Dictionary of the Hliddle AgesAMERICAN COUNCIL OF LEARNEI SOCIETIES, ‘The American Council of Learned Societies, organized in 1919 for the purpose af advancing the study of che homanities and of the huwanistic-aspects of the social sciences, is a nonprofit federation comprising forty-three national scholarly groups ‘The Gouneil represents ehe humanities in the United States inthe Intervacianal Unien of Academies, provides fellowships and grants-ia-sid, supports research-and-plaaning conferences ancl symposia, and spansors special projects and scholarly publications. _MEMORR ORGANIZATIONS AMPRICAN PHTI OSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 1742, AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES, 1240, [AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY, (512 AMERICAN ORIENTAL SOGIES, 1B AMERICAN NUMISMATIC SOCIETY, 1858 AMERICAN FHILOLOGICAL ASSOCINTION, 1869 ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF AMERIC, 1979 SOCIETY OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE, ts MODUIN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, 1888 AMERICAN MISTORICAL, ASSOCIATION, tts AMERICAN ECONOMIC: ASSOCIATION, 1845 [AMBRICAN FOLKLORE SOCIETY, 1888 AMERICAN PIAL ECT SOCIETY, 1889 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIKTION, 1492 ASSOCIATION OF AMFRICAN LAW SCHOOLS, OD AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL ASSOCIATION, [908 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIGN, 1902 [AMERICAN POLITICAL SCIFNU® ASSOCIATION. [33 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 191 ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN GHG RAPHERS, 1404 HISPANIC SOCIKTY OF AMERICA, [504 AMERICAN SO IOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, 190 AMERICAN SOCIETY OF INTERNATIONAL LAN, 1995 ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN HISTORIANS, (507 AMTRICAN ACADEMY OF RFLIGKON, 1909 (COLLEGE ART ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA, 912 HISTORY OF SCIENCD SOCHELY, 1834 LINGUISTIC SOCTETY OF AMERICA, 1924 MEDIARVAL ACADEMY OF AMERICA, 1925 AMERICAN MUSICCLOGICA), SOCIETY, 1954 SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL FHSTORIANS, 1940 FCONOMIC HISTORY ASSOCIATION, (94 ASSOCINTION POR ASIAN STUDIES, PAL AMERICAN SOCIECY HOR APSTHETICS, WAZ AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVAMCISMENT OP SEAVIC METAPHYSICAL SOCIETY GF AIAERICA, 1958 AMERICAN STUDIES ASSOCIATION, $950 RENAISSANCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA, 1956 SOCIETY FOR ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, 1955 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR LEGAL ISTORY, 1956 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR THEATRE RESEARCH, 1956 SOCIETY FOR THR RISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, 1958 AMERICAN COMPARATIVE LITERATLRE ASSOCIATION, 1960 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR IGE EENYH-CENTURY STUDIES 1368 ASSOCIATION FOR JEWISH STUDIES, (969, SUTDIES, 1988Dictionary of the Hliddle Ages JOSEPH R. STRAYER, FDITOR IN CHIEF Volume 6 GROSSETESTE, ROBERT—ITALIAN LITERATURE CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS + NEW YORKdD 4 (DS Vib Copyright @ 1985 American Council of Learned Sacieties Library of Congzess Catalyging,in Publication Daca Main entey under nile Dictionary of the Miuidle Ages. Includes biblingeophies ane! inex. 1. Middle Ayes—Dictionscies, I. Strayer, Joseph Reese, 1904- : DI4DS 1982 99.07 82-5504 ISBN O-6R4-16760-3 (. 1) BN O-e84-17022+1 (9, 2) ISBN 0-684-17023-X (v3) ISBN 0-684-170248 (. 4) ISBN O-68418 61-4. 8) SBN O-684-18168-1 (0. 6) Published sintuleangeusly in Canada boy Collise Maem lias Canada, Inc Copyright under the Bere convention, All sights reserved. No purr af this hook nay be reprodisced in any form without the permission of Charles Seribner's Sons. I3STOLLIAISITI9 QUE 2918 Id LZ WEE A PAINT HY THM UNITHD STATES OF AMER, “The Dictionary of the Middle Ages has been produced with support from the National Fndownmient for the Huan ‘The paper in this bock nieets the gnidetines for permanence ad durability of the Commitcee ov Peaduction Guidelines for Book Lovgevity af the = Council on Library Resourses Maps prepared by Sylvia LahemanLditorial Board THEODORE M. ANDE NINA G, GARSOIAN, Cofenbia University HERBERT L. KESSLER, The Jobs Hopkins University JOHN LEYERLE, University of Toronto AVRAM L, UDOVITCH, Princeton University SON, Stanfard UniversityAdvisory Committee GUSTAVE ALEE, University of Oregon JEANETTE M. A. BEER, Pardue University THOMAS N. BISON, University of California, Berkeley JEAN BONY, University of California, Berkeley JAMES F. BURKE, University of Toronto ANGUS F. CAMERON, University of Toronto MARK COHEN, Prisceton University E, TALBOT DONALDSON, Iidiana University ANN DOOLEY, University of Toronto D. J. GEANAKOPLOS, Yale University KEVIN |. RARTY, Temple University ANDREW HUGHES, Universicy of Toronto W. TH. JACKSON, Gobpihia: University ROBERT B, LERNER, Nortbwestorn University RM. LUMIANSKY, American Council of Learned Societies THOMAS F. MATHEWS, New York University BRIAN S. MERRILBES, University of Toronto HELMUT NICKEL, Metropolitan Museum of Art KENNETH D, OSTRAND, University of New Orleans ROGER E. REYNOLDS, University af Toronto TIMOTHY R. ROBERTS, jofferson City (Mo.) High Schoo! FRANZ ROSENTHAL, Yale University KENNETH M. SETTON, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton ECKEHARD SIMON, Harvard University PRISCILLA P. SOUCER, University of Michigan EA. SYNAN, University of Toronto BRIAN TIERNEY, Correll Universiry KARI DAVID UITTI, Princeton University CRAIG B. VITTETOE, Palo Alto (Calif) City Schools LYNN WHITE, Jr, University of California, Los AngelesEditorial Staff JOHN F. FITZPATRICK, MANAGING FDITOR JONATHAN G. ARETAKIS, Bditorial Assistant ELIZABETH FLSTON, Associate Fuitor NORMA FRANKEL, Assoviate Faditor SANDRA D. KNIGHT, Administrative Assistant AN]U MAKHIIANE, Production Manager NANCY NIEVES, Production Assistant W. KIRK REYNOLDS, Assotiate Faitor STEVEN A. SAYRE, Associate Faitor ILENE COHEN, Associate Fditor FDWARD FERRARO, Associate Faitor EMILY GARLIN, Proofreader ROBERT K, HAYCRAFL, Associate Editor JOE, HONIG, Associate Fidiror MIRIAM ROSEN, Associate Faitor JACK RUMMEL, Pronfreadter IRINA RYBAGEK, Associate Editor SAM TANENHALS, Proofreader MIMI THOMPSON, Photo Editor ELIZABETH |. WILSON, Associate Ector G. MICHAEL McGINLEY, DIRECTOR, REFERENCE BOOKS DIVISIONContributors to Volume 6 DOROTHY ABRAHAMSON. California State University, Long Bowel inctoceariy, By2anrine MANSOUR J. AJAME Princeton University Iau? a-Ques ‘THEODORE M. ANDERSSON, Stanford University Gunneaucs Siein Oxats runes Gunsoranxania i, Haasoisncs Hhibanvicn Sica; Hine Bayamapas; Hotaisr-bous Sac, nace uN Granecan ANP, ATAMIAN, Columbia University Gavor Lasteans Hic *unt lpr une Ul; Hee“uaas PETER J. AWN Coltinbia University uss JERE 1, BACHRACH University of Washinggon tists ‘TERENCE BAILEY Unwersty of Western Ontario Guino oF AKr770; INTONATIO JANOS M. AK. University of British Columbia Honea Dies Hon Hvar Janos CARL F. BARNES, J8. ‘Gaov esque; Hanoine, Sresten, Sg He2si0n oF Labses HGH 0 SeMUR, ST, JEANETTE M. A. BEER Pardue Universty GumeauMr Be Lonrs Afi L BRESTON Si, Job's College, Oaford IaRamagery THiazs Elitay AL HUGO BEKKER Obie Siate Universivy Hyiniici vou Race HANS BEKKER-NIELSEN Odense Universitet Gupuunpak $40. Biskurs, Gio. MUNDR AWwSO8% Gi RAMZIJ. BIKHAZT Kuwait National Mazes Hannes JANE BISHOP. Muvico GERHARD BOWNRING Yale University stant, REGION GE ROSWORTH University of Manchester Iseamic ADMINISTRATION GERARD J. BRAULT Pennsylvania State University HUNTING aN FowLNG, Wis Ea Eusortan MICHAEL BRETT. University af London Harts, Figen JEROME V, BROWN University of Windsor Havny oF Gren LESLIE BRUBAKER ‘Wheaton College, Norton, Massaclusetis Hiawsinn Beans Hanae Bows HEAVEN JERUSMLEMS ix LESLIE BRUBAKER (eons) Hrvonaasia; Mexaranrseny; PGi! Caessis, Cet Morcarr sy Flosies Linas Flvrocis Iconoputas Ieoncousiays baat Dirxeriy Invi. Ive RADE, Isponos nr Murs RICHARD W, BULLIET Colombia University Fath nie Dawn JAMES F, BURKE University of Taronto Hisrane-Awanie 1 aNcaAea AN Larenaruae AVERIL CAMERON King's College, Lemon