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Muddy Thinking in the
Mississippi River Delta
Muddy Thinking in the Mississippi
River Delta
A Call for Reclamation

Ned Randolph

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

University of California Press
Oakland, California

© 2024 by Edward Randolph

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons (CC BY-NC-ND) license. To

view a copy of the license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses.

Suggested citation: Randolph, N. Muddy Thinking in the Mississippi River Delta:

A Call for Reclamation. Oakland: University of California Press, 2024. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1525/luminos.183

Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-0-520-39720-0 (pbk. : alk. Paper)

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33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Jessica and our girls, Annie and Polly
 CONTENTS

List of Illustrations
Acknowledgments
Land Acknowledgment

Introduction: A Turn to Mud

Interlude: Vignette
1. A Mudscape in Motion
Interlude: On the Mermantau
2. Muddy Foil
Interlude: Toledo Bend
3. The Villainous River
Interlude: Whose Paradise?
4. The Birth of River Science and Grassroots Greenwashing
Interlude: The Arrivals
5. The “Katrina Effect” and the Working Coast
Interlude: A Modest Proposal
6. Mud, Plastics, and Cancer Alley
Interlude: Landfall
Conclusion: Stuck in the Mud

Notes
Bibliography
 ILLUSTRATIONS

1. The ExxonMobil refinery in Baton Rouge on the Mississippi River

2. Former river path lobes produced the landscape of Louisiana
3. A rendition of a maroon encampment from Harper’s Weekly in 1878
4. A perspective of New Orleans on the crescent bend in the river
5. Harold Fisk’s maps traced the meandering paths of the Mississippi River
6. An oil derrick and waste pit in the South Louisiana marsh
7. Pipeline warning signs dot the Louisiana coastal wetlands
8. Erosion around a pipeline canal after Hurricane Ida
9. Shrimp boats along Bayou Terrebonne at Point-au-Chien
10. Cutting sugarcane by hand in Louisiana
11. Rise St. James founder Sharon Lavigne protests Formosa Plastics
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Muddy Thinking has been the culmination of many years of graduate and
postgraduate work that started in San Diego and ended in New Orleans—
two very different kinds of places. Throughout, I have carried the steadfast
support of my graduate adviser and mentor, Patrick Anderson, who
embraced the potential for mud from the outset and simply refused to allow
me to stray off into more conventional paths. His introduction to the editors
at University of California Press, I believe, was critical for keeping the idea
alive and real for me—which it remained through the stewardship of three
project editors, who passed the baton flawlessly. My wife, Jessica Shank, has
been steadfast in her unerring belief in my ability to complete a dissertation,
and now a book. Her support has been crucial, even if at times a little
baffling to me. But I accept it as one excepts a very generous gift—with
humility. My mother, Sanna Thomas, and stepfather, John Thomas, have
been dogged copy editors with precision I have appreciated throughout.
They proofread more than their share of work, which, I’m sure, exceeded
what they signed up for. A publication such as this has gone through many
iterations and readers. I can’t begin to name them all. The other members of
my dissertation committee, Valerie Hartouni, Kelly Gates, Angela Booker,
and Octavio Aburto, as well as the University of California, San Diego,
professors and fellow graduate students from the Department of
Communication helped shape my thinking through conversations,
seminars, workshops, campus pubs, and general care. I’m so grateful for
them. My friend and former officemate, Alex Dubee, was especially
supportive and available for close readings and feedback during my tenure at
UC San Diego. I’m likewise grateful to my colleagues in New Orleans who
helped me grow the work into a book. My friend, David Terry, planted the
idea of muddy thinking in my mind at some point during the formal book
proposal, which seemed to click everything into place. I would also like to
acknowledge the financial support from the Bywater Institute at Tulane’s
Studio in the Woods, where I spent a week completing the manuscript draft,
the Center for the Gulf South at Tulane, and the Institute of Practical Ethics
and Judith and Neil Morgan Endowed Fellowship, both at UC San Diego, as
well as the generous support from my department to travel and conduct
research. My time as a visiting assistant professor at Tulane University also
helped introduce me to the intellectual and activist community in South
Louisiana that tirelessly advocates for a clean and equitable place to live.
They continue to be my inspiration, especially the many grassroots
organizations formed by and in solidarity with residents directly affected by
pollution and environmental desecration. Finally, I would like to
acknowledge my deceased father, Ned Randolph Jr., who visits these pages
and my thoughts. I attribute the best parts of me to his gentle guidance and
friendship. I wish he were here to stash a copy of Muddy Thinking on his
bookshelf.
John McPhee’s Control of Nature, published in 1989, documented the
struggle of corralling the Mississippi River in a work of prose that first set
spark to my literary imagination. Muddy Thinking might not have happened
otherwise.
 LAND ACKNOWLEDGMENT FOR THE NEW ORLEANS
REGION

The following acknowledgment comes from the Studio in the Woods on the
Mississippi River outside of New Orleans, where I spent a week in retreat
completing my manuscript.
The earth here is built up from the alluvial soil carried by the Mississippi River. It
was home to early native peoples well before European settlement. Indigenous
communities include the Washa and Chawasha, the Houma, Chitimacha, Biloxi,
Choctaw, Bayagoula, Quinipissa, Atakapa-Ishak, Caddo, Tunica, Natchez,
Tchoupitoulas, Tangipahoa, and others. The city we call New Orleans has been a site
of exchange and commerce for more than 1,000 years and was known among other
names as Bulvancha—“the place of other languages”—in Choctaw. The Mississippi
River takes its name from the Anishinaabe, a people native to the headwaters of the
river, whose word Misi-ziibi, means “huge river.” The diversity and richness of the
deltaic ecosystem drew indigenous peoples, who lived with the rhythms of the river,
traversing Bulvancha’s ridges and bayous to hunt and to trade with each other. The
creativity and ingenuity of both the indigenous and enslaved African inhabitants of
this area are embedded in every aspect of what we now refer to as “New Orleans”
culture and landscape—including music, art, engineering, agriculture, floodways,
languages, and the ways we are in community together.
 Introduction
A Turn to Mud

My early memories are murky and, like sediment, can be reshaped and
sometimes permanently obscured. Particularly my memories of mud—
alluvial silt and clay delivered by water so omnipresent in a childhood of
bayous and streams. I grew up in a town on the Red River, which gave my
home parish (not county) the name Rapides. Before the Red River was
irreparably tamed by the US Army Corps of Engineers’ $2 billion lock and
dams project in the 1980s, it flowed with force.1 It was too dangerous for
swimming. And sometimes, when the water level was low, you could see the
remnant earthworks of “Bailey’s Dam,” constructed under Union Lt. Col.
Joseph Bailey during the Red River Campaign. The dam lifted the water for
Union gunships to pass downstream. My dad, who seemed to know
everything, said the dam was built to slow the pursuit of Confederates. In
that campaign, Alexandria’s downtown riverfront was burned to the ground.
But Tecumseh Sherman, known for his scorched march to Atlanta, reportedly
sent orders to spare the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning and Military
Academy (later renamed Louisiana State University [LSU]), where he had
served as its first superintendent.2 He also spared several rural plantation
homes as a sentimental gesture to the owners he had befriended during his
post.
According to Alexandria’s town history, a wealthy Pennsylvania
landowner named Alexander Fulton laid out the city in 1805 after receiving a
land grant from Spain two decades earlier. He named it after his daughter.3 A
different Fulton two years later would pilot the first steamboat up the Hudson
River in New York, crossing a metaphorical Rubicon that would eventually
open the Mississippi River basin to commerce and much of its southern
tributaries to plantation slavery and Indigenous displacement. But I want to
clarify that this is not a story about the Mississippi and Red Rivers—or at
least not only about them. That story is famously retold with each new release
of Mark Twain’s canon or travel article about New Orleans or even the
scratchy recordings of Jellyroll Morton and Bessie Smith and the
lamentations in Paul Robeson’s “Old Man River” about the unrequited nature
of it all. John McPhee added his own imprint on the unintended
consequences of controlling nature. The common narrative about the
Mississippi River arguably comes from a bias of water. This project asks:
What would happen if we start from a slightly different perspective? Would
destabilizing and disorienting the landscape as it is popularly conceived bring
forth questions that are not being asked in the deluge of water?
The book will certainly discuss water and land and how places and the
people who live there are shaped by efforts to control nature. It will also
explore how things may have been otherwise. The heart of this story is really
mud. We will roll up our sleeves and get dirty, in a good way. This story
proposes the framework “Muddy Thinking” to recast and denaturalize some
of the effects that modern engineering and thinking have imposed on rivers
and lands that have brought humanity to the edge of planetary extinction.
But it is not meant to outline a dystopian future that forecloses discussions
about possible action and alternatives. The specter of extinction is not the
end of the story but rather a part of its “ongoing,” as Donna Haraway would
say. Extinction is an extended plateau of events. It is a long and slow process
that “unravels great tissues of ways of going on in the world” for many
animals and people.4 As we journey along our current spectrum of history,
extinction challenges us to respond. And how we respond is the question of
our time. The provocation of this work aligns with what Haraway identifies as
an ethos (my word) of compost (her word). This work investigates the
entangled histories of people, racial capitalism, and mud.
 THE BIG MUDDY

