Media and Information Literacy
Media and Information Literacy
Media and Information Literacy
IN JOURNALISM:
A HANDBOOK FOR JOURNALISTS AND JOURNALISM EDUCATORS
Baktria Press
Tashkent – 2019
UDC 070:004
BBK 76.01
M 96
Muratova, Nozima.
Media and Information Literacy in Journalism: a Handbook for Journalists and Journalism
Educators [AUTHORS] / N. Muratova, A. Grizzle, D. Mirzakhmedova. — Tashkent: Baktria
Press, 2019. — 128 p.
UNESCO Disclaimer ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they
are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organisation.
This publication is published with financial assistance from the British Embassy in
Tashkent. It does not necessarily reflect the official views of the British Embassy.
This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO
(CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http: //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). By using the
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Published in 2019 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
7, Place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France
Printed in Turkey
Ramzon R. Tuazon
President, Asian Institute of Journalism and Communication (AIJC).
Secretary General, Asian Media Information and Communication Centre (AMIC),
Manila, Philippines.
PREFACE
MIL for Critical and Quality Journalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Introduction
The Unique Features of this UNESCO Guide about Media and Information
Literacy and Journalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
In the same way that no seed can sprout without good soil, no good journalism
can flourish without citizens with sufficient media and information literacy. Nor will
there be good human conversation if part of the group remains silent.
Many years ago, a journalist and Nobel Literature Prize laureate Albert Camus —
African and European at the same time — established three requirements for 7
critical (or quality) journalism: 1) to inform well; with no hurry, without rush; 2) to
contribute to the understanding of the news by means of observations that grant
the exact scope of information, whose source and intention are not always evident;
3) to provide the public with knowledge about information techniques and
strategies, in order to “guard their critical spirit, instead of facilitating their
life”. Camus thus, avant la lettre, called attention to the need for good journalistic
profession to promote, in an exercise of transparency, the pedagogy of its procedures,
that is to say, the critical competency of its audiences, then MIL.
Today, co-operation between journalists and the MIL movement has already
become an inevitable commitment; just as respect for the public/citizens’ critical
sense and autonomy, and their media competencies are inherent to good journalism
and hence necessary to enrich our social conversation.
What can this commitment be built on? In my opinion, it is based on five essential
principles that are perfectly illustrated in this manual, and that require collaboration
between the world of journalism and that of MIL.
1. That truth is built among all — journalists and citizens: This truth is always
the fruit of a systematic work of verification, contrast, mutual understanding and
criticism. A work that journalism and the MIL movement must do together.
2. That fighting against lies entails fighting against prejudices, against
stereotypes and against closed-mindedness: These prevent us from accepting
those ideas that do not gratify us, that can be uncomfortable; which imposes a
kind of silent censorship. Truth arises from going against the flow of conventional
ideas, from exercising constant critical vigilance about our own thoughts; from
attentive analysis, and from methodical doubt. Hence, both journalism and MIL are
always united in nonconformity; in that they consistently attach more importance
to questions than answers.
3. That there is no journalistic credibility without ethics and honesty; and
without accountability: Trust is built on respect between journalists and their audi-
ences, on respect for ethical standards of behaviour, and honest professional practice.
And that none of this can be achieved without known rules and without collective
vigilance over those rules. Here the MIL movement can co-operate with quality
journalism by promoting shared rules, accountability, regulation and co-regulation.
4. That there is no quality journalism without public/citizen participation:
Today’s journalism is no longer one-way; it involves citizen participation; it needs
catalysing and energising social conversation. It benefits from people’s creativity,
and from their contributions; as much as people benefit from good journalism.
Therefore, the quality of democracy and journalism depends on the quality of this
participation. For that reason, MIL and quality journalism assign great importance
to the empowerment of citizens in front of the media and information. Hence,
8 journalism can only progress as MIL advances.
5. That both quality journalism and MIL have, as a means and as an end, to
strengthen people’s rights equitably and without discrimination: To do so, they
must resist the imposition of any power - political, economic or any other kind. In
this way, neither political manipulation, nor commercial pressure, nor the pursuit of
economic profit can overcome the civic duty shared by quality journalism and MIL.
From my point of view, based on these five principles a solid relationship can be
established between the quality of journalism — in a society increasingly in need
of its work — and MIL — the movement that drives the empowerment of people
before the media and information.
From these, a strong alliance can be woven — as exemplified and updated by
the Global Alliance for Media and Information Literacy (GAPMIL) and the interna-
tional MIL and Intercultural Dialogue University Network, which UNESCO has been
promoting for some time — and based on them, the training of journalists and the
training of citizens can be improved, in order to build a new social conversation.
The text in your hands represents an excellent tool for improving the quality of
journalism, and for promoting the enhancement of MIL.
The manual is based on the principle of integrating media and information literacy
(MIL) and the practice of journalism. The first part of the book is focused on explaining
the basics of MIL.
Sections such as “Media as a MIL Development Partner,” which analyses how jour-
nalists can perform the role of media and information literacy integrators for the
public can be considered as the new topics addressed in the manual. “Formulation of
competencies in the field of media and information literacy for student and teachers
of journalism” contains information on competencies important for journalists in 9
the era of knowledge society and universal digitalisation. Other topics covered
include the gender aspects of MIL and its role as a tool for promoting gender
equality, monitoring and moderating media messages to mitigate the potential
negative impact on citizens, media and regulatory organisations dealing with MIL
issues, and building confidence in the media through MIL are also highlighted.
The authors raise the topic of the design and implementation of MIL internal policy
of the media as a necessary approach, which until today has not been covered
1
The use of the term “media” throughout this document refers to two dimensions. Firstly,
there is the news media as an institution, the “fourth estate”, having specific professional
functions that its constituents pledge to fulfil in democratic and inclusive societies, which are
necessary for good governance and sustainable development. This includes radio, television
and newspapers, whether online or offline, as well as journalistic content on the Internet.
Secondly, there is media as the plural of the term “medium”, and which here refers to multiple
communication modes such as broadcast and cable television, radio, newspapers, motion
pictures, video games, books, magazines, certain uses of the Internet etc. MIL encompasses
engagement with all these modes. For its part, UNESCO is particularly concerned with
information and news, but recognises that there is other content such as entertainment,
interpersonal communications, and advertising.
The use of the term “Information providers” throughout this document refers to the
management of information for development purposes, information agencies, memory,
cultural and Internet information organisations. It includes libraries, archives, museums,
documentation centres, information management institutions, not-for-profit and for-profit
information providers, networks, and companies that provide a range of services and content
online and others.
substantially in the MIL literature. The working tools included in the final part of
the manual serve as a reinforcing material.
This guide aims to become an important and practical tool for journalists, journalism
educators, media regulators, and civil society organisations in the implementation of
their professional activities, and primarily engaging in media and information literacy.
The tutorial entitled Fred Fact Doesn´t Fall for Misinformation and Disinformation
published by Aos Fatos, Brasilian fact-checking platform in April 2017 clearly shows
how false information can easily be spread through digital media. This guide,
although it touches upon misinformation and disinformation, focuses on the topic
in the context of media and information literacy.
2
Julie Posetti, Alice Matthews. A Short Guide to the History of ’Fake news’ and Disinformation.
https: //www.icfj.org
resource offers a range of ways journalists can tackle disinformation, misinformation
or malinformation including through media and information literacy3 .
Another resource, The Impact of Crosscheck on Journalists & the Audience, was published
in November 2017. It is based on the work of Sophie Chauvet and Emmanuel
Marty and focuses on the international journalism practices and examples from
the media, explaining some practical situations, based on their experience, that
journalist should consider.
This present Guide, Media and Information Literacy in Journalism: A Handbook for
Journalists and Journalism Educators, complements these publications mentioned
above, which were useful in helping to orient content to practicality as well as to
develop a case approach. This Guide is published in four languages, Uzbek, Russian,
Karakalpak and English, responding both to the unique national Uzbekistan context
as well as ensuring international relevance and use of this tool. The content of the
manual covers the practical aspect of the topic, is designed for self-study, and
features abundance of keywords and practical exercises and cases.
11
Most tools and guides developed for media, journalists, and journalism focus on
how media professionals can improve the quality of their content. The primary
concern is with the supply side of media and information. This resource encourages
media, technological intermediaries, and related organisations to venture more
into the domain of the demand side of media. That is, exploring with a different
perspective the domain of audiences, and more accurately stated, citizens and their
understanding of how media works. Empirical research has shown that experts rank
the need for people’s understanding of the functions of media and other information
providers, and the environment under which they can effectively execute these
functions among the top three broad media and information literacy competencies
that every citizen should have.4 Unlike libraries that over the years have consist-
ently promoted information literacy, never in the history of media has there been
sustained internal policies and programmes to promote MIL competencies. There
have been many short-term pilots and projects by some national broadcasters in
3
https: //unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000265552. Accessed on 20 July, 2019. Cherilyn
Ireton and Julie Posetti edited this resource, which includes contribution from multiple
authors.
4
Grizzle, A. (2018). Assessing Citizens’ Responses to Media and Information Literacy
Competencies through an online course: An Empirical Study and Critical Comparative
Analysis of Experts’ Views. Doctoral Dissertation. ISBN: 9788449084775: http: //hdl.handle.
net/10803/666860. Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (TDX). Autonomous University of Barcelona,
Spain.
Europe and North America. Notable among these is the BBC media literacy series.
The World Association of Newspapers also had a sustained programme on news
literacy in schools as a business model which was rolled back due to the decline of
newspapers’ readership. MIL is particularly needed in today’s journalism for three key
reasons among many others: (1) the media targeted as platform for disseminating
misinformation/disinformation and therefore the need for news audiences to be
discerning; (2) media is being used for misrepresentation, hate speech, extremism;
and (3) growing distrust in the media in many countries.5
Moreover, there is no international tool that exists to guide media and journalism
education to contribute to the advance of MIL for all. This handbook seeks to correct
this gap. The European Commission has plans to prepare a news literacy in the media
guide for media in Europe arguing that those that exist are for North American contexts.
The proposed Handbook on MIL in Journalism builds on the UNESCO tradition to
develop comprehensive and non-prescriptive tools on MIL that can be adapted
by Members States all over the world. It broadens the scope focusing not only on
media but also on journalism education as well as building bridges between media
12 and libraries to develop sustained internal policies and programmes on MIL. In some
sense, this tool is a revamping of the UNESCO Guide for Broadcasters to Promote MIL
and User-Generated Context, which was published in 2008 but has many limitations
given the new information and communication landscape.
The Guide is being developed with the inputs of media professionals, journalism
educators and library and information professionals. The involvement of the leader-
ship in these related organisations ensures an institutional approach for sustainable
use of the Guide.
This Guide aims to equip journalism educators and journalist practitioners with
practical guidelines and resources: 1) about media and information literacy for
critical civic empowerment and engagement, 2) how to integrate MIL in journalism
education and news reporting, and 3) how to stimulate dialogue between media
and citizens/users to build trust in media.
This approach and focus fill the gap of the many existing resources aimed at helping
media professionals to develop good quality and impartial content for media. The
handbook uses the UNESCO framework of MIL as a composite concept. It considers
how media professionals and users can jointly tackle information verification. This
Guide recognises that much of media exist in digital spaces, the reality that digital
Based on the general concept of media and information literacy (MIL) and the work
of journalists with information sources, this Guide also deals with fact-checking,
in particular, it provides tools that enable users to check the facts for authenticity,
choose the most acceptable formats of factchecking, and the possibilities of using
open data for comparison and verification of facts.
13
The Guide also provides examples of best practices, suggested exercises, readings,
and assignments that help to enhance understanding and assist in the reporting
of “misinformation and disinformation”. It is designed as an additional training
material for the training module for journalists, journalism trainers, and teachers,
and is intended for use in news organisations, media development courses, and in
journalism schools. The collected theoretical and practical material will be useful
to media experts in writing news and analytical materials, as well as conducting
investigative journalism.