Hisrogiocearn, yzanrine JOHN CARTWRIGHT University of Cape Toren Hoy, Sie Grasse JAMES F. CATHEY Uninersity of Massachusetts, Aanberst Her MADELINE H. CAVINESS “Tufts Universicy Hlrvane, Pra YVES CHARTIER University of Ottawa Hearn vow Kecansat HocRALDor St, AMMAND ROBERT CHAZAN. ‘Queens College, City University uf Now Yor Fisroxioanamny, Jews PREDRIC L. GHEYETTE Anborst Callogs INQUEST, CANOWICAL AND FRENCHMASSIMO CIAVOLFLLA Carleton Unawersity, Ottawa Gunazesian, Gunns Troon (Gircome} Sx Lovrin haan avenerens Dea JEROME W. CLINTON Princeton Univarsiey| Haves Shays st-DIy Munaninac) CAROL J. CLOVER Uninerstry of Califorai, Harkeley Hanan jon SIDNEY 1. COHEN ouasian State University Fenrir LAWRENCE |. CONRAD, The Wellcome Iustitite for the History of Medicine Hastie Hine Ina PATRICIA CONROY Universiry of Washington oisire Bans DEMETRIOS J, CONSTANTELOS Stocktos State College Hosontacs ax Prom Reet, Byzarean, JOHN J. CONTREN! Purdue University Hao AUXERRE MADELEINE PELNER GOSMAN City College of Neve York Finns NOFL COULET Universite de Provence Inns an TAVERN BERNARD CULLEN ‘Queen's University of Belfast Slomssnes, WesTmN EUMCREANS Hinuisyy Hisroaocearity, hist MICHAEL T. DAVIS “Mount Holyoke College Gove Dyvansanrins FRANCES 1. DECKER Hanae vox Newsrant GYULA DkcsY Inaliona University Honan Lasgaar CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 LUKE DEMATTRE, Pace Unersty Inssanny, Tere oF PETER F. DEMBOWSK) University of acinar, PRENCI4s HISTORIA rou Feacone LUGY DER MANUELIAN Hixnaxcins Elan; Hoganion, Hearse, Cavite oF WACHTANG DIOBADZE, Califey nin Suave University, Los Angeles Des; Ka JFRRILYNN DOPRS Columbia Univessiy sean Mfncisgu? Act MICHAEL W. DOLS California Srate University, Mayueurd Histis, Maopis Bastnan Hlosnivars ania Poi RU hy ane FRED M, DONNER University of Claeaxn Hlusava fe Ar), ay IAM, Conquenser PENELOPE. B, R. DOOR Yeark Unioersity, Toronte Hoga mv Occurvid, THOMAS LEROY DRESBECK Westen Washington University Hearn LAWRENCE M. KARP. Princeram University sens ti ANDREW S. EHRENKREUTZ University of Michigan Hira BJARNI EINARSSON Haudtritagtofion Arma Magnisconor Hatsmenoan Sac STEVEN EPSTEIN Duke University ‘Guuyp ast Mites JOHN HL ERICKSON. St Vladimir's Sominerey Hie. Counce x MICHIEL VAN ESBRORCK Siseidté sos Walialites Hsciocitarits, GHooians JOSEPH, eSKA University of Toran, Centre for Medieual Sruies Hiesrowscxctamny, Seer | THEODORE BVERGATES Wessera Meryl Colfege Han ANN E. FARKAS, Icons asis JEUNs, Russian Jeena Pop. 1.5, PAUNGE Princeton University Guywxis be PonT-Sanee Maxtsc 5.6. FERRYOLO. Stanford University Ison HM, Port JOHN &, FITZPATRICK Hastines, Bat iio JERE PLECK University af Maryland Hvsneuon PETER POOTE University Coltege, Landon HIRSsUNDAR Saga GrersoNan DRNTON FOX: University of Foxomte Hessen, Rome JFROLD G. FRAKES Unluersty of Sourhorn California Hai Parnas) GF Oxi ans ANTONIO KRANCESCHETIT University of Taronts Fysuiaas Leste Catvate ROBERTA FRANK University of Foronto, Centre for Mestoval Studies TY veanyan ty Maunic Vanpisansons JOHN B, FREED ‘Mness Soate University Hlassbune Dynasty; Misy IIL or Grawianys Henny [Voy Greswany, Resy Te Lies Hhnsau; Honstasirs Dyiasys Houy Rowan ExrineWARD KRUEH Calais University Viner AMIESS, HNIC. YON Auestuney Hrieaunr OF Ficrane; BORON, Se STHPHEN GARDNER Calvenbia University Gurwbng Hare-Tioumg Heney 08 vin; Hct awi, Hoc Fluanry, Weis in WINA.G. GARSOIAN Columbia University Hrs, AgeareaNs Hunt NG, Inawiaws ADELMEID M, GEALT Saint Universiry Guannviow june; Innere BRUCE E, CELSINGER ‘Som Jose State Universtey Hangrane Lea IOAN JAMES | GILLESPIE Griswold bastante Huser IV 6 Txgiane, Buaey VI oF Excuans POROTHY F. Glass Staty University of Neve York ut Butfato {Gucci Pas Geran a Vanesa THOMAS ¥. GLICK Hooston University aniston INGEBORG GLIER Yale Universiry HAvzunaos, Kiana; Mri 9%, “Tercusie HANS PRTER GLOCKNER Johann Welfgumg Goethe Universe Huce: PFTER 8, GOLDEN Ruigers Uninorsixy Husacuy Mansy Feneczans, huxuissins GRABAR Harvard liniversiey eons, SiaMte TIMOTHY E. GREGORY ‘Ohi Stace University Insmareanes, Byzantine CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 ROMERT GRIGG. University of California, Davis Heonoe rash, CHEAS!TAN JOLIN L. GRIGSBY Washington Unieersicy Guicn Prowins KAARHEN GREMSTAD University of Minnesota Grasses Hysoaancaviss MARY GRIZZARD University of New Mesiea Gags June aN Pr, Mucus Jaw ARTHUR GROOS Conll University Hencactt von Vere (HBS wean Venice JACQUES GUULMAIN Sune Unversity of Now York. Stony Brook Intriats, Dreomaren ante Masters JAMES HAAR Unweraty of North Caroline Haney A. RUPERT HALL "The Wellewone Institute for the History of Medicine Guino ba Vignes WILLIAM L(PHINCOTT, HANAWAY, JR. Unversity of Penneyivnsia, Phatadelphva (GUUSTAN feantan Liv carne NATHALIE MANLET Gumtonds Hapinrocis Heasinuny Hani ov Se, Dis JOSEPH HARRIS Harvard University [GuokUNAsitvg, GooRiiNanyioA 1 Guowinarevia My Haarankvaag, Hrre Pons; Plagues Sacs Kinks FREDRIK |. FUINEMANN, Universitet Fssen Huarsats SoA FRysceDN RURERT HEINEN University of Texas IEE von Mrs HEINRICH vow Mouscss Hina VI oF xi LOTTE HELLINGA Briuiah Library Gurren, Jonas MICHAEL HERREN York University, Onturie Hrinesto-Lavtn Fis Lytiy JUDIT HERRIN Warburg Institute, University of London ISAUIIANS PLL, HEYWORTH, Unversity of Foronte Haven sh Dan BUNNIEY D, HILL 1, Ansobnr's Abdey, Washington, DLC. Hares, Earns JN. HICLGARTH Pomiifical Inetitate of Mediewat Stulies, Toronto Ibori yn Stvinar, St. R. STEPHEN HUMPHREYS Univsrsity of Chicno Hisroxincmanity, Kane PAUL. HYAMS Penibroke College, Oxford Host Drsectanon Lave ALERLD 5. IVRY Waadeis University Isnjri, baa WoT HL JACKSON Cotaanbia Univer sit Guan or Nowa Nrexsucat YON Fast Pliner AUXERRE esate Mossman: Bu nnn or Lavan GEORGE FENWICK JONES University of Moslen Hsien vows Macros Hose vow Monroe GoM. AJUYNBOLL Usinersry of Bossier Hani, WALTER FMIL KAEGIAIR, University of Chicago Hinnakuinsy Fstaxcs, RICHARD W, KALUPRI Unwersity of Rochestce Hosaicingty Esoaisic Laws Tnerrsciaten ran AW gaNoTACONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 TOLL KALAVREZOU-MAXEINER THOMAS XUEHIN savor LYON naeray of Confort oy ‘ere tiianty Bron Unversiy fines Ionics Westues Kumaran Hue Ey: Hew een tp ae se MARGARET WADE. LARARGR Ghai Hone, Canon, HOWARD KAMINSKY ARAN TT MADE UA eo Wana Hurdle setae Universe rfl sc noneisj cacy MICHABL MecORMICK EIS ACY ‘pumtarion Outs Rescue “tRUDY S, KAWAME adr of Kan Gamer Cimonatiron ne aN CANNER EXANDER P. KAZHDAN Jo Universi) of Clasgou DAVID R, MeLINTOCK Trebt CiksRese erst of Ch Givcry of anton Comer GunDsor Atcists limiues (HMuwrece), Di; Hines acon uassver Hany Hieron vbwanpy. xeaLey Wayne Sate Unierty GeoRGH », MAKEKA College of the Holy Cr Hiotesas an Poste Ren, \Wesimray FURIE AN Univesity of Marslanel Hise Senin OKIE LGN, J DEREK LATHAM. Manunacruntcor Gniversty of Eainburgh HANSERICH KRLLER Huntisé ano Powwuin, Ita Obrio State University lacie Feacatesss RRIKOR H. MAKSOUDIAN Hisiciocaariny, ARMENIAN; XR. WILLIAM LECKIE, JR Hon it Itanuc Law Universtiy of Toronto, Centen for MARGOT I, KING Moctcual Studios IVAN G. MARCUS ‘St. Thomas More College, Hlanastan vou Lape Hisromn Jewish Theatoicat Servinary Saskatchewan Baur ron Hasina ASKIN Hiciocnarey, Wists Eunosea WINFRED ?, LEHMANN 5. MAKMON Gniversvy of Tesas Princeton Univerety DAVID N. KLAUSNER INoo-Eusbreai LANGUAGES, Hasta University of Toronto, Contre for DEVBLONMNT OF Medieval Studies STEVEN P. MARRONE Jou Gocie ROBERT E, LERNER "Vafes University Northwessern University Gnosis, Kowa HILUSTOPHER KLEINE: Hitacoune Bost, HUGH or Sr CM anerany of Wheonan Goi Invrset aN RICHARD C MARINE Tani Crvaacninges foyvistite Conmacr “Avigume State Univoratty Portny fratian Cireeariars Inawast ‘Venstnasttoa ab Puoson JOAN LEVIN Vassar College RALPH WHITNEY MATHISEN JORW KDENIG Teautan Litgeatune: Aingconea riversity of Sach Cavoiina ‘Moacanavie University favo Dna Ista Huan or Porsens, Ste Goats an Gries ‘rerio Pork Porta DANIEL FREORRICK MELIA LINDA KOMAROFP ARTHUR LEVINE. University of Gelifornia, Berkeley ‘Metropolitan Musenon of Ark Hocker; bxtsor Inst Sociery New York Haonants Hai lskmzana, JOHN LINDOW, MARIA ROSA MENOCAL University of California, Berkeley Uriersiey of Permeyivante, FLLEN KOSMER Gruracinranes