In this book, organized around New Orleans and South Louisiana as a case
study, I pose a deceptively simple question: How could this muddy place,
whose land and people are uniquely vulnerable to sea level rise and
environmental injustice, be one of the nation’s most promiscuous producers
and consumers of fossil fuels? What cultural work makes this painful
paradox feel not only possible, but inevitable? To answer this question, I
bring together conversations in environmental studies and humanities to
understand global warming as a technical and cultural phenomenon.
Once described in a New York Times article as a “disaster laboratory,”
Louisiana offers a compelling template for the contradictions of modernity
and extractive capitalism.5 The state’s eroding shores, pollution, and petro-
capitalism are emblematic of the forces causing global climate change. A
three-century project to drain and reshape the Mississippi River since the
colonial founding of New Orleans has been driven by interests to enable
waterborne commerce, “reclaim” riverine marshes for plantation agriculture,
and supply petrochemical plants with abundant feedstock of oil and gas. The
harm of these practices is measured in “football fields” of land loss as well as
high morbidity rates for minority communities on the fence lines of
petrochemical and industrial plants along the Mississippi River corridor. In
numbingly familiar statistics to residents, the US Geologic Survey estimates
the state loses 45 square miles of coastline a year—the equivalent of a football
field every one hundred minutes—faster than anywhere in the world.
Louisiana has lost more than 2,000 square miles of coastland since 1930.
Names of drowned waterways and villages disappear from updated maps
along with estuaries for fisheries, seafood, and international migratory
flyways. “Coastal Louisiana experiences some of the highest subsidence rates
worldwide, making the Mississippi River Delta one of the first areas to
experience the effects of global sea-level rise.”6 Rising seas—and the
intensification of more frequent hurricanes that roll up marshlands—is
accelerating this retreat and leaving New Orleans increasingly vulnerable
behind levees while working-class hamlets, Indigenous communities, and
other coastal villages sink.7 If there is a place that shouldn’t need convincing
that the status quo is unsustainable, it is here in Louisiana. And yet
authorities are hellbent on doubling down on the same old thinking, to the
detriment of the residents who suffer the brunt of these processes. The state
supplies 90 percent of the nation’s offshore oil and gas infrastructure, which
also feeds a secondary market of petrochemical plants up and down the
Mississippi River corridor, known by residents as “Cancer Alley” or “Death
Alley.” Erosive oil and gas canals channel seawater into brackish estuaries.
Spills happen with regularity, many with little public awareness. Thousands of
miles of pipelines running through the increasingly disappearing coastal
marshes face exposure to severe storms, and emptied oil wells subside
underwater. Over a million permitted oil wells have been drilled in the state
of Louisiana. There are over 50,000 active oil and gas wells and another
22,000 to 28,000 that are idle and effectively abandoned. The state counts
another 4,628 wells that are documented as “orphaned,” meaning no owner
could be identified or had a plan for plugging them. These deteriorating wells
leak oil, methane, and saltwater into the ground and air.8
Capping and cleaning up only the orphan wells would cost taxpayers an
estimated $400 to $560 million.9 Plugging the approximately 28,000
nonproducing wells would cost $3.5 billion in closure costs alone, according
to the Environmental Defense Fund.10 But abandoning infrastructure has
long been a national pastime for the oil and gas industry. There are more than
81,000 officially designated orphan wells across the country. A 2021 report
published by the US Government Accountability Office found that oil and
gas producers have been allowed to abandon 97 percent of offshore pipelines
in the Gulf of Mexico without incurring any penalties.11 The effects of this
corrosive infrastructure on vegetation—seagrasses and other subtidal species
along the coast—are cumulative and largely unmeasured.12 Meanwhile,
Louisiana has one of the most concentrated industrial clusters in the world
policed by a perennially underfunded regulatory agency in the form of the
Louisiana Department of Environmental Quality that relies on self-reporting
by plants that literally mail reports to the office, which are simply scanned by
employees.13 Unending river dredging and levee building is required to
maintain the state’s five deepwater ports that reside in an uninterrupted chain
along the Mississippi River’s banks from Baton Rouge to the Gulf of Mexico.
Levees seal off coastal marshes from seasonal avulsions of mud and sediment;
and dredging ensures the material flows farther down the river toward the
Gulf of Mexico. Invasive species from international cargo lay waste to land-
building vegetation and roots. And the weight of the Mississippi riverbed
itself presses down as seas rise.
While Louisiana offers a cautionary tale of the destructive and
dehumanizing effects of modern industry on land and people, it provides an
opportunity to interrogate the deep, commonsense structures of what I call
Extractive Thinking. Ironically, these same extractive forces that have led to
coastal dissolution have also embedded themselves in solutions for coastal
restoration.
By the time Hurricanes Katrina and Rita destroyed 200 square miles of
Louisiana marshlands in 2005, the state had already lost 1.2 million acres of
wetlands in seventy-five years. After Katrina, the state legislature approved
the $50 billion “Comprehensive Master Plan for a Sustainable Coast,” a plan
partially funded by oil and gas royalties on federal offshore leases and a legal
settlement from the historic 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon blowout. When I
think of the local and global disconnect between fossil fuel production and
local sea level rise, the words of an emergency manager from coastal
Lafourche Parish haunt me: “If we don’t have an economy, then what is there
to protect?”14
I wonder if the solution is so irreconcilable. The presumption that oil is
the only lifeblood of the economy ignores its falling employment numbers as
well as generations of communities who have carved out their own covenant
with the land. There is a pernicious temptation to keep to the path of
extraction, particularly for an area so degraded by an industry that has
consumed not only the land but also hope for a different future. Let this then
be an example of what awaits others as climate change continues to render
this planet less hospitable. Let us not forget the promise the Earth once held,
before it disappears as a reminder of what was possible. “There is a fine line
between acknowledging the extent and seriousness of the troubles and
succumbing to abstract futurism and its effects of sublime despair and its
politics of sublime indifference,” writes Haraway.15 In other words, we need to
tell the difficult stories while also imagining new ways of living.
 HOT TIMES

Just in the years since Katrina, hurricanes here have grown fiercer and more
frequent as the Gulf of Mexico warms and Louisiana coastal marshlands
disappear. Hurricanes now produce their own fuel as they approach saturated
marshland in a phenomenon called the brown ocean effect. As a storm surge
pushes warm Gulf water over inundated marshlands, it creates its own energy
source. Rather than a buffering obstacle that protects inland communities,
the marshland becomes an accelerant that increases wind speeds significantly
just before it reaches populated areas like New Orleans.16 In 2021, Hurricane
Ida, for example, remained a hurricane sixteen hours after landfall and left
little time to evacuate. “Hurricanes draw their energy from warm ocean
waters. But when they make landfall over a wet, marshy, or saturated spot,
they can still power themselves with evaporating moisture.”17
As this book was being finalized, we learned that July 2023 was the hottest
month on Earth since record keeping began in the nineteenth century. And
the ocean is getting warmer by the year. Since scientists have been keeping
climate data, the Earth’s hottest years have all occurred since 2015. The year
2021 was the ocean’s hottest for the third year in a row, and the Earth’s
average carbon dioxide output was the highest ever recorded.18 This occurred
during a relentless global pandemic. A “Code Red” report on humanity was
issued by the usually staid and cautious United Nations Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change that pointed to the inevitability of increasing
temperatures at an accelerated pace.19 If all emissions had halted in 2021, the
planet would still be warming. “We are decades late” making necessary
changes, Kristina Dahl of the Union of Concerned Scientists testified in
January 2022.20 Four months later, in May 2022, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reported that its monitoring station in
Mauna Loa, Hawaii, had measured an average level of carbon dioxide in the
air that had not been seen on this planet since the Pliocene era 4.5 million
years ago, when sea levels were 16 to 82 feet higher and temperatures were
seven degrees hotter. “South Florida, for example, was completely under
water. These are conditions that human civilization has never known.”21 Heat-
trapping carbon dioxide has risen 50 percent since the pre–Industrial
Revolution year of 1750. By the time you read this, things will be worse.
 The world puts about 10 billion metric tons of carbon in the air each year,
but a dramatic spike has occurred in heat-trapping carbon emissions just
since 1990. Greenhouse gas pollution caused by human activities trapped 49
percent more heat in the atmosphere in 2021 than in 1990, NOAA reports.22
Have we have passed the tipping point already? Carbon dioxide, for
example, remains in the atmosphere for hundreds of years. But curbing other
greenhouse pollutants like methane, which has a much shorter atmospheric
presence, could show immediate benefits. Expanding natural sequestration
sinks through reforestation would also remove legacy carbon. Yet we
continue toward the point of no return. We need to start thinking about how
to manage ourselves in the ruins socially, ethically, and emotionally. We must
figure out how to live and love in the shadow of doom and how to intervene
effectively.
There is a temptation to fall back to the spectacle of disaster with a cynical
detachment, to deny ourselves the emotional connection to a reality too
frightening to contemplate. The New York Times culture critic Amanda Hess
lamented that the end of the world we are experiencing “does not resemble
the ends of religious prophecies or disaster films.” There are no dramatic
finales. “Instead, we persist in an oxymoronic state, inhabiting an end that
has already begun but may never actually end.” Social media’s “apocalyptic
drumbeat” of hopelessness ironically becomes a narcotic for it: “Just hit us
with the comet already.”23
Meanwhile, current proposals to reach net-zero carbon seem to require
little structural change to our notions of productivity and growth. Instead,
they hinge on burying the evidence. Witness the Democratic Louisiana
governor, John Bel Edwards, admonishing efforts by the Biden
administration to impose a moratorium on drilling in the Gulf of Mexico just
weeks before the governor delivered a speech at the 2021 United Nations
Climate Change Conference in Glasgow where he touted Louisiana’s
initiatives to capture industrial carbon with new industrial projects.24
Between 2020 and 2023, there were fifteen announced low-carbon, carbon
capture, and so-called blue hydrogen projects announced in Louisiana—all of
which would add to net emissions.
Yet, to his credit, the governor in 2020 appointed a climate task force—
alone among southern states—to commit to reaching net zero by the year
2050 in line with the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement. But many of the
environmental advocates on the task force point out a discomforting truth
about solutions proposed by industry task force representatives. The efficacy
of so-called industrial carbon capture for removing CO2 is minimal—despite
the publicity by big oil companies. Fossil fuel producers claim they can
recover carbon dioxide emissions from smokestacks and store it permanently
underground (or use it to recover oil and make other products like
petrochemicals), which would “recycle” carbon emissions. Despite the
marketing by fossil fuel companies, carbon capture is a less efficient, more
expensive, and more dangerous method for lowering greenhouse gas
emissions than natural carbon sequestration projects like reforestation, which
has a proven track record and is not predicated on industrial production.25
Governor Edwards followed his speech in Glasgow with the
announcement of a massive carbon capture project by a Pennsylvania
company to produce new sources of “blue ammonia,” which would create a
net increase of carbon by a project that was touted to reduce emissions. Blue
ammonia may be even worse for climate change than simply burning natural
gas because of the leakage of methane.26 Other “environmentally conscious”
industrial projects are popping up throughout the state, which would also
have an impact on low-income, fence-line environmental justice
communities in Cancer Alley. Louisiana is positioning itself to be the storage
site for hazardous carbon waste for the nation, or what the activist Monique
Harden calls a mecca for hazardous waste.27 Notwithstanding the glaring
weaknesses of relying on aging infrastructure—or building out new pipelines
and storage facilities in environmentally and socially stressed areas—
industrial carbon capture and other net-zero fantasies offer little substantive
solutions beyond assuaging the growing anxiety that we are out of real
solutions. This book seeks to illuminate this intransigent madness, as well as
offer some suggestions for finding life in the ruins.
The critical humanities scholar Fredric Jameson famously wrote that it is
easier to imagine the devastation of the Earth and nature than the end of late
capitalism.28 This book suggests that the limitation is as much cultural as
technical. What faces New Orleans at the toe of Louisiana’s boot, as well as all
vulnerable frontiers, is characterized by what Amitav Ghosh calls “a crisis of
culture, and thus, of the imagination.”29 We are caught in a paradox. In
Louisiana, state authorities tout the importance of Louisiana’s “working
coast” of extractive industries to justify investments to restore a coastline that
can sustain them. Interventions for restoration are trapped on a path
dependent on industrial consumption, which is emblematic of the very
paradox and dialectic tension of modernity itself. Here is where this book
intervenes. It argues that mud and Muddy Thinking might gum up the gears
of modernity.