These checklists and maps can be used by practicing journalists, heads and chief editors
of the media, bloggers, social activists and media workers, representatives of research
institutes and educational institutions, and active users of social networks for self-education.
We hope that this guide will also become a valuable resource for communication
researchers and media and information literacy trainers.
6
Julie Posetti, Alice Matthews. A Short Guide to the History of ‘Fake News’ and Disinformation.
https: //www.icfj.orginformation market / Abstract of Diss. NUUz, 2011. The online version is
available at: http: // site.ziyonet.uz/ru/
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Countries and development organisations around the world are recognising the
relevance of media and information literacy. This turn to MIL is seen as a sustainable
and effective response to the explosion of disinformation globally. Disinformation
threatens the achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs), in general,
democracy, good governance, and social cohesion. Disinformation fuels disagree-
ment about facts and the interpretation of data, blurs the line between influential
opinions or experiences and facts, as well as compromises trust in even reputable
sources of facts.1 MIL enables people to be informed, engaged and empowered
to think critically when taking decisions. UNESCO, as the international organisation
leading MIL development globally, is taking innovative and strategic actions to
respond to the global trend in demand for MIL. Large-scale, widespread, and
sustainable co-operation with media, technological intermediaries as well as other
information providers have not been realised or meaningfully pursued2 .
1
A Threat to Policymaking and Democracy. Rand Cooperation. RB10002-RC (2018). www.rand.
org. Accessed on 27 July, 2019.
2
Grizzle, A. (2018). Assessing Citizens’ Responses to Media and Information Literacy
Competencies through an Online Course: An Empirical Study and Critical Comparative
Analysis of Experts’ Views. Doctoral Dissertation. ISBN: 9788449084775: http: //hdl.handle.
net/10803/666860. Tesis Doctorals en Xarxa (TDX). Autonomous University of Barcelona,
Spain.
3
Grizzle, A. (2014). Measuring Media and Information Literacy: Implications for the Sustainable
Development Goal. In Singh, J., Grizzle, A., et al (2015). Media and Information Literacy for the
Sustainable Development Goals. International Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media,
NORDICOM, University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
4
Idem at footnote 6
5
World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development, Global Report 2017/2018.
UNESCO (Paris). https: //unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261065. Accessed on 22 July
2019.
on professional and international standards6 has a lot in common with MIL.
Figure 1 below provides an illustration. Combining quality journalism with
MIL can help to spur more just, open and inclusive societies thus advancing
the SDGs.
6
White, A. (2008). To Tell you the Truth. The Ethical Journalism Initiative. Brussels, Belgium:
International Federation of Journalists.
7
Adapted from The Elements of Journalism (2014) Revised and Updated Edition by Bill
Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel
Other Principles of MIL
1. One of its main characteristics is interdisciplinarity.
2. It must cover both the fields of media and information.
3. It must be centered on human rights.
4. It must regard critical thinking as its core competency.
5. It must take intercultural dialogue into consideration.
6. It must be imparted to people of all gender identities and at all ages.
7. It must be allowed to be disseminated in both online and offline spaces.
8. Its stakeholders must adopt a sustainable development approach.
The concept of media and information literacy is based on universal human rights
and is considered a fundamental condition for individuals, communities and
whole nations to enjoy the right to freedom of expression and the right to access
information. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that
18 “everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes
the freedom to freely adhere to their convictions and the freedom to seek, receive
and impart information and ideas by any means and regardless of state borders.”8
Based on this principle, UNESCO believes that the concept of media and information
literacy is crucial in providing citizens of all countries with the opportunity to take
full advantage of their fundamental human rights and to effectively participate in
realizing the SDGs.
8
United Nations Human Rights Declaration, Article 19 (1948). http: //www.un.org/en/
documents/udhr/index.shtml
9
Media and Information Literacy in Knowledge Societies / Author Kuzmin Е.I., Parshakova А.
V. – М.: МЦБС, 2013. p. 29.
of the ethical issues surrounding the access and use of information; and engage
with media and ICTs to promote equality, free expression, intercultural dialogue
and interreligious dialogue, peace, etc.”10
Media and information literacy skills can be divided into five main areas:
• Access
• Analysis and comprehension
• Critical evaluation
• Use
• Creation and engagement
These five main areas are related to the fundamental journalistic 5Ws and 1H: What,
who, when, where, why, and how.
Some MIL — related scholars ask the questions: Who created the information
or content? What is the purpose? Who are the target audiences? What are the
messages? What information is included and what is excluded. Who will benefit
from these messages? Who will not benefit? 19
Many practitioners also prefer to focus on what they call news literacy as you will see
in Figure 2 below. To understand MIL, one should first consider the keyword literacy.
What do you think are additional nouns that clarify the concept of literacy, which
could be added here?
AUDIOVISUAL DATA
?
COMPUTER ? ? MEDIA
LITERACY
PERSONAL AND ? ?
INFORMATION-WISE INFORMATION
Grizzle, A, Moore, P. et al (2013). Media and Information Literacy Policy and Strategy Guidelines.
10
UNESCO, Paris. See various other UNESCO publications here, http: //www.unesco.org/new/
en/communication-and-information/media-development/media-literacy/publications/
All these concepts complement the keyword, ‘literacy’, in the centre. In earlier
frameworks about literacy, it mainly concerned a person’s education — written
and oral speech as well as breadth of thinking and outlook. Today this concept
covers many areas of human activity, including activities related to information,
media and digital media. Hence, the concept of literacy has been expanded. Some
experts talk about literacies or multiliteracies11 .
Literacy is also one of the key concepts of MIL. In this context, it is advisable to
consider it complementary and interrelated with the following characteristics as
shown in Figure 3 below:
Literacy
Multimedia Computer
literacy literacy
20
Digital Audiovisual
literacy literacy
Media Information
literacy literacy
News
literacy
Adopted from UNESCO Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers
Each of these categories has its own distinction, sometimes its own distinctive context,
and very often, contiguous properties that complement the other categories’ aspect.
For instance, if computer literacy is the ability to use a computer, knowledge of the
basics of computer science and information technology, audiovisual literacy and visual
literacy implies the ability to analyse and synthesise the audiovisual reality in space
and time. This is a kind of ability to “read” audiovisual media text, the ability to use
audiovisual techniques, knowledge of the basics of audiovisual culture, which is a part
of media competency. Some experts suggest that the concept of information literacy
Media and Information Literacy Curriculum for Teachers. United Nations Educational, Scientific
11
and Cultural Organization. Paris, France. Edited by Grizzle, A. & Wilson, C. (2011).
generally covers all of these concepts and means the ability to be acquainted, analyse
and synthesise information. Other experts argue that the concept of media literacy
differs from all of the above, which implies the ability to analyse and synthesise media
reality, use and understanding of media text, knowledge of the basics of media culture.
In today’s digital environment, the interrelated aspects of literacy are converging.
Media and information literacies are closely connected to the growing influence of
digital technologies. While earlier the use of the Internet was reduced to simple surfing
and chatting, information exchange via digital media is now so widespread and active
that mobile access to the network makes the smartphone a unique window to the
world. This has resulted in smartphone users becoming active consumers, distributors,
and creators of information. Digitalisation has given rise to prosumers — participants
involved in the process of creating / producing information and media content. Alvin
Toffler suggested this term in 1980. It consists of the words “producer” and “consumer”.
In the new information reality and loaded media world, the user of new media: digital
media, mobile media, social networks and so on, is required to have networking skills,
remixing, sharing, downloading skills, creation, distribution and proper use of content 21
and multimedia. That is why such new concepts have arisen that describe the new
media ecosystem, this is digital literacy, news media literacy, and multimedia literacy.
Today, the concept of hypertextuality applies not only to digital information, but also to
users of the network. The network as a principle of connecting everyone and everything
through digital connections also indicates a kind of communication that takes place
between people and machines, between machines and programmes, between robots
and other equipment. Experts have added new competencies such as in Figure 4 below:12
Rayimjanov R.Z. Requirements for Media Competencies in New Media Enviroment. Media, Human,
12
Society in Asia. Korea & Uzbekistan. Seoul, South Korea, April 21–26, 2019. — P. 119–124.
Speaking about media literacy, experts state “the traditional skill set is expanding...
knowledge about big data, personal data privacy, algorithms used on the Internet,
and the ability to strike a balance between media inclusion and shutdown are
components of a new media literacy.”13 Thus, the concepts characterising the user
mode “online” or “offline” have become today the most important signal in human
relations and information exchange.
The challenge to prepare people for life in knowledge societies has been a concern
22 of the international community, particularly international organisations. UNESCO
promotes media and information literacy, which is seen as a “prerequisite for building
inclusive, open, participatory and pluralistic knowledge societies”. 14
It is necessary for journalists and editors to constantly improve their skills in working
on verification of information, using proven and new effective fact-checking methods,
as well as tools for identifying misinformation and disinformation. At the same time,
it is important for journalists and media organisations to work together to tackle
disinformation and empower citizens with MIL competencies.
In the Grunwald Declaration, UNESCO recognises that “media education will be most
effective when parents, educators, media-workers and decision-makers are aware
of their role in the development of critical thinking among listeners, viewers and
13
Media and Information Literacy in Knowledge Societies / Author: Kuzmin Е.I., Parshakova А. V. —
М.: МЦБС, 2013. P. 29.
14
Media and Information Literacy in Knowledge Societies / Author: Kuzmin Е.I., Parshakova А. V. —
М.: МЦБС, 2013. P. 29.
readers. A greater degree of integration between education and media systems and
communication will undoubtedly be an important step on the path to improving
the efficiency of education”.15
During the first decade of the 21st century, UNESCO pursued a path to combine the
concepts of media literacy and information literacy as media and information
literacy. Media and information literacy covers information, media, and techno-
logical competencies. This idea is reflected in many international declarations and
recommendations. A few are listed here:
• The Fes Declaration on Media and Information Literacy (2011, Morocco)
• IFLA recommendations on media and information literacy (2011, The Hague,
the Netherlands; 2012, Russia).
• Framework and Plan of Action for the Global Alliance for Partnerships on
Media and Information Literacy [GAPMIL] (2013, Nigeria)
• Paris Declaration on Media and Information Literacy in the Digital Era (2014, France),
• Riga Recommendations on Media and Information Literacy in a Shifting
Media and Information Landscape (2016, Latvia)
• Youth Declaration on Media and Information Literacy (2016, Brazil) 23
• Khanty-Mansiysk Declaration “Media and Information Literacy for Building
a Culture of Open Government” (2016, Russia), and the Global Framework for
MIL Cities (2018, Russia).
The adoption of these documents by experts and practitioners from around the
world testifies to the fact that the international community is ready to unite efforts
in education, research, putting this issue on the agenda at the government level
to find sustainable mechanism to advance the development of MIL.
MIL is also relevant because an important aspect of the work of media and other
information providers is to ensure that their audiences can distinguish between
real information and misinformation and disinformation. Journalists must not only
possess the competencies to themselves identify misinformation and disinformation
and to use tools for clarifying, checking, identifying the authenticity of facts, but
must also be able to help citizens to do the same.
In previous periods of history, the world was shown by the media (mass media),
today the information agenda can be determined by any person, being the
recipient, distributor and creator of information about endless number of topics.
These Five Laws of MIL are essentially key principles as articulated by Alton Grizzle
and Jagtar Singh for UNESCO16.
A brief description of the Five Laws of MIL is provided below. A more comprehensive
description can be found in Grizzle, A. (2018)17 .
Here we would like to draw attention to two keywords: “critically” and “equal in
status”. The first Law says how important it is that consumers of information, like
24 its creators, have a critical attitude to the information they receive. As a person
tunes into the analysis and evaluation of information or media content, he/she will
look for the most truthful, most impartial information for information awareness.
