measures.
gender equality. to complete full course of elementary school and Under employment, it states that no discrimination
or why not?

shall be made on the basis of ethnic origin, sex, before delivery if recommended by a doctor. She will opportunities are utilized by men. These could be
religion and political affiliation, and other grounds. In also be entitled to a paid leave of 30 days before because female civil servants have less GPA upon
addition to this, the proclamation clearly stipulates that delivery and 60 days after delivery. Finally if she does graduation, a problem closely related to the economic,
in the employment process, if two candidates a man not deliver on the presumed date she can get her social, and cultural problems a woman encounters in
and a woman have the qualification required for a annual leave after the 60 days of post-delivery leave. attending and succeeding in education. Therefore,
position, preference will be given to the female These provisions are supportive of female civil considering the gender related arrangement in our
candidate. There are also provisions given to female servants, but issues like training and promotion do not society, mechanisms need to be created to distribute
civil servants on maternity related issues. The seem to take gender issues into account. The promotions and training fairly among male and female
proclamation states that a pregnant civil servant shall personnel statistics issued by the Civil Service civil servants. If gender issues are neglected in
be entitled to paid leave for a medical examination Commission shows that, currently many of the training promotion and training the gender equality of the sexes
or why not?

that we are striving to attain will become a dream education. As indicated earlier, the majority of women Policy along with its strategy, the Agricultural
rather than reality. in the civil service are in clerical and manual jobs. Development Led Industrialization (ADLI), the National
 Political Participation: In the Ethiopian context, for a National policies and inputs on promotion of gender Policy of Ethiopian Women, the National Population
woman to hold a key position in politics, economics, equality Policy, the Education and Training Policy, Health
and administration is a difficult task. As a patriarchal 1. Policies Policy, Developmental Social Welfare Policy,
society, the attitude of the majority of people towards  The Transitional Government and the Federal Environmental Policy, Culture Policy, Policy on Natural
women holding a high position, the way society and Democratic Republic of Ethiopia have formulated Resources and Environment, and others.
workplaces are structured, and the gender division of several policies to rehabilitate the social and economic  One of the major policies formulated by the
labor all poses a serious challenge. Women have a infrastructure and create an environment for Transitional Government of Ethiopia was the Economic
marginal position in accessing and succeeding in their sustainable development. These include the economic
or why not?

Reform Policy. The main objectives of the policy were  Creating relationship and interdependence among the further develop the devastated economy. Productivity
to: various sectors, especially between agriculture and has to be improved in order for the agricultural sector
 change the centralized economy to free market industry, so as to reduce dependency on imported raw to become both a supplier of food and raw materials for
economy; materials and supplies; the industry, while creating a market for the output for
 increase the participation of the people in order to  giving special attention to the agricultural sector since it the industrial sector. This can be accomplished by
increase the economic activity of the regions by giving is perceived to be the basis for the economic applying improved and modern way of farming, through
ownership; development the provision of extension services, agricultural inputs,
 Enable local industries to use local raw materials and  ADLI as a strategy is believed to have influence on and infrastructure and credit services to small farmers.
supplies to strengthen the economy; those engaged in agriculture, which form the majority. In this endeavor, emphasis will be given to farmer with
It is considered to be the best alternative to revive and small lands holdings and to the establishment of large-
or why not?

scale farms, especially in the lowland areas. This way,  One of the eight issues under the investment program  Though women are given some provisions in the
it will be possible to get enough yields from limited is the participation of women. It indicates that women strategy, womens issue has not been mainstreamed in
farming activities and eventually transfer people from would be provided with credit services and inputs that all the sectors. It is obvious that the issue of gender is
agriculture to the other sectors. ADLI also delineates would enable them to increase their productivity; central to all the sectors including education, health,
the roles to be played by the government, the people, conditions will be created and improved to enable population, and food security, and in fact women play
and the private sector in implementing the strategy. It women to attend schools and to persist in their an important role in agriculture, which is the main focus
also describes what needs to be done in the various education with a view to, improving their chance of of the strategy. Therefore, gender needs to be
areas such as industry, minerals, population growth holding decision making positions at various levels; mainstreamed in all the strategies and programs that
and control, science and technology, infrastructure and and encouraging women's participation in modern will be worked out in order to realize ADLI instead of
social services. economic activities. putting it as one of the issues to be taken up.
or why not?

 The main objectives of the National Policy of participation of women in the formulation of ministries lack capacity: they have problems with
Ethiopian Women include, creating and facilitating policies, laws, rules and regulations, and ensuring resources and qualified personnel. In many cases
conditions for equality between men and women, the democratic and human right of women. WADs are marginalized and gender is not
creating conditions to make rural women  The structures were clearly put delineating the mainstreamed in many of the activities in the
beneficiaries of social services like education and responsibilities of the Women's Affairs Office (WAO) ministries. The structure has problems reaching the
health, and eliminating stereotypes, and under the Prime Minister Office and the Regional and grassroots since it stops at the Woreda level, a
discriminatory perception and practices that Zonal Women's Affairs Sectors, and the Women's problem that has limited the implementation of the
constrain the equality of women. Affairs Department (WAD) in the various Ministries. policy.
 A number of strategies have also been designed to However, assessments done over the years show that  The National Population Policy formulated in 1993
achieve the above objectives, two of which are the both the (WAO) and the (WAD) in the sectoral was an instrument aimed at harmonizing the rate of
or why not?

population growth with the capacity of the country. The  The goals, objectives and strategies give a central government and private sectors and eliminating
Policy gives serious attention to the issue of gender place to the situation and empowerment of women. cultural and legal barriers.
and describes the important roles women play in  The goals include raising the economic and social  The Ethiopian Education and Training Policy also
controlling population growth. It clearly stipulates that status of women, empowering vulnerable has some provisions given to women.
the situation of women has direct bearings on the segments of the society such as young children and  One of the specific objectives in the Education and
fertility level of any society and explains how their women, removing all legal and customary practices Training Policy is to introduce a system of education
education, employment and the provisions in the laws constraining women's economic and social that would rectify the misconceptions and
given to women are related to their fertility and development and the enjoyment of their rights. misunderstandings regarding the roles and
reproductive health. Many of the strategies revolve around empowering benefits of female education.
women through education, employment in both
or why not?

 The policy indicates that the design and GPA than male teachers are selected and this has awareness creation in the community are some of the
development of curriculum and books would give increased the number of female teachers in elementary activities. The office also gives assertiveness training
special attention to gender issues. schools. But a lot needs to be done at the high school to female students at the various higher education
 It further states that equal attention would be given level. institutes and organizes panel discussion on gender
to female participants when selecting teachers;  The Womens Affairs Department in the Ministry of issues. Womens focal points in regional bureaus get
training them, and advancing their careers. It also Education has prepared a gender policy and it support from the WAD in the MOE. However, just like
states that financial support would be given to students undertakes a number of activities to help close the other WADs the office is understaffed and encounters
with promising potentials. gender gap in education. shortage of resources.
 A number of initiatives have been taken to implement  Capacity building of female teachers, guidance and  The Health Policy was one of instruments designed
the policy. For example, female teachers with less counseling services for female students, and by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia to improve
or why not?

the health status of people and to facilitate the supports the democratization and decentralization of goals and objectives into concrete achievements
provision of basic health services. Health is such an the health service system, and strengthening through various programs.
inter-sectoral matter that it can not be addressed by intersectoral activities.  The Health Sector Development Program (HSDP)
any one policy or plan of action.  The policy accords special attention to the health formulated in 1996, is an implementation strategy for
 The goal of the health policy is to restructure and needs of the family, particularly women and children, the National Health Policy.
expand the health care system and to make it and hitherto most neglected regions, the rural  The Cultural Policy formulated in October 1997
responsive to the health needs of the less population, and pastoralists, as some of its priority views culture as incorporating the different social,
privileged rural population, which constitute the areas. The implementation of public policy or economic, political, administrative, moral, religious,
overwhelming majority of the population, and are the government plan of action involves the translation of material and oral traditions, and practices of the
major productive forces of the nation. The policy various peoples and nationalities of Ethiopia. It also
or why not?

recognizes that for development efforts to be effective to promote the equality of the sexes. The content of the problems and designing preventive and
and sustainable, they have to take into considerations Policy clearly elaborates the unfavorable situation of rehabilitative programs with full participation of all
the cultures of people, which impact on the thinking women, and articulates the need for a change that stakeholders including the grassroots.
and activities. ensures women's active participation in all cultural  The Policy acknowledges that war, famine, economic
 The policy recognizes that the cultural behaviors, activities and guaranteeing those equal rights to the crises of the past decades have harmed vulnerable
practices, and attitudes that support and promote benefits. groups, i.e., women, the elderly, children, youth and
stereotypes and prejudices against women, those that  The Development Social Welfare Policy was the disabled, and makes these groups the Policys
constrain the expansion of family planning services formulated by the Ministry of Labor and Social central focus.
and the promotion of reproductive health should be Affairs in November 1996. The main objectives of the
slowly eliminated. Instead, situations should be created policy included studying the causes of social
or why not?

 It also explains that women are underrepresented in mention the measures that need to be taken to services in addressing the target groups mentioned in
every sphere including education, employment, alleviate their problems. the policy.
politics, and other key decision making positions.  Community participation, partnership and coordination,  The Federal Policy on Natural Resources and the
 It further mentions that one of the major causes of capacity building of actors at various levels, advocacy Environment was formulated in April 1996 with the
social problems is the economic dependence of and awareness creation, implementation of overall goal of improving and enhancing the health
women on men. However, talking about the various international conventions and other social welfare and quality of life of Ethiopians and to promote
groups such as children, youth, elderly, and the related laws, and the establishment of data bank sustainable social and economic development
disabled, it does not say anything about the special system are outlined as some of the major strategies. through the sound management and use of natural,
problems females encounter as children, parents, The policy also articulates that the issues of gender will man-made and cultural resources and the
youth, the elderly, and the disabled, nor does it be mainstreamed in all programs, projects, and environment as a whole to meet the needs of the
or why not?

present generation without compromising the ability of participation in the education system at all levels is  The policy considers the disaggregating of data related
future generations to meet their own needs. indicated to be one of the strategies in the cross- to environment and to natural and man-made resource
 The policy gives importance to a participatory sectoral issues. use and management, addressing gender issues by
approach and the feeling of ownership in developing  Increasing the number of women extension agents in ensuring that energy plans adequately address fuel-
and conserving natural resources and an important natural resource and environmental management and wood requirement as two of the strategies in the
place is given to gender. designing programs that involve and benefit the most development and conservation of biomass energy
 It underlines the importance of the integration of social, disadvantaged groups, particularly women, children, resources. In the area of mineral resource
cultural, and gender issues in sustainable resource and the disabled and the landless are considered development one of the strategies is providing support
environmental management. Giving a high priority to important. to women in mineral development with special practical
raising the status of women by increasing female training and technical assistance particularly in small-
or why not?

scale and artisan mining. The policy gives a central as appropriate, youth and children, to effectively by a woman with the rank of a minister. It is charged
place to institutionally supporting and establishing participate in the planning and implementation of all with the responsibility of coordinating, facilitating
Women in Development desks at federal and development activities is also given importance. The and monitoring all government gender programs,
regional government agencies concerned with natural policy is gender sensitive and it promotes highly the particularly the implementation of the National
resources development and environmental participation of vulnerable groups including women in Womens Policy formulated in 1993. WAO is also
management. These desks would scrutinize projects, conserving, sustaining, and managing the responsible for creating a conducive environment
programs, policies, directives, rules, and regulations to environment. for all implementations in the country.
ensure that gender issues are integrated.  Women Affairs Departments: The establishment of
 Capacity building for local communities to enable them  The Womens Affairs Office (WAO): The Womens gender focal points in Federal ministries and regional
to fully enfranchise their women, disables persons and, Affairs Office was established in October 1991, headed councils is one of the main strategies for the
or why not?

implementation of gender and sectoral policies. It was Development Research. Currently, CERTWID has other independent researchers and graduating BA and
also one of the initial activities undertaken by WAO, been upgraded and it is accountable to the office of the MA students to do their research on various issues
after the formulation of the Ethiopian National Policy on Associate Vice President for Research and Graduate related to gender. It also disseminates its findings
Women. The regional council womens affairs studies. The centers main goal is to enable women to through workshops and distribution of its publications
department offices were opened up a little later. empower themselves socially, culturally, for consumption by researchers, practitioners, and
 Centre for Research Training and Information for economically and politically so as to be active policy makers. It can be said that CERTWID is making
Women in Development (CERTWID): was participants as well as equal beneficiaries of the a great contribution in raising awareness about gender,
established in 1991 with the financial assistance of development process. This goal is realized through providing information on gender issues and equipping
UNFPA and Addis Ababa University. At the time of its research, training, and documentation activities. researchers with knowledge and skills in gender
establishment it was placed under the Institute of CERTWID undertakes its own research and sponsors
or why not?

sensitive research methodology. But the centre lacks between the sexes, and as such women have been the instances, especially in the rural setting, men have
human resources capacity. main actors to address the issue. This has probably been seen to pose less resistance to changes that are
 Involvement of Men in Gender Equality Work: The brought about the feeling that gender is women s issue introduced to achieve improved womens status.
outcome document for the Beijing plat form contains to be handled by them. It is also true that, though not at  Poverty reduction strategy (PRS): The International
the 12 areas of the platform promote . and the role a significant level, men are involved, in some instances Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (WB) made a
of men in promoting gender equality. Gender refers to showing more concern than some women do. In Addis move in 1999 to encourage governments of low-
both men and women, but is often taken to be women, Ababa, there are many consultancy firms managed by income and heavily indebted countries to prepare
because when we deal with gender the focus is on men and working on gender, including gender training, poverty reduction strategies with a broad-based
women. The reason for this is that up to the present having themselves been trained. Many men make participation of various stakeholders. Ethiopia saw this
time, it is women who suffer from the existing inequality positive contributions in many forums. In some as relevant, because poverty is deep-rooted and wide-
or why not?

spread, and the country seeks debt relief and plans to present a broad picture of the poverty reduction hand and poverty reduction on the other. The federal
continue implementing economic reform programs in strategy that Ethiopia has pursued in recent years, and consultation was conducted at the African Conference
collaboration with the IMF and the WB. Further, PRS intended to refine the preparation of the PRSP. The Centre on 28-30 March 2002. Issues common for all
offers the opportunity for close dialogue between the adjustment policies that had been made in cooperation regions were basic necessities, water, food, shelter,
government, the people and among the different with Breton Wood Institutions had in the mid-1990s and health care; environmental degradation;
stakeholders, contributing to improvements of the triggered Ethiopia to adopt a long-term strategy of infrastructure; capacity; peace and stability;
democratic process. The Interim Poverty Reduction Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI). empowerment; traditional practices that have negative
Strategy Paper (I-PRSP) was drafted in September ADLI envisages a growth process that is inherently impact; governance and human rights; and macro-
2000 and submitted to the IMF and WB in November of poverty reducing, and makes it possible to assess the economic stability. Interestingly all regions identified
the same year. The aim of the interim paper was, to connection between policies and programs on the one harmful tradition as being an impediment to the
or why not?

struggle against poverty. Secondly, good governance process in which the mobility of capital, who are willing to obey production demands at any
and human rights was an issue raised by several organizations, ideas, discourses, and peoples has price.
regions, and the need to promote and protect taken a global or transnational form.  In developing nations, certain types of work, such as
democracy and human rights was highlighted.  With the establishment of international free trade garment assembly, is considered to be an extension of
 Impact of globalization on women policies, such as North America Free Trade Agreement female household roles. Therefore, cultural influences
 Over the past two decades, globalization has created a (NAFTA) and GATT, transnational corporations are in developing nations also impacts employment
tremendous impact on the lives of women in using the profit motive to guide their factories toward stratification.
developing nations. developing nations in search of cheap female labor.  Bringing a high demand of employment opportunities
 Globalization can be defined as a complex  Corporations prefer female labor over male labor for women in developing nations creates an
economic, political, cultural, and geographic because women are considered to be docile workers, instantaneous change within the social structure of
or why not?

these societies. Although the demand for female  Employment opportunities for women especially in  Globalization is brought by government policies or
employment brings about an array of opportunities and developed countries. It has created economic and job other channels. Wrong impact of globalization implies
a sense of independence, the glass ceiling continues opportunities for women at all levels. wrong utilization of the process.
to exist with the feminization of poverty.  Education and knowledge which constitutes a huge  In Ethiopia there are three major constraints to women
 The impact of globalization is different from country to advancement in the empowerment of women specifically and the society can generally benefit from
country whether it is positive impact or negative especially in terms of sharing information. globalization. These are:
impact. But the difference is highly significant between  How globalization has affected women in  lack of proper infrastructure or other
developed (industrialized) and developing countries. Its Ethiopia? communication channel
positive impacts:  low level of education and
 language barrier
or why not?