FIGURE 1. The ExxonMobil refinery in Baton Rouge on the Mississippi River, built in 1909,
is one of the largest oil and gas processing facilities in the world. Louisiana has sixteen such
refineries, none of them younger than fifty years old. Eight of them, incidentally, were found
to be the worst water-polluting in the country—and five of them were among the top ten. A
2023 report by the nonprofit Environmental Integrity Project found that among the toxic
polluters of nickel, selenium, nitrogen, ammonia, and “total dissolved liquids,” Louisiana’s
aging refineries ranked at the top. ExxonMobil, for instance, ranked number 10 in the
country for selenium discharges. There are two hundred industrial, petrochemical, and
heavily polluting plants along the river corridor between Baton Rouge and New Orleans.
Image available on Flickr through Creative Commons license by Jim Bowen.
 THE RUSE OF MODERNITY

The cultural sociologist Chandra Mukerji describes modernity as a culture of

survival and reinvention. As both a historical marker and a mode of living,
modernity is fueled by dreams of utopia that fail to account for their
dystopian effects. Powered by fossil fuels that radically alter their
environment even before they burn, modernity destroys as it offers hopes for
progress. It is built on the ashes of its own creation—dialectically generative
by its own destruction.30 Imre Szeman and Dominic Boyer note in their
salient introduction to an anthology titled Energy Humanities that our very
subjectivities are tied to abundant, cheap fossil fuels: “We are citizens and
subjects of fossil fuels through and through, whether we know it or not.”31
That includes our imaginaries that such abundant energy makes possible. “In
no discussion of freedom in the period since the Enlightenment was there
ever any awareness of the geological agency that human beings were
acquiring at the same time as and through processes closely linked to their
acquisition of freedom,” writes Dipesh Chakrabarty.32 Modernity is
responsible for the creation of enlightened, self-actualizing subjects while
rupturing the planetary system that supports them. It has colonized our
imagination with ever greater reliance on technologies that veer further from
acknowledging our humble dependence on the nonhuman world, as well as
our communal need for one another. “Nonhuman forces and systems had no
place in this calculus of liberty: indeed being independent of Nature was
considered one of the defining characteristics of freedom itself.”33 Modernity,
writes Michel Foucault, “is the will to ‘heroize’ the present.” Such heroics are
poeticized in anthems of achievement, Springsteen’s “mansions of glory in
suicide machines,” an adolescent’s rebellion, or the cosmopolitan fetish of
passport entry stamps. Modernity is authored in skyward jet streams.
But there is another, even more nefarious tendency of this modernity in
the way it categorizes and distills. Joseph Roach describes this as “a taxonomy
of segregationist behavior.” In his book Cities of the Dead, which investigates
New Orleans and London, Roach argues that modernity—particularly the
European Enlightenment—was based on separating spaces. Modern
cemeteries and death were segregated into the unhygienic silence of the
tomb. Cities of the dead were socially distinct from those who enjoyed the
status of the living.34 Likewise, civilization was strictly separated from
wilderness, which, in the words of Thomas Hughes, was framed as a “second
Eden, ready to be manifested through man’s unique aspiration and
inspiration.”35 This new modern man transcended the chains of natural cycles
to write a history of progress, triumph, and freedom without acknowledging
its cost. “Only those people who had thrown off the shackles of their
environment were thought to be endowed with historical agency; they alone
were believed to merit the attention of historians—other peoples might have
had a past, but they were thought to lack history, which realizes itself through
human agency,” writes Ghosh.36
Modern humans rationalized their curation of wilderness to “complete
what God had started.” New Orleans started as a product of this imaginary. It
was made possible by a philosophy of taming a wild landscape through
rational governance of separating water from land. To be modern is to know
the world through Extractive Thinking. As a theoretical framework, I argue,
Extractive Thinking has led to the plundering of vital ecosystems and then
mitigating the harms of such practices through newly imagined methods of
extraction. It attempts to invent and consume its way out of its own crisis. As
our polar ice caps melt, multinational oil companies leapfrog one another to
drill for the reserves below. Here in Louisiana, the modern project is traced
through a political ecology of clear-cut cypress timber and denuded coastal
marshes in pursuit of the very energy to fuel this plunder. Extractive
Thinking sought to erase the mud by creating distinctly separate realms of
land and water.
 MUDDY THINKING

This book is an attempt to disentangle our imaginaries from the modern

impulses that are embedded into the logics of the fossil fuel industry. It
provides a historical and cultural analysis of Extractive Thinking through
case studies that reveal how this logic has stripped our landscapes and
harmed its people. To do this, it uses a material analytic that shifts our
commonsense understanding of progress. It starts with mud.
Did you feel it? The drab, unheralded, unwanted, unsung layer of unstable
detritus that constitutes the very material foundation of New Orleans and
South Louisiana. Always pushing against the modern project of New Orleans
and Louisiana is the problem of mud.
Mud.
While the river is memorialized in the national and New Orleans
imaginary, mud fails to mark any identity. Extractive Thinking signifies this
material through attempts to erase or control it. It is viscerally known and
discarded. Muddy sediment was listed in old boring logs as “swamp muck.” It
teamed with life and smelled of rotten eggs. Today it is classified as clay,
muck, coarse sediment, and peat. It seems to hide within the discourse of the
river as an underside to a binary or disruptive agent. Mud has not only been a
discarded element, but it has indexed loathsome bodies and spaces. The
marshy terrain of New Orleans, for example, was a contested site of
discourses from the nineteenth-century Sanitary Movement and its drainage
infrastructure.
Defined by its mixture with water, mud often sits outside of scientific and
scholarly discourses of sediment materials. Mud is instead what soil, clay, and
sediment are not. It is leftover detritus. It is resistant to easy categorization
and standardization. It is also quite unpleasant. A more complex
understanding and consideration of mud may allow messy edges to persist
and even spread where possible. Through mud, this book critiques relations
of social power. It unpacks the cultural and racial history of New Orleans and
the Lower Mississippi Delta region. Through mud, it tells a story of both the
natural environment and the social conditions and histories entangled within
it.
 Signified by the pithy, timeless counsel to let nature take its course, the
framework of Muddy Thinking invites us to settle in and get comfortable in
the muck. Muddy Thinking, metaphorically speaking, disrupts progress. It
opens possibilities with inaction, with partial visibility, with acceptance of the
unknown, unactualized, and unextracted. It is an antidote to consumption. It
is to accept value in areas undefined and economies of exchange rather than
growth. It is to drop the nature/human dichotomy and embrace what Raj
Patel and Jason Moore call an ecology of interconnectivity and to align with
Haraway’s call for “compositionist” practices that can build new collectives.37
Muddy Thinking stubbornly resists the prevailing idea that the climate
crisis will be solved with exciting new technologies, entrepreneurism, or
green capitalism. It instead analyzes how such technocratic discourses
naturalize and rationalize limitless growth. For instance, how did ineffectual
(yet financially lucrative) schemes to achieve net zero become so dominant in
our thinking while doing so little to conserve our dwindling resources? How
do such programs instead function as commonsense strategies to rationalize
uninterrupted consumption? Muddy Thinking interrogates the functional
logic that we can consume our way out of the crisis—through strategies
predicated on continuing, if not increasing, consumption. It skeptically
investigates “greenwashing” campaigns that rehabilitate the reputations of the
very companies and practices that fomented this crisis.
Corporate pledges to reach net zero by companies like Amazon, AT&T,
and Walmart are undercut by revelations of campaign contributions to
climate deniers.38 Muddy Thinking argues for a full audit of energy
consumption to unveil the true costs of energy—even green energy that
promises sustainability with little behavioral change of consumers. Muddy
Thinking troubles the liberal ideal. It also provides an accessible framework
for taking on discussions about the Anthropocene as a planet-altering epoch
initiated by mankind.
 TROUBLE IN THE ANTHROPOCENE

As both a geologic category and a recognition of the social moment for which
it is named, the Anthropocene is identified by the Great Acceleration of
consumption after World War II. Its legacy is measured in the scars and
isotopes of the geologic record of the planet. The term was coined in the early
1980s by the University of Michigan ecologist Eugene Stoermer. It picked up
steam in 2000 when the Dutch Nobel Prize–winning atmospheric chemist
Paul Crutzen joined Stoermer to propose that human activities were so
devastating, impactful, and measurable as to merit a new geologic term for a
new epoch following the Holocene.39
The twelve thousand years since the end of the last Pleistocene Ice Age
have been credited with stable planetary weather that allowed the flourishing
of large-scale agriculture and civilizations. But the new designation, the
Anthropocene, has called for more debate about when and how emissions
began accelerating. Some look back to the late seventeenth-century steam
engine; others, to earlier logics of industrialization and bodily oppression
perfected by plantation slavery. The designation Anthropocene as a geologic
category may be legible to scientists, but critical scholars argue that it may
further naturalize human activities without interrogating the uneven effects
of global warming on marginalized populations. Some have countered with
proposals for a Capitalocene or Plantationocene to acknowledge the role of
globalized colonization and capitalism. I’ll return to this debate in the
conclusion, but for now, I’ll use the Anthropocene as a placeholder because it
is legible across disciplines, from scientific discourses to the humanities, to
discuss the problem at scale.
Climate change and planetary extinction are simply so large, so complex
and dynamic to be what Timothy Morton calls a “hyperobject”—meaning
that it takes all faculties, cooperation, and vantage points to even frame and
understand its complexity.40 It appears differently to different perspectives
and locations. It acts differently to different disciplines. It is subtle, dramatic,
historic, imminent, large, and contradictory. The planet is warming, yet
winter storms are more dramatic and abundant. Drought is chronic in large
swaths of the globe as flooding simultaneously threatens. The Mississippi
River in 2019 reached flood levels from record rainfall in the Midwest,
prompting the US Army Corps of Engineers to open the Bonnet Carré
Spillway in Louisiana for a record seventy-six days. Three years later, drought
in the Midwest lowered water levels below partially buried shipwrecks and
prompted the government in lower Plaquemines Parish, which relies on
treated water from the river, to deliver bottled water for weeks to residents.
The inability to reduce these contradictions to sound bites hides its reality.
Reductionist thought is its weapon. As an unofficial moniker, the
Anthropocene has currency among many different practitioners. It is also
open to challenges as we discuss interventions and the stakes of inaction. The
raw spectacle of terror that global warming incites can also lead to inaction.
So balancing between poles of denial and self-defeating catastrophe is
important but not easy. In fact, it is probably the more difficult approach.
 STAYING WITH THE TROUBLE

