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Bioresources and diversity of snakehead, Channa striata (Bloch 1793): a

proposed model for optimal and sustainable utilization of freshwater fish
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ISIBIO 2020 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 762 (2021) 012012 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/762/1/012012

Bioresources and diversity of snakehead, Channa striata

(Bloch 1793): a proposed model for optimal and sustainable
utilization of freshwater fish
R Gustiano1,2, K Kurniawan1* and I I Kusmini1
1
Research Institute for Freshwater Aquaculture and Fisheries Extension, Jl. Sempur No. 1, Bogor
16129, West Java, Indonesia
2
The National Committee on Genetic Resources, Indonesia

*Email: kurniawan79@kkp.go.id

Abstract. Among freshwater fishes in Indonesia, snakehead is an essential and valuable fish
bioresources for a long time. Although breeding snakehead just started in the last decade, direct
consumption, raw material for food industry and pharmacy/albumin source have already been
developed earlier. This study outlines snakehead biological resources and their diversity,
production trends and challenges, and understanding for strategic planning for its optimal and
sustainable use. Of the 10 snakehead species in Indonesia, Channa striata is the most popular
species. Although Indonesia's snakehead production contributes significantly to global
production, the production of this species in the last three decades still depends on inland
fisheries around 73-97%, and the rest comes from aquaculture. Therefore, the decline in
snakehead production occurs because of over-exploitation, seasonal influence and high
vulnerability of the species to climate change. Bioresource flow model (BRFM) is proposed to
optimize the use of snakehead to provide strategic planning for further development. This model
includes a domestication program for aquaculture and conservation, hatchery production, an
alternative understanding of snakehead aquaculture production systems, biotechnological
improvement processing for albumin production, and wastewater treatment management.

1. Introduction
Indonesia is a rich country in freshwater fish bioresources based on the existing genetic resources and
its diversity. To preserve bioresources richness, it needs optimal and sustainable use of the available
fish genetic resources through proper management and appropriate approach [1]. Most freshwater fishes
are protein resource for the people in the country with a demand that increases year by year, about 55.95
kg/cap in 2019 [2]. In term of freshwater fish bioresources, tilapia is an excellent example of success
for cultivated freshwater species not only for direct consumption, but also for fillet and other products
[3-5]. Among freshwater fishes in Indonesia, snakehead, with ten species in the group, is an essential
and valuable species for a long time [6]. The exploitation of snakehead was commercially started in
1990 but breeding snakehead has established in the last decade. Snakehead production was mainly
collected from inland fisheries around 92.8%, and the remaining was from aquaculture [7]. Thus, if this
situation is still going on, the wild bioresources of snakehead will be threatened due to over-exploitation.
The snakehead aquaculture has not optimally developed as the spawning activity of brood stock was
very much influenced by the seasonal condition. Thus, the seeds could not be produced out of spawning
season in contrast to tilapia or catfish aquaculture which are able to produce seeds all year round.
The essential value of bioresources for society is to provide nutrition, but it commonly involves
specific processes releasing harvest residues, by-products and wastes [8]. Similarly, in snakehead
aquaculture, the use of commercial feed as the main input to accelerate fish growth can release organic
waste, uneaten feed, and nutrients to the aquatic ecosystem. Snakehead bioresources are not only utilized
for fish food consumption [9] and ornamental fish [10], but also pharmaceutical materials, such as
Albumin and Striatin [11]. Concerning the essential substances of snakehead, it is urgently needed to
propose the optimal and sustainable utilization of this excellent bioresources. The application of bio-
resource flow model (BRFM) has been widely implemented in integrated agriculture and aquaculture

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 762 (2021) 012012 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/762/1/012012

systems to improve sustainable utilization of bioresources [12,13]. A bioresource flow model presents
interactions of the essential components and enterprises through the integrated system considering
biological, economic and environmental aspects [14]. This model was also successfully implemented in
algae-based biofuels [15], and municipal wastewater sludge [16]. To support implementation the BRFM
in snakehead aquaculture, investigation of bioresources and diversity of the snakehead were explored as
well as its production and challenges. Thus, this paper discusses snakehead bioresource and diversity,
existing production, and strategies for optimal and sustainable utilization of snakehead.