The equalisation of all media by status is indicated in order to avoid the perceived
domination of one or another media or information source and encourages the
search for alternative information sources.
Law 2. Every citizen is the creator of information / knowledge. Everyone has the right
to access to information / knowledge and the right to self-expression. Media and infor-
mation literacy should be for everyone, both for men and women, and is closely related
to human rights.
In the context of the Internet and modern media, any person has the opportunity to
become an author / co-author and distributor of information. For the implementation
of this activity, the international community is developing methods to ensure equal
access for all to information tools. Governments are working towards this end and
amending their legislation by various regulations governing legal relations in the
16
See Grizzle, A. and Singh, J. (2016). In the UNESCO MILID Yearbook 2016, Media and Information
Literacy: Reinforcing Human Rights, Countering Radicalization and Extremism. UNESCO, Paris.
17
Grizzle, A. (2018). Assessing Citizens’ Responses to Media and Information Literacy Competencies
through an online course: An Empirical Study and Critical Comparative Analysis of Experts’ Views.
Doctoral Dissertation. ISBN: 9788449084775: http: //hdl.handle.net/10803/666860. Tesis
Doctorals en Xarxa (TDX). Autonomous University of Barcelona, Spain.
field of information exchange, the right to receive and disseminate information,
duties and agency for public and private organisations and individuals. Moreover,
the observance of this Law of gender equality is a mandatory requirement.
Law 3. Information, knowledge and communications are not always neutral, independent
or impartial. Any conceptualisation, use and application of the MIL should make this
statement transparent and understandable to all citizens.
Law 4. Every citizen wants to receive and understand new information, knowledge 25
and messages and be able to communicate with others, even if he does not express this
desire. Their rights should never be violated.
This principle is also enshrined in the laws of almost all countries by constitutional
law. However, due to the development of ICT, this right has become more clouded
by technological developments. Technological capabilities have changed the
methods of communication. In this regard, it is important that this constitutional
right is not violated even in the conditions of digital transition, the process of
modern information interchange in electronic format.
Law 5. Media and information literacy is not acquired overnight. It is a constant and
dynamic experience and process. It can be considered complete if it includes knowledge,
skills and attitudes regarding the use, creation and transmission of information about
media and technological content.
We start this section with an anecdote from the editor of this handbook. While
studying mass communication via distance education at the University of Leicester
in the United Kingdom, he attended one of the required face-to-face seminars. He
attended a session about journalism led by a respected scholar of media studies
and an entrepreneur. He started the session with the statement below:
This was obviously his experience, which became his reality. However, is this every-
one’s reality? Do the mass media retain their primary importance to development
as they execute their functions? The role of UNESCO, as the leading United Nations
agency promoting media development, including freedom of the media, and the
26 action of numerous other organisations around the world suggest that media are
more than just big businesses. This was partially the argument given to the celebrated
professor by the editor of this book, at the journalism session mentioned above.
He was the only one in the room taking this stance out of about thirty students.
Some media professional would say that the media simply reflect what is happening
in society in respect of chosen focuses of their content. But is this the reality of every
single person? Frameworks that articulate the focus or main purpose of media and
information literacy often grapple with the paradoxes of the media. Thus MIL is most
frequently about how people protect themselves from the media, technological
intermediaries, and other big businesses, governments or information providers.
One complementary viewpoint is how MIL can enable citizens to become partners
of journalists in preparing, distributing, and receiving information. Equally, how
through MIL journalists and media organisations can enhance participation with
citizens to expand the development benefits of the media. These issues will be
discussed further in Part II and III of this handbook.
In this case, it is necessary to focus on such skills as critical thinking, which is the
fundamental quality of a person who is media and information literate.
Nothing that concerns the mass media can be considered separately from the
notion such as a media text. This is the main basis of becoming media and infor-
mation literate. Media text is considered here as an aggregate product of mass
communication. This is not to say that the idea of text is unique to traditional or
mass media. Text transforms all ‘media’ forms or means of information transmission.
These include books, journalistic text, PR text, newspaper text, television and radio
text, advertising text, text from online media, social networks, blogs, and so on.
27
Thus, people’s engagement with media content and other forms of information is
the beginning of developing a conscious relationship with the media and other
information providers. Media can help citizens in the acquisition of media and
information literacy. In this process, a person encounters information, manages
how he/he is influenced by it and ultimately influences the information in turn.
28 Here are the key messages of Part 1 of this handbook. There is an inclination to
emphasise that MIL is a means of protection from the media. MIL is a process of
transferring citizens/audiences to media partners and media to becoming champions
of media and information literate societies. You may ask why. Here are a couple of
reasons to support the above argument. Media and information literacy, as one of
the key vectors of the development of society, is aimed at expanding the critical
capacities of citizens by providing them with the necessary competencies for inter-
acting with the media and other information providers as well as benefiting from
their rights. Some media-focused dimensions of MIL competencies are suggested
below and in Figure 6:
• understanding of the role and functions of the media;
• understanding of the context where the media performs its functions;
• critically evaluate media content;
• interact with different media for self-expression and the consumption of
high-quality content;
• obtaining skills and abilities to create any media content.18
Media education
Media review
Want to test yourself how media and information literate you are? If yes, answer
the questions below. The information shared in Part I of this handbook is a start for
your continued professional development and could reveal your untapped skills
in the field of MIL.
1. What is information?
A. This is information about people, objects, facts, events and processes.
B. is a point of view or statement on a specific topic.
V. is a story about people and objects,
G. This is information transmitted by people.
2. Information is considered balanced...
A. When all parties at an event, process or conflict were given an opportunity to speak
B. When it is enough for understanding and decision making
V. When it does not depend on anyone’s opinion, judgment
G. When two opposing points of view are presented
4. What is a prerequisite for the competent use of media in the new infor-
mation and communication landscape and indicates the rules of users’
online behavior?
А. Netiquette
B. Networking
30 C. Sharing
D. Playing
9. How does an increase in the amount of data and information affects the
need to possess MIL competencies (describe in your own words)?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
31
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Task: You need to decide if you want to give up some of your usual contact time
with information flows — “disconnect” somewhat from the usual types of media and
social communications on the Internet. Upon completion of the timeout, you need
to reflect upon and analyse your own media consumption, information you create
or share, communication and dependence on media and information environments.
In the table below, record the number of publications/posts/ information/messages
you sent and describe their meaning.
Social Significant Public signifi-
network / Total number of information / cance/ personal
media site/ posts/informations insignificant significance
messenger, shared information / private
etc. significance
1
2
3
4
5
6
IL
M
L
MI
MIL
MIL
M
IL
MIL
MIL
MIL MIL
MIL
MI MIL
L
MIL MIL
MIL
MI
MIL
L
MIL
MIL
MIL
Three key assumptions underpin Part II of this handbook. The first suggestion is that
many practicing journalists around the world have not received formal training in
journalism. Second, many journalists who have been trained have not fully grasped
or understand the civic education remit of the media1. This is more prevalent in
some regions of the world than in others. Third, it is through journalism education
and continual upskilling of journalists that they will become more aware of and
understand the relevance of MIL to their profession.2
Users of this guide should distinguish between two different domains, media education
(the term MIL is used in this handbook) and media studies. The Media education (MIL)
is concerned with the integration of media and information issues into curricula and
programmes of other subjects, development of critical thinking, highlighting the social
34 and cultural role of mass communications and information systems, and instilling the
skills of effective interaction with the media and other information providers to improve
the quality of life. Addressing the theoretical, conceptual, and empirical aspects of
media, their management, use, relevance and functions in societies encapsulate the
field of media studies. This is not to say that the field of media studies does not deal
with critical thinking or the social and cultural role of communication and information
systems. The main distinction made in this handbook is one of context, purpose,
primary focus and target groups. Table 1 below illustrates.
1
Cole, P. (2005). Instinct, Savvy and Ratlike Cunning: Training Local Journalists. In Making the
Local News: Local Journalism in Context (Editors: Bob Franklin, David Murphy). First published
in Routledge. London and New York. Republished in Taylor and Francis e-Library, 2005.
2
Mihailidis, P. (2006, January). Media Literacy in Journalism/Mass Communication Education: Can
the United States learn from Sweden? Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 60(4), 416-428.
See also, Standards for Journalism Educators, http: //jea.org/wp/home/for-educators/standards/.
Access on 1 December 2019
Towards a Programme for Journalism and Media Literacy (Aidan White). https: //
ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/resources/publications/ethical-journalism/media-literacy.
Access on 1 December 2019
Context Purpose Primary focus Target group
Evaluate, use and con-
Social participation Attitude, values
tribute information and
and dialogue, free- and agencies. How
media content wisely
doms, rights, and these competencies
and engage with media
inclusion. All levels relate to other social Media and
MIL and ICTs to promote
of education — in- competencies such technology
equality, free expression,
formal, formal and as cultural literacy,
intercultural interreli-
non-formal educa- financial literacy,
gious dialogue, peace,
tion settings global citizenship, etc.
etc
Media in Experts and
societies: Power, Enable research into, persons
control, politics, Theories, conceptu-
better understanding, pursuing
al frameworks, and
Media economics, social and the development studies or
empirical research
Studies change, culture, of policies about careers in
etc. Mostly higher into media opera-
media functions in media, com-
education and tions and society
societies. munication,
formal settings journalism
Related contexts MIL is also
but more people for experts
centered in the and profes-
MIL, more day-to- sionals or
Linking context of MIL. MIL Media studies less day competencies journalists
rela- has emanated out about mass civic as to the academic in training.
tion- of media studies education and civic focus of media However,
ships and information participation
studies as well as studies MIL is for
behavioural and much 35
cognitive sciences broader tar-
get groups
Journalism education and practicing journalists should also embrace the reality
that as modern and ordinary citizens interact with media and information
platforms, they are constantly involved in sharing information and engaging
in new online cultures. These new online cultures give citizens more agency
or autonomy to influence information creation and flows. The question is how
critical are citizens about the new autonomy that they have. Journalism education
must then expose training journalists to new competencies to interact with
their audiences online and offline. Some general competencies are suggested
in the section below titled, Which specific disciplines and competencies are
relevant in the education and training of young media and information
professionals?
Media and journalism are moving in parallel along two directions in the field of MIL:
• The first is the implementation of active measures, projects aimed at devel-
oping resources to improve the competence of journalists on MIL
• The second is to promote, through the media, popularization, informing the
audience of analysis and critical thinking in the consumption of information.
Media and information literacy is often referred to as education for life in the global
media world. MIL educational resources located in information hubs with updated
expert-based multimedia content are essential for journalists upskilling. UNESCO is
one of the main initiators and coordinators of numerous programmes and projects
in this direction. Since the adoption of the Grunwald Declaration (1982), which paved
the way for international media education, UNESCO has continued to support the
development of competencies in the field of MIL among people. These effective
The Global Alliance for Partnerships on Media and Information
Literacy (GAPMIL) is a network of networks, which brings together
various stakeholders, networks, and associations from civil society,
media and information industry, research institutions, governments
to build synergies and stimulate global dissemination of MIL compe-
tencies and related policies.
MILID NETWORK The MILID Network is the first international university network on
Global Alliance for media and information literacy and intercultural dialogue and a re-
Partnerships on Media and search unit of GAPMIL. It is active in three areas: research, education,
Information Literacy participation in the development of MIL.
37
A pioneer in its field, the Center for Media Literacy (CML), was de-
signed to promote and support media literacy training as a basis for
accessing information, analysing, evaluating, creating and partici-
pating in working with media content. CML helps citizens, especially
young people, develop critical thinking skills and media content
production necessary for a full-fledged life in the 21st-century media
culture.
The following are online resources for self-study of MILs, as well as platforms that
promote networking among professionals and researchers.