Fata RG; Phitedeline Worcester Stave College Havawy; Haman Hem; Wauinn Lanausc, Howene, Maser Hugin an Mun BRIAN MERRILEE BERND KRATZ JAMES F. LYDON University of Toronto University of Kentecky “Tanity Cologe, Dublin Gore Wants Gusenanene Hirsnicet von ie TOxuns IaBLAND: EanLy Pistons Haan. Brautitas Mukai Biase Avren 1155 ook; Huse Roveanne xiiCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 JOHN MEYeNDoRE Fordham Univorsiny Hewes, Byzanvensig Psyeaasns eon, TH 067 OF MARIN, Isipoe DAVID MILIS University of Lieespoot Fenn, Rave MICHAEL MORONY University of California, Law Angeles FISHAL iN YOSUPAL-FHIAQanl, At lsu ny © Ano Mant; Histaea ns Any aeManie MARINA MUNDT Universiter | Mergen Hagawan Snca HAKONANSDNAR: Hlawowak SAGA TWaRsson aK Heavanar Sac ox Hees orn FILgosk 1b JOHN H. MUNRO Une of Toren COLBERT 1, NEPAULSINGIT ‘State University uf New York a Airy Tapes, Frances JOHN W. NESBITT Panwbarten Ooks Research Santer Hype HELMUT NICKEL “Metropolitan Masesom of Art. New York Himan nes VIVIAN NUTTON "The Welloame institute for the History of Medicine asi 9 MeN RE TOMAS 0 CATHASAIGI Uniowesity Collage, Dublin Iasi Liseastunis Sac SPAN © COILEAIN Harvard University dusts Levuaarute DONNCHADH 0 CORRAIN University College, Cork Taiset Letragruats sro Conwostrons PADRAIC © RIAIN University Celle, Comte thsi Lveaacrites Irises NICOLAS OIKONOMIDES Universite de Montreal Hignarrcnenitny, Consrane rosy Inanasronen FRIC L. ORMSRY Catholic University of America Hiaza, AM? MuiiaMnan “AU ins gain Said mn, Bea TI¥A ROMERT OUSTERHOUT University of Hinais at Urbana Champaken lasts Soria (CONStANTINORLED HERMANN PALSSON, Univarsity of Edinbnls THaurbandn Saca BRONUasTEA, HausoaNar SaGa Fysstianssonans Floss Sag ox HaLisicxss Huta b atin bOKnsonass Hiiaptis Sack ox Dsisy Hours ‘Sati GAUTRIRSSONAR IES UGA Sac GalanrsTan KENNETH PENNINGTON Syracuse University Hucucce JANIS F, POAC, Washington University Gute Fan, Di DAVID s, POWERS. Connell University Tanrarraner, BIAMIC M. R. POWICKE, University of Toronto Hur Yeaes War WADAD AL-QADT ‘American University of Brat ate AL, ats HASAN rig ALT IRR A TAL At JOAN NEWLON RADNER ‘American University, Washington, DC fusie Lituearunas Yerwaese Tans ROGER RAY University of Toledo Hisroaexixarny, WESTERN Bunoreaw xii ROGER E, REYNOLDS Pontifical lustitnte of Medisevet Sinuies, Toronto Heer Bens er ynony Hoke Wenn: Incense FRANCOIS RIGOLOT Princeton University Hic asainon. LY BRYNLEY F, ROBERTS. University College of Stvansea Grumupo arve Pras Caciiy Guvtunp AF Cyan; Cavateusant iF Met HYWEL at OWAIN Gersinn TIMOTHY R. ROBERTS Jefferson City (Mo) High Seheot hsgcnank oF Rass ELAINE GOLDFN ROBISON ‘Gutta oe Tost; GuTHLAS, ‘Sty Meany oy CernMoning Hunan MAN; HIFRMANNE VON 5 Fugu, Hinanner OF SIVA CANDID EDWARD H. ROESNER New York Uniovrsiy Musica MS, Las LINDA G, ROSE, Hervorigang ton amon, Par nancn Irons DONALD K, ROSENRERG: Due University Iencanne Won Sac sro 1b TEOFILO #, RUIZ Reaokdya College feeatannaDes JAMES 1, RUSSELL Coltume Univerety Finca; HEH THALITES PAULA SANDERS. Harvard Unversity Iau A. SANDQUIST Universit) of Toronto Inns or Coun Ipamer, Fscuasct NNAFIUM M. SAKINA Brandeis University Hesuiw Cancuace, Jest StupyCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 ROG M, SAVORY KATHARINE SIMMS Josep szOveRFEY “Trinity Cafe, Taronto rity Coleg, Dab Wasonscufckleg eu Borie Tana, fascon Aran ina fortmatints Banbnc Ponrey Hanns Maus Hymn van GEORGE DIMITRI SAWA BARRIE SINGLETON ice Urnveraty of Lindon, Gowrtanld—ALCE-MARY M. TALBOT inate tain ass JOHN SCARROKOUGH eum Roane: Hen wine Unversity of Keatacky ‘Nawasy HucorsisAumsesy PETRUS WEAK Hons Braavrni an AKAM Higa Burt Ronn University of North Carina Hts jou + kta tow aur Hae Msi at PRISCILLA.P. SQUCEK en Ganucne Saeng intone S800 ‘ew York Unvercty ROWTRT TAYLOR Galianesson fox Gra Ieewouaiy Iam huanee Aer evar Coleg, Foronte Tisvneoaa Sar os snp Ancien Ghinavr Reobirs RAYMOND P.SCHEINDLLN ERNST H, SOUDEK | Westy THOMAS facts Theniogial Sentnary reece a ie I oh os Haze vn rugs Ler ess Hoan A ANT 1 Hone Porta “ Hiunvesno ow Biwi St Exo Smihconian tnstttion eens Cole. ty University Hewes of New York Eton Alsomine HHH Agr yan AINNEMAREE SCHIMMEL Harvard University Tilosofiseh institina, Groningen GABRIELLE ML SHIGE Hirvai oF Lanes HU, at rivera of Maryland Mn08 vELIMIROVIE SARNHARD au University of Virgina SCHIMMELPFENNIG , Finis Brossine STICCA, SANDRO Universe Angad Siate University of New York at Hore Yea Sate Unie ELISABETH VODOLA Huth a vow Gasset Unversity of Cobfornia, Beriley JANICE Le SCHULTZ, Swit rANDE Hosa tu anc" Ganisie Covege iswocan IV, Poor Roney Asus ooUNENSS avian Dies Inysmatcr Matcrin SCHWARZ Testi Crregs Paost Loa matsas vorcrs ninety of Caforna, Berkeley yepypy x, STILLMAN Givers of Misr, Kar antes Lact State Univers of New York at Firat, Westies Funes ‘ iughayneos CHARLES i SHRADER, wean s-W. VON Knots NA70 Dafne Cogs Gata of aseahnat, Herricre oF Lownts JOSEPH R. STRAYER “Autberst . Pores Voor ieee Teens GIULIO SHANE Gro caro Ferny ait Buco yen Trai onal insite of Medical Prawn: ened tne os vRYONIS Sintis, Toronto {or fanny Inuit Unwersity of California, Los Tne Tanta vee Ginionicrsg rani LUVeSTUNES—AQAES STUBMLERINE Gulibn Bvzawrive Kies Por Raters Vniversty Guinn Da Stra CHRYSOGONOUS WADDELL, LARRY SILVER BESO. ‘Nartbuoctern Univerdiy SANDRA CANDEE SUSMAN ‘Abbey of Gethaennent Hiaconauns Hacexowen, Guise on Cone Geireror Nocaee Nixoraus; HOMENTUATH, MASTER: OR LAM. oF Ziorin Mast DONALD W, SUTHERLAND STEPHEN L, WANES Teenisan, Casta IAA V8 Univer of toa Indira Guiversey Mewes Haw Hagan, Das xivCONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 6 WALTER ¢, WAKEFIELD San HELLER WILENSKY Day vere Slat Unverary Ne York at ae nesary Santen nce Parse Tne on hte apa Haars te: Enc evita page Fronbighen sae Collee MARK 4.2188 PAUL. Es WALKER Fee od re of Meco Gait Univers Sule rote re MaRrHa wont Moree Rowen Nato ry of Art upiri wes owsumoon Mao 8 Gm OYEEE A, ZINN IR Bute Univers ef New Yor at rin cene Povatan ae PRANK &, WOZNTAK hen coege one Unie of hee Mex dearac IT ANCA RONALD EDWARD ZUPKO, ANTHONY WELCH JAMES ©, YARRISON ‘Marquette University University of Viereria Princeton University unr, Hoowonep aan Payson) Isvanant Ibicanns mos ALVAGIIAR Hunbaro ate Huxperbey xvDictionary of the Middle Ages GROSSETESTE, ROBERT—ITALIAN LITERATURE. GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (ca, {168-9 October 1253), perhaps che grencest English scholar and eo clesiastic of the thirteenth century, was born to a humble family in Suffolk. Early in his career he seeved as clerk, and probably master of arty in the honseholds of the bishops of Lincoln and Hereford. He may have received his training in aets ar Oxford ‘or at Paris, and ie is generally assumed hat he taught Sn the faculty of artsat Oxford at lease as early as the first decade of the thirteenth century, Like mest English scholars of his day, Grossereste must have left Oxford ching the dispersion of masters and scholars between 1209 and 1214, and itis likely he went ro Paris diring chose years to stady theology. Atany rate, he had definitely attained the degree of master of theology by the early 1220's, at which rime he was afready Sack a¢ Oxford teaching in the fac- ulty af theology and acting as perhaps the first chan. cellor of the university. In 1229 or 1230 Grossereste assumed additional duties as the Frse Oxford lecturer to the newly arrived Franciscans, and he exerted consivessble influence on subsequent Franciscan though, bott in England and on the Continent. The canons of Lincoln elected Grossereste bishop of that see in 1235, and he was consecrated che same year, He died at Buckslen, Huntingdonshire. Most recent attention on Grosseteste has focused ‘on his work a8 scholar and thinker. Early on, quite Hikely tn his days as a eletk in episcopal service, he vwrote, in Latin and in the French and English ver- raculars, several didactic works intended primarily for a lay audience, including an allegorical poem on the ereation of the world and Christian redemprion, the Giutsteau d'amour, and several pociss and sea” ties om househatt management and courtly etx ‘quetee [twas from his years in the universities, how= ever, thar his more scholarly