2. Diversity and potential bioresources of snakehead

Snakehead species belong to the family Channidae, a lineage of freshwater fishes that is characterized
by usually having air-breathing ability given the presence of the supra-branchial organs. The snakehead
family has general characteristics including elongated body, protruding lower jaw, dorsal and anal fins
with many rays, abdominal fin having 6 soft spines, no hard spines on fins, and ctenoid or cycloid scales
[17]. There are two genera of snakehead including Channa with 39 species distributed in Asia, and
Parachanna with three species can be found in Africa [18]. In Indonesia, snakehead was first
documented by Weber and Beaufort [19] with 11 species. Saanin [20] reported that there are only ten
species of snakehead found in Indonesia. This finding was supported by Kottelat et al. [21] that also
found ten species of snakehead with revised names from previous documentation (Table 1). Seven of
the ten species in Indonesia, namely C. bankanensis, C. gachua, C. lucius, C. marulioides, C.
micropeltes, C. pleurophthalmus, and C. striata, are molecularly separated based on the study by Xia et
al [22]. Eight of the ten species, namely C. bankanensis, C. gachua, C. lucius, C. marulioides, C.
melanopterus, C. melasoma, C. micropeltes, C. pleurophthalmus, and C. striata, are already have
barcode for identification [23].

Table 1. Species diversity of snakehead distributed in Indonesia.

No Species Common name Distribution
1 Channa bankanensis Bangka Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra)
(Bleeker 1853) snakehead and Malaysia
2 Channa cyanospilos (Bleeker Bluespotted Indonesia (Sumatra) dan Malaysia
1853) snakehead
3 Channa gachua (Hamilton Dwarf Indonesia, Malaysia, South East Asia,
1822) snakehead China, Southern Asia, Afganistan, and
Iran
4 Channa lucius (Cuvier 1831) Splendid Indonesia, Malaysia, and Indo-China
snakehead
5 Channa marulioides (Bleeker Emperor Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan),
1851) snakehead Malaysia, and Southern Thailand
6 Channa melanoptera Blackfinned Indonesia (Sumatra and Kalimantan).
(Bleeker 1855) snakehead
7 Channa melasoma (Bleeker Black Indonesia (Sumatra, Kalimantan)
1851) snakehead Malaysia, Thailand, and Kamboja
8 Channa micropeltes (Cuvier Giant snakehead Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra),
1831) Malaysia, and Indochina.
9 Channa pleurophthalma Ocellated Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra)
(Bleeker 1851) snakehead
10 Channa striata (Bloch 1793) Chevron South-East Asia to Southern Asia
snakehead/Strip
ed snakehead
References: Froese and Pauly [18], Courtenay and Williams [24], Benzinger [25]

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 762 (2021) 012012 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/762/1/012012

Some species of snakehead are relatively moderate-sized with adults usually about 17cm in length,
while other species are large-sized and can reach up to 1.8m [24]. All snakehead species are carnivorous
and predators that primarily feed on other freshwater fishes. Some species of snakehead have beautiful
coloration, so they are more popular as ornamental fishes. In Asia, snakehead is one of economically
important fishes both in capture fisheries and aquaculture.
Comparing among ten snakehead species in terms of their potential bioresource (table 1), Channa
striata, locally known as 'gabus' or 'haruan', is the most popular species of the genus Channa as this
species has been commonly consumed in Indonesia. This species also widely distributed in other Asian
countries including Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, India and Bangladesh [26].
Channa striata is a commercially important fish, fast-growing, and highly potential for aquaculture
development [27]. Thus, research of this species is more frequently conducted in some countries to
establish hatchery production and aquaculture development. Research of C. striata was first reported by
Wee [28] and followed by Boonyaratpalin et al. [29]. Investigation of snakehead aquaculture
development was published by Muntaziana et al. [30] in Malaysia, Truong et al. [31] in Vietnam, and
Kusmini et al. [9] in Indonesia. In the last decade, snakehead aquaculture has started to grow, especially
for commercial-scale hatchery production and grow-out farming for fish food consumption. In addition,
the higher nutritional and pharmaceutical value of the fish has increased market demand of the species.
Mustafa [32] reported that the snakehead extract from Indonesia contains 2.17± 0.14 g albumin/100mL
that is beneficial for hypoalbuminemia, post-surgical patients, and growing children. This species also
is known as the resource of striatin containing 10 essential and 7 non-essential amino acids, fatty acids,
vitamins A and B6, and other essential substances that are potential for wound healing and improving
albumin level [33].
The second most popular species of snakehead in Indonesia is the giant snakehead Channa
micropeltes, locally known as Toman, distributed in inland freshwater habitats in Sumatra and
Kalimantan. This species is potential to be developed for aquaculture as it is more fast-growing species
than Channa striata, economically valuable and has a prospective market for fish consumption and
ornamental fish [6]. Albumin content of the giant snakehead is an essential factor for prospecting the
species to be used for pharmaceutical industries [34]. Moreover, Sharif et al. [35] reported that the giant
snakehead has potentially used for the source of enzyme for insecticides detection. Apart from C. striata
and C. micropeltes, the other species of snakehead have been commonly utilized for ornamental fish
commodities such as C. gachua and C. pleurothalma. Thus, further investigation is needed to reveal the
potential bioresources of snakehead for sustainable utilization.