flooding and drought, has affected the production  Socialization is a process, which not only allows the
 There are policies guiding governments to subsidies system where women are in turn affected. baby to know about the basic norms of the society, but
from public service such as education and public  Gender socialization also helps in the gradual development of ones self.
health. In the free market system, where market  Socialization, as a process of transmitting culture, has  Development of the self or the the ego comes with
controls everything, people are forced to pay for been defined as consisting of complex process of the help of role playing, where a child puts
services. Applying these policies in poor countries like interaction through which the individual learns the himself/herself in somebodys elses shoe and tries to
Ethiopia, it is the poor who are going to be affected. habits, beliefs, skills and standards of judgment get his/her self image through others perception.
 An environmental crisis (climatic change) is the result that are necessary for effective participation in Coming to know about the other, he knows about the
of the depletion of Ozone. Climatic change, resulting social groups and communities. self. Thus the child comes to learn about the norms,
or why not?

expectations and different roles to be played in the  Socialization is a continuous process that helps one to number of people and allow for no individuality or
group through the process of socialization. learn the normative behavior, which mostly happens to crucial judgment. However, social psychologists
 A child learns about his/her gender identity by learning be stereotypical behavior. The very first thing the child define a stereotype as being a cognitive structure
what is s/he expected to do by others. An individual is socialized into is the views regarding his/her gender containing the perceivers knowledge, belief, and
learns about his or her gender identity by knowing what identity. expectancies about human social group. Stereotypic
s/he is not, or in other words, by learning about the  Socially constituted gender roles form stereotypes. A behavior can be linked to the way the stereotype is
other which helps in the emergence of ones self. For stereotype, according to the Websters New Worlds learned, transmitted and changed and this is part of
instance, a male child learns to confirm to his own Dictionary, (1998), is an unvarying pattern, has socialization process. The process of the
gender group by neglecting all activities that a girl child specifically a fixed or conventional notion or stereotypification of gender, has a sort of biological
does. concept of a person, group, idea etc. held by a
or why not?

determinism, which starts with the reproductive ability  Manipulation refers to how a child is handed. Boys becomes a memory to be cherished through out ones
of woman. are taken to be strong and girls are given more life.
 Individuals are converted from biological male and feminine designation of being pretty. Such experiences  “Verbal appellation likes strong for boys and
biological female into man and woman respectively on ones physique matters in shaping the self-image beautiful for girls help them construct different
with the process of socialization, which takes up the and personality of boys and girls. identities. It is always strength versus beauty.
task of gendering individuals.  Canalization involves the familiarization of boys and  Activity exposure pertains to different kinds activities,
 Regarding socialization, Ruth Hartley (Hartley cited in girls with certain objects, which later shapes their boys and girls are exposed to. Girls are asked for help
Bhasin, 2000) believed socialization takes place perceptions, aspirations and dreams. Well, we all know by their mothers and boys usually accompany their
through four processes, namely, manipulation, that anything that is pleasurable in the childhood fathers outside the house.
canalization, verbal appellation and activity exposure.
or why not?

 It is important to note here that the basic difference  “At a very early stage, the little boy develops an object- boy identifies with the father and become aware of his
between a man and a woman does not seem to have cathexis of his mother, which is originally related to the male identity. The father represents an all-powerful
any genetic foundation. It is the result of one s culture, mothers breast , his father by identifying himself with protector; the omnipotent lawmaker who yields the rod
which is injected into an individual through socialization him. For some time, this two relationships exist side by of punishment. In psychoanalytic terms, the father is
process. side, until the sexual wishes in regards the mother the breaker of the mother-child dyad, the
 Gender construction: a psychoanalytic view become intense and the father is perceived as an transcendental signifier of law, culture and language.
 The learning of gender differences in infants and the obstacle to them; this gives rise to the Oedipus 1. Cultural construction of masculinity and
young children is centered on the presence or absence complex. femininity
of penis. I have a penis is equivalent to I am a boy  So, in repressing the erotic feelings towards the  The feminine that is associated with woman is
while I am a girl is equivalent to I lack a penis. mother and accepting the father as superior being, the characterized as passive. Tenderness consideration
or why not?

and physical weakness are synonymous to the mothers. So the first thing they do is attract a man to  Right from their childhood, men have been treated by
feminine genre. depend on: they are expected to be emotional, their parents as independent and out going. With
 The masculine is defined as dominant and unstable, weak and talkative about their problems. masked emotional dependence on women and weak
encouraging male violence against women as virile. They are valued for their look or smallness but not their skills of communication as far as feelings are
Men are supposed to be high on strength and prowess. strength and brains. concerned, men have also suffered from this gender
Men and women have different moral orientations. Men  Mens predominance in the public domain and their game. Culture has made women more expressive and
speak the language of right and women the language association with reason distanced them from talking it also happens that their expressiveness is confused
of responsibility. about relationships, emotions, which is rooted in with the display of weaknesses. In order to conform to
 Right from their childhood, boys attempt to dominate culturally construed and historically specific form of the codes of socialization meant for men, men bottle-
and control. But girls are encouraged to be good masculinity. up their emotions and eventually fail to be expressive.
or why not?

Culture has made them unexpressive for which they versions are ordered in a hierarchy, which is oriented hegemonic masculinity. It is oriented towards
suffer from depression and have learnt to keep quite around one defining premise- the domination of men accommodating the desires and interest of men, which
and not to talk about their problems as it is considered over women. That is why men take advantage from the is characterized by compliance, nurturance and
feminine. Their silence on problems has been mistaken dominant position of hegemonic masculinity. empathy. It is supposed to be the embodiment of
for strength and courage but the truth is that it shatters Some call this as patriarchal dividend for those who motherhood and sexual reciprocity. This type of
them from within. benefit from it. femininity is the most prevalent image of woman.
 The society does not follow one single model of  Femininity can be of various types. The most popular 2. Patriarchy and its structures
masculinity or femininity. and one which has been accepted as a general norm  Patriarchy refers to male domination and females
 There are different expressions of masculinity and to be followed for women has been named as acceptance and internalization of that dominance. Its
femininity. At the level of the society these contrasting emphasized femininity. It complements the
or why not?

literal meaning is the supremacy of the father. In the  Culture itself has certain demands from male and motherhood is also socially constructed. Nevertheless,
current discourse it can be replaced with male rule. female separately. This male dominant society has the patriarchal knows how to appropriate results in its
 Patriarchy may also be described as a system of looked down upon women. favor without giving much effort.
social structures and practices in which men dominate,  Our male dominated society has frequently claimed  The world of a man and a woman has been divided
oppress and exploit women. that the development of the child requires the mother into two halves, forming many pairs of binary
 Most of the institutions of the society are patriarchal in to devote herself completely to the welfare of the child opposites. It is a world of body versus mind, nature
nature, regardless of whether it is the state, religion, and it is the primary duty of the mother to shower all versus culture, emotion versus reason, and private
educational institutions, family or the media. kinds of affection and care to the child. The father is versus public. These dichotomies stand in chainto
not expected to carry out such duties. It does not come each other that shape the culturally constituted roles
under the domain of man. It must be noted that
or why not?

for men and women. This dichotomy is perpetuated by of breast feeding the baby, taking care and socializing men are the natural proprietors of religion, ritual,
patriarchy itself. it. Infant and children are considered a part of nature. politics, and other realms of cultural thought. Thus men
a. Nature versus culture: The male dominated society They are unsocial zed like animals. They are unable to are associated with culture, i.e., the higher form of
and male culture decree that dominance is the male walk upright, they excrete without control and above human thought involving art, religion and law.
temperament and subordination the womens. Women all, they do not speak. Thus, infants and children are b. Private versus public: These physical and social
were allocated domestic service and attending upon close to nature. Moreover, women with their roles of women and men have extended their
children while men did the rest. The limited role association with infants and children are tagged association with nature and culture respectively. The
allocated to women arrested her at the biological level, together with nature. Since men lack a natural basis nature/ culture debate can further be extended to a
which was nearer to the animal instinct. When a child meant for family orientation, i.e., they do not form of private/ public dialogue which divides the roles
is born, the mother in most cultures is usually in charge reproduce, the cultural reasoning seems to go that of men and women into another dichotomy. No doubt,
or why not?

in our society, a gender hierarchy exists. The ideology sphere is a competitive world, which requires being work, they took up, Men were more exposed to the
of patriarchy remains intertwined with other social aggressive, reasonable and ambitious with no trace of outside world, thus becoming an integral part of the
institutions. This becomes clear from the private/public emotions. public sphere due to their participation in local affairs,
realm. The private sphere popularly known as the c. Gender and workplace: With the industrial revolution politics and the market. But women were relegated to
domestic has no economic, political or historical came a separation between work place and home. the domestic sphere. One can see occupational
significance. It does not contribute to ones social life. It There emerged the idea of public and private space. segregation based on gender. This refers to men and
is tagged as the personal. The private realm stands in Prior to this, women had a considerable influence women being concentrated in different kinds of
opposition to the public sphere. It needs to be within the household due to their importance in occupation. Occupational segregation has two
nourished with understanding, co-operation, care, and economic production, as the house happened to be the dimensions, vertical and horizontal. Vertical
selfness and of course bundles of emotions. The public production centre at the same time. Due to the kind of segregation refers to the tendency of women to
or why not?

remain in the second position, whereas men remain in  Gender and Media: Media is one of the most  The issue of women and media can be looked at from
influential position. Horizontal segregation refers to important socializing agents. As millions of lives are three perspectives: womens portrayal, the content,
the tendency of men and women to occupy different being conditioned and shaped by what is heard on the and women as media consumers.
categories of jobs. Women shouldered the radio, what is viewed on television, video and cinema  The relationship between consumers and their decision
responsibility of taking on household tasks, while men films; what is read in print and what is seen on the making capacity, impacts on portrayal. It is a universal
were mostly seen in jobs outside home. Things get stage. phenomenon that women and men are portrayed in
extremely difficult for women who are working because  Media transmit values and attitudes that highly affect stereotypical ways, more intensified in many
they have to bear the double burden of domestic work, the attitude and behavior of individuals. developing countries. Women tend to be portrayed in
as well as work place. roles in which they are trivialized, condemned, or
 Gender in the Media and Information Technology narrowly defined, resulting in the "symbolic
or why not?

annihilation" of women by the media. Men on the other and information defines social relationship at all levels. men. The voices and concerns of women with low or
hand, are usually depicted in high-status jobs in which These days there is a fast rate of information no incomes, and with limited access to education, to
they dominate women. Women are usually portrayed transmission and exchange; and this is made possible public institutions, and to positions of decision-making
doing domestic chores, or appearing as sex objects because of Information Communication Technologies risk being further marginalized.
and sometimes, they are presented to be selfish and (ICTs). ICTs are growing at a faster rate than any other  There are a number of constraints women encounter in
cruel. technology and affecting every aspect of peoples lives. accessing information, especially accessing
 Many women do not receive information from the ICTs have the potential to reduce poverty, empower information using ICTs. According to (Dominguez,
media. Information is at the heart of education; people and facilitate the democratization process. 2001), Ethiopian women share similar constraints in
information is the basis of health; information defines However, it can also widen the gaps between the accessing ICTs with women in other African countries.
every aspect of production, distribution and exchange; haves and the have-nots and between women and These include low literacy, limited access to resources
or why not?

and decision-making, limited or no access to access. The World space satellite radio network does is almost wholly transmitted to men, although women
computers, limited telecommunication infrastructure, not at this stage seem to assist rural Ethiopian women, contribute substantially to agricultural production. The
unreliable telephone line, high cost of telephone calls, because there is a missing technological link between formation of the Ethiopian Media Women Association
and lack of time. the satellite and the rural village. Further, the initial cost (EMWA), with the objectives of training and
 Women who have access usually use ICTs for work of the receiver and the low rural electricity coverage exchanging experience for capacity building is an
purposes, and not for personal growth. Even in their and high bill is beyond the reach of the majority of attempt to address problems of gender and the media.
work women's utilization of ICTs is often limited to Ethiopians. Ethiopia is also a member of the East African Media
using e-mails. However, considering the important role  Ethiopian women are excluded even from conventional women Association (EAMWA).
ICTs play in the provision of information and reducing information sources. A good example here is the case
poverty some efforts need to be made to create of agricultural extension programs, where information
or why not?

Chapter Two: Theoretical foundation of gender equality  Women and men usually have different roles and  Nearly 70% of the worlds poor are female.
theory responsibilities in their daily lives.  Women have unequal access to economic
I. Gender equality: Refers to equal valuing of the roles  Women have unequal access to education and resources, such as capital, credit, limited
of women and men. It works of stereotypes and health services. opportunity for employment and career
prejudices so that both sexes are able to equally  Social customs that encourage or force girls into advancement which restricts and affect their
contribute to any social, cultural and political teenage marriages economic situation.
developments within a society. Gender inequality is the  There are high levels of incidence of violence  Females have unequal access to education and
result of social, economic, and political differences not against women in all countries around the world training opportunities which makes them to
the difference in their sex. Some examples: which are accepted as normal. concentrate on unskilled and low status jobs.
 Social inequality  Economic inequality  Political and legal in equality
or why not?

 Women are very poorly represented at all levels of 1. The formal model of equality on women who have to perform according to male
formal decision making both at regional and  Regards men and women as being the same and standards.
national levels. therefore sets out to treat women the same as men.  Women cannot have access to or benefit from
 The legal system in many countries discriminates Advocates of such a model will argue for the provision of opportunities in the same manner as men when there is
against women especially in the areas of equal opportunities for women but will go on to expect so much difference between the conditions of women
inheritance, property, and land ownership and women to access the opportunities and perform and men. Or if they do, it will be at great expense to
criminal law. according to the same rules and standards as men. them. For example, if women and men are given equal
II. Models of equality and approaches  The problem with this model is that it does not take into opportunity to employment and this requires doing shift
Ever since women have claimed equality, there have been consideration the biological and gender differences work at night, women will not be able to have access to
several approaches to equality. between women and men. This places a great pressure this opportunity without some assistance being provided
or why not?

such as transportation, as the social environment is not benefit women instead promote attitudes and  The convention promotes the substantive model of
conducive to women moving about at night. Women expectations about women, including their dependency equality and consolidates two central approaches to
who attempt to do this put themselves at risk. or status as victims that disadvantaged them across a equality.
 Formal equality applies to sex-based classifications wide spectrum of social contexts. Those who offer this  First the convention stresses the importance of
that discriminate against men, as well as those that rational may favor formal equality as a strategy, but equality of opportunity in terms of womens access
discriminate against women. In formal equality terms, insofar as their choice of principle is based on its on equal terms with men to the resources of a country.
the goal is equal treatment for all, not just women. woman-centered results or outcomes, they already This has to be secured by a framework of laws and
Extending formal equality principles to rules that have their foot in the door of substantive equality. policies, and supported by institutions and mechanisms
discriminate against men, or favor women, might also 2. The substantive model of equality for their operation. This is referred to as the
be justified on the grounds that rules that appear to Obligation of means.
or why not?

 But the Convention goes beyond this in emphasizing  The convention is not concerned so much with equal not the same. Not only is there a significant biological
that the measure of a states action to secure the treatment but with equal access and equal benefits. difference between women and men (women bear
human rights of women and men needs to ensure Hence it recognizes that women and men may have to children, not men), but gender differences (socially-
equality of results. The indicators of state progress, be treated differently in order for them to benefit equally. created differences between men and women upheld
in the eyes of the Convention, lie not just in what the This may take the form of providing enabling conditions by ideology and perpetuated by socialization
state does, but in what the state achieves in terms of and/ or affirmative action. (Articles 3 and 4) processes) also result in norms and assumptions made
real change for women. Hence, the Convention  Framing a policy for people implicitly including about what women and mens roles in society are,
stresses that equality must inform the practice of women and men, while not excluding women per se, what their capabilities, needs and interests are, which
institutions. This is referred to as the Obligation of may result in a de facto discrimination against women. influence both policy-making and its implementation.
results. This is because of the fact that women and men are
or why not?