works came. His theological writings include a number of short tree cises, composed probably before or around 1220, and A more extensive end influential work, the Head smaerri, written in the early 1240s Yer the works on which Grosseteste'y reputation 28 an original thinker primarily eases weee chose spe- ly concerned with whar roday would be called science and scientific method. From about 1220 until his elevation 0 the episcapacy in 1235, Grosseteste produced a host of scientific treatises, atwong which ate De sphera and a number of significant shorter compositions, such as his wark on tides (De weces- sione et recessione mari), his expli¢ation of mathe= matical reasoning in the naeural sciences (De finsis, angus er gues), and his innovative work on she rainbow (De iride}. Those years also witnessed the composition of two important commentaries on Ar istotle: one on the Posterior Analytics, the First come mentary on this work writeen in the medieval West, which helped lay the foundations for the Schoiasti cism of the thieteenth and fourseenth centuries, and another, consisting Inrgely of unpolished notes, on the Physics, In chese latrer works, porticularly dhe somuens raries, Grosseteste lid out his ideas on. the proper methods of science. Although he did nor always apply sch methods clearly in his own investiga ions, his theoretical statements on che matter have senerally been considered a major seep in the devel- opment of che Western scientific radivion, Whesever the exaer relation of Grossetesre to modern seicnce, there can be no doubt that he was among the frst of the Scholastivs to pick up on Aristotle's vision uf the dal path of scientiffe reasoning, from paeticulars 10 universal principles and thence back again ro pactic~ ulors, we processes thar Grossereste called resolu Lion and. composition. Fucthermore, Grosseteste claimed that in the ease of natural sciences, the ‘whole procedure should be capped by experimen i order 10 verify the principles obtained previously. This chearetical formulation of scientific methodGROSSETESTE, ROBERT. established eradition thee carried forward ro the school of Padua and! 9 Galileo in the early sevens teenth century, Perhaps more iraportant for the sci ence of Grosseteste’s own time was his nation of subordination among seiences. An example of this ‘was the relation of apties to geometry, in which ger ometty—the snbordinating scienee—provided the rmachemavieal prineiples for che physical phenomena deenonscraced in opcies—the subordinated feld. This exaniple abo reveals Grosseteste’s high cegacd for :mathematies, which he held ta be mare certain thaw any of the nacoral sciences and which he thonght provided the basis For any fully certain demonstra- tiow of the causes of natural effects. He supported this final claim wish his metaphysics of light, by which he held that fight, as the first form of all things, was che source ofall generation and motion, Henge, all natura operations could eltimaeely be re solved into the configurations of lines and points he thought ro be characteristic of ight, and could thereby be demonstrated or formally explained in the realm of mathematics. ‘Around the time Grossereste became bishop of ncoln, he began to curn his tention te sranslacion into Latin from Greek. He eranslated nat orby some of the chissies of the Greek patristic tradition but aiso the wsitings of Psewo-Dionysins and the Nix comachears Filics of Aristotle, making possibly the first complete rerilering of the Ezhics into Latin. Yet Grosseteste’s scholarly activities took on secondary importance in the later years of his tfe, for as bishop fhe phinges! energetically into the business of cna aging his see and sefarming church practices. He was, in fact, an exemplary reformer, fully in the trax dition going Baek to the Investinire Controversy ‘The one thread thac carried through all of his actions was an overwhelming sense of the pastoral respon sibility for the eure of souls. In earrying ext what he thereby saw as his sacred duties as bishop, he often ran afval of ether authorities both inside and outside the che seraggles with his own cathedral chapter and with the monastic houses within his die ‘ocese twice led all the way 20 che papal court—then ar Lyons—where Grossereste apperced in 1245 and 1250 to argue his case. His reluctance to allow eccle the system of royal justice brought him nto conflict with King Henry 1. Perhaps the most striking instance of the contro- versy generated by Grossereste’s reforming zeal came with regard to the papaey. Although Geossereste strongly supported the ductrine that the pope held the unrestricted fullness of power falenitndo potese siasties to serv GROSSETESTF, ROBERT tats), he nevertheless resisted che growing practice ‘of papal provisions. Ac the papal euria in 1250, he delivered a passionate attack on the corruption of papal polities, and in 1253 he cefused to present a prebend at Lincola ¢o the pope's nephew, in defiance of a specific request from the pope, To the end, Grose seteste remained a teve scholar, unable to he diveered from the ideats upan which he thought the church sas founded, and a conscientious bishop, jealous of his own authority and sensiive to all shreats to whar he saw as his pastoral role. The combination made hhiow a forcsidable charchonan in his own time ancl a symbol of episcopal recritude afrer his death, BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sources. Fr the most importaue of Grenseresce’s works available in pint, sec taulwig Bont, ev, Die. phasor phischen Werke des Robert Grasseteste, Bisebofs ‘on Lins col {1952}, an edition of most of Grossezeste’s shoerer ‘lilosophival and seienetie works; Richard C. Dales, eda Roberti Grosseteste Comnentarins in VID libros Phys. sorum Arisrocelis (1963); idevn and Servus Gichen eds Hexaemeron (984% Hency R. Laard, ed, Roberti Gras. snteste episeopi qusndan Lincolniensis Epietalae (861% Jessie Mureay, ed, La ebrteaw damonr de Robert Gros. Sscteste, évdque de Lincoln (1918}, and Pietro, Ross, ed, Contmenterius is Posteriorsen anatyticorune hbras (1981), Shudies, The most recent biography of Grastereste it Francis S. Stevenson, Robert Grossetaste, Bishop of Line oi (1899), The best plaecs to begin a study of Grosseresee re Daniel A. Callus ed., Robert Grossereste, Scholar amd Biobop (1958), 2 eelleetion of essayss ane! $. Harrison ‘Thomsun, he Writiigs of Robert Grosseceste, Bishop of Lincol, 1238-1253 (1340), ‘The latter has heen corrected bby more recene resarch, most fally by James McEvoy, “Questions of Acthenticiy and Chronology Concerning Works Aetibuted to Robert Grosseteste and Edited 1940 1980,” jn Bullen de philosopbie meli¢uale, 23 (1980 ane 24 (1982), and “The Chronology wf Raborr Grasscteste’s Wrisings on Natore anet Natural Philoyphy,” in Speci dha, $8 (1993). On Grosseteste’s thought see Jarses Me~ Evoy, The Philosophy of Robert Grasseteste {982s and Seven I Marrone, Willan of Auvergne ond Robert Groseeteste: Neva Hdeas of Trinh in she Early Thirteenth Contry (1983), Earlier studies of interest ae Ludwig Raw, Die Philosophie des Robert Grasscteste, ischofs vom Lin. cols (1917); the ehaprer ony Grosseeeste in Dorothea E, Sarp, Pranciseatr Pilusophy at Oxford in the Thirteenth Century (5930); and Alistair C, Crombie, Robert Grusse- este art the Origins of Experimental Seience, 11001700 (1953, 3rd ed, 19711. 