For many years Canada has required media literacy training for those enrolled in the
national educational processes — schools, colleges, universities have various courses,
disciplines and MEPs (widely available online courses). The Ministry of Education
of Ontario defines media literacy as a tool to help students develop conscious and
critical understanding of the nature of the media, the techniques they use and the
influences of these techniques. Similarly, MIL education is designed to increase
38 students’ understanding of how the media and other information providers work,
how they shape opinion, how they are organised, and how they construct reality.4
“I see media literacy as life literacy because if I cannot understand and effectively
use the current form of communication, I cannot be an effective person on civil,
personal or professional level,” says Neil Anderson in an interview. He is one of the
pioneers in the field of media education, who made an enormous contribution
to the development of media information literacy, helping teachers integrate the
technologies and competencies of MIL into their curricula, he conducted numerous
educational lectures and seminars in the countries of Asia and Europe as well as in
Australia, Canada and the USA.5
3
Paris Agenda or 12 Recommendations for Media Education were adopted on the basis of the
UNESCO International Symposium on Media Education: Media Education - Advances, Obstacles,
and New Trends Since the Grunwald: Towards a Scale Change? For more information about the
symposium, see the “Message for the media” of the UNESCO “Information for All” at http: // www.
ifap.ru/pr/2007/070625b.htm
4
https: //medialiteracynow.org/what-is-media-literacy/
5
http: //www.medialit.org. Voices of Media Literacy Project, March 4, 2011.
what the faculty calls “knowledge of your information neighbourhood”; evaluation
of sources of information and sources in the news; identifying news and opinions;
and understanding and identifying media bias as well as understanding how news
consumer bias influences how they embrace media texts.6
Experts believe that MIL competence and critical thinking about media content is
crucial for the health and well-being of the younger generation, as well as for their
future participation in the civic and economic life of the country. Below are two
health-related examples to illustrate the relevance of MIL to practicing journalists
or journalists in training.
The Media Literacy Now project conducted a study of the health effects of the media
and outlined media literacy as an intervention strategy for this process.
Smoking is one of the main causes of premature mortality in the United States and 90
percent of those who died of smoking began to smoke since adolescence. Studies have
shown that smoking-related media messages, such as smoking characters in movies
and advertisements, significantly increase adolescent smoking. 39
They also concluded with their projects that the health curriculum, which includes media
literacy, is more effective than traditional smoking-control lessons (which are effective
but do not include media literacy) to keep students from smoking.7
This report addresses relevant issues such as smoking, alcohol and drug use; obesity
and malnutrition; mental health, sleep disorders and academic characteristics and
exposure of the Internet and social networks; cruelty and violence; body image
and youth health. The report identifies the impact of media and information use
in the evolution of these problems and MIL is one of the most effective means in
the hands of media educated youth in making the right choice, preventing deaths
and building a good future.
Another example is that the level of adolescent depression and suicide has been
on the rise around the world since 2011. “Without exaggeration, we can say that
the younger generation is on the verge of the worst mental health crisis in decades.
There is strong evidence that the devices we placed in the hands of young people
U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Dept. of Adolescent Health, Adolescents & Tobacco
7
Experts conclude that with media literacy, students learn how to use media in
a responsible, safe, ethical manner, including the dangers of overuse, as well as
the concept of “digital nutrition” in connection with the health effects of using
media and technology. According the Jocelyn Brewer who coined the term, the
concept of digital nutrition helps “humans better understand the cognitive, social
and emotional impacts (both positive and negative) of the technology-enabled
media content we consume, and the way digital devices impact our psychology
and overall physical and mental health.”9
Studies show that deeper understanding of our relationships with social networks
and their influence allows young people to be more attentive to their use and to
seek more authentic connections. 10
40
Which specific disciplines and competencies are relevant in the education
and training of young media and information professionals?
A number of studies are also conducted in this domain, and there are recommendations
and proven experience available. Since some countries are already conducting an
active phase in the implementation of MIL programs, developing countries can learn
from their experience and use the accumulated open sources and resources in training
future journalists. Below we offer some courses and programmes that, in our opinion,
provide the necessary skills for journalists in the era of the 4th information revolution.
• Media analysis — messages or content in the media, as a rule, reflect
the values and ideology of their producers and distributors. Based on the
content analysis, the journalist will be able to see the causes, goals, sources of
information, situations.
• Media reading — read, rethink media content. Do not ask questions: where?
what? But how and why more often?
8
Jean Twenge, “iGen: Why Today’s Super-Connected Kids Are Growing Up Less Rebellious,
More Tolerant, Less Happy—and Completely Unprepared for Adulthood,” 2017.
9
Digital Nutrition by Jocelyn Brewer. https: //www.digitalnutrition.com.au/about/. Accessed
on 22 November 2019. See also P Sharma, MU Rani (2016). Effect of Digital Nutrition Education
Intervention on the Nutritional Knowledge Levels of Information Technology Professionals. In
Ecology of food and nutrition, 2016 - Taylor & Francis
10
Joni Siani, “Celling Your Soul,” 2013.
• Analysis of media manipulation — the study of cases, the study of tools for
using media in order to manipulate.
• Creating historical ties — What can we learn from the past and how does it
shape today’s values, actions, course of events?
• Audience engagement analysis — focusing not only on who is the target
group for a media message but what partnerships are journalists building
with the audiences, what is the level of trust, how are the needs of the
audience being reflected in media messages and content, etc.
• Media forecasting — media are a reflection of activity as well as markers,
guide, and direction to the future. The journalist should be aware of where
the news flow leads.
• Data analysis — comprehensive skills with a large amount of information
and the identification of useful, trendy information, unusual patterns, and
new hypotheses.
• Skills of owning and using technical tools — related to searching,
processing, analysing, summarising, visualising information.
• Online investigative journalism — the use of online resources, platforms
for the extraction of reliable facts, the search for truth, visualisation of cause- 41
and-effect events using online tools.
• Factchecking — a fact check that identifies inconsistencies between
published facts and those that actually exist.
• Managing the use of click bates and hooks — skills to assess the potential
effects of the use of hooks on audience beyond viewing, listening or reading
to the content. The exercise below provides some examples.
Exercise 1
In the following table, there are some hooks, with their description, used to
attract the attention of the audience. They are effective for emotional impact on
the audience in order to promote various kinds of content.
Table 2
There are varied and complex reasons for the phenomena of censorship and
boycotting in the media. Most of these reasons are already an integral part of
standard journalism curricula. They include:
• the power of media to influence politics, elections and governance in general
• media’s contribution in influencing cultural transmission and the preservation
42 of cultures
• the potential negative effect of the media on citizens’ lives
• the frequent abuse of information dissemination and users’ information by
media and technological intermediaries for profit purposes
• government’s efforts to manage and control social changes
• centralisation of media ownership
• influence of big businesses and special interest groups
The list above is far from exhaustive and could be further unpacked into a myriad of
other contributing factors to media censorship and boycotting. A focus on the ills
of media and technological intermediaries often form the basis of the arguments
supporting censorship and boycotting. Journalism education largely appreciates
and addresses the need for some level of media regulation and internet governance.
However, journalism education curricula have not given any serious consideration or
responded to how MIL can ameliorate censorship and boycott12. As was established
in previous sections, MIL as a civic engagement movement has many facets including
the potential to stimulate interreligious dialogue, intercultural dialogue, equality, social
11
World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development: Global Report 2017/2018.
https: //unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261065. Accessed on 30 July 2019.
12
Van der Linde, F. (2010). The necessity of a media literacy module within journalism or media
studies curricula. Global Media Journal, African Edition. Vol 4 (2). http: //dx.doi.org/ 10.5789/4-2-7.
inclusion, tolerance, peace and sustainable development in general. MIL also enables
citizens’ understanding as to why media freedom is necessary, their own rights vis
a vis media and technological intermediaries, and how to protect their privacy, etc.
The suggestion here is that practicing journalists and journalists in training should
understand how by empowering people with MIL competencies, people can in turn
defend media freedom, demand quality and truth from the media, and make informed
choices in how they engage with media as well as use technological platforms.
The cases where poor quality journalism and unsubstantiated content on-line, leads
to the manipulation of media messages and thus the manipulation of people are
often used as central arguments for censorship. UNESCO proposes that promoting
professional and ethical journalism is more effective and sustainable than censor-
ship.13 It is true that the most effective and sustainable way to protect citizens from
harmful media messages is for all stakeholders, including the media, to empower
them to self-protect through media and information literacy. Notwithstanding,
journalism education should raise greater civic consciousness among journalists
in training as well as practicing journalists14 . One way to do this is by training
journalists to be aware of the response that certain messages can stir in people, to
ethically take the necessary actions to manage this, and to document the process.
13
Professional Journalism and Self-Regulation: New Media, Old Dilemmas in South East Europe
and Turkey. UNESCO (2011), Paris.https: //unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000190810.
Accessed on 23 November 2019.
See also White, A. (2008). To Tell You The Truth. The Ethical Journalism Initiative. Brussels,
Belgium: International Federation of Journalists.
14
Banda, F. (2009. Civic Education for Media Professionals: A Training Manual. UNESCO Series on
Jornalism Education. UNESCO, Paris.
• Promoting MIL as a way to stimulate critical thinking in audiences
• Developing platforms and using tools to connect with audiences to assess
their response to certain media message, making these findings public,
and ethically implanting these feedbacks to adjust future messaging to
audiences
Humanity is becoming information societies, where, under the influence of new tech-
nologies, the flow of information is exponentially growing, and the influence of the
media is rapidly increasing. The use of information and communication technologies
in all domains of human life is becoming dynamic and global in nature. People and
especially the younger generation today is under the influence of new media, though not
passively. They are also influencing information creation and flows as mentioned earlier.
45
Libraries have traditionally been warehouses of information. Today, libraries are evolving
and are far more than just storehouses for books. They have enormous resources of infor-
mation and knowledge that can be enhanced through media skills in their management.
Library staff work as guides on information labyrinths, they now have two tasks, to organize
information storages so that they can be guided in the canons of digital highways, but at
the same time they must be able to orient the reader, the user of information resources
to find the necessary information in huge volumes and arrays.
Libraries as the
means to foster
media literacy of
the population, play
an important role
as they serve as a
bridge between
INFORMATION, USER
AND ACCESS POINT.
Libraries
Mass media Media
Library
46
Access Consultation User
The main advantage of a library in the formation of MIL competencies is that they have
a real information flow guide trained in working with information. Specialists of new
libraries today do not just help people to orient themselves in information catalogs as
before, they become more of consultants and specialists, directing and orienting the reader,
who can inform about the character, scope, features of the information being sought
and received. This means that the information experience of librarians and information
specialists is becoming a crucial marketing tool in providing access to information.
Why is it important?
The access points to information and knowledge such as libraries constitute the platform
where it is possible to form MIL and, media ecology. As libraries continue to provide
adolescents and young people with broad access to the Internet and technology, it
is important that they also become more involved in preserving MIL competencies.
Without any rating system, misinformation and disinformation spread easier and faster.
According to the study, “The average false story takes about 10 hours to reach 1,500
Twitter users, versus about 60 hours for the truth.” Librarians can teach young people
to evaluate and verify information that they face, allowing them to play the role of
verifier that publishers, editors, and experts once played. Media organisations and other
information institutions such as libraries thus have the common objective to gather,
curate, and disseminate information albeit with different timelines in mind.15
For this purpose different forms and methods of media and information literacy
training can be used at libraries:
• Open lectures;
• Project training;
• Presentations;
• Brochures;
• Posters;
• Publications on a web page;
• Publications in social media;
• Speeches (oral and written) in the media and much more.
In order to orient young readers to the vast world of information, the American Association
of Librarians created “The Great Websites for Kids” (http: //gws.ala.org/) — a resource that
provides a list of high-quality and qualified sources for children.
In the Italian city of Reggio Emilia, residents saw children as sources of new ideas. Children
express their thoughts with words, as well as with images, sounds and other means, i.e. using
“one hundred children’s languages.” Dutch Library Organization (NBLC) wanted to develop a de-
sign concept for a children’s library that uses ideas and ways to communicate with children.