I borrow the tagline, “Staying with the Trouble,” from Donna Haraway to
underscore the intellectual challenge of addressing and disrupting the power
of Extractive Thinking. One of my biggest concerns in researching this
project was a lack of legible solutions for transcending the paradigm. The
dilemma continually eluded my conventional grasp, which makes sense. The
exceptional challenge of climate change reflexively raises the question of how
we can persevere without some technical breakthrough. There are too many
of us and too few resources. How can modern people so accustomed to
comfort and individuality puzzle a way out of this dilemma? What I
continually, frustratingly, came up against is the limitation of the paradigm
itself. There is no modern solution, at least not from this conventional
vantage point. We must change much more than our automobiles and gas
stovetops. If we expect battery-powered motors or wind and solar energy to
save us, we remain on the same dreamlike trajectory. Our assumptions about
unlimited energy must change. We must instead labor to find understanding
in what Anna Tsing calls “life in the ruins.”41 Even as the ground beneath us
trembles and shifts, we remain on the ground. Staying with the trouble
requires learning to live in the present, no matter what it happens to
resemble: not a “vanishing pivot between awful or Edenic pasts and
apocalyptic or salvific futures.” We must face our own continuing. Life in the
ruins will also be shared with “mortal critters entwined in myriad unfinished
configurations of places, times, matters, meanings.”42 This requires telling
some pretty tough stories about the present.43 We must resist looking away
and dissociating ourselves from what is happening and will continue to
happen. We cannot disconnect from an uncomfortable present and uncertain
future. We cannot take comfort in the fact that in the future we’ll be dead
anyway, as former President Trump mused.44 Rachel Carson sixty years ago
wrote that we have an obligation to endure, which should also be understood
as an obligation we have to not only ourselves, but others.45
If we can’t invent our way out of the paradox of annihilation and survival,
then perhaps we must let this modernist quandary die. We may look to other
epistemologies and practices not predicated on extraction such as the insights
of Indigenous peoples exercising care-based stewardship with a deep
connection to place. The anthropologist Kristina Lyons studied Amazonian
farmers who were living and working on land that was written off as fallow
by the Colombian government. She wondered how such communities could
sustain themselves and thrive in the midst of the threat of annihilation and
war. What she found was that by not participating in the “high-modernist
extractive policy of narco-eradication” or mining, they had instead carved
out a transformative space within the dense entanglements of decomposing
leaves and rootlets and the insects, small animals, and birds cloaked by selva
canopy. “It was a tenacious vitality of life . . . pulsating away.”46 Modes of
eating, seeing, cultivating, and decomposing allowed these ecologies to
endure. “What I learned,” Lyons writes, “was that rather than rely on
productivity—one of the central elements of modern capitalist growth—the
regenerative potential of these ecologies relies on organic decay,
impermanence, decomposition, and even a robust fragility that complicates
modernist bifurcations of living and dying.”47 In other words, life persists in
decay. Life beyond modernity is possible.
On this trajectory of modern “failure,” we will need a methodology that
reframes what we think we know about the world. “Farms are never only
farms when they are also always regional watersheds, foothills, forests,
biological corridors, and floodplains.”48 We will need to interrogate how
knowledge production about the environment—scientific research or even
environmental journalism—constructs a particular object for human-
centered utility. The environment implies fragility and limitations. How has
our rhetorical frame affected how we experience and represent what we
consider the nonhuman world? How has this logic brought mud itself into
being?
In Louisiana, there are six major categories of land that are defined by how
waterlogged they are. “In many cases the distinction is arbitrary as many
areas represent transitions between the two.”49 Cypress swamps and marshes
register the transition from freshwater habitats in the upper delta plain to
brackish and saline habitats in the lower delta plain.50 Areas that are less
inundated become forested. Closer to the sea, much of the marsh is
unwalkable flottant.51 In essence, the taxonomy of southern Louisiana is a
classification of mud, which is somewhere between land and water—a liminal
state that resists stable classification. It is context-dependent.52 “Biologists and
ecologists have found that wetlands are difficult to define—they have
identified thirteen types in all, and their boundaries are hard to define. They
may be permanently inundated, seasonally inundated, intermittently
inundated, or seasonally waterlogged.”53 Wetlands are so named because
water saturation is the dominant factor determining the nature of soil
development and the types of plant and animal communities living there,
according to the US Department of Interior Fish and Wildlife Service.54 In
other words, wetlands are classified not only by what they are but also by
what they do—which opens interesting questions of ontology. How we think
about mud and water has a lot to do with how they are used and by whom
they are framed.
Historically and even today, when political and business interests have
discussed the Mississippi River, they have conjured up a body of water
moving over land, which is not really what an alluvial river is. Alluvial rivers
are silty. Riverbanks and riverbeds erode and move. Alluvial rivers bend,
loop, and crevasse in unexpected directions based on paths of least resistance.
When a riverbank floods, as the Mississippi River’s often did, the river’s
muddy flow spilled into other geographic, social, and political arenas.
Modern engineering and political impulses wanted to corral and stabilize the
river. Levees were raised higher, and the river’s confines were narrowed.
These nineteenth- and twentieth-century efforts to discipline the river
created new problems.
As engineers leveed, narrowed, and shortened the river, they turned it into
a more efficient waterway: a self-scouring engine that became cataclysmic
when levees failed, which they inevitably would do. Interventions in the
Mississippi River have led to the largest “natural” disasters in American
history, recounted in American literature, oral histories, news reports,
geologic surveys, spirituals, blues recordings, ballads, journals, jail logs, plays,
and civil rights complaints. This legacy also disrupted the ecological
processes of the Louisiana delta formation that had taken place over several
millennia. By the 1930s, researchers understood that the Mississippi’s River’s
historical, geomorphic meandering had deposited thousands of layers of
organic soil that nurtured a hardwood bottomland forest and built an alluvial
delta. But as the decades in the twentieth century progressed, they began to
suspect that the Herculean effort by the Army Corps of Engineers to dredge
and levee the river to protect communities from flooding was choking off the
Louisiana marshlands from their progenitor. As sediment and mud were
jettisoned into the Gulf of Mexico, the adjacent, bypassed marshes were left
vulnerable to other human-induced stressors, particularly intensive oil and
gas drilling that left behind thousands of miles of canals and pipelines.
The cumulative effect had been obvious to locals for years. The wetlands
and barrier islands were converting to open water. No one seemed to
quantify this historical dynamism until the 1970s. Despite a landmark study
in 1981 that linked coastal erosion to river control, the Army Corps of
Engineers in 1994 was still officially doubting the link of wetland erosion to
river controls and instead attributing it to natural seismic movement from
submarine salt domes, geologic faults, and oil and gas canal spoil banks. The
Army Corps of Engineers simply refused to consider its own work on the
river as a cause of coastal erosion. At the other end of denial, the powerful
energy lobby refused to accept its own causal role from cutting canals,
drilling oil wells, and leaving behind toxic wastewater brines. As various
actors pointed fingers at the other’s culpability, the swamps and wetlands that
for centuries had buffered communities from storms and sustained a rich
ecology of seafood, flora, and migratory flyways continued to disappear.
 KATRINA’S GHOSTS

Few contemporary narratives of New Orleans escape the thematic vortex of

Hurricane Katrina. So it is with this account. Just about everyone has their
own Katrina story. And its meaning changes over time. By the time the
Category 3 hurricane churned into New Orleans, the swamps and marshes
that protected the city from major storms off the Gulf of Mexico were long
denuded and the concrete seawalls on the city’s edge and interior drainage
canals were neglected. The storm easily penetrated this weakened, and
neglected, system, pushing water up dredged canals into an urban bowl that
had for all intents and purposes constituted a three-hundred-year project of a
modern imaginary known as New Orleans.
The long arc of survival for this city in a swamp had required an ongoing
regime of cultural, political, and economic practices to stabilize the
Mississippi River, drain swamplands, and build a fortification of levees in
response to one crisis after another. In fact, such crises and responses to them
organized much of the city’s political economy and culture. Various efforts to
come together to address this multicausal phenomenon fell flat or failed to
properly scale to match the challenge. It wasn’t until Katrina that the political
stalemate was broken. State authorities were able to cobble together their case
for recovery by leveraging the importance of the region’s assets: a deepwater
port, a seafood industry, and a fossil fuel industry, which includes a corridor
of petrochemical plants and oil and gas infrastructure between New Orleans
and Baton Rouge that account for more than a quarter of the nation’s energy
supply.55 State officials would like us to remember all of these assets, which
they continually use to rationalize the state’s strategic importance in order to
justify the vast federal resources needed to fund their master plan for coastal
sustainability. “Technology is seldom an unmixed blessing. The levees that
shield New Orleans also intensify the process that are consigning it to the
Gulf,”56 writes Todd Shallat. Therein lies the tragedy of Extractive Thinking.
It is a circular discourse that has become a natural commonsensical way of
viewing the world. It is reinforced by technical interventions to manage the
forces of nature, because these interventions generate—or regenerate—a
particular kind of governance that continues to reproduce conditions for its
necessity. Efforts to secure the people, economy, and culture paradoxically
increase the existential threats against them due to the destruction of the land
itself. By erasing and refashioning the mud for their own discrete purposes,
to build levees or dredge the river and canals, administrators inch closer to
the imminent demise of the entire project.
As a discourse, Extractive Thinking frames mud as a fungible object in a
particular kind of water story that is narrated in reports of sedimentologists
and geologists. It circulates among state restoration boosters who fetishize the
river and erect a multimillion-dollar “water campus” to revitalize a
downtrodden downtown area of Baton Rouge. Analyzing this discourse
requires highlighting what is left out of many discussions about the
Mississippi River: the vast sediment of silts, clays, and mud that is carried
through the continental body, escaping through various entrapments
designed to keep the water flowing for shipping, and targeted mainly to
protect oil and gas infrastructure.
 ENVIRONMENTAL FATALISM

As I undertook and continued to wrestle with this complex project, I was left
wondering what effects controlling the Mississippi River had on those in the
path of potential destruction. The natural order had long given way to
engineering. How did living in the specter of disaster, both economic and
existential, affect the worldview of those who depend on the state to hold the
river in its course? How were they conditioned to view the arbitrariness of
nature? At the other end of the spectrum lay the extreme pragmatic, if not
cynical, account of a petroleum-dependent economy that appears to any
outsider to be destroying the very land on which its participants lived. How
was it possible that the biggest critics of environmental regulation during the
British Petroleum oil spill in 2010 were those people in the very path of the
spilling crude? Within days of capping the BP spill, thousands of residents
gathered in the Lafayette Cajun Dome with T-shirts emblazoned with “Drill
Baby Drill” to protest President Barack Obama’s temporary moratorium on
Gulf drilling to assess safety protocols.57 From these two poles, I began to
search for a common link. On the one hand, there was a population
dependent on the state’s tenuous hold of the status quo; on the other, there
were those whose very way of life was organized around degrading their
surroundings. Were they connected? If so, how? They seemed to be brought
together in the shadow of environmental manipulation that in some way
demystified and commodified the landscape. Did this produce a crude and
pragmatic calculation of environmental fatalism? It seemed related and tied
together, but what was the connecting braid? How did the landscape become
such a basic, if fragile, utility whose purpose was only to provide resources?
What I came to suspect is that the long history of intervention in the river
had been so “naturalized” that the possibility of the river resuming its
prehistoric behavior of meandering came to be seen as unnatural. The late US
senator from Louisiana, J. Bennett Johnston called it “unthinkable.”58 In this
perverse perspective—something completely paradoxical in fact—the
artificial becomes natural and the natural becomes unthinkable. And that is
where we have found ourselves—to the point where classical economics and
modern thought have failed to forge a solution. We can no longer think with
the modern tools we have. In fact, our tools make less sense by the day. They
are rendering our logics unworkable. And we can no longer think with the
myriad other diverse agents in our midst.59
Our challenge will be learning how to exist with other beings also
struggling to survive. We can focus neither purely on the economics nor
purely on the natural ecology of the landscape. Instead, we need to learn
think with one another. How will people subsist in degraded areas? How will
people earn money to live in areas after resettling away from the coast? The
cynical—and easy—answer is that the oil and gas industry will suck up the
last viable drop while avoiding intensive safety upgrades and move on. By
then, most of the other sustainable jobs as well as schools and community
services will be long gone. Residents will have relocated because they couldn’t
afford higher insurance or were unable to finance a mortgage in disaster
areas. Or perhaps they couldn’t navigate a submerged coastal road to get to
work. These things are happening now. Louisiana, for example, represents 10
percent of all US flood claims. The home owner’s insurance industry is on the
cusp of collapse in the state.60 Legislators huddled in a special session called
in February 2023 to try to lure insurance carriers back to the state after
Hurricanes Delta, Laura, Zeta, and Ida generated 800,000 claims of $22
billion in damages between 2020 and 2021. The state-run insurer of last
resort, Louisiana Citizens Property Insurance Corporation, which has
become the only option for many residents, was set to boost rates by 63
percent in 2023 to remain solvent.61 (My own home is on its third policy in as
many years after each carrier has dropped our coverage to “reduce risk
exposure.”) Repeated disasters are dramatically changing the remaining
riverine forest ecology faster than it can recover.62 Meanwhile, the Corps of
Engineers, at the behest of Louisiana economic officials, continues to dredge
a 50-foot draft channel in the river that extends like a lone vein into sea.
But this is not a provocation to turn away. Can we find a way for people to
maintain their ancestral homes in precarious regions without continuing the
very extractive practices that are destroying them? Can we avoid
environmental fatalism and imagine a landscape rich with untapped
possibility? Can we move beyond a crude cost-benefit analysis for
intervention that operates on reductionist logics, blind to externalities of
environmental damage that both add costs and reduce benefits?
To explore these questions, this work brings together multiple disciplines
to tell a particular story of this place. It is neither an exhaustive nor an
authoritative account. It speaks with a diversity of contemporary and
historical sources, both primary and secondary. It works within the archive
while attempting to address the politics of knowledge production of who gets
to speak and how and which spaces are silenced. The book’s sometimes
contradictory viewpoints, I believe, register the instability that is inherent in
staking claims, both territorial and epistemological, on this landscape. The
very boundary of Louisiana, where swamps and bayous give way to coastal
marshes and rivers flow into oceans, is somewhere between land and water
that has been debated and adjudicated since colonial settlement and US
statehood. Its tidelands and waters are themselves in constant flux. Today the
most dramatic changes come in the form of reclamation by the sea—set in
motion by a combination of natural alluvial physics, climate change, and
capital extraction. Put simply, it is hard to find firm footing here.
Intellectually, it changes. I’m from here, but I don’t always feel like I belong
here. As I try to frame the current imaginary of this place by opposing
interests, I have done my best to be fair. And I acknowledge that any
inaccuracies or reproduction of accounts that have since been challenged or
changed are my own responsibility.
While specific to its own eccentric locality, it exists as part of a global
ecology. Ongoing climate change comprises many places of change, each
unique to its own history. Writing from interviews, archival documents, and
observations from field sites and workshops, I analyze how the river’s delta,
its mud, and its people have coevolved. I also don’t suggest a fix for this
dilemma. In fact, I believe such fixes are part of the modern reproduction of
Extractive Thinking. A modern answer continues to commodify the coast for
extraction—as has been done since the arrival of settler colonialists—to the
detriment of marginalized and Indigenous peoples. This extractive logic has
led to a federalized response to controlling the river and protecting New
Orleans. It led to a new $14.5 billion levee wall around New Orleans, whose
levees immediately began to subside and its pumps to corrode, and a partially
funded $50 billion master plan.63 It has tied Louisiana’s future interventions
to the oil and gas industry and industrial shipping that have led us here. If
centuries of discursive practices are embedded in the vast artillery of dams,
levees, jetties, and spillways that produced a deep and swiftly moving
Mississippi River, what would it mean to reread the history of New Orleans
and the Mississippi River through the optics of mud? What kinds of
naturalized discourses could a genealogy of mud dislodge? This book
gestures toward questions that examine the rationales, ideologies, and culture
located on this spectrum of tension. I examine how ongoing interventions
bolster the status quo in the name of security—both material and economic
—and prompt additional measures of security. One of the things the project
will be considering is how the logic of extraction became naturalized in
economic, political, and scientific thought over the past three centuries. It is
through this naturalization process where both extraction and restoration
have become so entangled that they are part of the same conundrum.
Muddy Thinking may not be the answer to the problem of modernity. But
we might apply here what Anna Tsing so aptly observes about Matsutaki
mushroom picking: “We are stuck with the problem of living despite
economic and ecological ruination.” It is time to pay attention to the mud,
just as it is with mushroom picking. “Not that this will save us—but it might
open our imaginations.”64
Interlude
 Vignette