3. Trend of snakehead production from inland fisheries and aquaculture

Based on Food Agricultural Organization statistic, global production of snakehead in the last decades
increased from 54.942 tons to 102.166 tons during a 1990-2016 period which the largest production was
contributed by inland fisheries (figure 1). Inland fisheries production was reported by four countries
including Indonesia, Thailand, Philippine, and Tajikistan, while aquaculture production was contributed
by 11 countries including Indonesia, Thailand, Philippine, Malaysia, Singapore, Bangladesh, Cambodia,
Sri Lanka, Hongkong, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. In Indonesia, snakehead includes in the 10 most
common freshwater species that significantly contributed to freshwater fish production [7]. Snakehead
production from Indonesia provides a significantly important contribution to global production
increased from 30.155 ton to 52.638 tons during a 1990-2018 period (figure 2). This indicates that
Indonesia is one of the largest producers of snakehead contributed around 33-55% of the global
snakehead production. However, Indonesian snakehead production was mainly dominated by inland
fisheries around 73-97%, and the remaining was from aquaculture. Aquaculture production for this
species was first reported in 2004 as the farmers commonly reared the natural seeds from wild habitat
(ranching).

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125
Aquaculture Inland fisheries
Production (tonnes)

100

75
Thousands

50

25

0
1992

2003

2014
1990
1991

1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002

2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013

2015
2016
Years
Figure 1. Comparison of global inland fisheries and aquaculture production for snakehead
(Channa striata and Channa spp) reported to FAO from 1990 to 2016

125
Aquaculture Inland fisheries
Production (tonnes)

100
Thousands

75
50
25
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Years
Figure 2. Comparison of Indonesian inland fisheries and aquaculture production for
snakehead (Channa striata and Channa spp) reported to FAO from 1990 to 2018 (Source:
FAO fishstat and MMAF statistic).

100
Kalimantan Sumatera Java Sulawesi Others
Production (Tonnes)

75
Thousands

50

25

0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Years
Figure 3. Comparison of snakehead production in inland fisheries
based on regions from 2010 to 2017.
Kalimantan is the largest producer of snakehead followed by Sumatra and Java regions (figure 3).
The snakehead production from these regions was reported around 86-95% of total production from
2010 to 2017. Snakehead can reach high productivity in farming practice and can be cultured with

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 762 (2021) 012012 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/762/1/012012

different systems, including the earthen pond, cage, ditch, and paddy field culture systems. Cultured
snakehead reared in the ponds (80%) is the highest production, followed by paddy fields (13%) and cage
culture systems (7%) (figure 4).

Paddy field culture , Cages,

605.85, 13% 328.74, 7%

Ponds,
3737.43,
80%

Figure 4. Snakehead production based on the different culture systems in 2017.