In Denmark, great importance is given to projects like “Playing in a library”, where attempts
are being made to turn the gaming culture into the main component of content and media-
tion in serving children and their parents. The library can support children’s gaming culture,
taking into account the positive contribution of various media in the creation of the game,
and also as an intermediary, providing access to toys and games.
In July 2005, a new “Law to Promote the Culture of Reading and Writing” was passed. The mis-
sion of the Japanese Library Association was to develop the text of this law and to focus in it
on the practical effect of developing the ability of children to read and write. In July 2005, this
law entered into force. It defined the basic concept of supporting the culture of writing and
reading, in the framework of its implementation, formulated the responsibilities of national
48 and local authorities. According to this law, October 27, the first day of the Week of Reading
Books, was declared the Day of the Culture of Reading and Writing.
The national library of Uzbekistan also pilot-tested the project, where librarians took the
initiative of conducting two lessons at school, analysing media texts, on the basis of which
primary schoolchildren were given the task to develop media literacy skills.
Practical example: in order to explain what analysis and synthesis of media texts are, you can
easily use familiar things for children, first divide the parts, then assemble a new figure. So
the news is made up of parts, it can be put together in a different way and get a different
interpretation.
Journalism is about identifying, in the shooting flow of everyday events, things that
are really important and of significant people’s concern, thus making journalist’s
main task the professional collection of information, its processing and subsequent
dissemination in the form of news.
When collecting information, the journalist should put its verification for autenthi-
city and accuracy their priority, always remembering that “the reliability of facts is
confirmed by competent opinions, comments of experts, supported by evidence
and arguments.” These attributes distinguish journalistic information from all other.
Speaking about the stages of the creative process, it is worth emphasising that first of all
we reflect on the choice of the topic. Subject is the main aspect of journalistic material.
It is usually formed on the basis of the edition you write. For example, topics of the
appropriate direction, youth, political, educational, and others will be selected for a legal
publication. The publication also implies finding topics suitable for the media format.
If the selected topic can be viewed from different aspects, you need to think about the
idea of the material. The idea, as the theorists write, “is an expression of the author’s
Henderson, H. (2004). Library in a Book: Power of the News Media. New York: Facts On File.
16
Facts are collected long before the journalist sits down to write the text. Review of
a large number of sources, media materials, publications on the topic, etc. — all this
forms in his mind the picture of events, phenomena, themes that need to be covered.
In working with the actual material for publication, two stages can be distinguished:
the collection of information and the rethinking of information.
As the main fact, one should always choose a strong element, verified by expert opinions,
and having an evidential basis. Everything else can be listed in the order of priority.
Collection of information and preparation for writing the text is the most important
stage of work. Thus, it is important to properly present the information received.
So, after the facts are selected, the information is systematised, you can sit down
to write the text
Starting from scratch is always difficult. The most important thing is to start. First
you need to think about the structure of the future material, decide on the genre
and form of its presentation, select photos. Authors of books on introduction to the
profession today also advise “... to think over infographics or collage — elements
that will most informatively complement the text.”17 The elements and possibilities
of visualisation forms are described in more detail in the section “VISUALISATION
OF INFORMATION: NEW FEATURES OF JOURNALISM” of this handbook.
Theme
Problem
What am I writing
about
Bakanov R.P., Simkacheva M.V., Tumanov D.V., Journalism for Beginners: A textbook for
17
Define a list of sources of information for material on a particular topic. Divide this
information into the categories of “I trust”, “I do not trust”. The fact must be verified
by at least three independent sources.
The Internet as a source of information. The capabilities of the World Wide Web
provide plenty of convenience for journalists in finding, checking, and publicising the
facts. Previously, the mere fact that the information was allowed to be shown in the
media or published in the press inspired confidence in the information. However, the
Internet has begun to break this conviction, today there are more and more facts of
spreading false, incorrect information, which sometimes misleads even many journalists.
Journalists and people in general depend on social media as an important source of news.
In this media ecology, the proliferation of blogs and fake accounts on social media driven
by bots are being deliberately used for disinformation and misinformation. The rise of
algorithm and the evolution of artificial intelligence (AI) in this context are phenomena
of relevance to MIL in journalism practices and journalism education. Algorithms and
AI are being increasingly employed in news and information sourcing and verification.
Researchers have pointed to many applications of algorithms to distinguish between
true and false reporting. Many experts have noted however that “computer algorithms
alone could not give a 100% guarantee of accuracy18.” It is knowledge, skills, and atti-
tude gained through MIL that can help people to progress towards more foolproof
mechanisms of information and news sourcing and verification.
Working with this source of information today requires a separate competency and
experience. The array of information available on the Web today has created the
need for additional employees — SMM specialists, fact-checkers, mining specialists,
and also journalists whose job is limited to just monitoring Internet communities.
So, let us look at a couple of resources where journalists get information and also
have an opportunity to verify it.
One type of search for a relevant and most discussed topic / phenomenon can
be monitoring of blogs. Today, many recognised experts in a particular field of
different industries, public opinion leaders (POL) run their own websites and blogs.
However, it is necessary to use such resources carefully because the mere fact the
text is published does not give one complete guarantee as to the authenticity and 53
accuracy of the information. In order to raise the rating and citation index of their
diary, the author can resort to dissemination of unreliable information. Do not believe
right away, you need to check and recheck the information you are interested in.
Authoritative authors often do not need sensations, they write about sore issues,
keep records on specific topics, do not seek to increase the number of subscribers.
These are the authors journalists need to look for, read them and use them. There
you can also review the author’s subscribers and commenters to find experts who
can confirm / refute some information.
It is also important to look at the top ten most discussed topics of the blogosphere.
Today, the Internet media even have separate headings like “Today in Blogs”, where
popular topics of web diaries are posted. Blogs are good because you can often
read an opinion there that is different from the official point of view on events.
Monitoring social networks is one more way of working with sources. This is an
opportunity to keep abreast of the latest events. VKontakte, Twitter and Facebook
18
Schifferes, S., Newman, N., Thurman, N., Corney, D., Goker, A. S. and Martin,
C. (2014). Identifying and Verifying News through Social Media: Developing a user-centred
tool for professional journalists. Digital Journalism, 2(3), pp. 406-418. doi:
10.1080/21670811.2014.892747
always have an “interesting reading”, based on which one can choose a topic, find
a character, an expert, understand the scale of what is happening. In addition to
the social pages of individuals, various network communities (publics) are very
useful in the journalist’s work. With the help of social networks, you can not only
find interlocutors but also find out the details of emergencies, other events, locate
and question their eyewitnesses, explore people’s biographies, find photos and
videos for publications, directly ask a question even to members of the government.
Resources such as thematic communities are useful for exploring public opinion and
conducting polls. It is also effective to search for future experts with whom you can
collaborate, suggesting from time to time to comment on a problem.
Gender sensitivity is very important while training and enhancing the skills of jour-
nalists within the framework of the MIL. Media content frequently reflects gender
inequality, stereotypes, and discrimination. These occurrences demonstrate the
lack of appropriate training of journalists.
Digital skills gender gap, which should be taken in the wider context of MIL, is
severe, persistent and growing according to a recent publication by UNESCO, I’d
blush if I could: Closing Gender Divides in Digital Skills through Education. “Women
UNESCO (2018) World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development, Global
19
20
West, M., Kraut, R., and Ei Chew. H. I’d blush if I could: Closing Gender Divides in Digital Skills
through Education. UNESCO (2019), Paris
21
Impe, A-M. (2019). UNESCO (2019). Reporting on Violence against Women and Girls: A
Handbook for Journalists. (Ed. Lourenco, M.) UNESCO, Paris.
22
Grizzle, A (2012, Ed.). Gender-Sensitive Indicators for Media. Framework of Indicators to Gauge
Gender Sensitivity in Media Operations and Content. UNESCO (2012). https: //ru.unesco.org/
events/kazahstan-usilenie-uchebnoy-programmy-po-gendernoy-zhurnalistike
See also, Gallagher, M. (2014) Feminist scholarship and the debates on gender and
communication. In Montiel, V. A. (2014): Media and Gender: A Scholarly Agenda for the Global
Alliance on Media and Gender. UNESCO, Paris
can help to reverse this trend that persists in the media even after the 1995 Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action at the Fourth World Conference on Women.
Figure 8 Merging Oceans
Merging Oceans
MEDIA AND
TECHNOLOGY
Men
Women
(C) K. Smith
This picture titled “Merging Oceans” symbolically embodies its author’s vision of the
gender issue. Media, indicated as a white line can both separate and unite these “two
poles”. Gender-sensitive indicators for the media is exactly the litmus test with the
unification mission. These indicators help to recognise the fair portrayal of women and
men in the media by eliminating stereotypes, highlighting issues of gender equality
and justice, and impartial portrayal of women and men in commercial messages.
From the MIL perspective, gender sensitivity in the media should also play an educational
role. That is to say, MIL can be employed as a tool for gender equality and women’s empow-
erment23 . For example, by highlighting the topic of gender equality, journalists should
be able to encourage the audience and cultivate a tolerant attitude toward this matter.
Grizzle, A. (2014). Enlisting Media and Informational Literacy for Gender Equality and Women’s
23
Empowerment. In Vega Montiel, A. (2014). Media and Gender: A Scholarly Agenda for the
Global Alliance on Media and Gender. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization. Paris, France.
Lapayese, Y. V. (2013) Going Against the Grain: Gender-specific Media Education in Catholic
High Schools. Catholic Education: A Journal of Enquiry and Practice. Volume 15, Issue 2.
Melki, J. and Farah, M. (2014). Educating Media Professionals with a Gender and Critical Media
Literacy Perspective: How to battle gender discrimination and gender harassment in the media
workplace. In Vega Montiel, A. (2014). Media and Gender: A Scholarly Agenda for the Global
Alliance on Media and Gender. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization. Paris, France
Gender indicators (gender-sensitive indicators) are pointers that use qualitative and
quantitative indicators to reflect gender-significant changes that occur in a society
during a certain period of time. Gender indicators contain direct indications of the
status of women in relation to a specific regulatory standard. Here is an example of
analysing the degree of gender diversity in the US media. This study shows gender
diversity and measures the percentage of women and minorities working at American
news departments (the chart below shows the results of the 2018 survey).24
Chart 1
57
The chart below illustrates how the situation has changed over the years. What are
such studies conducted for?
Chart 2
This very question may be of interest to our reader. The fact is that increased gender diversity
in news agencies also leads to an increase in the number of publications on this topic.
IwAR3qyKcDsJRd6MMry6tu KgUGPgHswN2Jos1X8luwt6_Cyfbdgv3Ci4nwySo&view=0
Box 2.
Functioning
of gender
stereotypes in media
domain Negative
implications
of gender
asymmetry in the
work of the editorial
Terminology,
concepts, and
notions related Man Women
to gender issues
and theme
of publications
58
For example, in 2010 Bloomberg News launched a project to fill journalism with
a large number of women — as anchors and voices, as well as newsmakers
in business, on the markets, in politics and government. “Women,” says the
author of the project, “are half of the people, whose impact on the global
economic history development is underestimated.”25
The second annual Women in the News summit, organised by WAN-IFRA in Portugal,
highlighted the depressing (but motivating?) statistics on the presence of women
in the media world and the steps that news organisations like Gizmodo and the BBC
are taking to improve their position. (The WAN-IFRA Women in the News Initiative
compiled a guide on gender diversity in the media with 10 case-studies from
Botswana to the UK).