 Differences between women and men whether based  The substantive model of equality that the convention builds on existing subordination, thus reinforcing it, or
on biological (sex) difference or socially created promotes, adopts the corrective approach. The whether it helps to overcome that subordination. Under
(gender) differences results in womens asymmetrical recognition of difference in the convention is based on the the corrective approach, if there are job opportunities that
experience of: Disparity and Disadvantage premise that women are in an unequal position because require night work, there would be public policies or laws
 Initiatives for the realization of womens rights need to they face current discrimination, or they come bearing the that require employers to make some provision that would
compensate for or cater to the difference, disparity or effects of past discrimination, or that the environment, at make it safe for women to work at night instead of placing
disadvantage. This means taking into account the ways the family and public levels, is hostile to women's a ban on night work. This could be the provision of
in which women are different from men, and ensuring autonomy. This approach assesses specific provisions or transport for women workers etc.
that these differences are acknowledged and responded rules to see whether the rule in question contributes to  The corrective approach requires that socially constructed
to by policy or legal interventions and programs. women's subordination in the short or long term, whether it differences such as the traditional roles ascribed to
or why not?

women and men as well as cultural practices that see  enabling conditions, in the form of the basic social,  The obligation of the state is to ensure a broad
women as inferior need to be changed. economic and cultural contexts within which women approach to equality that includes:
 It also recognizes that in order to redistribute benefits may be able to lead their lives with dignity  Equality of opportunity
equally between women and men, approaches to  affirmative action in the form of temporary special  Equality of access to the opportunity and
promoting womens rights must transform the unequal measures where womens needs are specially  Equality of results
power relations between women and men in the recognized and catered for in the context of  Resistance to the substantive approach to equality
process. For this to happen, policies, laws and employment, education, financial services, politics  There is, however, a problem with this approach. The
programs must aim to provide the following: and all other spheres of life in order to enable women problem is, that employers and others will see that
to overcome barriers that are historical or those that ensuring de facto equality may bring an extra burden
arise from male domination in the system. and as incurring extra costs. While it is true there are
or why not?

costs involved, we need to develop arguments to Convention, the State has accepted an obligation to Everyones potential has the opportunity for its fullest
justify these costs. ensure that women will be able to enjoy all rights and development and more skilled human resources will
 The first is on the basis of human rights principles. they are also obligated to regulate all agencies be available to the country. Keeping half the
Article 1 of The Human Rights Declaration states that, including the private sector to ensure of this even if it population in a subordinated position also incurs costs
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity means incurring additional costs. This is an argument as they fall into a dependent category instead of a
and rights. And Article 2 states that Everyone is that establishes womens entitlement to rights. productive category and have to be provided for.
entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in the  The second argument is based on long-term benefits  The substantive model of equality attempts to bring
Declaration without distinction of any kind ..” Since to the country. The corrective approach ensures that about social change. Such change does not come
the Convention promotes the substantive model of all citizens will contribute to the development of their about without risk and it is essential that within the
equality, we have to point out that by ratifying the country productively and to the best of their capacity. project there are components that anticipate the risk
or why not?

and help women cope with the risk. In this regard the assessed to ensure that they promote autonomy rather  The need for a broad approach to equality
participation of women in the design of the project and than protection or dependency. This has to be done  Such an understanding of equality is seen for example
the processes of implementation is essential. It is only without compromising the claim for equal rights and in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms 1982.
the women concerned who can evaluate the options, equality as a legal standard. For example, there can be Section 15 (I) of the charter reads: Every individual is
assess the trade offs, and decide on the kind of support no compromise on the claim for legal equality in matters equal before and under the law and has the right to the
needed. pertaining to personal status such as: equal protection and equal benefit of the law without
 The challenge is to know when to take note of  Citizenship and nationality discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination
difference, and to decide on appropriate measures for  Rights within marriage and family relationships based on race, national or ethnic origin, color, religion,
different treatment that will facilitate equal access,  Rights over children (guardianship) sex, age or mental or physical disability.
control and equal result. Such measures will have to be  Equal treatment before the law. etc,
or why not?

 This broad legal approach to equality is essential as it rights, there would have to be further provisions that Protectionist approach
would help spell out the different aspects of equality facilitate the fulfillment of the different levels of equality
rights to include when seeking legal protection for rights.  Protectionist approaches see the differences between
women: equality in the substance of the legal texts,  This would provide a comprehensive approach to a women and men but constitute these differences as
equal treatment under the law, access to the law and systemic problem of inequality. It helps us take into weakness or inferiority in women. If night work is unsafe
its institutions and finally the de facto enjoyment of consideration the contexts that create inequality, for women, it is diagnosed that women are weak, not that
equal rights. Taken together they provide a including past events and history as well as current the environment is unsafe. The solution then is to control
comprehensive coverage. Where there is no such institutional arrangements. This approach to equality or correct the women and not to correct the environment
differentiated equality rights, equality law has had little helps us focus on results or effects of a particular law or provide support for women to cope with an unsafe
impact on disadvantaged groups. On the basis of such or action rather than on neutrality of the treatment. environment. In this sense the difference is considered
or why not?

to be naturally ordained and the approach serves to and men. This perspective, also known as dominance theory offers a way of understanding not just the
reinforce the subordinate status of women. theory, makes the relevant inquiry not whether women situations of elite women, who are well represented in
 Protectionist approaches are inherently limiting in that are like, or unlike, men, but whether a rule or practice liberal feminism, and not just women's situation as a
they do not challenge gender discrimination, but serves to subordinate women to men. function of class, as presented by socialist feminism,
reproduce it in the garb of protecting women.  Accordingly, similarities and differences between but the situation of all women.
women and men are important under this theory not as Autonomy
Non-essentialism given that produce certain expected, rational  Many legal standards assume that individuals are
 The non-subordination perspective on women and law consequences in the law, but as part of a larger system capable of having "intent," of exercising "choice" or
shifts the focus of attention from gender-based of categories and concepts designed to make women's "consent," and of acting and thinking like a
difference to the imbalance of power between women subordination seem natural and legitimate. Dominance "reasonable" person, and require juries and judges to
or why not?

make findings accordingly. Women's advocates make were stimulated by intellectual currents in other structures produce "the subject's experience of
similar assumptions when they argue that women disciplines known as "postmodernism." differentiated identity and . . . autonomy," but a
should have greater personal autonomy, freedom to  The postmodern view of the individual or the "legal misleading one, for under the postmodern view this
make their own choices, and power to control their own subject" opposes the Enlightenment view of the stable, experience of what is real, rational, or, in some
lives. coherent self, capable of reason and "privileged insight transcendent sense, true.
 A series of challenges to the law's assumption that into its own processes and into the 'laws of nature,'’  In the hands of scholars of gender and law, however,
individuals act autonomously and to the law's ability to with a more complicated view of the individual as one postmodern insights have not ended efforts to enhance
make objective determinations about the individual's who is constituted form multiple institutional and the autonomy and freedom of women but rather have
intent, consent, and ability to make rational choices ideological forces that, in various ways, overlap, invigorated them. Legal activists and scholars who
intersect, and even contradict each other. These have enlisted postmodern critiques in the effort to end
or why not?

women's subordination have shown that better right to be free from interference by others to include 1. Traditional marriage and its consequence on
understanding of the limits of individual subjectivity and the ability to flourish among and in relation to others. women
free choice can lead to better strategies for maximizing  Many "anti-essentialist" critiques implicitly or explicitly  Child marriage
autonomy. The proposition that autonomy is impossible call for a more sophisticated understanding of relations  Child/Early marriage refers to any marriage of a child
was restated by some scholars and women's of power. When we think about oppression, we tend to younger than 18 years old, in accordance to Article 1 of
advocates as a practical observation that choice is a assume there are people and groups who are the Convention on the Right of the Child.
relative concept, and that, in some matters at least, oppressed and people and groups who are  While child marriage affects both sexes, girls are
more is better than less. At the same time, the oppressors. disproportionately affected as they are the majority of
meaning of autonomy has been expanding beyond the Chapter three: Gender and family the victims. Their overall development is compromised,
leaving them socially isolated with little education, skills
or why not?

and opportunities for employment and self-realization. reproductive health outcomes and the lack of common in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. It
This leaves child brides more vulnerable to poverty, a education of girls. is rampant in Ethiopia, although prevalence varies from
consequence of child marriage as well as a cause.  Advocates for gender equality and the abandonment of one region to another. At the national level, 62% of
 Child marriage is now widely recognized as a violation harmful traditional practices (HTPs) argue that early Ethiopian women aged 20-49 get married before the
of children's rights, a direct form of discrimination marriage is one of the most harmful practices as it age of 18.
against the girl child who as a result of the practice is usually denies girls educational opportunities, leads to  Types of early marriage in Ethiopia include
often deprived of her basic rights to health, education, poverty and economic insecurity and has a serious promissory marriage, whereby a verbal promise is
development and equality. Tradition, religion and negative impact on their health and decision-making made at infancy or even childbirth by the parents to
poverty continue to fuel the practice of child marriage, capacities. It also reinforces other forms of gender- have their children married; child marriage, in which
despite its strong association with adverse based violence and problems. Early marriage is mostly children under the age of 10 are wedded; and
or why not?

adolescent marriage, which involves girls aged that Child marriage and betrothal of girls and boys parties. Unfortunately, knowledge of and respect for
between 10 and 15. shall be prohibited and effective action including the law is limited among many rural communities.
 In most cases, the child bride is taken to her in-laws legislation shall be taken to specify the minimum age of  Child and forced marriage: a marriage "conducted
immediately after the wedding; in other cases the marriage to be 18 years. without the valid consent of one or both parties and is a
parents agree that the girl stays with her parents until  Also, the Maputo Protocol on the Rights of Women in marriage in which duress - whether physical or
she is mature enough to live with her husband. In Africa (October 2005) and the newly adopted criminal emotional - is a factor". Some believe that any child
general, husbands are much older than their young law of Ethiopia (2005) acknowledge the minimum age marriage constitutes a forced marriage, in recognition
wives. Early marriage is a violation of the fundamental of marriage for women to be 18 years and state that that even if a child appears to give their consent,
rights of the child. Article 21 of the 1990 African marriage shall only take place with full consent of both anyone under the age of 18 is not able to make a fully
Charter on the Right and Welfare of the Child states informed choice whether or not to marry. Child
or why not?

marriages must be viewed within a context of force and good marriage and linking her family to another family. older - sometimes even elderly - man is believed to
coercion, involving pressure and emotional blackmail Concern about a girl becoming pregnant out of benefit the child and her family both financially and
and children that lack the choice or capacity to give marriage is also prevalent, though not nearly as socially.
their full consent. significant as the issue of stateside.  In communities where child marriage is practiced
2. Causes of early marriage a. Poverty and economic transactions marriage is regarded as a transaction, often
 The strongest reason for early marriage is the desire or  Poverty is a critical factor contributing to child marriage representing a significant economic activity for a family.
need to maintain the familys good name and social and a common reason why parents may encourage a  A daughter may be the only commodity a family has to
standing. For men in particular, the success of their child to marry. be traded and sometimes girls can be used as
children is a measure of manhood and community  Where poverty is acute, a young girl may be regarded currency or to settle debts. A girl's marriage may also
status, and a daughters success rests in her making a as an economic burden and her marriage to a much take place as a perceived means of creating stability.
or why not?

In uncertain times, poor harvest conditions or war, a resource with which their parents can attain greater shame to her family if she was not a virgin when she
family may believe it is necessary to ensure the wealth, are married off at a young age, for the bride married. Therefore, in order to ensure that a girl's virtue
economic 'safety' of their daughter and family, through price and as a way for parents to lessen their economic remains in tact, girls may be married earlier, in order to
marriage. burdens. ensure their virginity.
 In Africa the monetary value of bride price, or bride b. Notions of morality and honor  Young girls may also be encouraged to marry older
wealth, is linked with marriage. Bride price is a sum,  Dominant notions of morality and honor are important men, due to the perception that an older husband will
either in cash or kind, used to purchase a bride for her factors encouraging the practice of child marriage. be able to act as a guardian against behavior deemed
labor and fertility.  These are influenced greatly by the importance placed immoral and inappropriate.
 In the context of poverty, the practice of paying bride on maintaining 'family honor' and the high value placed  Reasons for getting married (in order of importance):
price can encourage early marriage. Young girls, a on a girl's virginity. It is considered that a girl brings  It is a tradition
or why not?

 To strengthen relationships areas had ended in divorce or separation. Of those that their children and to make greater economic
 For prestige had married more than once, 56% reported that their contributions to the household. Married adolescent
 Difficult to get married if older first marriage ended either because they were too girls inability to negotiate safer sex and other social
 The family will be victim of gossip young or not interested in the marriage. Many girls run pressures represent a critical channel of vulnerability to
 To earn dowry away from unhappy marriages only to be sent back by HIV infection.
 To protect virginity and avoid premarital sex. their parents.  Inability to plan or manage families Statistically,
3. Consequences for health and well-being  Termination of education In almost every setting, women who marry early are likely to bear more
 In the Ethiopian context, some of these include: better-educated women are more likely to use children. Young mothers exercise less influence and
 Marital instability Among the respondents, about contraception, bear fewer children, raise healthier control over their children and have less ability to make
27% of marriages in urban areas and 19% in rural children, and make better decisions for themselves and
or why not?

decisions about their nutrition, health care and  Vulnerability to HIV infection A girl is with other partners. The risk of HIV infection is higher
household management. physiologically more prone to contracting HIV than a among the poorest and most powerless in society, and,
 Impact on sexual health of women and girls male, as her vagina is not well lined with protective as such, married adolescent girls will be more at risk of
Young girls can face considerable physical pain cells and her cervix may be penetrated easily. Young infection than unmarried girls who are not having
associated with sexual intercourse as a result of the women are several times more likely than young men sexual intercourse. Married adolescent girls inability to
physiological immaturity of their sexual organs. to contract the disease through heterosexual contact. negotiate safer sex and other social pressures
Complications due to pregnancy at a young age Also, deeply entrenched socio-economic inequalities represent a critical channel of vulnerability.
frequently include obstetric fistula (perforation of the further compound their risk. Marriage can increase 4. Custody and support of children
bladder or bowel, due to prolonged labor). married girls exposure to the virus, especially as older  Federal Constitution provides the umbrella articles for
husbands may engage in unprotected sexual relations the protection of the rights of the child. As a party to
or why not?

the Convention on the rights of a child, the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission was also set up by  Next to child rearing which is an important influence in
Government has been revising legislation that does not Proclamation No. 210/2000. the life-cycle of women, their contribution to their
tally with the provisions of the Convention. One crucial 5. The role of women in the success of their husbands success has not been given much attention.
exercise on this front has been the revision of the husband Almost all of the empirical evidence points toward
Penal Code. An important inclusion in the revised  Despite significant gains in educational attainment and gender role beliefs as the key variable shaping the
Penal Code is the criminalization of female attitudes toward women, women continue to lag behind entire family leave alone the husband. It is expected
circumcision and genital stitching. Two other important men in economic and labor market success. Their role that economically rational decisions and outcomes
steps were also taken in the upholding of human rights. in family has not been considered because of the will only occur when both the husband and the wife
Proclamation No. 210/2000 was enacted in July 2000 unnoticed gender-gap. share strong progressive gender role beliefs without
establishing the institution of the Ombudsman. The the domination of one. But most decisions are
or why not?

expected to be largely dominated by the husbands Ethiopia, the revised family code also reflects the same suffering to women, including threats of such acts,
desire and characteristics and this will affect the under its provisions. coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether
economic status of women. Chapter Four: Global and comparative approaches to occurring in public or private life.
 Femininity has tended to be devalued, even despised violence against women within and outside family  Despite the international adoption of DEVAW,
or deemed evil, while things masculine have been 1. Defining Violence against Women however, governments, organizations, and cultures
celebrated and venerated. The unequal and unfair  In 1993, the U.N. General Assembly adopted the non- continue to define VAW in a number of ways, taking
standards between the sexes are reflected in all binding Declaration on the Elimination of Violence into account unique factors and circumstances.
spheres of life. As their equality is recognized under against Women (DEVAW). It describes VAW as any  Some law enforcement organizations and national
the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely criminal codes, for instance, do not consider
to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or psychological abuse to be a form a VAW because,
or why not?

while harmful, in many cases it is not illegal. Others, and women, and argue that over time this imbalance economic conditions, and a lack of political and legal
however, advocate for a broader definition of VAW, has led to pervasive cultural stereotypes and attitudes protection from governments.
contending that physical and psychological harm that perpetuate a cycle of violence.  Individual factors that may lead to a high risk of
cannot be separated, and that psychological abuse can  Though the specific causes of VAW vary on a case-by- becoming a victim of VAW include living in poverty and
be as devastating as physical abuse. case basis, some researchers have identified a previous history of abuse.
2. Scope and Context community and individual risk factors that may a. Social and Health Consequences
 VAW occurs in all geographic regions, countries, increase rates of violence against women.  A wide range of research highlights the serious social
cultures, and economic classes.  Community factors may include cultural norms that and civil consequences of violence against women. In
 Many experts view VAW as a symptom of the support male superiority, high crime levels, poor many societies, women provide emotional and financial
historically unequal power relationship between men support for families and communities. Studies have
or why not?

shown that violence and the social stigma of violence activities or development projects because of the threat  Numerous studies have found that women and girls
negatively affect the ability of women and girls to of physical violence. Moreover, some studies have who experience violence have an increased risk of
participate fully in and contribute to their communities. found that harassment and sexual abuse contributes to poor physical and reproductive health.
Research has also found that women who experience low female enrollment rates and high dropout rates  The physical health impacts of VAW can be divided
violence are less likely to hold jobs and are more likely from secondary schools. into two categories immediate and functional.
to live in poverty than those who do not experience  The health consequences of VAW are significant, with Immediate consequences directly result from acts of
violence. Violence and the fear of violence may cause many victims suffering from severe physical and violence, and may include fractures, gunshot wounds,
some women to avoid public places such as schools mental health consequences both immediate and bruises and lacerations, and death. Functional
and the workplace. Some research has also found that long-term. consequences also referred to as functional
women may also be less likely to participate in political disorders, include long-term health consequences.
or why not?