It is maybe late summer or fall. It’s dusk, I’m sure. The day is growing late and
quiet, even as I hear my mother call across the water. I take another step out,
and my foot sinks into red clay. The water seems to fold over itself in sheets.
Another step, and my foot sinks farther into the mud. It reaches up close to my
knee. I was following my dad, I think. I wanted to catch him, maybe to be
carried. Water begins to swirl around my legs. “Stay there!” I can hear her
calling, now from behind me. She is lying down on the bank, her back has
seized up. We had fallen off the mare earlier. We were bucked suddenly while
walking her up the levee. We fell and rolled. Something in the grass had
spooked the horse. Mom went down first on her back into the tall grass. I fell
on her. She shielded me. I was okay. But she never fully recovered, chasing
chiropractors and holistic healers the rest of her life.
She is calling louder now, pleading for me to stop walking. The water is
high, and my feet sink deeply into the mud as the currents of the Red River
swirl around my knees. I lift my foot painstakingly out of muck. My foot comes
up with a sock red stained with clay. The river mud has swallowed my shoe. As
I start to cry, I feel myself swooped out of the muddy riverside by my dad and
carried back to the bank. “I thought I’d lost you,” she would say over and over.
“I thought I’d lost you.” Another murky memory.
Soon I am in the tub at my grandmother’s house a mile inland from the
riverbank. The warm bathwater cleans off the red mud from my socks. My
clothes are being peeled off in the tub now ringed with red and brown
sediment. “I was so scared,” I can hear Mom say. The water is warm and
calming. By the time I write this years later, the Red River will have been
wrestled away from nature, its color taken, and its fierceness dormant. And
later after reading this passage, my mother recalls, “One more step, and you
would have been swept away. Mud saved you.”
1
 A Mudscape in Motion

To illustrate how we might use the framework of Muddy Thinking, I will start
with the unassuming perspective of mud and its powerful delivery system:
the Mississippi River. I will reframe the river, not as a waterway bordered on
either side by land, but as what the Army Corps of Engineers historian Todd
Shallat calls a mudscape that constructed the alluvial delta on which South
Louisiana sits. Many thinkers and spiritualists, philosophers, and scientists
have noted a peculiar commonality among rivers. Paraphrasing Heraclitus,
no one ever steps in the same river twice, for it is not the same river, and they
are not the same person. A river is a locus of force and canvas of imagination.
A river is always in motion. It is not so much an object but a procession
where things happen. In this spirit, I open the chapter through the
perspective of the river’s most basic assemblage: the mud that constitutes it.
Imagine a collection of fragments: granite dust, animal waste,
decomposed bone, flakes from an ancient pot shard collected into a fist-sized
lump that slides down into a rain puddle. Let us give this lump the name
“mud.” Imagine the mud stuck to the leg of a bear that has wandered through.
Dried now but with its structure intact, mud’s interloper finds her way to a
river in search of food. Now freed and reanimated by water, our mud begins
to move—now pushed, now pulled—into an alluvial flow that empties as it
travels through and around a cluster of stones and trees into a tributary or
brook whose immediate aim is to join with other sediments and flows. By
now, our lump of mud has grown, collecting unto itself a series of other
castoffs: the remnants of rotted leaves, larvae, and feces.
Let us remember that the lump is alive, home now to a gathering of
microbial agents whose work to digest its component parts continues with its
interaction with hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. This living lump now finds
itself in a tidal pool: lurching, joining, and separating into a viscous torrent of
carbon-based fragments of limbs, bone, food, waste, and affluent—a
changing manifest of geography and history intermixed with what we have
dreamed as the natural world. They are suspended in animation together in
confluent currents, pitting and prying against stratified forces within the
water column that swirl and eddy against themselves—always in the
inevitable urge toward the sea through the forceful momentum of movement
that began when a tectonic collision buckled the continent at its center and
lifted the Appalachian Mountains 300 million years ago. Into the resulting
crease, a great basin of tributaries flowed, taking the continental face with it.1
Epochs of glacial movement and withdrawal followed by regular seasonal
snowmelts have poured waters and sediments into this cleft from as far as the
Rockies to the west and the Alleghenies to the east. In these upper portions of
the Mississippi River’s tributary basin, the current moves swiftly through old
glacial groves toward and into the crevice of the watershed. In the less rocky
lower valley, the Mississippi broadened and slowed because it was
unconstrained by hard ridges. Before the arrival of Europeans and their
levees, the Mighty Mississippi is said to have resembled an inland lake—a
“shallow and wide glade of free-flowing tributaries from the western and
eastern corners of the northern continent”—that seasonally flooded for miles
and nourished an expansive milieu of hardwoods: oak, ash, elm, willow,
cottonwood, tupelo, cypress, and sweet gum; habitats of fish, shellfish,
reptiles, amphibians, panthers, wolves, raccoons, otters, muskrats, and
opossums; and great flocks of birds.2 From the great confluence of the
Missouri and Ohio Rivers, the Mississippi drained into a flat delta south of
Cairo, Illinois, and meandered “like a pianist playing with one hand—
frequently and radically changing course.”3 Like those cultural iconoclasts
who created the rhythmic register of the Delta blues, the river’s abundant
payload overflowed constraining boundaries of the day—scouring and
consuming its banks in unexpected shifts. “Each time ice accumulated on the
continents and sea level fell everywhere, the Mississippi River cut a broad
trench along its lower course. With each succeeding interval of glacial decay,
sea level rose and the Mississippi partially filled the extensive valley, thus
gradually creating white deposits of river borne sediments.”4
The mud directed the stream where to go—surging over to the left,
slowing against a ridge of its own making—from which to push off into new
directions. “If the flood waters are left free to act as they will, no one can
predict from year to year where the next year’s low water channel will be
found, nor what will be the least depth in the bars,” wrote William M. Black,
chief of the US Army Corps of Engineers in 1927. “Under such conditions, a
river port of one year may find itself inland the next, and river carriers may
have to be tied up indefinitely at wharves.”5 As the channel meandered, it
dropped sediment that added to the resistance of the land by adding to the
land itself. The last 450 miles of the river’s flow lies below sea level, which
means that river bottom currents have no reason to flow at all. “But the water
above it does. This creates a tumbling effect as water spills over itself, like an
enormous ever-breaking internal wave.”6 It attacked its banks like a buzz saw
until it forced passage, resulting in a torrent that would become a cascade.
A century ago, the Lower Mississippi River carried 400 million metric
tons of sediment to the lowlands and Gulf Coast every year—enough to cover
the entire state of Louisiana in almost an inch of mud.7 Shallat describes the
Mississippi as “curling and coiling like a snake in a sandbox,” bleeding soil
from thirty-one states and weighing down on “butter-soft low-lands.”8 The
amount of mud carried in the Mississippi has historically ebbed and flowed
by the runoff that drains from the continental basin’s rivers and streams.9
Today an estimated 600,000 cubic feet of water and sediment flows down the
Mississippi every second—equal to the 53 million residents in ten states
along the river’s watershed from Minnesota to Louisiana flushing their toilets
twice a minute every day.10 In the mid-nineteenth century, the Mississippi
was called “the great sewer” by Mark Twain’s mentor, Captain Marryat. “This
mud, solidified, would make a mass a mile square and 241 feet high.”11
The land south of Baton Rouge consists of alluvial delta that began
forming over eight thousand years ago as the great sediment flow from
melting glacial ice pushed south beyond the Pleistocene Ridge onto a muddy
shelf of its own making, unevenly dropping and pushing mud, clay, sand, and
silt into the body of water named by Spanish explorers Seno Mexicano.
 SOCIO-NATURAL EVOLUTION