Another author from Pointer who researched the topic says: “Every year, more than
two-thirds of graduates with a degree in journalism or mass communications are
https: //www.bloomberg.com/distribution/blog/2014-03-07/qa-with-lisa-kassenaar-of-the-
25
bloomberg-news-womens-project/?fbclid=IwAR04_tzjkH07xjwA-28DnkjkwElAOK6LDAOG_
l8JdI3xrQ25SWVjnNNELcc
women, and yet only one-third of the media industry consists of women, and this
number is decreasing.26
Gender statistics is not an abstract or isolated field, but, on the contrary, is a trend
related to all other areas of statistics, such as economic, agricultural, health and
employment statistics. Gender statistics enable to study the differences in the status
of men and women in society. This statistics is needed in developing policies that
address gender issues and enable gender equality.
The foregoing shows that the issue of gender sensitivity is important to correctly
reflect the reality and form media literacy.
Journalists covering a particular subject should be able to analyse the situation through
the prism of certain gender indicators, and since the media directly and indirectly
have an influence on the formation of adequate gender thinking and gender equality
when studying a particular media publication, it is important to think about:
Do stereotypes reflect
real status of matters
Are gender
stereotypes used as
a creative tool
York, K. Women dominate at journalism schools but it is a different story at the editorials.
26
https: //www.poynter.org/business-work/2017/women-dominate-journalism-schools-but-
newsrooms-are-still-a-different-story/?fbclid=IwAR33hBugKDXTOhT1Ekz3mPPabBe1NePOpn
hHbufmcguso632muJxlTQQMrc
Box 3.
Figure 11 A board game about the use of MIL for promoting gender equality
60
Completeness and relevance: the database should provide a complete (that is,
giving an objective picture) and relevant (not outdated) information.
62
2. Find the three most prosperous and three underdeveloped regions in terms of GDP.
3. Analyse. What data are comparable and by what criteria, draw conclusions.
For obtaining statistics and data on Uzbekistan, the following resources may be useful:
• Statistical Agency — https: //stat.uz/ru/
• World Bank Data — http: //databank.worldbank.org/data/home.aspx
• Data of International Organisations — https: //stat.uz/ru/ofitsialnaya-statistika/
mezhdunarodnaya-statistika/mezhdunarodnye-statisticheskie-sluzhby
2.8. VISUALIsATION OF INFORMATION: NEW FEATURES OF
JOURNALISM
Have you noticed where we get most of the information today? Correct, this is 63
a screen or a monitor: a TV screen, a computer monitor, a phone screen, etc. Even
newspapers we now read from the screen. And this trend will continue further.
However, it is necessary to note that with the change of communication channels
the peculiarities of information perception also change.
Thus, the characteristics of screen perception is based more on scanning and viewing
text, rather than on reading. Moreover, the choice of material for further detailed
reading is also based on a preliminary quick look where only visual accompaniment
can draw attention to the information. That is why data visualisation today has
acquired great importance.
communications.html
explains complex data quickly and clearly. Competently created visualisation
illuminates information where it is difficult to put it in text.
Here are the most traditional types of visual content used in the activities of journalists,
PR specialists and all active information users of the network:
• illustrations;
• photos;
• infographics (graphs, charts, diagrams, etc.);
• multimedia content (videos, clips, installations, flash animation, slide shows,
flash presentations, etc.);
• modern visual content (memes, selfies).
One of the most popular and effective ways of presenting material is infographics.
An infographic is a message that includes, firstly, visual elements, and secondly,
texts that explain these visual elements. It can be said that such a format gives
a conceptualisation of the topic since the choice of one or another image that
visualises the message implies an exact selection of graphic solutions. 28
64
Infographics should be relevant, interesting and meaningful, it should represent
a large amount of information, but this information should be easily read and
understood. 29
Another fact has also contributed to the popularisation of visual content — rapid
development of social networks, where enormous amount and flow of information
from numerous sources creates new conditions to which journalists and readers,
subscribers, and followers have to adapt. An example of this is the popularity of Twitter
and other social networks. They have become new sources of news for readers and
28
Muratova, N. Characteristics of Visual Information and Its Impact on the Audience. Materials
of the Workshop on Internet Journalism. — Т.: 2016.
29
Buzinova A.A. Visual content of modern PR text. // Mediascope, an electronic scientific journal.
Issue №4. 2013 http: //www.mediascope.ru/issues/477
30
The course on visual journalism at Stanford University Journalism in the Era of Data // http: //
datajournalism.stanford.edu/
are competing with traditional media. The “140 character message” format creates
a new reality where the title and the interactive (“clickable”) content play a crucial role.
Readers spend less and less time familiarising with textual material. All this forms
a highly competitive environment where readers are much better adapted than
traditional media and journalists.
Let us return to the previous task. After you have analysed the data statistics, try to
find a graphical solution that can visualise your numbers. These can be diagrams,
pie charts, pyramids, etc.
65
When preparing statistical material for visualization, it is important to remember
that the main purpose of visualization is to simplify and speed up the perception
of information. The selected format and type of graphics should contribute to this,
and not interfere.
For example, if a pie chart has more than three to five figures, the graph becomes
unreadable. In this case, it is better to choose a regular bar chart. Another example
of unsuccessful use of a pie chart is when the sum of categories is not 100%. This
is a gross mistake, since the data is simply distorted. 31
66
Task: review the following services for the preparation of visual material, analyse
each of them. Find what matches each one has.
blog/341364/
Infogram Pictochart.com Timeline
Interactive
Video
Reinforced
Clickable
Scalable
Static
IL
M
L
MI
MIL
MIL
M
IL
MIL
MIL
MIL MIL
MIL
MI MIL
L
MIL MIL
MIL
MI
MIL
L
MIL
MIL
MIL
MIL
IL
M
L
MI
MIL
MIL
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MIL
MIL
MIL MIL
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MIL MIL
MIL
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MIL
MIL
Box 5. How can journalists and media organisations integrate MIL in practice?
Trust in the media is the most fragile or hard to sustain for the media today. A reader/
viewer/listener, being guided by information flows, very easily today can change
loyalty in relation to various media. However, for the editors, this changeable mood
is tantamount to the loss of attention, and hence the loss of trust. One might say that
the flux in audience loyalty and trust is perhaps due to an oversupply of information.
However, reaching a new benchmark of information consumption and shaping
the information culture of the population today can have the opposite effect and
serve journalists in gaining reader’s trust dividend. We explain the situation in more
detail below.
media
text
informatioin
netiquette media media culture
literacy culture
media
perception
75
new category
critical thinking media literacy
of human culture
“MEDIA EDUCATION = PROTECTION AGAINST MEDIA + PREPARATION FOR THE MEDIA ANALYSIS =
UNDERSTANDING THE IMPORTANCE OF MEDIA FUNCTIONS + CONSCIOUS PARTICIPATION IN MEDIA
CULTURE”2
When there is a quest for the attention of the reader and the viewer, the media use
many different methods in their efforts to lure to themselves. At the same time, all
legitimate and non-legitimate ways are used, including fakes, which have become
tools for manipulation. A media and information literate reader has critical analysis
skills, and this in turn allows respectable and professional media to gain their readers’
trust. Consider this on the example of the citizens’ critical thinking skills and their
influence on gaining trust to the media.
1
N.I. Gendinа. Formation of information and media literacy in the conditions of knowledge
society: a new UNESCO Initiative and the Problems of the Russian Information of Education. //
Pedagogy. Psychology. Issue № 1 / 2012. P. 140–161.
2
Vartanova E.L., Zasursky Ya.N. Russian Module of Media Education: concepts, principles,
models. // Information society, 2003, № 3. P. 5-10.
Table 3
Reader / viewer skills* Dividend of trust in the media
Numerous countries, organisations, societies and the media are active in the field
of MIL. In the face of all the differences between them, they are united by a single
goal — the promotion of MIL as a highly valued by all, widely practiced and necessary
life skill in the 21st century.
The study presents several examples of the best European practices and ways to
attract regulatory bodies and all other relevant actors to increase media literacy,
with particular emphasis on the Finnish model in this area.
For example, in Finland media education is offered wherever there are children and
young people, not only in kindergartens and schools, but also at libraries, game
rooms, youth centres, even in virtual communities and digital games.
The concept of media education, originated in the 1990s, further developed in four
areas that were defined as camps. The technology camp was aimed at technological
solutions, namely the use of information and communication technologies and
media in the learning process. The protection camp investigated what influence
media have on a person, and especially children, dealt with issues of protection from
the negative media content. The cultural research camp came under the influence
of the British cultural research movement. The camp of criticism has taken critical
pedagogy and questions of strategies for participation and resistance in relations
with the media as the basis of its activities.
The National Audiovisual Institute under the Ministry of Education and Culture
is a Finnish media education agency whose task is to promote media education.
The Ministry of Justice and the Finnish Competition and Consumer Protection
Agency are contributing to the MIL as part of their responsibilities.
The Finnish Media Education Society is a key organisation among media education
NGOs, especially in bridging the gap between research and practice.
3
Media Education as a Factor of Optimization of the Russian Media Space: Collective
Monograph / Ed. ed. I.V. Zhilavskaya and T.N. Vladimirova. — M.: RIC MGGU named after
M.A. Sholokhov, 2014. — P. 420
The Finnish Library Association is also very active in the field of media education.
Libraries are generally the main players in areas such as game-based education
and support for older people with media skills.
Children and youth organisations promote media literacy to ensure the well-
being and participation of children and adolescents. From the point of view of MIL,
the most active national youth work services are the Centre for the Development
of Youth Information and Counseling (Koordinaatti), the National Centre for the
Development of Online Youth Work (Verke) and the Finnish Youth Research
Network. Active NGOs also include the Mannerheim Children’s Protection
League, Opinkirjo Development Centre, “Save the Children” Finland and the
Finnish Parents League.
NGOs often have strong regional networks, which is very important for Finland as
a sparsely populated country with large distances between urbanised settlements.
Organisations promoting art and culture have been very active and important
operators in the field of media education for decades. The national network
of children’s cultural centres unites a number of organisations that conduct 79
media education in their regional activities. Cinema education, especially, has
a long and continuous history in Finland. For example, Koulukino (School Film
Association) and Metka Centre for Media Education are promoting film educa-
tion as part of MIL. The National Audiovisual Institute enhances the quality of
education in cinema and enhances the status of Finnish audiovisual culture as
part of its legal duties. Increasing media literacy is also becoming increasingly
common in media companies and associations. The Finnish National Television
and Radio Company (YLE) has been providing educational projects and media
materials for several years. Finnmedia, Finnish Media Industry Federation of
Finland has chosen MIL development among children and adolescents as its
strategic and social goal.
Teamwork is the best practice for the Finnish model of media information literacy.
A key factor in this model is co-operation between various organisations and actors.
Here are some successful examples of media education in Finland based on joint
efforts. Finnish MIL experts play an active role as international partners in terms
of research, practice and policy development. MILs are promoted at the Northern,
European and global levels, for example, through projects co-ordinated by the
European Union, the Council of Europe and UNESCO. Each interested organisation,
researcher can contact Finnish specialists when looking for a partnership in the
field of MIL.
Media Literacy Week — MLW is celebrated in February and aims to raise
awareness and promote the importance of media literacy and media education.
About 40 organisations (including ministries, government agencies, telecom
operators, data protection companies, media companies and non-governmental
organisations) participate in MLW. The collaboration identifies and implements
themes, campaigns, information materials and MLW events. The National
Audiovisual Institute is primarily responsible for Media Literacy Week. www.
mediataitoviikko.fi
National Game Day (NGD) includes a number of events that discuss the merits,
meanings of games, and the impact they can have on players. This day also promotes
public debate based on facts about digital games and encourages children and
adults to play together. www.pelipaiva.fi
The Media Education Forum for Professionals is a meeting place for researchers,
decision-makers, government officials and professionals working in the field of
MIL. The forum aims to support sectoral partnerships and local co-operation. The
80 organiser is the National Audiovisual Institute.4
One can cite a large number of events and organisations promoting MIL compe-
tencies in a given country and far beyond its borders. The Finnish experience serves
as an excellent school for developing countries and defining their strategies in the
development of MIL in their society.