They include gastrointestinal disorders, chronic pain countries may experience higher rates of violence than reported through studies and national and local law
(including pelvic pain), chronic urinary tract infections, those in developed countries. Some research indicates enforcement records represent a minimum of actual
and irritable bowel syndrome. that approximately one in five women experiences rape VAW cases.
b. Prevalence and Circumstances or attempted rape during her lifetime. Surveys in some  Rates of sex trafficking, sexual violence in armed
 World Health Organization (WHO) multi-country Asian and sub-Saharan African countries have found conflict situations, female infanticide, and violence in
surveys estimate that between 10% and 69% of high female mortality rates due to female infanticide schools and the workplace, for example, are thought to
women have been physically hit or harmed by a male and nutritional neglect of young girls. be significantly under-documented, particularly in
partner at some point in their lives.  Many incidences of violence are not reported because developing countries like Ethiopia.
 The WHO survey found that levels of violence tend to of the shame and fear associated with being a victim.  Underreporting may occur because victims view
vary by country, and that women in developing Experts generally agree that current levels of violence violence as normal or expected behavior.
or why not?

 In addition, in certain circumstances it is difficult for  VAW can occur in the home as well as in public and countries. World Bank study found that approximately
researchers to collect data on VAW prevalence. In private institutions, including the workplace, schools, 22% of women reported being sexually abused in
conflict situations, for example, potentially dangerous universities, and state institutions. school. A qualitative study in Ethiopia found that
and fluid conditions may affect the ability of  Custodial VAW, which includes violence in prisons, harassment and sexual abuse contributed to low
researchers to gain access or create conditions immigration detention centers, social welfare female enrollment rates and high dropout rates from
conducive to victims coming forward. In addition, some institutions, and jails, is reported in many areas of the secondary school.
communities, particularly those in developing world though there are not enough to data to Types of Violence
countries, lack adequate law enforcement quantify its prevalence globally. Moreover, VAW in  Violence against women can include both random acts
infrastructure and reporting services, which may schools, which can be perpetrated by teachers, as well as sustained abuse over time, which can be
discourage women from reporting abuse. administrators, and students, is prevalent in developing physical, psychological, or sexual in nature.
or why not?

 Some studies have found that women are most likely  Infancy: Infanticide; psychological and physical abuse; marriage; dowry abuse; retribution for the crimes of
to experience violence at the hands of someone they differential food and medical care others
know, including authority figures, parents, sons,  Childhood: Female genital cutting; incest and sexual  Reproductive: Intimate partner abuse; marital rape;
husbands, and male partners. abuse; psychological abuse; differential access to food, dowry abuse; honor killings; partner homicide;
 Studies conclude that one of the most common forms medical care, and education; prostitution; trafficking; psychological abuse; sexual abuse in the workplace;
of VAW is intimate partner violence, which can include school-related gender-based violence abuse of women with disabilities; forced prostitution;
forced sex, physical violence, and psychological  Adolescence: Dating and courtship violence; trafficking
abuse, such as isolation from family and friends. economically coerced sex; sexual abuse in the  Old age: Widow abuse; elderly abuse; rape; neglect
Examples of Violence against Women workplace; rape; sexual harassment; forced  Honor killings, for example, occur when women are
prostitution; trafficking; psychological abuse; forced stoned, burned, or beaten to death, often by their own
or why not?

family members, in order to preserve the family honor.  Female genital cutting (FGC), which has also been  “Harmful traditional practices, including FGC, intimate
The practice is most common in Middle Eastern and referred to as female genital mutilation (FGM) or partner violence, and child marriage, perpetuate
South Asian countries, though it has also been female circumcision, is common in some African and unbalanced sex stereotypes and a cycle of violence.
reported in other parts of the world, such as Latin Middle Eastern countries. What constitutes a harmful traditional practice,
America and Africa. however, is a matter of perspective.
 Dowry-related violence, where victims might be Harmful Traditional Practices  In some cultures, for instance, both men and women
attacked or killed by in-laws for not bringing a large  Traditional practices are part of local cultures and are may view violence as a legitimate punishment for
enough dowry to the marriage, is also prevalent in generally considered socially acceptable; in some female disobedience and as a traditional part of male-
South Asian countries such as Pakistan, India, and cases, they are encouraged by family members and female relationships. Moreover, some women may not
Bangladesh. the community. view forced marital sex as rape, or endure frequent
or why not?

beatings from their husbands, fathers, sons or only on treatment and services for victims of violence, broader debate with human rights and individual
boyfriends because of cultural or familial legacies. In but also on eliminating harmful traditional practices. freedom on the one hand, and the right to preserve
addition, some do not view child marriage as a harmful  Because some of these practices are often a part of a culture, group identity, and tradition on the other.
traditional practice instead they see it as a cultural communitys culture, however, programs that introduce Abduction
tradition that should be respected. treatment and services may meet resistance. Some  In some regions of Ethiopia, abduction and rape is a
 In recent years, some international advocates have experts argue that harmful traditional practices cannot cultural practice used to take a girl as wife by force.
increasingly argued that harmful traditional practices be significantly altered without sustained, long-term Typically, the girl is abducted by a group of young men,
should be addressed through anti-VAW programs. efforts on the local level with national and international and then raped by the man who wants to marry her-
They maintain that anti-VAW efforts should focus not support. Finding the most appropriate balance and either someone she knows, or a total stranger. Elders
means of intervention is a challenge that highlights a from the man's village then ask the family of the girl to
or why not?

agree to the marriage; the family often consents community, as well as threats from the offender, the  Websters Dictionary (1975) defines it as the 'illicit
because a girl who has lost her virginity would be girl will often "consent" to marry her perpetrator. carnal knowledge of a woman without her consent,
socially unacceptable for marriage to another man.  Both, abduction and rape are criminal offences under effected by force, duress, intimidation, or deception as
Sometimes the abductor keeps the girl in a hiding the Ethiopian law, but if marriage is subsequently to the nature of the act.'
place until she is pregnant, at which time the family agreed, the husband is exempt from criminal  Susan Brown Miller also defines it as a conscious
again feels it has no option but to agree to the responsibility for his crimes. Changing the law to process of intimidation by which all men keep all
marriage. adequately address the injustice that abducted and women in a state of fear.
 It may seem unlikely a victim would willingly marry the raped girls face is essential to the realization of the  Allison Morris, in her book Women, Crime, and
perpetrator of her abduction and rape. However, with fundamental right to equality in Ethiopia. Criminal Justice, writes of rape as motivated by anger
social and cultural pressure from families and the Rape (involving an expression of hostility towards women
or why not?

and a desire to humiliate them) and power (involving In Ethiopia's case there is a range of other complex Even when women speak about violation of their rights,
the assertion of dominance over women). contributing factors, such as culture and tradition, poverty they are told that they are becoming 'westernized',
1. Causes of rape: Even though the potential causes of and war. even by those who are educated. Ethiopian culture
rape are varied and controversial, because of personal a. Culture: Culturally transmitted assumptions about tolerates sexual violence against girls and women.
and cultural beliefs as well as economic status, the men's dominance over women, men's power over Abduction and early marriage, always followed by
most commonly attributed causes of rape are women, etc. contribute highly to the ever increasing rape, are the norms in some parts of our society.
inequality in gender power relations and the anger number of rape cases reported. Ethiopians are Kidnapping and the concomitant raping of a woman, as
and sadism of the rapists. defensive about any criticism directed against their one way of acquiring a wife, is a common occurrence.
society. They are proud of their culture or social The social acceptance of this practice puts all women
system, and they don't appear to want to change it. and children in a state of fear, so much so that the UN
or why not?

has reported that women are severely reducing the created a conducive situation for the rapid rise of rape not, raped in places where they make their living as
daily water and nutritional intake of their families in in the country. prostitutes or even at the homes where they serve as
order to avoid being in the field or walking to wells to b. Poverty: Poverty drives women and children into maids.
collect water.On top of the fertile ground already commercial sex and streets, which make them c. War: History is smeared with a lot of ugly lessons
existing in our culture, rape, western pornographic vulnerable to sexual exploitation, abuse and rape. As about the interrelation between war and rape. This has
videos, films and literatures, which often objectify and early marriage is rampant in the rural areas, those happened in almost all the wars that history has
devalue women, are proliferating in our society, initially escaping this type of marriage, or those simply known. Rape is used in most wars as revenge against
among the affluent but now even among the poor escaping rural poverty, migrate to towns and cities certain races, ethnic groups and religious communities.
through video-showing outlets. This practice has where they will either become maidservants or join the Putting aside for the moment the unforgivable
commercial sex industry. They are, more often than victimization of individual women, the victors use rape
or why not?

for the purpose of demoralizing and intimidating the  Fear and phobia, repressed anger leading to  Because rape is associated with social stigma, the
side to which the victims belong. overwhelming depression and anxiety, feeling of victims lose their dignity and respect in society. They
Consequences of Rape guilt, self-blame, shame, loss of control over also find it difficult to participate in social activities, as a
1. Psychological oneself, immense shock and disbelief, confusion, result of which they alienate themselves from society.
 About 90% of the victims suffer some degree of difficulty in making decisions, hatred towards men,  In rural areas, when a woman is abducted and raped,
physical injury and threats of violence compounded by diminished self-esteem, feelings of worthlessness, she will no longer get a husband unless her rapist
the presence of weapons and intimidating verbal fear of being alone, disobedience, aversion to marries her, which of course will add to her misery.
abuses. As a result, the following are some possible sexual intercourse, thoughts of suicide, desire for She will run away to cities where nobody knows her,
psychological consequences which raped women and revenge, etc. only to face prostitution, streets and other social
children face: 2. Social problems.
or why not?

3. Economic These and other such reasons result in their exclusion 4. Health
 Women's participation is very crucial for a sustainable from participating in national development programs.  Rape brings significant health problems to the victims.
development of any country. For womens participation Given the fact that development without womens Most importantly, it can lead to unwanted pregnancies
to be realized education is mandatory. participation is unthinkable, the country will be affected and transmissions of STDs, including HIV/AIDS.
 Among the reasons why girls do not pursue their negatively, and its future, in terms of manpower  In Ethiopian law, there is no provision for the right to
education in Ethiopia and other developing countries development, which basically depends on the number abort even in cases of rape. As women cannot legally
one finds that (1) either girl get abducted and raped on of children born, will also be questionable. As lack of abort, they are forced to resort to illegal and unsafe
their way to school, or (2) because of fear of being education will also leave women unemployed, poor options, usually carried out by incompetent people,
raped and the anxiety associated with it, they will either and powerless, violence perpetrated against them will which are more often than not followed by
not attend school at all or perform poorly if they do. continue unabated. complications. Some of the complications are infection,
or why not?

including HIV/AIDS, torrential bleeding, perforation of due to rape. Generally, the consequences of rape are about it the better. However, it is believed that rape has
the uterus, infertility, etc. These and other physical all interrelated. The process is like a vicious circle. increased over the last few years.
damages occur especially when rape victims are those The Extent of Rape in Ethiopia Marital rap:
who are biologically weak. Moreover, due to the high  In Ethiopia there is hardly any statistical evidence or  Is non-consensual sexual assault in which the
biological receptivity to viral transmission of young data on rape apart from what is occasionally perpetrator is the victim's spouse. It is also called
victims, there is a greater risk of contracting STDs, mentioned on the media. So, we cannot state the spousal rape. Due to popular stereotypes of "real"
including HIV/AIDS. Worldwide, women between the extent of its prevalence and distribution in the country. rape, it is often assumed that because spouses have
ages of 15 and 24 account for half of new HIV This is because rape is one of the most unreported been sexually intimate, forced sexual intercourse in
infections, and there is no doubt that most of them are crimes due to the prevailing attitude that it is shameful marriage is not as traumatic as rape by a stranger.
and degrading to the victims, and thus, the less said
or why not?

 Sexual contact gained through force, coercion,  In December 1993, the United Nations High Some societal beliefs and misconceptions contributing
manipulation or fear of harm is rape, a tool to control Commissioner for Human Rights published the to the tolerance of marital rape:
and overpower another person. This type of control is Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against  Sexism is at the heart of marital rape, just as it is at the
often found with other violent and abusive behaviors. Women. This establishes marital rape as a human heart of most forms of sexual violence.
So the same holds true in the case of marital rape. rights violation. This is not fully recognized by all UN  The widespread idea that a husband has a right to sex,
Marital rape is likely to be part of an abusive member states. In 1997, UNICEF reported that just 17 and has a right to use his wife's body for this purpose
relationship. Trauma from the rape adds to the effect of states criminalized marital rape. But in Ethiopia, men makes it difficult to recognize sexual coercion in
other abusive acts or abusive and demeaning talk. are exempted from penalty for rape if they marriage.
Furthermore marital rape is likely to happen subsequently marry their victims. Sexual harassment
repeatedly.
or why not?

 There are two types of sexual harassment, quid pro - behavior that is unwelcome including request for person acting with authority, with holds, demands
quo and “Hostile environment. a date and/or promises a benefit by pressuring an employee
 The targeted person may be harmed emotionally, - behavior that is sexual in nature like a shoulder or or student to submit to unwelcome sexual conduct.
mentally, and even physically. Hostile environment is back rub  There are abundant cases of harassment in Ethiopia,
the most common form of sexual harassment. Hostile - a behavior that creates a hostile or intimidating but the law does not specifically criminalize it. It occurs
environment is said to occur when it unreasonably environment like comments about the persons at work places, on the streets and educational
interferes with a persons work or academic appearance. institutions. The position of power and authority, which
performance or it creates an intimidating, hostile,  Quid pro quo is a Latin term meaning this for that. the man that harasses a woman has over her, is
abusive or offensive environment. It usually involves a This form of harassment is usually easy to recognize. It extremely relevant. The labor proclamation of 1993
pattern of repeated behavior, such as: occurs when a supervisor or faculty member, or a (number 42/93) does not mention sexual harassment.
or why not?

Female genital mutilations  Sexual slavery encompasses most, if not all, forms of conventions but have been insufficiently understood
 After-effects range from infections to serious problems forced prostitution. Sexual slavery refers to the and inconsistently applied. "Forced prostitution"
during intercourse and child delivery, not to mention organized coercion of unwilling people into different generally refers to conditions of control over a person
the psychological trauma. sexual practices. Sexual slavery may include single- who is coerced by another to engage in sexual activity.
Forced prostitution owner sexual slavery, and ritual slavery sometimes In 1949 the UN General Assembly adopted the
 Forced prostitution is a violent offence to physical and associated with traditional religious practices, slavery Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in
sexual self-determination. Forced prostitution is a for primarily non-sexual purposes where sex is Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of
crime. It violates human rights of emotional and common or forced prostitution. Others (the 1949 Convention).
physical integrity. The victims of forced prostitution are  The terms "forced prostitution" or "enforced  The 1949 Convention supersedes a number of earlier
mostly women. prostitution" appear in international and humanitarian conventions that covered some aspects of forced
or why not?

prostitution. Signatories are charged with three using for the first time race- and gender-neutral declares that the enslavement of women and children
obligations under the 1949 Convention: language. Article 1 of the 1949 Convention provides subjected to prostitution is incompatible with the dignity
 prohibition of trafficking, punishment for any person who "procures, entices or and fundamental rights of the human person. It was
 specific administrative and enforcement leads away, for purposes of prostitution, another approved by the UN General Assembly in 1949.
measures, and person" or "exploits the prostitution of another person,  The convention describes procedures for combating
 Social measures aimed at trafficked persons. even with the consent of that person." To fall under the international traffic for the purpose of prostitution,
 The 1949 Convention presents two shifts in provisions of the 1949 Convention, the trafficking need including extradition of offenders. It also prohibits the
perspective of the trafficking problem in that it views not cross international lines. running of brothels and renting accommodation for
prostitutes as victims of the procurers, and in that it  The suppression of the traffic in persons and of the prostitution purposes.
eschews the terms "white slave traffic" and "women," exploitation of the prostitution of others resolution
or why not?