8 complere bibfiogeaphy of works on Graxseresce published yp co 1969 is Servus Gieben, "Biblio~ araphia universa Robes: Grosscteste ab at. 1473 ad a, 1969," in Collecsanes Frnnciscarea, 391969), StEYEN PL ManRoneGROTFSQUE, [sec also Aristotle in the Middle Ages; Oxford, University ‘of; Scholasticism, Scholastic Method] GROTESQUE, o painted or sculpted image dem- constrating umacsral, often humerous, distortion, ‘exiggeration, or a combitasion of animal and/or Inman Foros, such as the head of an elephant on the body of an eagle. St. Bernard of Clairvaux character ined seh images 2s displaying “thar marveltons and deformed eomeliness, that comely dekaernity” (Apol ‘gia to William of St. Thicery). Although gargoyles were frequently given grotesque forms the two terms are nor synonynss, singe the former aeztally funetion 23s warer spouts, BIBLIOGRAPHY, The fall ext of St. Bernard's Apologia is found jn George G, Coulton, A Mediaeval Garner O90), 20-72, Cam. F Batts, J See also Gargoyle] Gnotesies un Woreester Cathet, before 2220 eu AH SSAC "UNAS, Webi mses A FeneQLPARTAS TI 95D) GROTTASQNGR, a twenty-fourseanza poem cumposed in the Eddic meter fornyréislag, which is extant in two manuscripts of Snorri’s Edda, the carly-Tourteenth-century Codex Regis and a seven GROTTASONGR reenth-century papet manuscript. As the title indi- cates, the oem #8-2 sings itis sung by the gictesses Fenja and Menis as they consinvously eur the heavy ‘mill Grote (Crusiner) to grind out wealth, peace, and good fortune for Ring Fri8i of Denmatk. Initially the gicnresses willingly produce happiness and peace, but Frddi proves to be a tyrant and refuses to ler the wonten rest. Fenja snd Mena become angry, and while the rest of the household sleeps, they bein to grind revenge in che form of denth and dessruce tom to Fra, They reveal that they cam Joretell the farce; thar they are mighty giantesses, well trained in battles and tha they have created the mill ard will bend to no man’s will. They prophesy thae Eré8i wil be attacked and killed by Mrélie kaki. The posm eads as the mill breaks under the foree of their wrath The poem is supplemented by an eriologiesl ale, in which Snorri states that King Mgsingr (noe Hroife Ieeaki) artacked snd slew Fr6di, thus ending the fa mous peace nf Frodi. Mjsingr chen rooke the mill and anzesies onto his ship and commanded them to ‘grind our salt. They ground unceasingly until the ship, with all aboard, sank inco the ocean, A whirl pool was created where che sea poured inca the eye (of the mill, and ie was chen, Snort says, char che sea became salt. It ig clear thar several different traditions are woven togerher in the poem. The king in Grottar gongr isan amalgamation af tee separate Bpuzes: he is, firs, the famous Peace Prodi, depicted! in Snorei’s prose tale and known t@ Saxo Grammatieus and the skaids, and, second, the tyrant Fra, also fond in Saxu's history, who, according to Hedils saga kata, murdeved his own brother and was in cum slain by his nephews Helgi and Hroarr. ‘he theme of the magical mili that produces whatever its owner wishes is familiar in fotklore, and there is both rex cent and aucienr evidence Hinking the mill 16 Kenia, Menja, and Frid. As late as the nineteenth eensury thers existed a tale in che Orkney Islands about Grotti Fianie and Groesi Minnie, who ground salr in the Pentland Firth. And kennings from tenthvcen- tury skaldic poetry, such as Frédd mj {Pr6d's flows, gold) or meldr faxigiudrs bia Fréda our of the inyless staves of Prodi, oF gold, areest to the age of the tradition in Seanlinavia, In dramagic structure the poem has mich in com ‘on with Grinnismal and Voldarievides a mortal ig attempts to capture and torture oF to ensleve a supemarucsl being, who in revenge causes che king's downfall, Like the Valkyi Darradarlioo”GRUFFUDD AB YR YNAD COCH (Nils saga, ch. 157), the giantesses forecast Pridi's fave in the song ehey sing as they work. BIRLIOGRAPHY “The poem can be fond in Snore Sturhuson, Elda, Fi ‘nur [Snsson, ¢4, (1907), 188-196. An English exanslation is in The Prose Fala, Arthur Gy Boden, eruss. 91 repr 1960), 161-169. See also Allred Johnston, “Geattn Songe snd the Orkney od Shetland Quorn," in Sage-book of the Viking Society. © (1908-1909) Alexander H. Krappe, "The Soitg of Grats” in Moder Laguage Review, 19 1924) Gusta Neck), "Studien saber F765," in Zeitechrte far deutsches Alterium, 48 S06 Axcl Oli, The Heroic Legends of Denmark, Lee M, Hollander, rans, 1919), 490-471 Karat Gamsran [Sec ako Dareadae6a; Grimmnismsl: He6lle Sage Keakas ‘Njile Saga; Volondakvia.| GRUFPUDD AB YR YNAD COCH (f 1240), Welsh court poet whose extant work consists of a superb elegy on Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the lase prince of Gwynedd (d. 1282), and, less certainly, five tor six religious odes thae have as cheie heme the ver- rors of Judgment Day and the need for repentance and reconciliation with Gorl, The elegy and these odes are characterized by a depth of emotion con veyed in strong, visual imtes and by 2 masterly com> and of thetorical techniques. BIBLIOGRAPHY The poetry & found is Oxford, Bodleian Libsary, Jesus College, MS CXI, Red Book of Horgest, diplomatic ed. by John Gwenogusyn Evans, The Pastry in the Red Bonk of Hergest (1911), The odes are edited by Henry Lewis in Hert Gert Crefetdol A931), 94-105; 4 che clegy by Thomas Paiey, in Oxford Doak of Welsh Verse 11962}, 45-A9, The dlepy i also teanslated by Anrhony Cowan ine The Paaguiir Book of Welsh Verse (L967), 128-131, and is exxenined by Ann Maronis in Studia Celica, 14/15 (979-1980). On the cles see Catherine MoXenna, “The Religious Postry Ar seieured rp Gruffudd so yr Yad Coch,” it Bulletin of the Bou of Cette Srudies, 29 (1981), Bayisy F, Roners [Sse also Liywelyn ap Geefludd; Welsh Literature] GRUFFUDD AP CYNAN (ca, 1055-1137), king of ‘Gwynedd. His father, Cynan ap Jago, deposed from GRUFFUDD AP CYNAN Gwynedd in 1038, led co Dublin, where he married Ragnhilde (Welsh Ragnell), granddaughter of Sihsric Silkenbeard. Graffadd was brought up an exile in Scandinavian surroundliigs and for much of his life ‘was as much Viking as Welsh, He fist artemated eo win his patrimony in 1975, when, aided by the Nor man marcher Rodert of Rhoddlan, he made use of local opposition to the usurper ‘Trahacarn ap Cara~ dog and invaded Gwynedd, He followed his initial sneeess by eurning against his Normar ally but dise covered the native Welsh had ser upon his Vileing army. He was defeated by Teahaearn a¢ Bron-yrerye and fled ¢o Ireland, After a period of marauding and raiding, Gruthiéd employed different tacties in his invasion of 1081. He handed at St. Davids, Dyfed: joined Forces with the exiled king of Dehevbarth, Rhys ap Tewdwr; and defeated ‘Trahacaen ar Myn= yell Carn. ‘the way north was open, and Geuffdd won the chrone of Gwynedd He was betrayed by Meisyawn Goch, captured almost immediately by Robert of Rinuddlan, and imprisoned at Chester unit 5087/1088, or perhaps 1033. Groffudd had difficulty in maintaining his posi- tion and winning popular support, but a campaign of resistance to Noraran advances Fron 1093 t0 1099 ‘won for kim mose of historical Gwynedd and prob- ably naked a shife roward a more Welsh awareness Kor fifteen years he consolidated his position, Even after Henty Us iavasinn of I114, terms were ar- ranged that preserved his boundaries, and as old age advanced, bis sons continved ro extend Gwynedd to the south and east so that when he died, blind and infirm hie suecessors were left a firmly established ‘kingdom and a secare threne, Groffode's status asthe acknowledged founder of contemporary Gwyniedé was expressed in the only secular biography in Midille Welsh (from a lose Latin originall, probably written by a clevie in his sticcessor’s couee. His elegy in heroic terms was song by Meilyr, Later tradition ascribes to him the codi- fication of bardic practice, but this “charter” is prob- ably a sixteensh-century antiquarian appeal to ven- erable authority. BINLIOgRAPHY For the history of Gruffudd’s ceiga, the standard ac- oumts are Joh E, Loyd, History of Wales from: the Ear- Fest Times 10 the Felwardian Congaret, 11910; ad A. H. Willian, Avr Sutradtetion do the History of Wale, W (1948), Archur Jones, The History of Gruff apy Cyan (1910), eis and translates the cxely-thietecoth-century Welsh version of the lost ewelfeh-senrucy Latin biographyGUARIENTO DI ARPO with 9 histocical commentscy: Historéa ruffed eab Kena, D. Simon Beans el (1977), isa new exiion of rhe biogeaphy (eed by Lauer copys Hanes Gruffudd ap Cyn wih a Jong discussion on dhe sources and back frond waceril. For the elegy see Alexander French, Melly Elegy (or Gruttadd sp Cyan,” in Beudes ce icoes, 16 0980), an ciion with an English translation, For the “chives” se Thomas Parry, “Stata Gralla ap Cyn," in Une. of Wale, Buller of the Bound af Gale Sis, § (1929) Buysczy F, Rosenrs [See also Wales, History of-] GUARIENTO DI ARPO (f. 1338-1370}, « Paduan painter influenced by fie Byzantine tradition of Venetian painting as sveli as by Giorto and some Sienese painters, Guariento’s chief