Interregional and local projects in close co-operation with the media and public
institutions conduct research, develop tools and exchange views and practices
in the field of MIL. One of the comprehensive measures is the Index MIL created
in 2017. It is a measure of resistance to “post-truth”, “misinformation and disin-
formation” and their consequences in several European countries and offers
a useful tool for finding solutions. 5 The Media Literacy Index — 2018 included
35 countries in Europe and was evaluated according to their ability to withstand
distorted information and its negative consequences. The main assumption
is that indicators of media freedom, quality of education, interpersonal trust
and e-participation can serve as predictors of the level of public resistance to
falsification of news, post-truth and related phenomena.6
4
Based on the materials of www.kavi.fi: Finnish Media Education.
5
The Report on the First Media Literacy Index 2017 entitled “Can this be true? Predictors of
media literacy and resilience to the posttruth phenomenon in Europe”, October 2017.
6
Сommon sense wanted resilience to ‘post-truth’ and its predictors in the new media literacy
index 2018, Marin Lessenski.
Chart 4
81
Source: Сommon sense wanted resilience to ‘post-truth’ and its predictors in the new
media literacy index 2018, Marin Lessenski
According to the results of 2018 (Chart 4), the most well-prepared countries to
counter the misinformation and disinformation and their consequences are the
countries of North-Western Europe, that is, Nordic countries, the Netherlands as
well as Estonia and Ireland. According to this rating, the level of education, the state
of the media, public confidence and the use of new participation tools are leading
markers in the assessment of media literacy. Since these indicators have a different
level of significance, they are estimated by appropriate weight. The indicators of
media freedom and the education indicator are of the greatest importance. Indicators
of trust and e-participation of citizens make up the rest of the overall assessment
Indicators %
Indicator of Education
The rating is run among 35 European countries and is rated on a scale from 100 to 0
points (from the best result to the worst). Based on the information that is regularly
updated on the website http: //www.thecatchupindex.eu, it can be seen that in
recent years Finland (76), Denmark (71), the Netherlands (70), Sweden (69), Estonia
(69), Ireland ( 68) are the leaders.
Organisations dealing with MIL issues along with important factors for assessing
MIL development in various countries point out the following important tasks:
7
Сommon Sense Wanted Resilience to ‘post-truth’ and its Predictors in the New Media Literacy
Index 2018, Marin Lessenski.
related to MIL and journalistic education, resources aimed at the development of
digital literacy of journalists.
Public policy — the existence of regulatory bodies, policies and activities of regu-
lators associated with the MIL. Engaging public authorities and regulators in the
promotion and protection of the rights of users to freedom of expression.
Media industry — the role of the media in activities and initiatives related to the
promotion of MIL, journalistic education and ethics, including programmes, projects,
financing, development of informational, educational, promotional materials
The NGO sector is organisations involved in media literacy and journalism education,
sector co-ordination and co-operation, activities and projects. The number of
organisations active in the field of media literacy and journalism education. The
presence of self-regulators, their activities and influence.
• Accessibility of media tools that the general public can use to access information
(mobile phones, Internet, TV, radio, newspapers, online information, social
networks).8 83
It is also worth focusing on which laws and regulations determine media educa-
tion policy, what resources are available in media education, whether there are
programmes or projects related to MIL, whether there are events related to media
literacy — media weeks, festivals, contests, games, groups in social networks that
show and promote the importance of MIL, whether statistics and statistics prac-
tice exist when a MIL deficiency led to violations of the law. We assume that the
solution to these problems will help develop the MIL competency and enter the
list of countries where media information literacy as an essential life skill improves
people’s quality of life.
8
Media Literacy and Education Needs of Journalists and the Public in Albania, Bosnia
Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia - Regional Report March 2017 Project “South-
East European Partnership for Media Development”.
International and regional organisations which include 400,000 journalists in different
countries of the world, united after consultative meetings held under the auspices
of UNESCO in 1978. At the fourth such consultative meeting in Paris and Prague, the
role that “information and communication play on national and international level,
given the increased social responsibility of the media and journalists» was specified.
The Final Document sets out the basic principles of professional ethics of journalists.
The first and second issues focused on “The right of citizens to reliable information”
and “Objective coverage of events — the duty of a journalist” in third place is the
principle of social responsibility of a journalist.
Exercise 5
The UNESCO publication MIL Policy and Strategy Guidelines9 [Grizzle, A and Torras-
Carme, M. (2013)], notes: “Media and information literacy (MIL) policy and strategy
enhance the creation of knowledge-driven, inclusive, pluralistic, democratic, and
open societies.10 MIL policy and strategy are crucial for the survival of modern
governance and global citizenship in the digital world. Without a MIL policy and
strategy, disparities are likely to increase between those who have and those
9
Grizzle, A. & Torras, M.C. (Eds.) (2013). Media and Information Literacy Policy and Strategy
Guidelines. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Paris, France.
https: //unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000225606. Accessed on 31 August 2019.
Steinerová, J. and Šušol, J. (2007), “Users’ Information Behaviour - a Gender Perspective”,
Information Research, 12(3): paper 320, Available at http: //InformationR.net/ir/12-3/paper320.
html
10
See also Carlsson, U. (ed) (2019). Understanding Media and Information Literacy (MIL) in the
Digital Age: A Question of Democracy. Department of Journalism, Media and Communication
(JMG). University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
who do not have access to information and media, and enjoy or not freedom of
expression. Additional disparities will emerge between those who are able and
unable to find, analyse and critically evaluate and apply information and media
content for decision-making”.
The media can help to advance public debate about the urgent need for national
MIL policies in every country. As UNESCO’s Alton Grizzle noted elsewhere, UNESCO
is advocating for a global media partnership on MIL development and awareness.
Table 5 suggests some issues as well as tools and techniques that the media should
consider in reporting about MIL development at national and global levels.
Investigate and report about the develop- −− MILID Yearbook 2015: Media and Information
ment context of MIL, helping the public to Literacy for the Sustainable Development Goals
−− Understanding Media and Information Literacy
86 be aware of how MIL relates to knowledge
(MIL) in the Digital Age: A question of democracy
societies, education, democracy, peace, −− MILID Yearbook 2016: Media and Information
good governance, and sustainable devel- Literacy: Reinforcing Human Rights, Countering
opment in general. Radicalisation and Extremism
There are basic rules for stopping the spread of inaccurate information.
• Identify the source (who began to distribute it; do I trust this source). Find alter- 87
native evidence or denials of information (at least three independent sources,
if the fact is of doubtful nature)
• The source is the person from whom the original utterance or action originates.
This may be a person who participated in the events (an eyewitness) or is
intimately familiar with the original source. It is never redundant to check infor-
mation from different sources, solicit comments from experts and competent
people. It is necessary to clearly separate the fact from the comment, the text
from the context.
• Opinion of the opponent.
If we are talking about opinions, the number of sources is not important, if they adhere
to the same position, then the author risks being biased. It is necessary to present the
opposite point of view, too. In this case, the number of sources of opinions does not
work for the quality of the material. Positions must be balanced. Especially in a conflict
situation, there are at least two sides — two poles. Therefore, it is necessary to map
the stakeholders and find out their opinion on the issues covered by the parties.
• Accuracy of facts is more important than speed.
Social networks concurrently facilitated the work of journalists, since very quickly
there is news from the witnesses of the events, and the social network often contains
a large number of comments showing different opinions, but the information of
social network users needs to be more thoroughly checked and verified by at least
three independent sources.
• Use all kinds of verification tools.
Collectors Landfills
Social networks are another important source of information and an indicator
of public sentiment, as well as the object of study for a journalist. Modern
technologies have created the phenomenon of “a thousand eyes”: when an
extraordinary event occurs, ordinary citizens — users of social networks, “civic
journalists” are the first to report it. Of course, such information needs to be
thoroughly checked for authenticity. At the same time, user-generated content
is also used as an auxiliary tool for identifying fake information, factoids and
copy-paste.
When checking information received from the social network, you should first
verify the authenticity of the account. This can be useful for further clarification of
information, obtaining details as well as to establish the authenticity of the facts.
We distinguish fact, factoid, and fake. One of the fundamental principles of the work
of the editorial board of a quality publication has historically been and remains
the presence of an editorial filter. Today, many people call this process the term
“fact-checking” — that is, checking the accuracy of the disseminated information.
But modern fact-checking is not limited to this function, but represents a new form 89
of organisation of the material — the approach, format, method of presentation.
As practice shows, the fact-checking does not boil down only to checking the
published material, it forms the material itself.
The modern realities of digital media are such that truth becomes less important
than the effect. Therefore, factoids appear — that is, the initially non-existent facts,
which are published in the media, are distributed online, and receive evaluation
and reaction.
The bulk of ordinary consumers trust the form, and does not critically consider the
content due to the automation and stereotyping of the mass media perception
process. Once printed in the newspaper — it is true, if said on TV — it means
truth. If published on the website — it must be true, if a large number of views
and likes — it means truth. That is how many phenomena and events become
legalised and actualised, are perceived as facts. Consciously or accidentally, they
are embedded in the information field and become an evidence base for other
facts, thus distorting the real picture of the world.
Exercise 7 Find examples from local and international media. Insert the heading
and media outlet, where the material was published.
Table 6
Today it is necessary for each editorial board to form its information policy regarding
media and information literacy. A journalist, being an employee of the editorial,
may become a distributor of unverified information. Therefore, it is important that
editors have an internal media literacy policy.
In February 2017, the Science, one of the most influential scientific journals in the
world, made misinformation and disinformation the topic of the issue. A team
of scientists gathered 126,000 reposts of the news, false and true, made over the
course of ten years on Twitter, and found out: a lie is spread far more actively
than the truth.11
It is for this reason that consolidation in the area of working with unverified infor-
mation should be one of the criteria within the editorial policy. For example, the
issue of re-verifying the accuracy of information gave impetus to journalists and
international projects to create communities of fact-checking journalists.
For example, during the election campaign in the United States, the Electionland
project was launched in collaboration with ProPublica and First Draft. The project
was aimed at monitoring reviews in social networks about the problems of voting
for the future US president. “It was an ambitious project that attracted more than 600
students of journalism and 400 reporters across America, as well as a big news hub
in the center of New York with 150 journalists among them. An effective teamwork
was created and journalists worked every minute on information and told stories 91
about people’s voting experiences, ” comments Claire Wardle, the project director.12
Using the example of Pro Publica, French journalists also demonstrated the will-
ingness and then implemented the CrossCheck project, with the support of First
Draft and Google New Lab in February 2017, also as part of the election campaign
of the President of France. Over 100 journalists and 33 editors from France and the
UK have worked together to fight online disinformation and to promote objective
democratic debates among voters.
In the case of the “False information” mark, a detailed assessment was given regarding
the type of information distortion: ridicule (joke), incomplete information,
manipulation of information, fabricated information and misleading content
and misinterpreted information.13
11
Kozlovsky, B. Maximum repost: How Social Networks Make Us Believe Fake News. / Borislav
Kozlovsky. — M.: Alpina Publisher. — P. 198
12
firstdraftnews.com/crosscheck-findings
13
The Impact of Crosscheck on Journalists & the Audience, by Smyrnaios,N., Chauvet,S.,& Marty,
E., November 2017.
Source: https: //www.poynter.org/channels/fact-checking
In order to help the editorials to do this, the International Fact-Checking Network
92 has been created, which is a subdivision of the Poynter Institute, dedicated to
the union of journalists — fact-checkers around the world. IFCN was founded in
September 2015 to support a rapidly growing culture of fact-checking initiatives
by promoting best practices and sharing information in this area.
https: //www.poynter.org/channels/fact-checking
14
Since today’s media and information literacy is “one of the basic competencies for
each member of society to achieve personal and social goals,” 15 and also because
“it is the most important factor in successful professional and everyday activities,
as well as the social security of the individual in knowledge society” 16 questions
helping to identify the level of media literacy of an applicant for a journalistic job
in any media outlet are a must at the job interview.