 The Centre for Human Rights, specifically the Forced marriage consent of both parties, such consent to be expressed
secretariat of the Working Group on Slavery, in close by them in person after due publicity and in the
co-operation with the Centre for Social Development  Forced marriage is a term used to describe a marriage presence of the authority competent to solemnize the
and Humanitarian Affairs of the Department of in which one or more of the parties is married without marriage and of witnesses, as prescribed by law.
International Economic and Social Affairs actively his or her consent or against his or her will.
monitors this resolution.  Forced marriage constitutes a human rights violation in  The Marriage Convention addresses the issue of age.
and of itself. Article One of the Convention on Consent According to Article 2 of the Convention, States
to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Parties to the present Convention shall take legislative
Registration of Marriages states that No marriage action to specify a minimum age for marriage. No
shall be legally entered into without the full and free marriage shall be legally entered into by any person
or why not?

under this age, except where a competent authority  Forced marriages differ from arranged marriages. In In more severe cases, the victim can be subject to
has granted a dispensation as to age, for serious forced marriages, one or both of the partners cannot physical or sexual abuse, including rape.
reasons, in the interest of the intending spouses. give free or valid consent to the marriage. Forced
marriages involve varying degrees of force, coercion or  In arranged marriages, the parents and families play
 Under General Assembly Resolution 2018 (XX) of 1 deception, ranging from emotional pressure by family a leading role in arranging the marriage, but the
November 1965, Recommendation on Consent to or community members to abduction and individuals getting married can nonetheless chose
Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration imprisonment. Emotional pressure from a victims whether to marry or not. Many regard arranged
of Marriages, Principle II states that the minimum age family includes repeatedly telling the victim that the marriage as a well-established cultural tradition that
to marry be set no lower than fifteen years. familys social standing and reputation are at stake, as flourishes in many communities, so a clear distinction
well as isolating the victim or refusing to speak to her. should be drawn between forced and arranged
or why not?

marriages. However, in some cases the difference traditions. They do not see anything wrong in their instances, agreements are made about marriage when
between a forced marriage and an arranged marriage actions. Forced marriage is not a religious issue; every the children were very young.
may be purely semantic. major faith condemns it and freely given consent is a  Some of the key motives that have been identified are:
prerequisite of Christian, Hindu, Muslim and Sikh
1. Motives prompting forced marriage marriages.  Controlling unwanted behavior and sexuality (including
 Often parents believe that they are upholding the perceived promiscuity, or being gay, bisexual or
cultural traditions of their home country, when in fact transgender) - particularly the behavior and sexuality of
 Parents who force their children to marry often justify practices and values there have moved on. Some
their behavior as protecting their children, building women
parents come under significant pressure from their
stronger families and preserving cultural or religious  Peer group or family pressure
extended families to get their children married. In some
or why not?

 Attempting to strengthen family links  Family honor  Although there is no specific criminal offence of forcing
 Ensuring land remains within the family  Long-standing family commitments someone to marry the law does provide protection from
 Protecting perceived cultural ideals which can often be the crimes that can be committed when forcing
misguided or out of date someone into a marriage. Perpetrators usually parents
 These motives should not be accepted as justification
 Protecting perceived religious ideals which are or family members have been prosecuted for offences
for denying them the right to choose a marriage
misguided including threatening behavior, harassment, assault,
partner. Forced marriage should be recognized as an
 Preventing "unsuitable" relationships, e.g. outside the abduction and murder.
abuse which typically involves criminal offences.
ethnic, cultural, religious or caste group
 Assisting claims for residence and citizenship 2. Criminal Law and Forced Marriage
3. Forced marriage in relation to the victim
or why not?

 Young people forced into marriage often become  Isolation is one of the biggest problems facing victims own families who may go to considerable lengths to
estranged from their families. Sometimes they of forced marriage. They may feel they have no one to locate them and ensure their return.
themselves become trapped in the cycle of abuse with speak to about their situation. These feelings of  The needs of victims of forced marriage will vary
serious long-term consequences. Many women forced isolation are very similar to those experienced by widely. They may need help avoiding a threatened
into a marriage suffer for many years from domestic victims of domestic abuse. Isolation is also very real for forced marriage. They may need help dealing with the
abuse. They feel unable to leave because of the lack of those who have escaped a forced marriage or the consequences of a forced marriage that has already
family support, economic pressures and other social threat of one. For many, running away is their first taken place.
circumstances. They may live within a forced marriage experience of living away from home and they suffer  Whatever an individual's circumstances, there are
for many years before they feel able to challenge the because of having to leave their family, friends and basic needs that should always be considered,
situation. their usual environment. They often live in fear of their
or why not?

including: Personal safety, Confidentiality, and The same culture may simultaneously practice both incidents are reported as accidental burns in the
Accurate information about rights and choices dowry and bride price. kitchen or are disguised as suicide. It is evident that
 Dowry abuse occurs when the husband's family there exist deep rooted prejudices against women in
Dowry abuse continues to press the wife's family for more money or India. Cultural practices such as the payment of dowry
other gains after the marriage, and sometimes involves tend to subordinate women in Indian society.
physical threats. Trafficking
 “A dowry is the money, goods, or estate that a woman  In India for example, the practice of dowry abuse is  Both men and women may be victims of trafficking, but
brings to her new husband. Bride price is paid to the rising. The most severe is bride burning, the burning the primary victims worldwide are women and girls, the
bride's parents, and dower which is property settled on of women whose dowries were not considered majority of whom are trafficked for the purpose of
the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage. sufficient by their husband or in-laws. Most of these sexual exploitation.
or why not?

 Traffickers primarily target women because they are  Exploitation includes forcing people into prostitution or  Women are trafficked through formal and informal
disproportionately affected by poverty and other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or channels all over the world.
discrimination, factors that impede their access to services, slavery or practices similar to slavery,  Under international law, governments are obligated to
employment, educational opportunities and other servitude or the removal of organs. For children, protect their citizens from being trafficked, through
resources. exploitation may also include forced prostitution, illicit programs that aim at prevention and the protection of
 Human trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, international adoption, trafficking for early marriage, or victims. Prevention of trafficking in women requires
harboring, or receipt of people for the purposes of recruitment as child soldiers, beggars, for sports (such examining the factors that contribute to the problem as
slavery, forced labor (including bonded labor or debt as child camel jockeys or football players), or for well as providing education to potential victims.
bondage), and servitude. religious cults.  Both government and non-governmental programs
should identify women who are at risk for trafficking
or why not?

and provide them with the tools necessary to find work preventing trafficking should take into account demand should also address the multiple difficulties women
abroad without putting themselves at risk. At the same as a root cause. States and governmental face when they attempt to reintegrate. Victims of
time, more far-reaching programs that address gender organizations should also take into account the factors trafficking face a range of needs including physical and
inequalities in the labor market are needed to combat that increase vulnerability to trafficking, including mental health care, job training and employment
trafficking in women. inequality, poverty and all forms of discrimination and issues, housing issues and, possibly, childcare.
 The United Nations High Commissioner for Human prejudice.  The trafficking of women for sexual exploitation is an
Rights produced a report entitled Recommended  A comprehensive strategy for combating trafficking international, organized, criminal phenomenon that has
Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and must also consider the safety of the victims. Non- grave consequences for the safety, welfare and human
Human Trafficking in 2002. It identifies demand as a governmental organizations (NGOs) and state rights of its victims.
root cause of trafficking; saying, Strategies aimed at agencies that work with repatriated victims of trafficking
or why not?

 Countries are affected in various ways. Some see their  INTERPOL derives its actions from such conventions  whether individuals crossing or attempting to cross an
young women being lured to leave their home country as the United Nations Convention against international border with travel documents belonging to
and ending up in the sex industry abroad. Other Transnational Organized Crime, and the additional other persons or without travel documents are
countries act mainly as transit countries, while several Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking perpetrators or victims of trafficking in persons,
others receive foreign women who become victims of in Persons.  the types of travel document that individuals have used
sexual exploitation. It is a global problem in which  They give guidelines for law enforcement action and or attempted to use to cross an international border for
INTERPOL actively seeks to increase and improve the following are some examples of those actions: The the purpose of trafficking in persons, and
international law enforcement co-operation in order to protocol urges an increase in the information exchange  the means and methods used by organized criminal
help combat this crime. between states in order to determine groups for the purpose of trafficking in persons,
including the recruitment and transportation of victims,
or why not?

routes and links between and among individuals and  Oxford Word Power Dictionary for Learners of English  Education is also defined based on its role for social
groups engaged in such trafficking, and possible defined education based on what it involves as The change as a powerful instrument for social
means for detecting them teaching or training of people especially in schools: transformation. Education is also important for
primary, secondary, higher etc. individuals development. The purpose of education for
Chapter Five: Women and Education  others define education based on its aim as a individuals both male and female is to develop the
continuous and creative process that aimed to develop powers and capacities hidden within them so that they
the capacities and progress of society, by equipping may contribute their share to an ever-advancing
Education and its importance members of society with spiritual, moral and material civilization.
 Different scholars define education differently from knowledge.  Education is one of the most important factors that
different points of view. positively affect the life of people who have got access
or why not?

to it and the life of the society and the group they  There is gender disparity in both enrollment and school  Educated girls have more life choice and opportunities
belongs to. completion rate. The number of out of school female to participate in community life and decision-making;
 Though education is important for all and is recognized children is higher than the number of male children out  Educated women tend to marry later and have fewer,
as one of the human rights in different international of school. healthier and better-nourished children
regional and national laws, all people have not got The importance of education for womens life  Educated women yield the highest return in economic
equal chance to exercise the right. We can cite the What benefits do you think are associated with girls terms and
existing huge gender disparity in primary, secondary education?  Educated women have more exposure to information;
and higher education in different part of the world as an1. The importance of education for individual growth of  Women with formal schooling resist domestic violence
example. girls more likely than those illiterates
or why not?

 Educated women have greater wage earning are more likely to seek medical care, ensure their fewer, better-spaced pregnancies, and seek pre and
opportunity children are immunized, be better informed about their post natal care. It is estimated that an additional year
2. Importance of women education for the society at large childrens nutritional requirement and adopt improved of schooling for 1000 women helps to prevent two
 Education reduce womens fertility rates : Women sanitation practices. As a result their infants and maternal deaths.
with formal education are much more likely to use children have higher survival rates and tend to be  Girls education reduces vulnerability of girls to
reliable family planning methods, delay marriage and healthier and better nourished. HIV: Girls education ranks among the most powerful
childbearing and have fewer and healthier babies than  Girls education lowers maternal morality rates: tools for reducing girl vulnerably. It shows and reduces
women with no formal education. Women with formal education tend to have better the spread of HIV/AIDS by contributing to female
 Education of women lowers infant and child knowledge about health care practices, are less likely economic independence, delayed marriage, family
mortality rate: Women with some formal education to become pregnant at a very young age, tend to have planning, and work outside the home, as well as
or why not?

conveying greater information about the disease and opportunities. A mother with a few years of formal country. Gender inequality in education is high in
how to prevent it. education is considerably more likely to send her Ethiopia. The gender gap between girls and boys in
 Girls education increases women labor force children to school primary and secondary school remained constant at
participation rates and earning. Education has been Education and Ethiopian women 20%.
proved to increase income for wage earners and  Apart from the gender gap, there had also been a
increase productivity for employers yielding benefits  Like many African countries, the majority of women in higher dropout and repetition rate among girls than
for the community and society Ethiopia hold low status in the society. boys. The committee on elimination of discrimination
 Girls education creates intergenerational  Lack of educational opportunities is one of the crucial against women in its concluding observation of
education benefits. Mothers education is a significant disadvantage Ethiopian women have been facing since January 2004 indicated the high level of women
variable affecting childrens education attainment and the introduction of modern (formal) education in the illiteracy and high rate of dropout and repetition among
or why not?

Ethiopia girls. The level of girls primary school  Cultural, social, political and economic factors schooling. This strong bias against girls education
enrollment was 19% in the academic year 1991/92 contribute to under participation and under relate to cultural factors. For example most cultures
though it increased to 53.8 %, 50.1%, and 71.1 % in achievement of women in education. highly valued girls contribution to household tasks and
the academic year 2002/2003, 2003/04, 2004/05  Strong bias against investment in female education in family livelihood and as a result womens chance for
respectively. As we can understand from this figure rural Ethiopia is one of the factors that contribute a lot schooling in that culture is very less. The bias also has
there is a growth in girls enrollment both in primary to the school enrollment of women and the existing some relation with societal belief. In most societies of
and secondary schools though there is still a gap gender discrepancy. Most of the girls are denied Ethiopia, there is a belief that females are less
between boys and girls and women and men in the schooling merely because of their gender, i.e. competent then males and that education is wastage
field of education. irrespective of the income of the household, parental on them.
educational status, distance to the school or quality of
or why not?

 The other factor that contributes to the low school Ethiopian women. For example 50% of women in the girls in school have their own role in gender disparity in
enrollment of women and the existing gender disparity Amhara Region of Ethiopia are married before the age enrollment and completion in Ethiopian.
in education in Ethiopia is the distance of the nearest of 15, the highest early marriage rate in the country. Is Education Right or Privilege?
school from the homestead especially in the rural  Rape and abduction is the other factor that lowers
areas. Households in Ethiopia are reluctant to send school enrollment of women. For example 8% of  The notion that elementary education is a
their children to schools far from home. If the school is currently married women in Ethiopia were abducted fundamental right is not accepted by all, at least not
distant from home parents do not send their girls to and forced into marriage. wholeheartedly. Some even perceive the
school for fear of abduction.  In addition to the above factors teen age pregnancy, universalization of education as a threat to the
 Forced and early marriage is also one of the factors child labor, parental sex preference, harassment, opportunities of their own children. In their view, the
that contribute to the low school enrollment of discrimination rate as well as inadequate treatment of role of the schooling system is to act as a "filtering
or why not?

process", which picks the best and the brightest and  Education has been regarded in all societies and  The UDHR: The declaration states, under Article20,
helps them to realize their potential. If too many throughout human history both as an end in itself and "Everyone has the right to education. In addition, it
children get on board, the prospects of those who as a means for the individual and society to grow. says that it shall be free, at least in the elementary and
currently enjoy the privilege of good schooling facilities  Its recognition in international, regional and national fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be
will be threatened constitutions as a human right is derived from the compulsory. Higher education shall be equally acces-
indispensability of education to the preservation and sible to all on the basis of merit, and technical and
Education as a Human Right enhancement of the inherent dignity of the human professional education shall be made generally avail-
person able.The UDHR also stipulates that education should
1. International standards be directed towards the full development of the human
personality and strengthening respect for human
or why not?

rights. Finally, it acknowledges that parents have a  Primary education shall be compulsory and available means, in particular by the progressive introduction of
prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be free to all. free education.
given to their children.  Secondary education, including technical and  Fundamental education shall be intensified for those
 The ICESCR: Articles 13 and 14 of the ICESCR set vocational education, shall be made generally persons who have not received or completed the
out detailed formulations of the right to education. available and accessible to all by every appropriate whole period of their primary education.
Article 13 contains a general statement that everyone means, in particular by the progressive introduction of  Systems of schools shall be established and the
has the right to education and that education should free education. material condition of teaching staff shall be
contribute to the full development of the human  Higher education shall be made equally accessible to continuously improved.
personality. It also specifically stipulates that: all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate  The liberty of parents or guardians to choose their
children schools other than those established by the
or why not?