surviving work is the ceiling decoration (or the Accademia i Science in Padua clepicting Old Testamvane scenes, of which an additional twenty-seven fragments are preserved in the Museo Civico, Padua. A signed crucifix in the Museo Civico, Bassano del Grappa, and « polyptych Coronation of the Virgin {dloted 1344%in the Cecrnin Collection, Vienna, are Guasienta’s mast important snrviving works on panels, BIBLIOGRAPHY Bernard Berenson, Huallan Mietives of the Renatssanee, Central anut Nott Healian Schools, 2 vole. (968% Pada, Palazns della Ragiune, Du Gate al Mantegna, exhibiion catalog (1974) Francesca Flores Aceais, Guariento, tutta da ptr, Bod 0d. 974, Annan M. Gest [See shee Gothic Are Palnsing and Manuscript Mluinination.] GUAS, JUAN AND PEDRO, Pedro Guas (f. ea. 1440-1460}, French architect and sculptor, is best Kenown as the father of Juan Guas (| ‘with whom he collaborated, under the g Hannequin of Brussels, on the Portal of the the eathedval of ‘Toledo. Joan Guas, also born in Sz. Pol-de-Leos, France, is nated for architectoeal de> signs With a richness of ornament including both Flemish Gothic and Moarish characteristics. He and ‘other northern architects made important contrib tions ¢o che Spanish Isabelline atchiseetural seyle, which coincided roughly with che combined reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1474-1516) GUDMUNDAR SAGA BISKUPS Decorate gnlley uf the ele of Manzanares ol Real, Cal. Ivan Gites FBO, nrc WY Wi SAN LEE Juan Guas's training in Toledo was probably che souuce of the prominent Moorish characteristies in his work, such as che honeycomb cornices at the cloister of she monastery of El Pavlar and on the mirador of the castie of Manzanares el Real. He de- signed a large number of buildings, including. the monastery ofS, Juan de los Reyes in Toledo, the mir- ador of the casee of Manzanares el Real, che cloister of the monastery of El Panlar, che main poctal of the cathedral ar Avils, and the cloister of the cathedral oF Sexovia. BigIOGRAPAY Jest Maria De Azedrote, “Sobre el origen de Juan Guns," in Archivo esparial de arte, 23 (1950), and La ar- quitectura gotiea toledana del siglo XV {1958%, Leopoldo Torres Blois, Argutteetirs gotica {19524 Georg Weise, Stalin sur spaniachen Architektv der Spaggotde (1939) Many Geizzanv GUDMUNDAR SAGA BISKUPS, See Guthmun-GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These terms be- long to the long struggle that took place in Italy be- tween ehe church arid its supporters on one side {Guelphs; Wells in German} and the empire and those who supported it (Ghibellines) on the other, ‘The struggle dates back to the reign of Frederick 1 Barbarossa (1153-1190) and his attempts to cestore imperial authority in northern lealy by force of acms, Te reached its greatest intensity in the following cen- ‘ury, hing a period that began wish the coronation cof Orto 1V (1208), spariaed the long reign of Pred= erick II 1220-1250}, and concluded with che deci- sive victory of the Guelph forees led by Cliatles of Anjou at Benevento (1266). By convention scholis have freely applied the terms Guelph and Chibelline to the sides i this eon flierBetween church ane empire for most of the thie teenth century, though contemporaries seem not to hhave used them much uncil about 1250, ancl then ee first only in Tuscany {where they originated, In some areas, moreover, the alternative terms “charch party" and “imperial party" were preferred. The Italian communes were divided in their alle~ thiances to the rwo parties, though local rivalries, rather than any scrong commitment to the cause of either church or empires largely determined these al leginnces. Gathelline Cremona battled Guelph Milan for control of western Lombardy, while to che east, Guelph Padna foughe ¢o maintain its independence from the Ghibelline lord Ezzelino da Romano. 11 wcany, Ghibelline Siena and Pisa were the enemies of Guelph Florence. The great lords and eit both sides formed alliances, which were sometinnes extensive enough to give the conflict almost a cia tional character. The Lambard League, which ep- posed both Frederick [ and Frederick I, is the most famous of these. fe was headed by Milan and heavily supported by the papacy. Tragically, chose divisions also grew up within the cities. Their factious, eqntinuaily feuding nobles cor alesced into nwo hostile parties, Guelph and Ghibel- line, with disasteous consequences for the com= runes. Each party looked for sapport outside the city. At Bologna after 1250, the Geremei (Guelphs) allied themselves with the Guelph faction at Mo dena, while the Lambertaz2i (Ghibellines} favored the Ghibelline nobles of the Romagna, Often the dominant party imposed its foreign policy on the commune, When the Ghibellines emporarily wrested power from the Guelphs at Florence in 1260, Siena, a former eneniy, became an ally. Al- though these, factional conflicts essentially pitted GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES noble against noble, they sometimes embroiled the entire city in civil war, as happened at Bologna in 1074 In the fourteenth century the terms Guelph and Ghibeline, shough widely used, had less celevance to rhe actual state of affairs, The empire was no longer 2 power in Italy. Indeed, the tinsuecessful transalpine expeditions of Henry VII {1310}, Logis che Bevacian (1327), and Charles 1V {1354 1368) threatened to make it an object of scorn, Still, in a sense the em pperor's place was taken by the Italian stgtari, dese pots who (after a period of popular govcenments) ruled the cities of northern (taly. Henry VII and his successors legitimized their authority by making chem vicars or represencatives of the empire, To theie Guelph enemies they were “Ghibelline tyrants” or “Lombard tyrants rebelling against the pope.” The continual warfare between the greavest of these signori, the Visconti of Milan, and their opponents, the Avignon pupes and Florence, was the fourseenth- century version of the Guelph-Ghibelline conflict. Inernal factional strife was much lesy common in she fourteenth century, With policies that ranged from repression co reconciliation, the sigatori gen cevally managed to puta stop to factional fighting in the cities they controlled. Yer, below the surface the old divisions endured, In 1396 Bernabo Visconti had ¢0 prohihir anyone in his eeritory from even spealt- jing the words “Guelph” and “Ghibelling.” And atter Gian Galeazzo, the last capable Visconti prince, died in 1402, che two parties tured western Lombardy into a battleground for decades. At Florence, t0o, the frerional battles of che thir- teenth century were now a thing of the past, though afeer 1350 the ruling elise, through its polisical organ, the Parte Cuelfa, kept the issue artificially ahve by condemaing those who opposed them as Ghifsellines. During she first half of the fourteenth ceneury, Dante aad Marsilius of Pacha constructed imperial, Ghibelline ideologies. Borh saw she ennperar as the salvation of Italy. He would heal the political div sions, For which, according co Marsiies, the church by its jntecfercnce in cenyporal affairs, was responsi fle. But such ideas were too removed from political reality to influence the course of events, In an open leiter composed on the eve of Henry VIF Iralian ade venture, Dante pleaded with the people of Italy co accept him es their tre Joré—but in vain. And though it was Henry's announeed aim to pacify the imperial eities in Italy, his visit only heightened the internal conflics between factions.GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINFS Genctally speaking, the Guelh~Ghibelline strug gle was free of ideological content. Ialian signort were often ruthless iv their ceatment of she local church, but nor from any invellectual conviorion {for which Marsilius’ Defensor pacls Mfrom 1324], its plan to par the church ander stave control, could have provided a basis). The faer chat the pope was the hated poiitieal enemy partly explains their ex~ treme hostility to church and clergy. Also like mon archs everywhere, they found the temptation to con- fiscare the chareh’s yulnceable wealth irrosistite, For its part, Rome promoted the idea that Guelph~ ism stood for a preater good, the defense of ecclesi