4. Challenges of snakehead production

Although hatchery production has already established in some regions, the production of snakehead is
much influenced by the season. In Indonesia, the peak season for snakehead spawning commonly occurs
once in a year between July and January [36,37]. Moreover, it was more challenging as climate change
impacts the regular condition by causing a high fluctuation of temperature and extreme seasons, which
eventually impact the biological aspects resulting in unpredicted patterns of reproduction and spawning
seasons [38]. Climate change also affects on rainfall pattern, droughts, water and air temperature
fluctuation, low growth rate, disease outbreak and low survival rate of fish [39]. As these situations
occurred, farmers need to change seed production period, delayed seed harvest and selling periods and
used high-quality brood-stock [40]. To deal with this issue, Gustiano et al. [38] suggested the use of
hormone induction out the spawning season to control maturation on snakehead reproduction to enhance
brood-stocks maturation as in the spawning season. Investigation using vulnerability assessment on
climate change revealed that snakehead performed the highest vulnerability on climate change as
compared with tilapia and African catfish [41]. Aquaculture attributes used to assess the risk level of
climate change on aquaculture shown in figure 5. In snakehead capture production, seven factors impact
on production including water temperature, rainfall change, wind change, air temperatures, flooding,
drought, and storms (figure 6).

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Broodstock
availability Water
4 temperature
Desease and Spawning & 4
3
pests impacts fertilization 3
Rainfall
2 Wind changes
change
2
1
1
Farming areas 0 Larva rearing
0
Air
Stroms
temperature
Feed Juvenil rearing

Growt-out -
Drought Flooding
Controlled
environment)

Figure 5. Vulnerability assessment of snakehead Figure 6. Vulnerability assessment of snakehead

aquaculture due to climate change calculated collected from capture fisheries due to climate
based on Doubleday et al [42]. The value of 1: change based on Huong and Trinh [43]. The
low sensitivity level, 2: medium sensitivity level value of 1: low sensitivity level, 2: medium
and 3: high sensitivity level. sensitivity level and 3: high sensitivity level.

5. Bioresources flow model for optimal and sustainable utilization

Freshwater bioresources comprise various species which inhabit naturally in the inland water
environment and include the fish species cultured in the outdoor or indoor facilities. Utilization of
bioresources by harvesting native freshwater fish in natural habitat commonly decreases populations of
species. This condition has been deteriorated with water pollution, habitat degradation and
fragmentation, invasive species, and climate change that also threat fish biodiversity of inland waters
[44]. Therefore, aquaculture plays an important role to incorporate breeding and growing aquatic
organisms for better production. Here, we propose a strategic investigation for improving sustainable
utilization of snakehead based on a bioresource flow model (figure 7). The utilization program includes
improving domestication program, hatchery production, aquaculture production system,
biotechnological processing, and wastewater treatment. The target of this program is to gradually
convert captured fisheries production of snakehead to sustainable aquaculture production.

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 762 (2021) 012012 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/762/1/012012

Figure 7. Bioresouces flow model of the snakehead Channa striata.

5.1 Domestication program for aquaculture and conservation

Considerable growth of aquaculture production has significantly relied on the success of fish
domestication [45]. Domestication provides an adaptation of wild fish to the captive environment that
consistently controlled from brood-stock maintenance, reproduction, larva rearing and growth [46, 47].
The selected fish for domestication program commonly relies on growth, survival rate and flesh
colouration [48]. Moreover, recently, fish selection has been developed to the exploration of new
bioresources that possibly contain potential raw materials for pharmaceutical, supplement and
nutritional values. The snakehead Channa striata, for instance, has been recognized not only as one of
potential aquaculture species but also it contains albumin and striatin for pharmaceutical raw materials
[33,49]. In addition, other snakehead species has been known as ornamental fish and used for restocking
in its natural habitat for conservation programs. However, restocking of snakehead to the natural habitats
has been recommended only for native snakehead species, which are known to previously inhabit the
natural habitats in the pertinent area to be restocked where these species each serve a role as a predator.
The domestication program of snakehead in Indonesia has been successfully conducted for Channa
striata to improve brood-stock performance in the captive environment [50,51]. To explore benefits of

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other snakehead bioresources, it is important to conduct the domestication program for nine remaining
members of snakehead.