public authorities which conform to minimum detailed plan of action for the progressive implementation of personality, talents, and mental and physical abilities to
educational standards shall be respected. In addition, compulsory primary education free of charge for all. their fullest potential.
Article 13 recognizes the liberty of parents or  UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in
guardians to ensure the religious and moral education  CRC: Articles 28 and 29 of the CRC deal with the right Education: The UNESCO Convention stipulates that
of their children in conformity with their own of the child to education. Article 28 is similar to the states parties must undertake to formulate, develop
convictions. provisions contained in ICESCR. In addition, it states and apply a national policy which will tend to promote
that school discipline should be administered in a equality of opportunity and treatment, and, in particular,
Article 14 requires each state party that has not been able manner consistent with a childs human dignity. Article to make primary education free and compulsory. In
to secure compulsory primary education free of charge, to 29 stipulates that the education of the child shall be addition, it recognizes parents right to freely choose
undertake, "within two years, to work out and adopt a directed towards the development of the child s their childrens educational institutions and to ensure
or why not?

the religious and moral education of their children in 2. Regional instruments  The constitutions of several countries include
conformity with their own convictions provisions on the right to education.
 CEDAW: Article 10 of CEDAW also contains  The right to education is recognized and guaranteed  Article 41(3) of FDRE Constitution guarantees the right
provisions dealing with the right to education. It pro- under several regional human rights instruments. of Ethiopian nationals to have access to publicly
vides, for example, for equal access to career and ACHPR (article 17), PACHPRWA (Article, 13), SDGEA funded social service which among others includes
vocational guidance and to studies at all educational (Article 8), ACRWC and in human rights documents of access to education. The same Article under Sub-
levels; access to the same curricula and examinations; other regions Article 5 imposes obligation on the Ethiopian
elimination of stereotyping in the roles of women and government to provide public education by allocating
men; and the same opportunities to benefit from 3. National Constitutions ever increasing resource for this purpose. The
academic scholarships. Constitution also prohibited people from requiring
or why not?

or/and permitting children to do work which has nondiscrimination, and freedom to choose the kind  However, at least four components of the right to
hazardous or harmful effect on their education under (public/private institutions) and content (religious and education can be gleaned from various legal provisions
Article 36(1) d. moral) of education. Both aspects represent the spirit on the right to education:
and cardinal essence of the right to education.
Content of the Right to Education and State  The demanding nature of the obligations involved in  Equal enjoyment of, and equal access to,
Obligations ensuring the right to education is reflected in the educational opportunities and facilities;
number and variety of reservations, declarations and  Compulsory and free primary education;
 Legal standards on the right to education encompass objections relating to the relevant article in the  Generally available and accessible secondary
two broad components: enhancement of access of all Convention on the Rights of the Child dealt above. education and equally accessible higher education
to education on the basis of equality and and
or why not?

 Freedom of choice in education, and freedom to  The duty to provide compulsory and free primary2. Accessibility
establish private institutions education is undoubtedly a prerequisite for the
realization of the right to education. The CESCR in its  At a minimum, governments are obligated to ensure
 The CESCR, in its General Comment 13 identifies four General Comment 11 on article 14 of the ICESCR the enjoyment of the right to education through
elements of the states obligations with respect to the considers that states parties have a clear and guaranteeing access to existing educational
right to education. These are (1) availability, (2) unequivocal obligation to draw up a plan of action for institutions by all on the basis of equality and
accessibility, (3) acceptability and (4) adaptability. ensuring compulsory and free primary education. The nondiscrimination. For example, as provided for in
1. Availability committee has stated that lack of educational article 10 of the CEDAW, governments are obligated to
opportunities for children often reinforces their subjec- take all appropriate steps towards the "elimination of
tion to various other human rights violations any stereotyped concepts of the roles of men and
or why not?

women at all levels and in all forms of education developed as well as ascertaining that education is ac- argue and disagree, to test and make mistakes, to
through such means school programs and the ceptable both to parents and to children. This element know and not know, to create and be spontaneous
adaptation of teaching methods. Under that provision, involves the right to choose the type of education4. Adaptability
women and girls also have a right to equal access to received, and the right to establish, maintain, manage
specific educational information (including family and control private educational establishments.  Normally, what a child learns in school should be
planning advice) and to sports programs. Another important element of acceptability relates to determined by his or her future needs as an adult.
3. Acceptability the child-friendly nature of the schools. Based on the However, the Convention on the Rights of the Child
Convention on the Rights of the Child, "it is imperative requires that the best interests of the child be given
 Based on this duty, states are obliged to ensure that all that education respect the right of the child to be prominence. Thus, the education system should
schools conform to the minimum criteria which it has curious, to ask questions and receive answers, to
or why not?

remain adaptable, taking into account the best has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the should have the effect of impairing or nullifying the
interests of the child. recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women recognition, enjoyment or exercise of human rights and
irrespective of their marital status, on the basis of fundamental freedoms.
Definition of Gender Based Discrimination in Education equality of men and women, of human rights and  Does the gap that exist between female and male
fundamental freedoms in the political, social, cultural, enrollment in education and school completion rate
 Discrimination on the basis of gender is defined in civil or any other field. amount to discrimination on the basis of gender as
different international instruments.  Accordingly, discrimination on the basis of gender is defined under CEDAW? To answer this it is very
 Among others, CEDAW under its Article1 defines caused when distinction, exclusion or restriction is important to question
discrimination against women as any distinction, made on the basis of sex- the fact of being female or  The base for the existing gender gap in enrollment
exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which male; and the distinction, exclusion or restriction and school completion rate.
or why not?

 As to whether right to education is human rights or of one of the human rights, right to education, by  CEDAW clearly endorses the implementation by state
not women. Hence, the existing gender gap between party of temporary special measures for women.
 If the answer to question B is in the affirmative, as female and male enrollment in education and school These refer to programs, politics, and laws that place
to whether or not the distinction have the effect of completion rate amounts to discrimination on the them in a situation of comparative advantage to men
impairing or nullifying the exercise, enjoyment or ground of gender as defined under Article 1of CEDAW. for a limited period, with the aim of achieving
recognition of this human rights substantive equality between the two sexes in the long
 As indicated in the discussion above, the low level of Addressing Discrimination in Education with term. Specifically Article 4.1 of the Convention reads:
women enrollment in education and school completion Temporary Special Measures Adoption by states parties of temporary special
rate mainly relate to the distinction made on the basis measures aimed at accelerating de facto equality
of sex and this has hazardous effect on the enjoyment between men and women shall not be considered
or why not?

discrimination as defined in the present convention, but treatment, the gender blind character of formal equality services, structural policies, and effective institutional
shall in no way entail, as a consequence, the masks structural discrimination and privilege that are remedies to overcome and deter discrimination
maintenance of unequal or separate standards; these embodied or built into institutions as a result of past
measures shall be discontinued when the objective of discrimination that temporary special measure aimed Justification for temporary special measures
equality of opportunity and treatment have been to redress.
achieved.  To achieve its goal temporary special measures must Giving the CEDAW Convention`s aim to end structural
 As it aimed to accelerate de facto equality, temporary be accompanied by or operate in the context of discrimination and secure substantive equality, temporary
special measures may depart from formal equality in enabling mechanism which support the achievement of special measures can be justified on the following grounds.
order to achieve substantive equality between men and substantive equality. These mechanisms may include 1. On the ground of compensatory justice
women. While formal equality promotes equal
or why not?

 Compensatory justice seeks to make up for past harms Temporary special measures are therefore justified to Platform for Action adopted at the 1995 Fourth UN
and disadvantages women suffered as a group or, can remedy the lingering effects of discrimination. World Conference on Women (i.e. to develop national
be based on forward-looking principles, which aim at 2. On the ground of distributive justice platforms for action), disparities persist between men
future equality for them as a group. After all a divided and women. For example, UNIFEMs Progress to the
past cannot permit a shared present and a shared  Distributive justice is a forward-looking justification, worlds Women 2000 biennial report reveals that there
future unless the present generation finds ways of oriented towards correcting current imbalances is much progress to be made before the gender gap in
pacifying its aggrieved and tormented victims. Past between women and men with respect to their access earnings is reduced, and before women in all countries
discrimination against women, particularly those who to the elements of a humane life. Despite obligations can hold 30 percent or more of decision-making
face multiple barriers, lays the groundwork for their under the CEDAW Convention (i.e. to end positions in the economic field.
continued patterns of structural discrimination. discrimination against women), and the Beijing 3. On the ground of Social utility
or why not?

 The social utility justification for temporary special benefit children by supporting them with maternal will likely help them achieve other rights. For example,
measures emphasizes their positive effects in terms of income and therefore add utility to society as a whole. given the interlocking nature of civil and political rights,
(i) mobilizing the economic and social potential of on the one hand, and economic, social and cultural
women for the common good of society, and (ii) 4. On the ground of access to rights rights, on the other, gender equality measures in the
encouraging and facilitating the social transformation employment context may promote womens enjoyment
and the promotion of diversity. An example of the first  A further justification for temporary special measures is of economic rights, such as the right to work or the
case is temporary special measures that are aimed at how such measures allow women to fully claim and right to enjoy an adequate standard of living.
narrowing the wage gap between men and women. realize their human rights. Because human rights are Alternatively, temporary special measures in the form
Besides benefiting women, such programs often interdependent, the adoption of temporary special of gender-sensitive policies of poverty alleviation,
measures that assist women achieve one set of rights education and skill-building facilitate womens access
or why not?

to civil and political rights, such as reproductive rights  On 28 October 2002, an Ethiopian representative increasing the school enrollment and completion rate
and access to legal redress. indicated in the combined fourth and fifth periodic of women at primary, secondary and university level.
report to the Committee on the Elimination of  The government of Ethiopia has taken affirmative
Some Temporary Special Measures Taken by the Discrimination Against Women that Ethiopia action to increase enrolment of female students in the
Ethiopian Government to Address Gender based government gave special emphasis to women educational institutions at different levels. As indicated
Discrimination in Education education by ensuring policy reform. in the report, thirty percent of the total number of seats
 The representative particularly explained the two has been reserved for female student in higher
 Ethiopia signed CEDAW on 8, July 1980; hence it is categories of measures taken by Ethiopia government educational institutions (universities). The report also
obliged to take temporary special measure to end that aimed to enhance the advancement of women indicated that the introduction of girls scholarship
discrimination and gender stereotype. program is a major step forward in the advancement of
or why not?

Ethiopia women and that the scholarship is proven  Apart from affirmative actions, appropriate policy actions that are being taken to influence policy are the
effective in promoting education and encouraging girls instruments and strategic measures have been following:
to remain in school. initiated by the ministry of education to sustain change
 The same report indicates that the promotion of girls as well as to effect greater change so as to eliminate  Development of girls education policy
education by rewarding individuals and institutions for systematic discrimination and provide less fortunate  Development of policy implementing strategy
their noble contribution is another recent initiative in the girls with the necessary assistance to ensure their  Incorporating the concept of gender mainstreaming in,
country. This is intended to encourage a wider section education. One of the major conceptual shifts in this inter-alia, curriculum development and parents
of the population, including media and press people, to regard is the action to bring about change in the counseling
take an active part in the promotion of girls education. subsistence of educational material. The specific
or why not?

 Capacity building of head teachers in high schools and increase in the construction of school in the rural areas Chapter Six: Women and Employment
gender focal points in the regions to deal with gender of the states is helping girls to attend classes near their  Worldwide, there is gender based discrimination in
matters localities. The arrangement of tutorial class for female access to employment as can be observed from the
 Conducting research in the area in order to devise students, the increase in the number of women existing huge gender difference in the labor force.
mechanisms for increased girls participation in primary, teachers and awareness raising activities are among  The gap becomes wide as one goes from developed to
secondary and tertiary education the measures taken by the Ethiopian government to developing countries.
increase the number of female students and  Womens lower educational attainment due to lack of
 The expansion of educational provisions is also among encourage them to remain in school. access to education and training opportunity, the
the measures taken by the Ethiopian government to existing misconception about the role and contribution
increase the enrollment of female students. The of women in employment and the contribution of
or why not?

women in family labor, i.e. their family responsibility  Those women who have access to employment face women often have to work harder at their jobs to keep
(women devote 70 percent of their time providing care many obstacles. Most of the employed women are even with their male counterparts.
for their families and communities while men devote placed in lower grade and lower paid jobs. Elite women  The existing gender based discrimination in
only 30 percent of their time on such activity) are who wish to improve their legal and economic status employment and its negative impact on the economy of
some of the contributing factor for the existing gender must expect to lose honor and respect. There is often the victim, the victims family, the victims country and
based discrimination in employment. sexism in job promotions and unpleasant that of the world as well as its impact on the person of
 Women also often suffer employment discrimination consequences if women stand up to men. There is the career led different international, regional and
because they need to take time off for maternity leave often more respect for male professionals (even from national organs to take legislative and other measures
or when a child is sick. women themselves) than there is for female. Career against gender based discrimination in employment.
Gender Based Discrimination in Employment
or why not?

 According to the 1958 Discrimination (Employment and fact (in reality or in practice) while de jure women, respectively. The latter example illustrates
Occupation) Convention, discrimination in employment discrimination refers to the existence of discrimination how sex impairs equality of treatment in employment.
is any distinction, exclusion or preference based on in law.  The decision of the committee does not amount to
designated criteria such as race, color, sex, religion,  Gender based discrimination occurs for example when gender based discrimination in employment. As per
political opinion, national extraction, social origin or a woman or a man who satisfy the criteria for a certain Article 5 of Discrimination in Employment and
other designated criteria which have the effect of job failed to get the job only because she is female or Occupation Convention, measures taken to meet the
nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity or he is male; respectively. Gender based discrimination requirement of persons who need special protection for
treatment in employment or occupation. The also occurs when a women or a man is unable to reasons to do with sex, age, disablement, family
discrimination may be de facto or de jure. A de facto obtain payments and/or other benefits she or he would responsibility or social or cultural status shall not be
discrimination shows the existence of discrimination in have obtained had she been a man or had he been a deemed to be discrimination. In the given case Aster is
or why not?

specially treated for the reason that she is female. In temporary: once the consequences of past promotional measures designed to give women access
other words she is specially treated because of her discrimination have been rectified, the measures to wider opportunities.
sex. We call such special protection as positive or should be removed. Positive action is seen as  Sex discrimination can be overt or direct discrimination
affirmative action. essential for the achievement of genuine equality or more subtle, indirect discrimination. Employers may
 Positive or affirmative action aimed to eliminate the between women and men in the world of work and discriminate against women directly by limiting
current direct and indirect consequences of past society. Positive action may encompass a wide range applications for certain jobs to only men or only
discrimination; special measures may need to be of measures, including corrective actions such as women. Discrimination is indirect when employers
designed in order to achieve de facto equality of setting targets for women's participation in activities impose criteria for applicants or specify characteristics
opportunity and treatment. Such positive measures from which they have previously been excluded, or which are not closely related to the inherent
(also termed affirmative measures) are intended to be requirements of the job, as a screening device. The
or why not?

purpose of the screening is either to exclude women or 1. International standards 2. Regional standard
men or to obtain workers of a certain type.  UDHR: Article 23(1) of the UDHR recognized the right  ACHPR: The charter under Article 15 guarantee to
Right to Employment, a Human right of women of every one, women as well as men, to work. As per every one the right to work and as per Article 2 of the
this provision any act that prevent women from charter the right shall be enjoyed without distinction of
 The right of women to equal employment opportunity participating in labor market amount to violation of any kind including sex.
with that of men is enshrined in a very large number of human rights of women  PACHPRWA: Article 13 of the protocol has imposed
international and regional human rights documents and  ICESCR: Under Article 6 State parties to the covenant obligation on the state parties to adopt and enforce
constitutional texts which provide either for equality of recognized, the right of every one, both men and legislative and other measures to guarantee women,
rights without discrimination on the basis of sex, or women, to work and to get the opportunity to gain his/ among others, equal opportunity to work. The same
prohibit discrimination based on such grounds her living by work. provision, under Sub-article (a), has also imposed duty
or why not?

on state parties to promote equality of access to  UDHR: Article 23(2) of the UDHR recognizes the right convention imposed duty on all states members to ILO
employment of everyone to equal pay for equal work. which ratifies the convention to promote and ensure
3. National laws  ICESCR: Under Article 7 of the covenant state parties the application to all workers of the principle of equal
 The FDRE Constitution: Article 34 of the FDRE recognized the right of every one to work which remuneration for men and women workers for works of
constitution expressly has recognized the right of ensure, among others, equal remuneration for work of equal value. (Article 1 and 2 of the convention) The
women to equality in employment equal value without distinction of any kind. convention also stated what remuneration includes. As
 Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 : After per sub-article (a) of Article 1 of the convention,
Women Right to Equal remuneration defining equal remuneration for women and men remuneration includes ordinary, basic or minimum
1. International standards workers for jobs of equal value or rate of remuneration wage or salary and any additional emoluments
established without discrimination based on sex, the whatsoever payable directly or indirectly, whether in
or why not?