astical privileges and liberties, but in truth this was a veparate issues Aud, sometimes by aecesing its ene? mies of heresy and dectaring “crusades” spainst them, che church rried xo make a political struggle into a religious one, On the local level Florentines embraced Guelphism as the cause of freedom and in- Uependence, from the emperors and the tyrams ‘of Mi ‘The views of Azario, a fourteenth-century chron ieler from Novara, suggest that most contemporaries had few illusions regarding the true nacure of the Giuelph-Ghibelline conflict, He observed thar the Guelphs were nominally pearchurch and the Ghi lines pro-empire, but *hat in fact each often treated its own adherens worse thar the enemy. Moreovee, where these ewo parties diel Aol exist, ovo Worse ‘ones took cheir place. Nor, he concluded, would the situation improve until people ceased to be. IBLIOGRAPHY arto da Sassofereatoy “De Guelphis ex Gebrtinis,” in Fphesim Timerton, eda, Humanisns ond Tyranny (1964 Giene A. Brucker, “The GhibeDine Teial of Maeres Villani 11362)." in Medieval 1? Suonanistica, 13 (1960 and Ror enti Police al Society, 1343-1378 (1962 Chas Till Davis, Davte and the Idea of Rome {197k Mavio Fagnani, “Guelfi ¢ Chibellini di Pavia in una relarione wlciale del 1399," in Boieatina della Soctand pavese di storia patra, ns, 29 (1964 Gina Fssoli, "Guelli ¢ Ghibellini di Ro- foiigns nel 80-81," sn Avchivio sterica italiano, 94 (1936 Ginseppe Gallaveesi,".s isassn dei Guelf in Lon>= bardia dopo i 1260 ¢ ls politica di Ffippo della Forze, Aretivio starico lonburde, 33 (1906) Ateed Hess, Stn va dalla eitd lf Botegna dat 1116 af 1280, Gina Fasuliy trans, (1975) J. X. Hye, Pada iv she Age of Dante (1968) aid "Contemporiey Views on Faerign and Civil Strife i ‘histecneh- ang Fouctozsth-eentury Tealy,” in Taveo Mare tines ed, Violence ai Cival Disordor i tration Cities, 1200-1$0i (1972), Ernst Kawrorowier, Frederick the Sez itd, P1912, E. O. Lorimer, tans. (1957), Sergio Rav GUGLIELMO gsi, Massimo Toraysi, Daniela Medici, and Patrizin Pac= enti, Glnbellni, Cuolfi e popole grasso (1978, Nieolai Rubinstein, "Florence and the Despots,” in Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Seb set, 2 (1952), and "“Marsibus ef Pacha and Iralian Political Thought of His me," in John I. Hae, R. L. Highfilel, and Horyl Smale ley. e., Europe i rhe Late Middle Ayes (1963), Berthold Stall, delet unl Volk ins Horentiner Dugente (19654 Nino Valeri, Curl « Glabetii’ a Milone alls seomparsa di langalenezo Visconti 1983 Jous Kone ighieris Plor- Veederiek TI of the Fly Roman Empire, King of Sieilys aly, Mourteenth and Fif- tcoath Centuries; Lombard Leagues Marsiius (Marsiglio) ‘of Padua. GUERNES DB PONT-SAINTE-MAXENCE (f, 1170-1180) is rhe author of La vie de saint Thomas fe Martyr, an account of the life and martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket, Nothing is known of Guerues except whar he says in this poem, which consiees af 6.180 alexandrines in fiverline monorhynied stanzas. A wandering clerk from the Ile-de-France, Goernes probably began a redaction of the Vie in France dar- ing the mosths following the assassination 29 De- camber 1170), Of his association with the mactyt, he says only that he saw bia several simes during Beck c's participation fn an Engl itary expedition to France (1155-1162). Guernes traveled! to Catter- tury to tall: with Becker's aegsaintances and eyewit~ nesses of the murder. There he composed the final version, probably becween 1172. and 1174. In addition to insisting on the exclusive truth ful> ness of his account, Guernes bases its authority in part on iey language: “Mis langgages est Bons, car en France fui sea’ (My fanguaye is good, Cor Twas bor in [ile-de- /Prance, v. 6,163) BIBLIOGRAPHY womes ele Pont-SainterMaxence, Le ofe de soit ‘PMomas Becket, Hrunanuel Walberg, ec. (1922, 2nd ed. 1936); Janes Shirley, erans., Garaie'e Berke (1975). TS. Fauner [see also Becker, Thomas, Sag; Hagiogenphy, Feenels] GUGLIELMO. See slo William.GUGLIELMO, FRA GUGLIEELMO, FRA, 9 classicizing associate or pupil of the sculptor Nicola Pisano. A pulpit in S. Giovanni Kuorcivitas, Pisa, is believed once ro have borne his signature and the date 1270. Ie is generally agreed thac Fea Guglielmo algo worked on the vor af St. Domenie in the Church of §, Domenico, Bo- Hogna (ca, 1264-1267), BIBLIOGRAPHY fobs White, Art and Architecture fit Maly, 1250 £0 1400 (1966), 60-61 Donon F. Gua {See also Gothic Art: Sculpture; Nicola Pisano.) GUGLIELMO DA VERONA, problematic north Iralian Romanesque sculpsor active in the twelfth century and thought ro have been either a pupil or co-worker of Nicculd da Verona. He is known throngh an inscription on the cornice of the north pediments on the facade of S, Zeno, Verona. Al though the New Testament reliels an the facade are usually aetributed co Guglielmo, both his style and chronology are currently being, teexamnined. BIBLIOGRAPHY George H. Cricheon, Romanceque Seuletire jn Italy (1954), 30-33 Lvelyn M. Kain, "An Analysis of the Marble Reliefs on the Fasae of §. Zeno, Verona," in As? Bullen, 63(1981) Donor F. Gass [See also 8 da Verona; Romanesque Art] GUT DE WAREWIG, an Anglo-Norman verse r= ‘mance in octosyllabic couplers [12,926 lines), written between 1232 and 1242, that celebeazes Guy of War wick, a legendary hero who eame to be regarded as 1 national champian of the English. The poein re- ‘counts the adventares undertaken by Guy in order t0 become worthy of the better-bora Felice, his battles abeoad as a Christian knight, and his rerara co England, where he defeats Colebrand, the champion of the Danish invaders; in single combat. The Anglo- Norman work is the source of versions in Middle English and Lavin, and of a fifreenth-cencury French prose text, ‘The story was popular throoghowt Eu> ope and parts of it were also adapted into German, GUIBERT OF NOGENT ualian, and Spanish. Some versions were printed in the Renaissance, BIBLIOGRAPAY Aled! Fwert, edy Gi de Warewics Roman dur Xttte sidele, 2 vois. (1933). See also Mary Dominion Legge. Anglo-Norman Literature wml tes Dackgrorend (1263), 162-172 Brian Mennasers [See ako Anglo-Norman Literature: Middle fnglish Uiteratored GUIBERT OF NOGENT (ca. 1064-ca. 1125), Ben edictine historian, controversialist, exegete, anc! aut thor of autobiographical memoirs, was born at Cler= monten-lleanvaisis, northern France, probably of a cadet branch of the family of the lords of Cleemont. Despite his aurobiogeaphical reflections on his ehild- hood and his subsequent career in the three books of his Memoirs, the precise ehronology of Guibert’ life and writings, as well as information about his family iiflien, are still largely matters of scholarly inquiry. Virtually enmentioned in the writings of his eon tempocaries, Guibert has only recently caught the at tention of scholars, who tend to find the personality of che onan more interesting than his literary ourpuie cr his very minor role in the affairs of his day. Lorn on Holy Saturday after a diffe labor thae almost cost him ancl his mother their lives, Guibert was dedicated to God from birth, His father, violent, lustful, and prone to excess, died within the years and his mother, a domineering woman of great beauty and intelligence, bur with an aggressively pur ritanical bent, assumed responsibility for hee son's education. Isolating him from the companionship of other children, she entrusted him, from the ages of six ro twelve, to a. private tutor whom Guibert re- membered as brutally exigent but also incompetent. “The boy was still preadolescent when his mother re- tired to a retreat aeae the abbey of St. Germer de Fly (or Flayk his tutor soon after entered the same abbey, ‘where he eventually became prior. Having seized the opportunity to indulge in a hout of childhood wantonness, Guibert, ar his moth- cer's behest, was called to order and dispatched post- haste to St. Getmer for further discipline and eraine ing im a monastic ambience. Strongly attiacted t0 the disciplined life at the abloey, he defiantly made mo- nastie profession at a date earlier than was deemedGUIBERT OF NOGENT aulvisable by either mother or former tutor, Now ambitioning, fame as a scholar, Guibere theew him self into his studies; soon his pretensions