When the conquistador, Hernando de Soto, set out from Tampa Bay in 1539,
he reached the eastern Mississippi shores in spring 1541. His expedition’s
quest for gold was slowed only by the river’s intransigent muddy edges.
Garcilaso de la Vega’s direct account described a seasonal flood of the
Mississippi. It was severe and prolonged—beginning March 10, 1543,
cresting forty days later. The expedition of more than six hundred soldiers,
retainers, captives, mules, horses, hogs, and hounds trudged through waist-
deep marsh.12 They waded through water, and when the river finally receded
that summer and fall, they marched through mud. The next spring, the river
returned, muddying the valley again. For de Soto’s men, the “pathless forests”
were sometimes too muddy and inundated even on horseback. But they were
too shallow for boats.13 The men were beset by a problem of muddy marsh
that impeded their progress yet provided ample supplies of fish and
nourishment for the encampments. Fish were so plentiful they were killed
with clubs.
They also encountered, sometimes resistant, complex societies. Over the
three-year expedition, the conquistadors exploited, killed, and made alliances
with many tribes. But it did not turn out well for de Soto. Just after reaching
the eastern shores of the Mississippi, the expedition was met by Aquixo, ruler
of the province of Quizquiz, a linguistic Tunica community on the western
shore of what is now the Arkansas River. The chief arrived with a fleet of two
hundred dugout canoes outfitted with banners, shields, and warriors wearing
colorful feathers. The party paddled across the river with Aquixo seated
beneath a canopy over the back of a large canoe; Aquixo presented de Soto
with three boatloads of fish and plum loaves.14 According to some accounts,
de Soto’s men launched arrows against Aquixo’s men out of fear. Other
accounts claim that de Soto was initially fired upon.15 Both versions
foreshadow an uneasy and violent relationship.
The Tunica people claimed that Quizquiz was subject to an even more
powerful leader, named Pacaha, who lived farther north. Five weeks later, the
Spanish expedition successfully crossed the river on four large rafts they built
from logs near present-day Memphis. “They entered the province of Casqui
after two days of very difficult travel through swampy lands.”16 Pacaha several
times sent presents of skins, shawls, and fish. The catfish alone weighed up to
one hundred pounds. There were buffalo fish, paddle fish, large-mouth bass,
bluegill sunfish, and freshwater drum “the size of hogs.”17 In March 1542,
after a severe winter, de Soto moved down the Ouachita River from Arkansas
into current Louisiana. He likely went southward to a large prosperous
agricultural settlement named Anilco, at present-day Jonesville, Louisiana,
and turned eastward to Guachoya on the Mississippi near Ferriday,
Louisiana.
At some point, de Soto died, leaving the expedition in the hands of Luis de
Moscoso, who led the “weary Spaniards” overland, where they encountered a
Caddoan tribe. They then marched southwestward, crossing paths with more
linguistic Caddoan tribes, and eventually reached the Mississippi River,
covering a total of 200 miles through wetlands.18 “In July 1543, the surviving
Spaniards embarked on small boats they had built and set off downriver on
the long trip to Mexico.”19 For several days they were pursued and attacked by
tribes that were probably Natchez. Nearing the mouth of the river, they were
confronted by others, likely Chawasha, Quinapisa, or Washa, because of their
use of atlatls, ancient devices developed in Mexico to throw spears. The
Spaniards encamped on Timbalier Islands and, by September, finally reached
Mexico.20
The expedition’s account stood for one hundred fifty years as the only
written record of Western contact with Indigenous Amerindians. But by the
time Great Britain established Charleston in 1670 and the French began their
exploration of the Lower Mississippi Valley in 1673, the complex societies
that the de Soto expedition encountered had vanished.21 Our direct
knowledge of the expedition comes from three narratives by the expedition’s
surviving Spaniards and later archaeological and environmental studies on
the river’s former routes that attempt to clarify interactions and subsequent
devastation of the Indigenous chiefdoms. The thriving population observed
by the Spaniards had shrunk by 80 percent. One theory is that they may have
already been on the decline, hastened by the diseases introduced by the
Europeans such as influenza, whooping cough, measles, cholera, smallpox,
and the common cold. The Amerindians may have reorganized into more
fragmented groups.22 Research on trees has uncovered evidence of a drought
at the time, as well as a possible “little ice age” of colder than average
temperatures.23 The towns on the west bank of the Mississippi were largely
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Anghel-eno
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
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Title: Anghel-eno
Adrien Zograffin toinen kertomus

Author: Panait Istrati

Translator: Anna Silfverblad

Release date: March 30, 2024 [eBook #73298]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Helsinki: Kust.Oy Kirja, 1927

Credits: Tuula Temonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANGHEL-

ENO ***
ANGHEL-ENO

ADRIEN ZOGRAFFIN TOINEN

KERTOMUS
Kirj.

PANAIT ISTRATI

Kahdeksannesta ranskalaisesta painoksesta suomentanut

Anna Silfverblad

Helsingissä, Kustannusosakeyhtiö Kirja, 1927.

SISÄLLYS
Anghel-eno
Anghel-enon kuolema
Cosma

ANGHEL-ENO
Tänä alkuhuhtikuun iltana vietettiin Baldovinestin pienessä
kylässä, noin viiden kilometrin päässä Brailasta, Kristuksen
ylösnousemisen ensimmäistä muistopäivää. Jokaisella pihatolla
sytyteltiin ruokokokkoja, kaikkialta kajahteli iloisia laukauksia, joilla
oikeauskoinen rahvas kunnioitti hänen muistoaan, joka oli ihmisistä
parhain.

Perheen nuorimman, Dimi-enon luo olivat kaupungista saapuneet

pääsiäisen viettoon Zitza-äiti, vanhin neljästä sisaruksesta, ja hänen
kahdeksantoistavuotias poikansa Adrien. Hän oli jäänyt leskeksi
muutamia vuosia lapsensa syntymän jälkeen eikä ollut mennyt uusiin
naimisiin, ja elätti nyt itsensä kättensä töillä.

Dimin luona ei ollut liiaksi tilaa. Vaikka olikin vielä nuori, oli hänellä
jo ympärillään lukuisa perhe, mutta tuo kelpo sisar tyytyi pieneen
kolkkaan huoneesta, kun taas Adrien, jolle kaikki vaihtelu oli
mieleen, kävi muitta mutkitta nukkumaan enon kanssa ullakon
heinille, missä kuunteli ilomielin hänen kaskujaan ja kertoili
vuorostaan enolleen kaupungin asioita.

Adrienia ihmetytti joskus tällainen elämäntapa ja hän sanoi:

»Sinä nukut ullakolla ja vaimosi nukkuu lasten kanssa… Mitä

elämää sellainen on?»

»On pakko, poikani, muuten, hm, kuinka sanoisin? Lapsia tulee

liian tiheään…»

»Onpa sekin selitys! Ja entä kun tulet alas ullakolta?»

»Silloin menen suolle ruokoja leikkaamaan…»

»Ja suolta palattuasi?»

»Nousen ullakolle…»

»Ja lapsesi, mistä he tulevat?»

»Jumala lähettää heidät…»

Heti kun oli syöty tavanmukainen päivällinen, jona oli borchia,

paistettua lammasta, cozonac'ia ja »punaisia munia», lähti Dimi
pihamaalle, sytyttääkseen palamaan kokon ja ampuakseen
asiaankuuluvat laukaukset. Koko lapsiliuta juoksi hänen perässään,
ja sitten tulivat aikuiset.

Taivas oli tähtikirkas. Dimi kuunteli Galatziin päin kulkevan junan

kohinaa ja sanoi:

»Yhdeksän pikajuna».
 Ja nyt hän sytytti ruo'ot. Heti hulmahtivat taivaalle liekit savun
seasta, ja lapset päästivät korviasärkevän kirkunan ja hyppelivät
tulen ympärillä kuin pienet punaiset paholaiset. Sitten hän ampui
metsästyspyssyllään kaksi laukausta ilmaan, sanoen kunkin
laukauksen jälkeen oikeauskoisen kristityn vakaumuksella:

»Kristus on noussut kuolleista».

Tällöin Adrienin äiti tarttui poikaansa käsipuolesta, vei hänet

syrjään ja sanoi käskevällä ja hätäisellä äänellä:

»Juokse Stefan-serkun, papin, luo ja pyydä minun puolestani, että

hän tulisi heti tänne. Ja jatka sitten matkaasi Anghel-enon asunnolle,
ja tuo hänetkin tänne».

Adrien vavahti kuin äiti olisi käskenyt hänen tarttua paljain käsin
käärmeeseen, ja sanoi:

»Mutta, äiti, sinähän tiedät, että Anghel-eno on vihoissaan eikä

tahdo enää nähdä ketään!»

»Juuri siksi on hänen tultava. Sano hänelle, että minä, hänen

vanhin sisarensa, kutsun häntä. Ja juokse nyt pian!»

Adrien vihelsi luokseen koiransa Sulttaanin, ja katosi pimeään,

kenenkään huomaamatta hänen lähtöään.

*****

Anghel-eno oli tämän hajonneen perheen nuorimman edellinen.

Armoton kohtalo oli iskenyt häneen kovat kouransa ja tehnyt

intomielisestä ja jumalaapelkäävästä miehestä juron ja
jumalattoman. Bojaarin maata viljelevän talonpojan lapsia kun olivat,
jäi näiden neljän sisaruksen ainoaksi omaisuudeksi lapsuuskodin
seinähirret, hedelmäpuut ja viinitarha. Maa ei kuulunut heille. He
hajaantuivat kodistaan, lukuunottamatta nuorinta, joka jäi leskiäidin
tueksi. Ensiksi lähtivät sisaret, lyöttäytyen parin hyvinvoivan
kreikkalaisen pariin, jotka välittivät vähät laillisesta avioliitosta.
Anghel-poikanen lähti yhdeksänvuotiaana lähikaupunkiin Brailaan,
missä joutui erään viinikauppiaan palvelukseen. Lapsuudesta
saakka hänelle oli ollut perin vastenmielistä muokata vieraan maata.

Hän palveli kymmenen vuotta samaa isäntää, joka oli

oikeamielinen mies ja palkitsi runsain käsin hänen palveluksensa.
Kotikyläänsä palattuaan hän rakastui mielettömästi seudun
kauneimpaan ja köyhimpään tyttöön ja meni tuota pikaa naimisiin
hänen kanssaan. Likinäköisyyden vuoksi hänet hylättiin
sotapalveluksesta, jolloin hän osti hiukan maata ja perusti kapakan
kylän laitaan Galatziin vievän valtamaantien varrelle.

Liike menestyi hyvin. Vuonna 1877 Turkkia vastaan käydyn sodan

suotuisat seuraukset olivat hänelle suureksi hyödyksi. Hänen
onnistui kymmenenä vuotena koota omaisuus, millä hän saattoi
ostaa toisen maa-alueen viidensadan metrin päässä hänen
kaupastaan. Hän istutti sinne parhaimmat hedelmäpuut, ennenpitkää
kuuluisan viinitarhan, ja rakennutti kauniin talon navettoineen ja
rotulehmineen, kanalan, lammasnavetan ja sikalan.

Mutta hänen kotielämänsä oli vähemmän onnellista, vieläpä

kurjaakin. Kului toiset kymmenen vuotta, ja taas oli kohtalo varannut
hänelle onnettomuuden. Hänen vaimonsa oli typerä, salakavala,
kykenemätön hoitamaan tällaista taloutta ja inhoittavan epäsiisti.
Hän makasi tuntimäärin varjossa, avoin suu täynnä kärpäsiä, ja lapsi
taaperteli likaisena hänen vierellään. Karja oli nääntyä janoon.
Pihaan ja taloon ei pistäytynyt kukaan, jolla ei ollut aikeena varastaa.
Adrien muisti, kuinka hänen enonsa oli eräänä kesäpäivänä lyönyt
rikki kaikki talon ikkunat, jotka olivat niin kärpästen tahraamat, ettei
päivänvalo päässyt sisään. Vaimo vaan ei tästä metelistä herännyt.
Kulkiessaan hänen ohitseen ja nähdessään hänen makaavan siinä
kuorsaten, mies sylkäisi häntä kasvoihin ja lähti. Vaimo nukkui yhä.
Arvellen ankaruuden ehkä tepsivän, mies pieksi häntä usein. Tämä
tylsistytti häntä vain yhä enemmän. Silloin mies möi karjan ja lähti
talosta. Hän kävi siellä enää vain kerran kuukaudessa.