cash or in kind, by the employer to the worker and 2. Regional standard  The right to care and assistance to which motherhood
arising out of the worker's employment. The convention  ACPHR: The charter under its Article 15 guarantee to and childhood are entitled may include the right to
further obliged state members to legally establish and every one a right to equal pay to equal work health protection, the right to maternity leave, the
organize machinery for wage determination under  PACH PRWA: Article 13(b) imposed obligation on right to leave in case of illness and complication
Article 2 sub article b. As can be learned from the state parties to adopt and promote the right to equal and the right to employment protection and non-
reading of Article 3 differential rate of wage between remuneration for jobs of equal value discrimination.
workers which correspond to difference in the work to a. Maternity protection  The right to health protection is aimed protecting
be performed shall not be considered as being contrary pregnant or breastfeeding women from being obliged
to the principle of equal remuneration for men and  Motherhood and childhood are protected by different to perform work which is determined by the competent
women workers for work of equal value. international regional and national laws. authority to be prejudicial to the health of the mother or
or why not?

the child, or which involves a significant risk to the to state the period of maternity leave; hence the period  As per Article 4(5) of the ILO Convention stated above
mothers health or that of her child. varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Maternity leave whenever a child is born certain days after the
 Maternity leave is leave in relation to child birth. The includes prenatal and post natal leave. Prenatal leave presumed date of birth, the prenatal portion of
right to maternity leave is a right guaranteed to women is leave given for certain period before the presumed maternity leave shall be extended by any period
upon the production of medical or other certificate, as date of child birth whereas postnatal leave is leave for elapsing between the presumed date of childbirth and
determined by national law or practice, which state the certain period after child birth. As per Article 4(4) the the actual date of childbirth, without reduction in any
presumed date of child birth. Almost all international ILO Convention Concerning the Revision of Maternity compulsory portion of postnatal leave.
laws, except the Convention Concerning the Revision protection, postnatal leave shall not be less than six  Women are also entitled to leave after or before
of Maternity Protection Convention 2000 which fixed 14 weeks period. maternity leave in case of illness, complications or risk
weeks as the shortest period of maternity leave, failed of complications arising out of pregnancy or childbirth.
or why not?

The nature and the maximum duration of such leave entitled to medical care which include prenatal, termination is unrelated to pregnancy, birth of the child
may be specified in accordance with national law and childbirth and postnatal care, as well as hospitalization and its consequence or nursing. The burden of proof in
practice. care when necessary. such case lay on the employer.
 To women who are absent from work on leave referred  Women are also entitled to employment protection b. Sexual harassment in work place
above, cash benefit shall be provided. The amount of that the employer can not legally terminate the  Sexual harassment is a form of gender specific
the benefit differs from one country to another but in employment relationship during her pregnancy or violence against women.
any case it shall be at a level which ensures that the absence on maternity leave or leave in case of  A woman who is victimized by sexual harassment is
woman can maintain herself and her child in proper absence. However, an employer may legally terminate subjected to pressure, degradation or hostility that her
conditions of health and with a suitable standard of his/her employment relationship with pregnant, breast male co- workers dont have to endure. At the most
living. In addition to the cash benefit women are feeding or confined women if the ground for basic level, harassment or other sexually coercive
or why not?

behavior constitutes violence against women because victims of sexual harassment are women while the that primarily affects them, and creates distinction,
like all forms of violence, such behavior undermines perpetrators are men. This observation does not reflect exclusion or restriction which has the effect of
the inherent human dignity of its victims. a biological proclivity in men to sexually harass impairing or nullifying their human rights. For example,
 Sexual harassment speaks more to power women, but rather speaks to the unequal structuring of in the context of work, women who are sexually
relationships and victimization than it does to sex itself. society along gender lines. Additionally, social and harassed can be said to be deprived of their right to a
It results from a misuse of power not from sexual cultural norms may serve to validate or even safe and secure working environment. This may affect
attraction, and reflects a disparity in power between encourage the behavior of sexual harassers. their productivity levels, and subsequently lead to their
the perpetrator and the victim, which more often than  At the same time, it is important to recognize sexual dismissal thus denying them the right to employment
not, mirrors the power differentials between men and harassment as a form of discrimination against women. and livelihood. Since all rights are interrelated, this
women in society. Indeed, in the vast majority of cases, Due to unequal gender relations, it is a phenomenon situation will also result in other rights being similarly
or why not?

violated. In this way as well, sexual harassment status, and low bargaining power in a narrow range of where sexual favors are demanded for employment
perpetuates inequality between women and men. occupations. In situations where there is a large supply benefits (i.e. quid pro quo harassment ), and the other
 Perpetrators of sexual harassment are traditionally of young women and limited job opportunities, sexual which involves a constant abuse of power, unrelated to
employers, superiors or co-workers. Women are harassment is said to be common during hiring and favors, to demean a victim and create hostile working
largely the victims, even though there have also been recruitment. The migration of women from rural to conditions for her ( i.e. hostile working environment
reported cases of male victims sexually harassed by urban areas in search of employment also places them harassment ). The two categories have evolved over
female or male colleagues. Women are particularly at greater risk of sexual violence, including sexual the years in Western jurisprudence and are broadly
vulnerable to victimization through sexual harassment harassment. descriptive of the trend of cases . It is important to
since the majority of them occupy jobs with low  Studies on sexual harassment cases and experiences reiterate that they are not conclusive or intended to
security, low pay, and low conditions of work, low of women have shown two dominant categories: one limit the scope and nature of the problem
or why not?

A. Quid pro quo Harassment  The employee was subjected to unwelcome sexual  Sexual harassment whether verbal, physical or visual,
advances or requests for sexual favors; and has been acknowledged as affecting and unreasonably
 This refers to situations where an employer or superior interfering with an individuals job performance or
at work makes tangible job- related consequences  Their reaction to the harassment rejection or creating an intimidating, hostile or offensive working
conditional upon obtaining sexual favors form an submission, as the case may be, affected tangible environment. Regardless of whether it actually results
employee. This form of sexual harassment involves aspects of the employees compensation, thrums, in psychological harm to the victim, which may well be
making conditions of employment (hiring, firing, conditions, promotion, access to training opportunities the case, it is now known to constitute an environment
promotion, retention etc. ) contingent on the victim and/or any other privileges of employment. of hostility or abuse towards one or more employees.
providing sexual favors. Such an action must prove
that: B. Hostile Working Environment Harassment
or why not?

 The responsibility to correct and remedy this  The indicators of an unwelcome relationship include a relationship where one of the parties had previously
environment is place on the employer. Further, some difference in institutional power between the parties been heterosexual and vice versa, the secret nature of
courts have tended to look for the frequency and and the threat of some substantial sanction or the a relationship and so on , Secondary indicators must
severity of the offending conduct, as well as the nature promise of some substantial reward predicated upon be used in conjunction with primary indicators to
of the harassment-i.e. whether it was physically entry into the relationship. establish the unwelcome nature of a relationship.
threatening or humiliating, or constituted of offensive
utterances- when assessing the extent of hostility  Secondary evidence used in such cases includes International Human Rights Standards
created by the conduct. factors that might distinguish the relationship from
more mainstream relationships, such as a wide age  More specific international standards in relation to
difference, an adulterous nature, a homosexual sexual harassment at the workplace are embodied in
or why not?

the CEDAW Convention. The issue has also been basis of equality of mane and women, of human rights only does a State has an obligation to protect women
dealt in several other UN treaties, declarations and and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, against the violation of sexual harassment but also
various regional instruments as explained below. social, cultural, civil or any other field. must provide adequate recourse in the event that this
 CEDAW  Further, under Article 2(e), states parties are obliged to right is violated.
take all appropriate measures to eliminate  More specifically, Article 11 of the convention contains
 Article 1 of the CEDAW convention defines discrimination against women by any person, a principal substantive provision on sexual harassment
discrimination as: Any distinction, exclusion or organization or enterprise. in international law. It reads: States parties shall take
restriction made on the basis of sex which has the  Furthermore, Article 15 of the convention affirms the all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination
effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the general principle that States shall accord to women against women in the field of employment in order to
recognition enjoyment or exercise by women ( ) on a equality with man before the law . This means that not
or why not?

ensure , on a basis of equality of men and women, the as humiliating and may constitute a health and safety including recruiting or promotion, or when it creates a
same rights , in particular : problem. It is a discriminatory form of violence against hostile working environment. Also important is how
a. The right to work as an inalienable right of all women. This defines sexual harassment as an General recommendation No. 19 spells out how states
human beings. unwelcome sexually determined behavior (such) as parties should bear responsibility for acts of gender-
f. The right to protection of health and to safety in physical contact and advances, sexually colored specific violence perpetrated by private actors
working conditions. remarks, showing pornography and sexual demands,  Discrimination under the convention is not restricted to
whether by words or actions, It further elaborates that action by or on behalf of Governments. Under general
 In 1992, the CEDAW committee went one step further (such conduct can be when the woman has reasonable international law and specific human rights covenants,
by formulating and adopting General Recommendation grounds to believe that her objection would States may also be responsible for private acts if they
No. 19 which expressly recognizes sexual harassment disadvantage her in connection with her employment, fail to act with due diligence to prevent violations of
or why not?

rights or to investigate and punish acts of violence, and this right. The covenant also guarantees basic rights  ICCPR: Article 17 of ICCPR recognizes the right to
for providing compensation. regarding employment conditions and remuneration. privacy and to personal integrity. Article 26, on the
 ICESCR: The ICESCRS obligates states parties to For example, its Article 7 acknowledges the right to other hand, recognizes the equality of all people before
ensure the equal right of men and women to the fair wages and equal remuneration for work of equal the law and acknowledges the right to equal protection.
enjoyment of all economic, social, and cultural rights value without distinction of any kind , in particular Sexual harassment invokes all of these rights since
set forth in the Convent. It recognizes the right to women being guaranteed conditions of work not victims have their right to privacy and personal integrity
work, which includes the right of everyone to the inferior to those enjoyed by men, with equal pay for violated, and the state has an obligation to protect all
opportunity to gain his or her) living by work which he equal work , as well as equal opportunity for promotion its citizens, both men and women, from having their
(or she) freely chooses or accepts , and requires and the right to safe and healthy working conditions. rights violated. Therefore, it follows that under the law,
states parties to take appropriate steps to safeguard
or why not?

the state has an obligation to provide protection to discrimination. Even though the convention odes not  UDHR: UDHR affirms that all human beings are born
victims of sexual harassment. specifically address the issue of sexual harassment, free and equal in dignity and rights. Article 2
 International Labor Organization Discrimination the fact that women are disproportionately affected by establishes that all people are entitled to the
(Employment and occupation) Convention: Adopted such behavior brings it within the conventions declarations enumerated rights and freedoms without
in 1958, this convention defines discrimination as any definition of employment discrimination. Thus, states distraction, including one that is based on sex, while
distinction, exclusion or preference made on the basis that are party to this treaty are obligated to declare and article 3 provides for a universal right to life, liberty and
of sex which has the effect of nullifying or impairing implement a national policy to combat sex security of person. Besides, all people are entitled to
equality of opportunity or treatment in employment or discrimination, including harassment, by employing equal protection under the law, and everyone has the
occupation. It requires states parties to implement a measures that are appropriate to the local context right to an effective remedy by the competent national
national policy to eliminate all forms of employment tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights
or why not?

granted by the constitution or by law. In addition to  Declaration of Violence against Women: The 1993  The Beijing Declaration and the Beijing Platform
these overarching provisions, the declarations Article UN Declaration on Violence against Women states, for action
23(1) carries significant weight in the context of sexual violence against women shall be understood to
harassment, as it establishes the right to work, to free encompass, but is not limited to, the following:  The UN Fourth World Conference of Women in 1995
choice of employment, to just and favorable conditions physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring produced two important documents: the Beijing
or work, and to protection against unemployment. in the general community, including sexual harassment declaration and the Beijing Platform for Action. The
Although this declaration is only a morally- binding and intimidation at work. As such, it creates an former reaffirms an international commitment to the
document, it is still important because it establishes obligation for states to exercise all due diligence in principles of human rights and dignity enshrined in the
clear international norms that human rights violations eliminating such forms of unacceptable behavior. UN Charter, the universal Declaration of Human
are unacceptable and must be remediable by law. Rights, the declaration on Violence against Women,
or why not?

and the CEDAW convention. It professes a violence against women, and inequality in economic commensurate with their abilities. Accordingly, the
determination by member states to take all necessary structures and policies, in all forms of productive BPFA recommends that states enact and enforce laws
measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination activities. It also outlines specific measures that states and develop workplace policies against gender
against women and remove all obstacles to gender parties should undertake to achieve the objectives set discrimination in the labor market, especially regarding
equality and the advancement and empowerment of forth in the Beijing Declaration. discriminatory working conditions and sexual
women to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence  The BPFA includes sexual harassment and harassment.
against women and girls, and to ensure women s equal intimidation in its definition of violence against women.  In 2000, UN member states reinforce their support for
access to economic resources. It further states that the experience of sexual the Beijing Declaration and the BPFA by endorsing an
 The Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA), on the other harassment is an affront to a workers dignity and outcome document on future actions and initiatives. In
hand, includes in its list of critical areas of concern prevents women from making a contribution outlining the obstacles to the implementation of the
or why not?

BPFA, the document noted among other things, that  In the context of sexual harassment, this refers to the its prevention and eradication are to ever become
sexual harassment is incompatible with the dignity failure of states to fully implement all measures meaningful and attainable goals.
and worth of the human person and must be combated necessary to secure for women, safe, healthy and
and eliminated. It also highlighted the persistence of equitable working environments. Prosecuting Chapter Seven: Political Participation of Women
discriminatory legislation and the continuing existence offenders, breaking cycles of gender- based violence
 According to Womankind, womens political
of legislative and regulatory gaps that failed to provide and providing adequate redress for victims of such
participation refers to womens ability to participate
women with adequate protection from gender based violence are simply not possible in the absence of
equally with men, at all levels, and in all aspects of
violence as one of the obstacles to achieving gender legislation authoring such actions to be taken. Sexual
political life and decision making.Women constitute
equality. harassment must be addressed at the national level if
slightly more than half of the world population. Their
or why not?

contribution to the social and economic development of 33%. According to Womankind, womens participation  raise womens confidence, self-esteem and the skills
societies is also more than half as compared to that of in public life and decision making varies from one so that they themselves challenge and confront
men by virtue of their dual roles in the productive and country to country depending on the work done by existing power structures
reproductive spheres. Yet their participation in formal countries to:  Support networks and positive role models
political structures and processes, where decisions  raise womens awareness of their rights and how to  Create an enabling environment, meaning to create a
regarding the use of societal resources generated by claim them political, legal, economic and cultural climate that
both men and women are made, remains insignificant.  provide access to information about laws, politics and allows women to engage in decision making process
 Presently, women's representation in legislatures institutions and structures which govern their lives in sustainable and effective way.
around the world is 15%, of course there are countries Womens right to participate in politics as a human
where in the participation of women in politics goes to right
or why not?