5.2. Establishing hatchery production

Establishing hatchery production is one of essential factors in the success of snakehead production. A
hatchery is commonly designed based on annual target production of fingerlings which impact on the
hatchery size, technical design and investment plan. Main facilities in the hatchery include quarantine
tanks, broodstock tanks, spawning tanks, larval rearing tanks and live food tanks while supporting
facilities are laboratories, and manpower rooms [52]. Hatchery business is classified in three levels,
including small, medium and large scales differentiated based on biological aspects, cost and income
variables [53]. A small scale hatchery is mainly concerned on larval rearing and nursery aspect to grow
larva to fingerlings, while medium and large scale hatcheries involve in holding broodstock, spawning
and hatching eggs, growing seeds from larva to fingerling [54]. Hatchery technology mainly is correlated
with water treatment technology, spawning technics, and feeding technology. Most medium-scale
hatcheries implement recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) to hold broodstock, to incubate eggs, to
grow larva and fingerlings. In the hatchery, snakehead can be spawn naturally to produce seeds, then
the seeds were collected and separately reared. A broodstock can produce 1,000-1,500 seeds and they
commonly reach the weight of 1 kg (Feed Conversion Rate/FCR about 2.0) in a year reared in the pond
fed with commercial feed (protein 30%) [6].
Improving snakehead hatchery production through artificial breeding has been done by many
researchers. Hormonal treatments to accelerate brood stock maturation were implemented in snakehead
for better hatchery production [51,55]. Quality of snakehead seeds is an essential factor for rearing
process of cultured fish in the aquaculture production system. To improve growth performance of
snakehead, investigations were carried out to evaluate effects of water hyacinths and probiotics [56],
larvae rearing in green water systems [57] and water quality and biological performances [58]. The
fingerlings produced in the hatchery can be distributed to the aquaculture production system, ornamental
fish or restocking to the natural habitat.

5.3 Alternative aquaculture production systems for improvement of snakehead production

Snakehead commonly was cultivated in earthen ponds, plastic ponds, or cages. In this conventional
culture, the fish generally was harvested over 4 to 6 months culture period with the size 5-8 fish/kg [6].
Various aquaculture production systems basically can be implemented for snakehead aquaculture,
including cages, tanks, and raceways. To improve the production of snakehead, ponds and tanks cultured
systems can be combined with bio-flock technology, aquaponic, or recirculating aquaculture system
(RAS), while cage systems are combined with integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA). Bio-flock
technology, consists of heterotroph microorganism, has been recommended in aquaculture to improve
sustainable production of the cultured fish [59]. It has been implemented well in aquaculture production
to create economic and environmental benefits through the high quality of live feed supply, minimal
water use, effluent discharges, and improved biosecurity [60]. Shrimp farming industries in Belize,
Indonesia, and Malaysia are examples of the success of bio-flock implementation commercially [61].
The application of bio-flock technology has also successfully developed in catfish and tilapia
aquacultures [62,63]. Snakehead potentially can be cultured in the aquaponic system as this species is
recognized as more tolerant in different water quality levels. Catfish is one of cultured species
successfully cultivated in aquaponic system in various level of ammonia and dissolved oxygen as well
as at high stocking density [64]. However, snakehead reared in high stocking density must be combined
with shelters with enough feed overtime as this species has cannibalistic behaviour and a predator.
Aquaponics is an integrated production system to produce fish and plants in a closed system combining
recirculating water and hydroponics systems [65]. Aquaponic is environmentally sustainable technology
to improve aquaculture production as it can reduce land and water uses. In addition, optimal biomass
production from fish and plants meets the nutrient requirement in the system [64]. An alternative culture
system for snakehead is the implantation of Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS). RAS has been

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widely implemented in the intensive aquaculture production system, both indoor and outdoor areas [66].
The system optimizes fish production with concern on environmental sustainability as the technology
only needs less water and land usage and reduces significantly waste to water environment [67, 68].
This system can be implemented in different stages of aquaculture production from breeding, fingerling,
to growing fish. Some commercially cultured fish species, both marine and freshwater including
Gilthead sea bream, Rainbow trout, Barramundi, Tilapia, and African catfish have been successfully
cultured in this system [67]. The other technology recommended for snakehead aquaculture is integrated
multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA). The system has been mainly implemented in marine and freshwater
cages aquaculture. IMTA minimizes disposal waste from fish culture to the environment as the remained
waste are consumed by alga and shellfish. The sustainability of aquaculture based IMTA found
significantly increase through recycling of waste nutrients from higher-trophic-level species into the
production of lower trophic-level [69].
In addition, beside various aquaculture production systems used for sustainable production of the
fish, water quality management based probiotic application are simple and reasonable methods for
improvement snakehead production. Probiotics enhance growth, nonspecific immune responses, disease
resistance, and fish survival [70]. The use of probiotics mixed in commercial feed or directly added to
water of the pond stabilize water quality, enhance growth and immune response of the fish [71]. This
method has been implemented well in catfish aquaculture as the probiotics containing Bacillus subtilis
and Streptococcus lentus able to decrease the population of Aeromonas hydrophila, increase survival
rate and immune response of catfish [72]. Catfish production based probiotic application presents
excellent production indicated by fast growth, uniform size, no muddy smell as well as short cultivation
days [73].