*****

Säästääkseen lapsia, joita tämä nainen synnytti, näkemästä

tällaista äitiä, hän riisti heidät häneltä, niin pian kuin he täyttivät viisi
vuotta, ja sijoitti heidät hoidettavaksi erään sukulaisen luo Galatziin,
missä kävi viisi kuusi kertaa vuodessa tervehtimässä heitä, seuraten
tarkoin heidän kasvatustaan. Lopulta hän katkaisi viimeisenkin,
ruumiillisen siteen, joka vielä yhdisti heitä. Talo, jonka olisi pitänyt
olla seudun kukoistavin, oli vain ihmisnavetta.

Pettyneenä rakkaudessaan hän ensin otti rakastajattaria, ei

sisäisestä taipumuksesta, vaan suoranaisesta kostonhalusta,
tahtoen siten elvyttää, ravistaa hereille vaimoaan. Vaimo kuuli
kerrottavan tästä, joutuipa silminnäkijäksikin, mutta ei ollut
tietävinäänkään. Uni oli hänelle kalliimpi. Hän ei enää edes viitsinyt
pestä kasvojaan, ja nukahti kesken syöntinsäkin.

Mutta ihmisille, jotka katselivat vihamielisinä ja kateellisina

väsymättömän uurastajan menestymistä, ei riittänyt vain se, että
hänen kotielämänsä oli surullinen, hänen onnettomuutensa
puolisona ei ollut heille kylliksi. Eräänä yönä, kun ei ollut pelkoa
ilmijoutumisesta, sytyttivät ihmiskädet kauniin talon tuleen.
Takamyymälästä Anghel-eno katseli, kuinka hänen peltikattoinen
kotinsa peittyi liekkeihin. Hän oli kuuro ihmisten huudoille, jotka
kutsuivat häntä avuksi omaisuutensa pelastamiseen. Hän sanoi
itsekseen:

»Jospa hän palaisi mukana!»

Hän ei palanut, vaan jatkoi nukkumistaan sen turvissa, minkä

naapurit pelastivat häviöstä, aina siihen päivään saakka, jolloin
Jumala, joka oli pannut hänet maan päälle näyttääkseen miehille,
mitä varjopuolia saattaa olla kauniissakin naisessa, löi hänet
ankaralla keuhkokuumeella ja kutsui hänet luokseen peloitukseksi
kiirastulessa katuville.

*****

Vastoin luuloa koski hänen odottamaton kuolemansa kipeästi

Anghel-enoon.

Hänen sisarenpoikansa Adrien, joka viidentoista vuoden ikään

päästyään usein tuli pitämään hänelle intomielisiä luennoita
»maailmoiden synnystä» tai »maan muodostumisesta», ja jota tuo
kelpo mies rajattomasti rakasti, sai usein olla hänen surunsa
todistajana.

Kuinka usein hän olikaan nähnyt hänen ottavan nenäliinansa ja

kuivaavan kyyneleitään heidän kuljeskellessaan lumoavina
kuutamoiltoina onnettomuuspaikalla. Rakennuksen luhistuneet
puuosat mätänivät lätäköissä, joita sadevesi oli muodostanut
huoneisiin. Huonekalujen jäännöksiä näkyi palaneiden hirsien
joukossa. Vain osa seinistä oli jälellä. Iso navetta, joka oli säästynyt
tuholta, näytti kaivaten huutelevan karjaa, jonka eloonjäämistä
monet kadehtivat. Villit maapähkinäpensaat, kinsteri ja nokkoset
rehoittivat miehenkorkuisina ennen niin kauniissa pihassa.

»Näetkö, Adrien», sanoi onneton mies tuskan tukahduttamalla

äänellä, »näetkö tämän hautausmaan? Se on puolittain ihmisten,
puolittain kohtalon työtä. Jos olisin perinyt tämän talon isältäni,
ymmärtäisin ihmisten kateuden ja heidän hävittämishalunsa,
vaikkakaan he eivät pistä tuleen suurten herrojen palatseja. Mutta
minä rakensin tämän talon otsani hiellä, uurastaen kaksikymmentä
vuotta. Se ei ollut mitään ylellisyyttä, vaan tarpeen vaatimaa,
sellaista, mitä jokainen tarvitsee voidakseen elää vaimoineen
ihmisenä eikä tyhmänä elukkana. Eikä kukaan voi syyttää minun
koskaan olleen saita, vaan sai nälkäinen aina tyydyttää nälkänsä
luonani, ja suurina juhlina muistin turvatonta leskeä lapsineen ja vein
heille pääsiäisenä munia, leivoksia ja lampaan neljänneksen,
samoinkuin silavaa ja kinkun jouluna. En antanut almua, vaan täytin
velvollisuuteni. Olin saanut kaiken Jumalalta. Minä puolestani annoin
yltäkylläisyydestäni enkä siitä ylpeillyt. Minulla ei ollut siihen oikeutta,
sillä olen nähnyt monta minua anteliaampaa: ne, jotka jakoivat
leipänsä ensimäisen nälkäisen kanssa, jonka kohtasivat tiellään…

»Eikä minua myöskään voi syyttää siitä, että olisin rikastuakseni

nylkenyt ostajiani. Noudatin isäntäni oikeamielistä esimerkkiä. Jos
liikevoittoni oli suuri, johtui se siitä, että noudin viinini ja viinani niiden
kotiseudulta, aikoina, jolloin se juoksi jokena. Mutta kuorma-ajuri,
joka talvella avasi oveni, parta kuurasta kimallellen, oli minulle kuin
veli. Puristin hänen kohmettunutta kättään ja tein hänelle tilaa uunin
viereen. Rakennutin hänen hevosiaan varten vajan, jonka vertaista
ei ollut kahdenkymmenen peninkulman laajuudella; enkä koskaan
suostunut ottamaan maksua heinätukosta, jonka heitin niiden eteen.
Tarjoamani viini ja viina oli laadultaan parasta, ja vannon näköni
kautta, etten koskaan lisännyt niihin pisaraakaan vettä, kuten
tehdään kaikkialla. Ja kun näin, että mitta oli täysi ja mies tahtoi
himon houkuttelemana ylittää sen, kaadoin hänelle lasin maksutta ja
kehoitin häntä jatkamaan matkaansa. Täytyipä minun usein neuvoa
hänelle tie. Näin olin tavallaan hänen palvelijansa, sillä olin valveilla
hänen tähtensä aamunkoitosta puoliyöhön saakka. Ja jos joku
kolkutti ovelleni sulkemisajan jälkeen, unohdin, että saattaisin
kohdata pahantekijän, nousin vuoteesta ja menin avaamaan.

»Mutta hyvä esimerkki ei paljoa hyödytä, ja jos maailmassa on

vain kiittämättömyyttä, tarvitsee paha palvelukseensa ainoastaan
yhden ilkiön käden sataa hyveellistä vastaan, saadakseen aikaan
hävitystä. Tämä käsi vaani minua salaa, valmiina iskemään. Se ei
voinut antaa minulle anteeksi menestymistäni. Se ei sietänyt sitä,
että käteni ei ollut hänen syyhyisen kätensä kaltainen, joka kelpasi
vain kerjäämään tai lyömään. Ja se löi minua. Se kävi helposti:
vaimoni nukkui.

»Voi, Adrien! Tässä ilkeä ihmiskäsi kohtasi

hävittämistarkoituksessa kohtalon omalla tavallaan ilkeän käden, ja
toisiinsa yhtyen he tekivät tuhon täydelliseksi!… Oliko väärin
rakastaa kylän kauneinta tyttöä? Rakastuuko milloinkaan
rumimpaan? En tiedä. Sen vain tiedän nyt, että rakkaus sokaisi
minut, niin etten osannut katsoa, oliko hänen sänkynsä alusta
lakaistu, olivatko hänen korvantaustansa puhtaat ja jalkansa pestyt.
Adrien, kun tämä jumalainen liekki kerran polttaa rintaasi, niinkuin se
poltti minun rintaani, muista sanani, ja ennenkuin antaudut
ruumiinesi ja sieluinesi tämän ihmisruton valtaan, tee, mitä minä en
tehnyt: katso kaunokaisesi sängyn alustaa, katso hänen
korvantauksiaan ja jalkojaan, joissa on kiiltokengät. Ja jos sanani
unohtuvat, muista hautausmaata, jonka näet tässä, anna katseesi
syöpyä näihin raunioihin, katso rikkaruohoa, joka rehoittaa kuin
inhimillistä laiminlyöntiä kiroten, tätä karjaansa kaipaavaa navettaa,
näitä seinien jätteitä, jotka huutavat taivaalle epätoivoaan, näitä
ruostuneita ja vääntyneitä laattoja, jotka ennen välkkyivät kuin peili
auringonpaisteessa, peittäessään kattoa, joka kohosi uljaana
matalien hökkelien yli, kuin julistaen ihmisen oikeutta elää
hyvinvoinnissa ja siisteydessä, eikä kuin myyrä, joka pelkää valoa.
Paina mieleesi tämä näky. Ja jos veresi tahtoo taivuttaa sinut kauniin
tytön jalkoihin, vastusta, huuda avuksesi nämä rauniot, ja sano
itsellesi:

»Anghel-eno turmeli elämänsä sillä, että rakasti sokeasti kylän

kauneinta tyttöä eikä katsonut hänen sänkynsä alustaa,
korvantauksiaan eikä hänen varpaitaan.

»Ja torju luotasi säälimätön kohtalo!…»

*****

Vaimonsa kuoleman jälkeisinä vuosina Anghel-eno jätti talon

oman onnensa nojaan. Hän päätti saattaa sen entiseen loistoonsa
vasta sitten, kun hänen lapsensa kykenisivät hallitsemaan sitä.
Vietyään sieltä pois kaiken, millä oli arvoa, ja kasattuaan sen
kauppansa ympärille, hän alkoi viettää erakon elämää, mutta erakon,
jolle tuli tavaksi kostutella kieltään kaupitsemillaan väkijuomilla.

Kauniina, kookkaana, jänteikkäänä miehenä, jolla oli kaunis parta

ja kaunis kihara, harmahtava tukka, hän herätti kaikissa kunnioitusta.
Hänen lyhytnäköisyytensä, joka pakoitti hänet tulemaan aivan lähelle
puhuttelijaa voidakseen tuntea hänet, tehosti yhä tätä vaikutusta.
Hän oli pohjaltaan hyvä, mutta ei sietänyt paljon vastaansanomista,
kuten on laita kaikkien, jotka ovat päässeet eteenpäin omin voimin.
Ja hän kymmenkertaistutti nämä voimat saavuttaakseen
päämääränsä, — kuten hän itse sanoi »kohottaakseen raunioista
palatsin», — sinä päivänä, jolloin hänellä olisi kunniaa lapsistaan.
Niinpä häntä pidettiin rikkaana miehenä häviöstään huolimatta.