 With an increasing recognition among international laws enshrined provision that recognize the right of ground of, among others, sex. The provision further
community of women's historic exclusion from women to equally participate in politics. assure all citizens, men as well as women, to vote and
structures of power, a global commitment has been 1. International standard to be elected at genuine public election
made to redress gender imbalance in politics.  UDHR: The declaration under Article 21 recognized  CEDAW: CEBAW elaborate the nature of womens
 Women's enhanced participation in governance the right of every one, including both women and men, political rights and the steps required to promote
structures is viewed as the key to redress gender to take part in the government of their country, directly greater equality between women and men in this area.
inequality in societies. To enhance the political or through freely chosen representative  Beijing Platform for Action: The Beijing Platform for
participation of women, many international human  ICCPR: Article 25 of ICCPR guarantees all citizens of Action, the principal international action plan on
rights documents as well as national constitutions and state parties to the convention to take part in the womens rights, contains a section on women in power
conduct of public affairs without discrimination on the and decision-making, which states that women
or why not?

empowerment and autonomy of women and the countries through affirmative action, enabling national  The FDRE Constitution: The Federal Democratic
improvement of womens social, economic and political legislation and other measures so as to ensure the republic of Ethiopia Constitution like the constitution of
status is essential for the achievement of both participation of women in national elections without most countries of the world guarantee women equal
transparent and accountable government and discrimination, equal representation of women at all right with that of men to equally participate in politics.
administration and sustainable development in all electoral process with that of men, partnership of
areas of life women with men at all levels of development and The two main reasons that justify the promotion of
2. Regional instrument implementation of state policies and development womens participation in public life
 PACPHRWA: This protocol impose obligation on state programmers.
parties to promote participative governance and the 3. National Instrument  Different scholars justify the need to promote the
equal participation of women in the political life of their political participation of women differently as we can
or why not?

understand from the following two line of arguments  The second line of argument is the instrumentalist  The structural and functional constraints faced by
stated above. line of argument. This argument stresses that women women are shaped by social and political relations in a
 The first line of argument is the intrinsic argument. have different vision and concepts of politics owning to society. The following are some of the factors which
According to this line of argument, equal participation their sex and their gender role as a mother. The constrain womens participation in public life and
of women in politics forms the human rights proponents of this argument therefore assume that decision making
perspective. According to the proponenst of this women in politics will bring a special caring focus and 5. Ideological factors
argument, women constitute half of the world female values to politics.
population and therefore, it is only fair that they should  Patriarchy as a system of male domination shapes
have equal participation and representation in world Factors Hindering Womens Political participation womens relationship in politics. It transforms male and
democracies. females into men and women and constructs the
or why not?

hierarchy of gender relations where men are privileged. of home as mothers and wives and men in the public social and political systems of a particular society,
Andrienne Rich defines patriarchy as: A familial- sphere. This is one of the vital factors that shape the women continue to be defined as private across
social, ideological, political system in which men by level of womens political participation globally. countries which resulted in their exclusion from politics
force, direct pressure or through ritual, tradition, law, However, this ideological divide is not reflective of the6. Political Factors
and language, customs etiquette, education, and the reality.
division of labor, determine what part women shall or  Women have to negotiate their entry into and claim  The nature of politics is an important factor for the
shall not play in which the female I everywhere public space according to the discursive and material inclusion or exclusion of women in politics. Vicky
subsumed under the make, opportunities available in a given culture and society. Randall defines politics as an articulation, or working
 The gender role ideology is used as an ideological tool Although the gender role ideology is not static rather out of relationships within an already given power
by patriarchy to place women within the private arena remained in a flux while intersecting with economic, structure, which is in contrast with the traditional view
or why not?

of politics that defines it as an activity, a conscious,  Male domination of politics, political parties and culture sessions are held in odd timings conflicting with
deliberate participation in the process by which of formal political structures is another factor that womens domestic responsibilities.
resources are allocated among citizens. This hinders womens political participation. Often male  The larger democratic framework and level of
conception of politics restricts political activity only in dominated political parties have a male perspective on democratization also impact womens political
public arena and the private sphere of family life is issues of national importance that disillusions women participation. Secular democracies in Europe as well
rendered as a political. This public-private dichotomy in as their perspective is often ignored and not reflected as in some of the developing countries have created a
traditional definition of politics is used to exclude in the politics of their parties. Also women are usually relatively more space for womens participation in
women from public political sphere and even when not elected at the position of power within party politics as compared to countries where religious
women are brought into politics they are entered as structures because of gender biases of male orthodoxy has been shaping politics and democracy.
mothers and wives. leadership. Meetings of councils or parliamentary7. Socio-Cultural Factor
or why not?

 The subordinate status of women vis-à-vis men is a the state, society and the family. This is reflected in the participate in politics due to the limited time available to
universal phenomenon, though there is a difference in social indicators which reflect varying degrees of them because of their dual roles in the reproductive
the nature and extent of subordination across gender disparities in education, health, employment, sphere. With their primary roles as mothers and wives
countries. Gender role ideology only creates duality of ownership of productive resources and politics in all and competing domestic responsibilities and care
femininity and masculinity, but also places them in a countries. In addition gender is mediated through worked, they are left with little time to participate in
hierarchal fashion in which female sex is generally class, caste and ethnicity that structure access to politics.
valued less than male sex because of their socially resources and opportunities. 8. Economic Factors: Politics is increasingly becoming
ascribed roles in the reproductive sphere.  The socio-cultural dependence of women is one of the commercialized. More and more money is needed to
 The gender status quo is maintained through low key detrimental factors to their political participation in participate in politics. Women lack access to and ownership
resource allocation to womens human development by public political domain. Women also find it hard to
or why not?

of productive resource, which in turn limits the scope of10. Quotas Argument for and against summarizes some of the issues highlighted in
their political work. comparative studies on gender quotas.
9. Lack of Social Capital and Political Capacities: Women  It emerged as a global fast tract strategy to redress the  There is a clear consensus in the literature that gender
often lack social capital because they are often not head of historic exclusion of women from the formal arena of quota is an effective tool in addressing womens
communities, tribes or kinship groups, resulting in the politics. Over the last half of the 20 th century, many exclusion and ensuring their presence in formal
absence of constituency base for them and means of countries have instituted gender quotas either structure of politics. However, the controversy starts
political participation such as political skills, economic voluntarily or through legislation. The gender quota is around the vital question as to what extent womens
resources, education, training and access to information. marred with discursive controversy. Without debating presence in political structures has led to an effective
the two distinct opposing views, this section mainstreaming of gender concerns in politics. This has
Strategies for womens political participation
or why not?

raised issues on the nature and modalities of gender  Gender quotas are also riddled with essentialist  The gender gap in politics cannot be redressed simply
quotas and its limitation to empower women in politics. assumptions of women as a distinct group with a by bringing more women in to the system. It is also a
 Gender quotas are instituted within the context of distinct perspective and the universalization of women policy and outcome issue, which cannot be addressed
gender disparities, which are structural and systemic. as a category. Women are homogeneous groups. They unless supportive mechanisms are put in place and
Without addressing the structural constraints to are divided along the line of class, ethnicity, religion provided with an enabling environment to work
womens political exclusion, their inclusion through and rural/urban background. effectively. This makes the nature and process of
gender quota cannot lead to an effective  The domination of elite women in political structures quotas systems central to an affirmative action
representation. The gender quotas, therefore, need to due to state quotas calls for locating the gender quota measures.
be linked with the social and economic redistributive within the framework of diversity and difference to  Lastly, the wider context of politics and democracy is
justice in the society. ensure womens political empowerment. equally important to determine the success of fender
or why not?

quota. It is concluded that without the transformation of  The first important element of the enabling  Access to education, health and employment is directly
the wider politics, gender quota cannot lead to environment relates to the nature of democracy and linked with womens ability to create space for
womens political empowerment. the level of democratization in society. The themselves in politics and development.
11. Enabling environment for women participation in participative and decentralized form of governance  Womens consciousness of their political rights is
politics and development creates greater space for citizens to participate in another critical element for womens individual and
governance processes and structures. It also creates collective agency. Political consciousness through
 The goal of equal participation of women in politics can space for greater interaction between the state and the building transformative communities is one sustainable
be achieved when socio-cultural, political and society. way to transform politics and development.
economic structural barriers are changed.  A strong womens movement and civil society is
another condition of enabling environment that can
or why not?

influence the direction of politics and development in Participation of Ethiopian Women in Public Life and same in the countrys Constitution and made it the law
favor of women. Decision Making of the land.
 Triple roles of women in productive, reproductive and  The FDRE Constitution promote womens participation
community management spheres must inform the  Ethiopia is one of the countries wherein women s in politics declaring under Article 38 the right of every
efforts for crating supportive environment for women s participation in politics is minimal due to the factors Ethiopian to participate in public affairs, to vote and to
political participation. Provision of child care and care dealt here in above. be elected to any office at any level of government and
work is vital to enabling women to participate in the  To enhance the political participation of women, the to be a member of any political organizations, labor
development processes. Government of Federal Democratic Republic of union, trade organization and etc; without
Ethiopia ratified the Convention on Elimination of all discrimination on the ground of sex. In addition the
forms of Discrimination against Women, integrated the Constitution entitled women to affirmative measures in
or why not?

politics, under Article 35(3), in order to remedy the aimed at institutionalizing the political and socio- areas leadership and managerial skill so that they can
historical legacy of inequality and discrimination economic rights of women by creating appropriate exercise their rights and initiating specific measures to
suffered by Ethiopian women by enabling them to structures in government institutions so that public increase gender balanced representation within
participate and compete on the basis of equality with policies and interventions are gender sensitive and political and public sphere are among the general
men, including in political life. geared towards ensuring equitable development for all objectives of PASDP.
 Besides, the government initiated various policies and Ethiopians.  Efforts have also been made both by governmental
strategies such as the National Policy on Women of  The attainment of equality between men and women, and non governmental organizations to disseminate
1993 and the five years (2005/06-2009/10) plan for among others, in the political and development women rights information to the people including, but
Accelerated and Sustained Development to End endeavor of the country is one of the goals of not limited to, womens right to participate in politics
poverty (PASDEP). The national policy for women is PASDEP. Building womens and girls capacity in the equally with that of men.
or why not?

 The translation of Human Rights Conventions which political participation in Ethiopia though the increase is reproductive organ. As per the same source,
enshrined provision that recognize womens right to not as large as it should be due to the continuation of reproductive health rights include:
participate in politics into working local language and stereotypes.  The right to legal or save abortion ;
the improvement in the education of gender issues in  The right to control ones reproductive functions;
media are part of the effort made to promote the Chapter Eight: Reproductive Rights of women  The right to access quality reproductive health care
political participation of women in the country.  Different materials and laws define reproductive health and
 The increase in the number of women both in the almost similarly but using different languages. For  The right to education and access in order to make
House of Peoples Representatives and House of example, Wikepeda Encyclopedia defined reproductive reproductive choice free from coercion, discrimination
Federation, in almost all political parties and the state health right as rights related to sexual reproduction and and violence.
councils are indicators of the enhancement of womens
or why not?

 Reproductive health is comprehensively defined in  The above definition is very important as it disclose the  As per Article 14 of Protocol to the African Chapter on
Cairo International Conference on Population and wrongness of defining right to reproductive health as Human and Peoples Right on the Rights of Women in
Development Program of Action. In the conference, freedom from reproductive diseases. Right to Africa, reproductive right is a right that includes:
State parties to Convention in Elimination of reproductive health does not mean freedom from  The right to control ones fertility;
Discrimination Against Women committed themselves reproductive disease; it means ensuring that people  The right to decide whether to have children, the
to further the right to reproductive health and defined have access to acceptable and affordable reproductive number of children and the spacing of children;
reproductive health as a state of complete physical, care that permits them to avoid or treat productive  The right to chose any method of contraception;
mental and social wellbeing and not merely the health.  The right to self-protection and to be protected
absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to against sexually transmitted infections, including
the reproductive system and to its function and process HIV/AIDS;
or why not?

 The right to be informed on ones health status women as a human right realizing the fact that women discussed at the United Nation International
and on the health of ones partner, particularly if can not experience the overall enjoyment of the right to Conference on Human Rights in Teheran, 1968.
affected with sexually transmitted infections health unless their reproductive health right is The sixteen Article of Teheran Proclamations
including HIV/AIDS in accordance respected, fulfilled and protected. Herein under are the recognized reproductive right as a subset of
withinternationally recognized standards and best lists of international, regional and national standards human right and states that parents have a basic
practices and that recognize the reproductive health right of women human right to determine freely and responsibly
 The right to have family planning education. as human rights. the number and the spacing of their children.
Reproductive Health Right as a Human Right 1. International standard b. CEDAW: State parties to CEDAW under Article
 Different international, regional and national a. Teheran Declaration: The idea of reproductive 11(1) F and (2) affirmed the right to family
Constitutions recognized reproductive health right of health rights as part of human rights was first planning and maternity health and have accepted
or why not?

the legally binding obligation to protect these rights  Establish and strengthen existing pre-natal, 3. National standard
and safeguard womens reproductive right. delivery and post natal health and nutritional a. The FDRE Constitution: The FDRE Constitution
2. Regional Standard service for women during pregnancy and while under Article 35(9) recognized womens rights of
a. PACPHRWA: After stating what rights are they are breast feeding and access to family planning education, information and
included in reproductive rights of women ,the  Protect the reproductive rights of women by capacity. Besides, it guaranteed women the right to
protocol imposed obligation on state parties to: authorizing medical abortion in cases of sexual prevent harm arising from pregnancy and childbirth.
 Provide adequate, affordable and accessible assault, rape incest, and where continued b. Abortion as Human Rights:
health services, including information, education, pregnancy endangers the mental and physical  Induced abortion or deliberate termination of
and communication programmes to women health of the mother or the life of the mother or the pregnancy is one of the most argumentative legal
especially those in rural areas; fetus. issues. The argument is between those who support
or why not?

the legality of safe and legal abortion and those who  Contrary to what the religious groups argue, advocates pregnant womens rights to make an independent
oppose the legality of abortion. of womens rights support the legality of abortion. decision regarding abortion violates or poses a threat
 There are many factors that contribute to the argument According to them women have a right to to a wide range of human rights. Such as: the right to
for and against abortion. Of all the factors, religious independently decide in all matters in relation to their life, the right to health, the right to freedom from
outlook is the main one that has influenced the current reproductive right including the issue of abortion. The Discrimination, the right to security of person, the right
position of many local laws. Major religions such advocates justify their argument saying equitable to liberty, the right to privacy, the right to information,
Catholics, Hinduism, Buddhism and Humanists access to safe abortion service is first and for most a the right to be free from cruel, inhuman or degrading
condemn abortion and consider it as a deliberate human right. treatment, the right to decide the number and spacing
taking away of life that should be prohibited upon  According to Human Rights Watch, one of the of children and the right to thought and religion.
punishment. proponents of the legality of abortion, the denial of
or why not?

 Women's access to safe and legal abortions is  Unsafe abortion, according to the FDRE government in the country who carried out abortion are victims of
restricted in law or in practice in most countries in the report, is the fifth leading cause of hospital admission abortion related complications.
world. Even where abortion is permitted by law, women and the second leading cause of death among  Understanding the tremendous tragic toll that unsafe
may only have limited access to safe abortion services. hospitalized women in Ethiopia. abortion takes in Ethiopia especially on young and
Only a small number of countries prohibit abortion in all  This shows the fact that women carry out abortion poor women, the government of Ethiopia approved a
cases. In most countries and jurisdictions, abortion is disregarding the legal prohibition of the act in the Penal number of legal reforms and took policy measures that
allowed to save the pregnant woman's life, or where Code of 1957. Most of the abortion service in Ethiopia aimed at promoting womens reproductive health and
the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest is staffed by non specialists and mid level providers in rights. The main legal reform taken to promote women
Abortion in Ethiopia an unsafe manner and as a result most of the women reproductive right is the revision made to the penal
code of Ethiopia, particularly the amendment of the
or why not?

provisions with the in relation to the reproductive right termination of pregnancy as a criminal act. However,  Where the pregnant women owing to a physical or
of women. For example under the 1957 Penal Code of the exceptional situations have been put in wider mental deficiency or minority is physically as well
Ethiopia, abortion was considered as a criminal act context. Accordingly termination of pregnancy is not as mentally unfit to bring up the child
which is punishable unless in some stated exceptional punishable in Ethiopia if:
situations. As stated under Article 534(1) termination of  The pregnancy is the result of rape or incest; Moreover, Article 550 of the criminal code stated that the
pregnancy is not punishable where it is done to save  The continuation the pregnancy endangers the court shall mitigate the punishment put under the law,
the pregnant women from grave and permanent health or life of the mother or the child or where where the pregnancy has been terminated on the account
danger to life or health which is impossible to avert in the birth of the child is a risk to the life or health of of poverty.
any other way. Similarly Article 545(1) of the revised the mother; The government also drafts a five years action plan with the
Criminal Code of 2004 considered intentional objective of, among others, improving women and girls
or why not?

reproductive rights called A plan for accelerated and

sustainable development to end poverty. In the plan the
government committed to protect womens reproductive
rights, to improve the health status of women and girls, to
improve maternal health care service, to provide and
ensure access to gender sensitive health information by
men and women, to implement gender sensitive HIV/AIDS
prevention and to promote male involvement in
reproductive rights and health activities.

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This final [unit] addresses criticism of and efforts at overcoming the "essentialism" that may be associated with the

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women

Defining Violence Against Women