5.4 Wastewater treatment management

The intensification of aquaculture has provided viable solutions for increasing aquaculture production
system. However, it generates increasing inputs on the ponds such as artificial feed, organic and
anorganic fertilizers. The impact of aquaculture waste has increased public concern and threatened
natural habitat and its biodiversity. Similarly, in a fish processing field, wastewater management also
has a great concern public interests [74]. Thus, methods of waste management in different culture
systems need to established for sustainable aquaculture production [75]. Stevenson et al [76]
recommends the implementation of integrative aquaculture and agriculture systems (IAAS) to reuse
water and nutrients to promote sustainability of fish production. IAAS refers to production, integrated
management and comprehensive use of aquaculture, agriculture and livestock including rice/fish,
poultry/fish or polyculture farms to reduce external inputs and improve cultured fish production [77].
Based on bioresources flow model approach (figure 7), fish waste or residuals can be used as sustainable
organic fertilizer for agriculture purposes. The evaluation of compost from fish waste to horticultural
plants is save, mature, and stable in the growth of ice lettuce (L. sativa) and it presents essential impacts
on increasing contents of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium in leaves
[78]. The other study reported that application of fish waste on Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) can reduce
the cost from commercial N fertilizer in both conventional and organic farming [79].

5.5 Improvement biotechnological processing for albumin production

The next process of improving optimal utilization of snakehead production is conventional and
biotechnological processing. Conventional processing of snakehead has been already established as
fresh, fillet [80], smoked [81] and salted products [82]. Conventional fish processing commonly was
conducted based on reducing water content of products to inhibit the growth of microorganisms which
extent shelf life of fish products [83]. On the other hand, application of biotechnological processing on
snakehead in albumin production has started to be developed recently. This method was conducted to
investigate albumin and nutrient contents of snakehead such as fatty acids, total protein, yield, and dry
basis water concentration. Asfar et al [84] suggested that the use of extraction method using HCl 0,1 M
solvent with heating at temperature of 50-60oC implemented in snakehead produced the highest albumin

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around 20,80% of the flesh. This method is better than the treatments using variation of solvents,
including distilled water, HCl 0.1M, and NaCl 0.9 % that created the highest albumin, around 7.65 %
[85]. Investigation of albumin content of native, cultured and reared Indonesian snakehead C. striata
was 70.10 ± 18.03 mg/g to 107.28 ± 3.20 mg/g; and 66.74 ± 3.76 mg/g to 63.44 ± 9.33 mg/g, respectively
[86]. These studies indicated that processing technology used in albumin production needs to be
improved for optimal utilization of snakehead.

6. Conclusion and recommendation

As an economically important species, Channa striata is a very productive commodity for aquaculture.
The superiority of C. striata is the variety of products. In the future, we must take over the supply of
this species from fisheries activity to cultivation to reduce relying on wild-caught snakeheads from
natural habitats. Through appropriate breeding technology and a good strategic breeding plan, it is
possible to increase seed production from hatcheries to supply enlargement activities and to restocking
natural populations. The synergy of the two activities is expected to be able to maintain a sustainable
production flow. Advances in cultivation technology must be implemented immediately to increase
productivity and profits not only improvement in breeding technology, but also in fish feed management,
fish health and wastewater treatment management. Intensification and integration of snakehead
aquaculture with other sectors for environmentally friendly purposes are highly recommended for
development. In terms of biopharmaca products, albumin, its competitiveness must be enhanced by a
new biotechnology approach and finding new prospective candidates that are more prospective in the
Channa group.

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