Mutta hänen todellinen rikkautensa, onnensa ja toivonsa oli hänen

kolme lastaan, seitsentoistavuotias poika ja kaksi pikku tyttöä, joista
toinen oli kahdeksan-, toinen kymmenvuotias. Pojan piti seuraavana
vuonna valmistua ylioppilaaksi, ja Anghel-eno sanoi Adrienin äidille:

»Saammehan sitten nähdä. Heti koulusta päästyään hän palvelee

yhden koevuoden armeijassa. Jos hänellä on taipumusta tälle alalle,
olisi minulle mieluista, jos hänestä tulisi upseeri, jolla on vahva
käsivarsi ja terävä äly puolustamaan maataan. Jollei, niin valitkoon
itse mieleisensä alan».

Tyttäristään hän tahtoi vain »kelpo emäntiä», varustaen heille

myötäjäisiä ja toivoen voivansa naittaa heidät kaupunkiin.

Ihminen päättää…

Eräänä talvisena pakkaspäivänä yksin mietiskellessään

suunnitelmiaan ja tuulen lakaistessa autiota, laajaa tasankoa, astuu
neljä tuntematonta miestä sisään ovesta. Tapansa mukaan hän
kurottautuu eteenpäin paremmin nähdäkseen, mutta hänen
sydämensä kutistuu kokoon, samoinkuin etana vaaraa vainutessaan
vetää tuntosarvensa piiloon: tulijat eivät miellyttäneet häntä.

»Jos nuo ovat kunnon ihmisiä, en enää usko sydäntäni», ajatteli

hän, tunnustellen taskussaan revolveria, jota ilman hän ei koskaan
ollut.
 »Hyvää päivää, Anghel!» toivottivat miehet, »sinun luonasipa on
lämmintä!»

»Tervetultuanne, matkamiehet! Ruma ilma, vai mitä?»

Mutta itsekseen hän lisäsi: »Olen satimessa! Tuollaisella äänellä

puhuvat vain roistot».

»Anghel, olemme nälkäisiä, ja juodakin haluamme. Sanotaan

viinisi voivan sulattaa vaikka jään».

»Hyvin mahdollista, ystäväni. Mutta onpa sellaistakin jäätä, jota se

ei sulata».

»Ha, ha! Sinä olet sukkela, Anghel. Ja mitähän jäätä se olisi?»

»No, saattepa tietää: sitä sanotaan 'koiran sydämeksi', mutta se

on pahasti sanottu, sillä se solvaisee noita eläin-parkoja, jotka ovat
todellisia ystäviä», sanoi hän, osoittaen kahta isoa paimenkoiraa
vierellään, jotka eivät hetkeksikään jättäneet häntä.

»Hm, sinulla on synkkiä ajatuksia. Maailma ei ole niin paha».

»Ehkä ei, mutta kun pitää kauppaa valtatien varrella, kuten minä,
näkee kaikenlaista, ja nukkuukin vain toisella silmällä».

Tämä varuillaanolo antoi vieraiden tuta, kenen kanssa he olivat

tekemisissä. Heille tarjottiin silavaa, leipää ja viiniä.

»Etköhän noutaisi meille kellarista raikasta viiniä?» kysyi eräs

joukosta teeskennellyn hyväntahtoisesti.

Eno myhäili ja ajatteli: »Ah, te luulette pyydystävänne minut

hiirenloukkuun!» Hän vastasi:
 »Noudin sieltä hetki sitten viiden litran astian. Jos kielessänne on
tuntoa, pitäisi sen maistua».

Tämä oli hiukan vastoin miesten suunnitelmia, mutta he olivat

itsepintaisia roistoja. Hetkistä myöhemmin eräs heistä pistäytyi ulos,
ja eno ymmärsi tämän olevan hyökkäysmerkin: mies lähti pitämään
vartiota. Hän kalpeni ja valmistautui otteluun. Silmänräpäyksen ajan
hän ajatteli laukaista aseensa ja huutaa: »kädet ylös!» Mutta sitten
hän tuli ajatelleeksi, että hän ehkä sittenkin saattoi erehtyä miesten
aikeisiin nähden.

Hetkistä myöhemmin hän katui, ettei ollut sitä tehnyt. Miehet

keskustelivat äänekkäästi muka jostakin kaupasta. He pyysivät
tulitikkuja. Eno sanoi: »Kas tässä!»

Sydän ja jalka terästettynä hän astui heitä kohti, pidellen oikealla

kädellä asetta taskussaan ja ojentaen vasemmalla laatikkoa. Vahvin
noista kolmesta ojensi hitaasti kätensä ottamaan sitä, jatkaen
samalla huolettomasti puhettaan, mutta juuri kun hänen sormensa
olivat koskettamaisillaan laatikkoon, hän sieppasikin kuin
rautapihdein kiinni ranteeseen, ja joskin hän siinä tuokiossa kaatui
maahan laukauksesta, joka lennähti hänen uhrinsa taskusta, eivät
toiset antaneet Anghelille enää aikaa vetää esiin asettaan. He
murskasivat hänen pääkallonsa revolverinperillä, ja mies-parka
lyyhistyi maahan, sillävälin kuin koirat iskivät kiukkuisesta mutta
turhaan, hampain kiinni roistojen pohkeisiin. Ne lyötiin kuoliaaksi.
Kassa tyhjennettiin kiireesti ja ilki työntekijät katosivat, jättäen
jälkeensä näköjään hengettömän toverinsa.

*****
 Anghel-eno sai kiittää hengestään laukausta, joka oli haavoittanut
yhtä rikoksellista, sekä koiriaan, jotka hän oli menettänyt. Ne olivat
pidelleet niin pahoin kahden muun roiston sääriä, että nämä
pelkäsivät, etteivät he enää kykenisi pakenemaan.

Ohikulkevat matkustajat tapasivat tuntia myöhemmin verityön

uhrin ja rosvon verissään, edellisen pää murskattuna, jälkimmäisen
vatsa luodin lävistämänä, mutta molemmat vielä hengissä. Heidät
kuljetettiin Brailaan, missä kumpikin pelastui elämälle.

Maattuaan viisikymmentä päivää sairaalassa eno pääsi sieltä

heikontuneena, mutta hän oli menettänyt vain verta. Puolta vuotta
myöhemmin hän oli menettävä jotakin, joka oli hänelle elämää
kalliimpaa: hän menetti molemmat pikku tyttönsä,
onnettomuustapauksessa Tonavalla, jolloin suuri joukko ihmisiä
hukkui purjehdusmatkalla.

Nyt hän näki läheltä säälimättömän kohtalon mustan käden. Mutta

kohtalo oli valinnut tämän miehen antaakseen hänen tuntea kaiken
sen kauheuden, mikä sisältyy romanialaiseen sananparteen: hyvä
Jumala ei koskaan sälytä ihmisen hartioille raskaampaa taakkaa,
kuin minkä hän jaksaa kantaa! Ja kuinka paljon onnettomuutta
jaksaakaan voimakas mies kantaa hartioillaan!

Palattuaan kirkosta, missä oli antanut toimittaa messun haudatta

jääneiden tyttöstensä sieluille, hän sulkeutui kauppaansa, ja käveli
monta tuntia edestakaisin, kädet taskuissa. Sitten hän avasi oven
selkoselälleen, astui kynnykselle, sylkäisi kiukkuisesti ikäänkuin
jotakin kasvoihin, ja sanoi:

»Tuossa saat, sinä kurja kohtalo! Sinä painat minut maahan, mutta
minäpä nousen ylös ja sylkäisen sinua päin naamaa, kas näin!»
 Ja hän sylkäisi vielä kerran.

Hänellä oli vielä jälellä poikansa, ainoa liekki, joka valaisi hänen
sumusta ja väkijuomista turtuneiden aivojensa yötä. Kohtalo puhalsi
liekkiin ja sammutti sen.

Yksitoista kuukautta senjälkeen, kun hänen poikansa oli liittynyt

ratsuväenrykmenttiin, ja vuorokausi siitä, kun Anghel oli saanut
häneltä kirjeen, jossa hän ilmaisi haluavansa jäädäkin sinne, tämä
ihmisistä onnettomin sulki kauppansa, sittenkin onnellisena, ja nousi
ratsunsa selkään, lähteäkseen kaupunkiin hankkimaan työmiehiä,
jotka nostaisivat talon raunioista. Hän oli tuskin ehtinyt kahdensadan
metrin päähän kotoa, kun ratsastava lähetti pysähdytti hänet tiellä ja
ojensi hänelle sähkösanoman. Hänen sydämensä ei sanonut hänelle
mitään. Hän avasi rauhallisena paperin ja luki:

»Poikanne Aleksanteri Anghel putosi hevosen selästä

ratsastusharjoituksessa, ja kuoli vietäessä…»

Paperi heltisi hänen käsistään; hän parkaisi, nousten seisoalleen

jalustimissa, ja suistui maahan kuin poikkilyöty pylväs.

Näin Anghel-eno tyhjensi maljan sakkaan saakka.

*****

Olisi luullut, että onnettomuuden mitta nyt oli täysi. Niin ei ollut.
Kuolema, joka olisi ollut hänelle vapahdus, ei tullut, eikä kukaan
tiennyt, miksi tämä mies ei itse päättänyt päiviään.

Hän ei sitä tehnyt. Mutta hän kuoli hiljalleen, nauttimalla

lakkaamatta kaikkein väkevintä viinaa. Hänestä tuli kapakkansa
paras vieras.
 Tämän hellän isän, kunnon kansalaisen, jumalaapelkäävän
miehen vähittäinen rappeutuminen on kaameimpia murhenäytelmiä,
mitä näiden rivien kirjoittaja on nähnyt. Tämä on vain näytelmän
alkua. Loppu — tarina surusta, joka tappaa sydämen — saa
paikkansa toisaalla.

Pojan kuoltua hän pyysi, että tämä haudattaisiin kotikyläänsä.

Kaikki kyläläiset saattoivat vainajaa, ja kun kunnialaukaukset
pamahtivat kirstua hautaan laskettaessa, lankesivat kaikki
kyynelsilmin polvilleen. Kunniavartiona seisovat sotilaat ja upseerit
itkivät. Yksi joukosta ei vain itkenyt: isä. Hän seisoi avopäin hattu
kädessä haudan partaalla, ja katseli kirstua sen pohjalla. Tällöin
nousi kansanjoukosta mies, heittäytyi hänen jalkoihinsa, ja huusi,
hänen polviaan syleillen:

»Anghel! Anghel! rukoilen sinua, anna minulle anteeksi! Minä se

sytytin tuleen talosi!… Tee minulle, kuten oikeus vaatii! Mutta anna
minulle ensin anteeksi!»

Anghel käänsi päätään ja katsoi pitkään jaloissaan makaavaan

mieheen, joka vääntelehti kuin tulisilla hiilillä, ja huusi lakkaamatta:

»Anna minulle anteeksi, ja tapa minut, heitä minut vankilaan!»

Hän sanoi: »Minä annan sinulle anteeksi», ja lähti. Kukaan ei

rohjennut seurata häntä.

Kotiin tultuaan hän otti seinältä pyhimyskuvan, joka esitti Neitsyt

Mariaa Jeesus-lapsi sylissään, sekä kuninkaan, kuningattaren ja
kruununperillisen kuvat. Sitten hän kaivoi lapiolla pienen kuopan
puutarhaan, pani ne siihen ja hautasi ne multaan.