to intellee~ tual excellence put him at odds with his fellow yonk’. A period of concentration on specifically re- ligious works was followed hy a period given almost ‘wholly ro the joys of Ovid and Vergil, and his ensli- est literary efforts were devoted to the production of seudonymeus love lyrics. Buffered by Insts of the in- felleer and lusts of che body, the young monk fell into a state of physical and spivitual affliction from whieh he emerged confirmed in his monastic vocar tion, but with his problems of ambition and sensual= ity not wholly cesolved. His love for the Latin fase sies was to survive in his convoluted latinity and his frequent citations of pogan authors. From Guiber’s late adolescence dates his frst ex tant treatise, a wor'e of moral asceticism titled “On Virginity,” in which his bent far rational criticism is already evident in his taking issue wich several of the faces alleged by Fusebius in his Ecclesiastical Hise tory. A major influence on Guibert at this time was St. Anselm, abbot of the nearby monastery of Bee and a frequent visitor to St, Germer, Encouraged by ‘Anselm, and taking his cue from Gregory the Great's ‘Moraiia on Job, young Guibert received permission from his abbot, Garnier, to embark upon his ows Muaralia on Genesis—just a “brief litle work,” ex- plained Guibert. Permission to continue was with drawn when the abot realized the massive scale of the conamentary andertaken by che immature monks bout continue Guibert did, in secret, and quickly com plered the work when’ Garnier retired ss abbot around 1084. More interesting than this hilly de- rivative commentary is the brief trestise Liber «ua ordine sermo fieri debeat (How to write 8 sermon), ine of the eacliest and best of the practical manuals for preachers thar were to beeome so popular in the twelfth century, Since he had resisted the efforts of his family 10 acquire a higher posicion for him by means of si- mony, i was uot util 1104 thar Guibert, now well known (says Guibert] for his writing abiliey, ac: cepted the abbacy of the poor anul tiny abbey of No- gent-sou-Couey (founded as lace as 1059), midway heeween Compizgme and Laon, Fis new ale as abbor involved him direetly in ecclesiastical affairs and brought him into personal contact with bishops and corr sociery. More impartane, however, Gir bere was now free to indulge his passion for writing. His first major work dating from this period is his history oF the First Crusade, Gesta Dei per Francos GUIBERT OF NOGENT (The deeds of God as performed by the Franks) largely finished in 1108 bue touched up around LIL. Relying chiefly on anonymous sources, he wok his narrative up to 1101, followed by a supplement of events ending in L104, Less exedulous than earlier authors of Crusade literature, Guiibere was nonethe= less prone to suspend all critical jodgmene when ie came to attacks against enemies from the Fast, be they Muslim or Christian, Attempting to enliven his dliscourse by means of rhetorical artifice, he pro~ duced a monument of literary affectation that, de~ spite the clemands made on the reades’s patience, be= came one of the most popular histories of the First Cousade. For the modern reader, however, the most re- vwearding of Guibert’s writings ts certainly his anco~ biographical De vita sua sive monodiarian suarian libri tres, or Memoirs, writen in M115, Obviously depending for his approach on the Confessions of St ‘Augustine, Guiberc sraces the story of his childhood, his life av St. Germer, his election as abbot of No~ gent, and the misforcunes of the diocese of Laon (in which Nogent was located}. In so doing he provides an invaluable source of information about daily life in castie and in monastery, educational methods then in vogue, che social and political upheavals of 1172 in the commune of Laon, and insights into some of the major and minor personalities of his im- mediate milien. Guibert’s presentation of history is dliseorted by his passions and prejucices, ban this is ‘not to say that his historical writings are therefore irrelevant. On the contrary, they reveal the medieval ‘world, if ot 38 i really ws, then at least as it was perceived by a sensitive individual who crystallized in his-own person many of the aspirations and con- Flicts of his own day. Since a number of Guibert's holograph manaseripss are extant, his writing, has boucn studied feom the points of view of galeogeaphy and suchorin! praeiiees, Minor works written ¢ Nogeot include a “Leter About che Morsel Given Jul” which is an a Berengarian riposte; a Book fr Praise of St. Mary. which combines exegesis of Marian biblical texts swith accounts of Marian miracles: a Treatise on the incarration Against the Jews; wo collections of “teopologine” [exegetical comments), the first on Hosea, Jeremiah, and Amos, the second Gill un= edited apart from the introxiuctory lettet} on, ost of the ether minor prophets; and the treatise on the veneration of celics, De pignoribus sanctorsan, which, by aetacking the authenticity of the alleged tooth of the Lord venerated in the nearby abbey ofGUIDO CAVALCANTL St. Médard at Soissons, sufficed for some critics to ture Guibert into a precursor of Voltaire. In decry ing the superstitious veneration of (alse relics, how= ever, Guibert also describes in perfervid fanguage a spiritual ideal in which there is a radical distinesion between the macerial world of the senses and the purified world of spirit and incellect, Visible realities, for Guibert, signify and Jead to invisible cealities of 1 wholly different order. In sam, Guibert remains 9 medieval monk, hut one with a keen critical sense, a complex, even tormented psychological steucearey and a flair For self-expression that makes him an i= portent witness of the millet in which he lived, SINLIOGRAPHY Most of Gutiber't works see in Patologia lating, CLYT (18538, where the text reproduces the editio prinoeps eted by Lue d’Achery (L651). A better edition of the Cesta Dei per Fraucas isin Recueil des historiens des croisades: His- toriens occidentane, IV (1879), 118-263; the De vita sia Ings been ected hy Georges Bourgin as Guibert de Nogent: Histoire de sa vie 19077. By fae the mest sel introde- tion to these memaies, and to Goibert ia gence, is Jobs F, Teta, edly Self and Society in Medieval Prances The Monais of Abbot Guibert of Nogent (1970), Benara rex vises the eaclier translation {1925} by G. C. Swinton Bland, prefaces ir with 2 perceptive incoduction it hich ce= search on Gushert doting Fhe past century is cacetully sum= snaviaed nel evalunesd, snd xlds appeudines dealing wich pprableins connected witht Guiber's birch, family, and hronolygy. emendations of the Lavin ext, and a bibliegeaphy. Cuavsocenus Waonet, O.CS.0. [ee also Biogeaphy, French; Historiography, Western Lue ropean; Preaching and Sermon Literaure, Western Harapeom.] GUIDO CAVALCANTI. See Cavsleanti, Guido. GULDO DA COMO falso identified wich Guido Bi- gael, x midthireenth-cenrury desorator and sculptor, Possibly a follower of the Regulus Master, he crained in the workshop of the decorator Gui- testo, He was one of the leading exponents, outside Florence, of decoration combining, sculpture and inlay in the Oriontal/Byzantine manner that flovt- 10 GUIDO DA SIENA Puipig uf 5, Rortslommce in Pantano, Pitas. Gide a Coma, RSE. yee. 3 ELINOR, HOMME LORE a1Y 19509 ished jin Tuscany during the ewelith and thirteenth centuries. His works include the haptismal font in the Pisa Baptistery (1246) and the pulpit in $. Barto= Fommeo in Pantano at Pistoia (1250). NLR RAPHY George H. Crichton, Rostanesgur Sentptire in Italy (1958, 112-113, 115, 124; Joho PopeHlennessy, Halion Gothic Seodpenere (1972), 3, 69, 171 Sanna Cane Susman [See also Romanesque Art| GUIDO DA SIENA {jl 1260's-ca. 1290), a pioneer “Tusean paincer. Compared with his younger Sienese conieniporary Duceio di Buoninsegna, Guide repre= sented a markeslly conservative rendeney. His mas- rerpiece is the §. Domenico alrarpiece (a. 1280); de- spite « fourreeath-centusy modernization (ee which tinea dave of (224 was added), ehe centeal Madonna aad Child panel (Siena, Palazzo Pubblico; the nacra- sives are in che Siena Pinacoteca and other collec- tions} reveals Guido fo be an intelligent integpceter