The principles of media and information literacy mirror a number of basic principles
of human rights. Let us add that the MIL can be considered as necessary components,
conditions for ensuring these rights in the new online reality. Using the comparative
table as an example, one can see that the main message of the MIL is aimed at
preserving human rights in the media information space.
MIL programs will help to warn online users against campaigns and movements
aimed at inciting hatred towards certain groups (i.e. migrants or refugees), minority
15
Zhilavskaya, Irina Vladimirovna. Media Information Literacy as a New Direction in Media
Education // Magister Dixit. 2011. №3. URL: https: //cyberleninka.ru/article/n/
mediainformatsionnaya-gramotnost-kak-novoe-napravlenie-v-mediaobrazovanii
16
Gendina, N.I., Kolkova, N.I., Starodubova, G. A., Ulenko Yu. V. Formation of an Information
Culture of a Person: theoretical substantiation and modeling of the content of an academic
discipline. M .: Interregional Center for Library Cooperation. М.: Межрегиональный центр
библиотечного сотрудничества, 2006.
groups (on religious, racial or ethnic grounds, groups of people with disabilities),
hatred based on gender or social status.
One of the most destructive phenomena in relation to human rights is hate speech.
94 The problem of offensive speech and humiliation of dignity by going online has found
a hybrid form that is easily multiplied, not always subject to responsibility and not always
punishable. A regular user who does not have critical thinking regarding a fake fact,
a story, a photo or other kind of storiy easily lends itself to fabricated information and
unconsciously supports, and sometimes forms part of, the movement aimed at humili-
ating, destroying the dignity of a person or a group of people. As journalists, we can be
among the first to recognise hate speech and inform the media about possible risks and
negative results of this information. Also, the task of the media is to bring to the audience
the counter-arguments, alternative stories and points of view.
Another urgent task is the protection of personal data and privacy. The Internet has
made accessing and sharing information, including personal data, easier and faster
than ever. People provide their personal data online, consciously or unknowingly.
In order to purchase goods and services, play, study or pay taxes, we enter our
personal data into the network.
Social interactions are also increasingly taking place on the web — for example,
on social platforms, creating new opportunities, but it is also a risk for privacy.
The limitless nature of the Internet, which enables the free flow of data between
countries, different people with different goals and life values, give reason to act
deliberately to protect your privacy.
3.7. CREATION OF MEDIA CONTENT: PURPOSE, METHODS,
PROMOTION OF MIL FOR COMMUNICATION WITH THE
AUDIENCE
In daily practice, journalists are increasingly feeling the connection between digital
platforms that distribute distorted information, popularise propaganda and viral
content and thereby influence political and public life in democratic societies. It is
possible to track down their goals, benefits and motives in promoting misinformation.
Misinformation
Inadequate information: the information is
false, but not produced with the intent to
Misinformation
cause harm
Disinformation
information that is false and deliberately creat-
ed to harm a person, social group, organisation,
Malinformation or country
Malinformation
Accurate information, but used to harm a per-
son, social group, organisation, or country
17
Claire Wardle, Hossein Derakhshan, “Information Disorder. Toward an Interdisciplinary
Framework for Research and Policymaking”, Council of Europe, 2017.
In the above figure, you can see that all three types of information distortion are
aimed at spreading false information and causing harm. It should be noted that the
flow of inaccurate, distorted information increases many times during the period of
important events in different societies. Examples include political elections, military
actions in certain regions, internationally significant dates in decision-making on
various topical issues.
Like many information content resources, Facebook, as the most popular platform
among social networks, has actively started fighting with misinformation and disinfor-
mation and distorted content. Below is a system for tracking and removing sources of
misinformation. According to the analysis of the information flow, the accuracy of
the facts revealed that only 14% of the US audience derives information content
through social networks, but it is through these channels that distorted information
is gaining momentum and repost, involving a huge audience.18
96
Alcott, H. & Gentzcow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Journal of
18
The flow of information that surrounds us and the people who create and distribute
content the reliability of which is doubious, requires to treat the stated material
with doubt. Especially information from Internet sources and social networks needs
to be rechecked through other sources.
Here is an approximate checklist for verifying the source of information and content.
These steps were developed by the International Fact-Checking Network.19
https: //www.poynter.org/news/ Fred fact doesn´t fall for misinformation and disinformation.
19
1. Check source
It is necessary to ascertain
from which resource the
information was streamed
and it is not important
that you check the title,
photo or link.
99
https: //ru.wikipedia.org/wiki
20
3. It is necessary to check
the name of the author, if
this is a practicing author,
he should have a publica-
tion history. Also usually
there are links to his previ-
ous publications..
101
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Experts identify the following core competencies of MIL for journalists. In turn,
media trainers should take these requirements into account in the learning process
and develop and be able to apply methods for their formation. Dear reader, think
and determine in what way these competencies can be effectively imparted to
journalists during their work on themselves. In filling in the table, you need to focus
on your own experience and knowledge. Work on yourself is the main principle in
the “how to promote MIL” process.
perceive different points of view presented in the media, the competen- EXAMPLE Organizing
cies of participation in discussions, the ability to understand someone debates on various social
else’s point of view and listen to it and professional themes
be able to safely use the Internet and know how to protect information
and privacy in the virtual space
use media in a variety of ways, following the rules and laws of the
Internet
4.2. CHECKLIST # 2: HOW TO INTEGRATE MIL IN JOURNALIST’s
REPORTS
In the table below, find the most similar and different principles among the main
principles of journalism and MIL principles.21
6. It must provide a forum for public criti- 6. MIL enables people to participate in the
cism and compromise. public discourse and dialogue.
8. It must keep the news comprehensive 8. MIL enables people to consider the plu-
and proportional. rality of information and media.
If there is no reference to the source, such data cannot be taken for granted, they
need to be rechecked. Such a database is rated very low.
Exercise 1
110
Exercise 2
When interviewing, you must have the highest degree of media literacy, since
there are a number of techniques for creating artificial vagueness, and easier to
say, techniques for manipulating information. The use of such techniques is called
“manipulative rhetoric.”
Have you encountered using similar techniques? Give examples from your own
practice, describe them.
• “non-specific words” are the use of polysemantic words in speech, in which
everyone puts his own meaning. Such statements have the nature of a slogan
and do not carry specific features. For example, “We stand for freedom and
prosperity.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 3
Role-playing game “my hero”. Choose a character from your closest circle and
create his portrait according to psychological, demographic, and sociometric
characteristics. “Draw” the image of your character.
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Algorithm of Verification:
Stages Actions
Pay attention to the domain. News agencies and media usually have their
Step 1
own domains
Step 2 The article must indicate the author and publication date
The site should contain a description of “About Us” and a list of editorial staff.
Often, on specialised sites that produce misinformation and disinformation
and specialise in such activities, this is mentioned in the “About Us” section.
Fog News.
HOBOSTI.
Smixer.
Most websites in the “About Us” section describe the mission of the pub-
lication. If this part is dramatic, the description is too pompously generic
Step 4
without specifics — this is a reason for doubt. Look for information about
the reliability of this media outlet using Google.
View comments under the materials. If they say that this material is fake, this
Step 7
is worth listening to.
Stages Actions
We check whether someone had published this image earlier. We use the ser
vices of Google Image Search or TinEye. This is a search for similar images. They
Step 1 are sorted by date and size and compared with each other. TinEye also shows
the date the image appeared on the Internet.* It is preferable to take the image
in the best resolution. So search engines will be able to quickly find the original
It often happens that the fake image is fabricated from two photos. If there is
Step 2 this suspicion, divide the parts of the image in any graphic editor and try to find
each part separately
During the fabrication of photos, two parts of the image are often connected,
Step 3 and one or both parts are rotated (mirrored). To make the search effective, you
114 can try to process the image in a graphic editor and search again
Foto Forensics service allows you to check how the photo has been digitally pro-
cessed. It shows “added image components”, set and edited areas. The program
Step 4
displays an image where the changed fragments will be highlighted against the
background of others
One way to create fakes is to accompany genuine images with false comments.
Step 5 Therefore, it is very important to read the photo captions carefully, since two
identical images may have different descriptions
The source of the image can be found from the URL of the file. A long set of
numbers in the file name tells us that the photo was most likely taken from so-
Step 6
cial networks. Some Facebook photos contain the ID of the user who posted it in
the title. For example
Can help in identifying and visual information on the image: road signs,
markings, car signs, houses, clothes, landscape elements.
Google Maps Street View or Wikimapia contain images of various places with
Step 7 which you can compare existing photos
Geofeedia is a search engine that allows you to detect posts in social networks
by geolocation. The service works with posts Twitter, Flickr, Youtube, Instagram
and Picasa, using GPS. Results are provided in the form of a collage
Exercise 8
Stages Actions
Step 1 We pay attention to personal information, posts from friends, whether pub-
lications are accompanied by comments or are they just pictures. Lack of
copyright publications give reason to believe that we are dealing with a bot
How many posts are in your account? 2–3 reposts. Different in thematic di-
Step 2
rections — a reason for mistrust
When was the account created? Often for the sake of trolling accounts are
created in social networks immediately after the post under attack is pub-
Step 3
lished. In addition, if the account was created for a long time, and there are
only 2–3 publications in it, this is a reason for mistrust 115
Which pages on social networks this user is subscribed to, is the topic of the
Step 5
groups visited related to the information about?
When writing material, you need to check yourself. Since people tend to be involved,
to emotionally respond to certain facts, to carry the material through themselves.
Therefore, in order not to lose objectivity, you should ask yourself the following
questions at different stages of work:
• Do I have a vested interest?
• What is the result I want to get?
• Do I adjust the facts to fit my hypothesis?
GLOSSARY
Alternative Facts — facts that are not verifiable (“This is not a fact. This is
a lie” — from a speech by Chuck Todd, NBC presenter).
Audience — a group of readers, television viewers, radio listeners, united by
a common interest in one outlet.
Blog — 1. Internet event log, Internet diary, online diary — a website, the
main content of which is regularly added records containing text, images or
multimedia presented in reverse chronological order, containing brief remarks
and comments on links to third-party resources. The differences between a blog
and a traditional diary are due to the medium: blogs are usually public and involve
third-party readers who may enter into public debate with the author. 2. Personal
websites, which consist mainly of personal entries of the blog owner and user
comments on these posts.
A blogger is a person who maintains his personal blog.
116 Bots — a special kind of author-mystifier; programmes that perform operations
that may be identical to the actions of any Internet user.
Briefing (English, briefing; from brief — brief ) — a meeting of officials with
representatives of the media, which briefly presents the official position on a particular
issue or agreed by the parties involved in international negotiations, meetings,
conferences, information on their progress, the views of the parties, etc.
Background (option: backgrounder) — contains information about the
“background” (additions, details) that surrounds the event, about what preceded
or became the cause. This is not a sensation, not news, but an addition, details
that affect both the presentation and the structure of the text. As a rule, the
background is a single and complete “story” built in a narrative manner. It covers
a single topic or analyses the various circumstances that surround the event and
can be used by journalists.
Computer literacy — the ability to use computer equipment, knowledge of the
basics of computer science, information technology. Related concepts: information
literacy, media competence, media literacy.
Cross-check — a system of mutual verification among professionals.
Deadline (slang term, died line — of letters, “death line”) — the deadline for
putting the material for publication.
Digital Aggression — the pressure that the digital environment exerts on
the human psyche. <...> It is rudeness, disrespect, violation of generally accepted
perceptions, destructive behaviour along with inflicting harm, attack, invasion of
another person’s territory, threat or direct violence.
Data journalism is a trend in journalism, which is based on data processing and
their use to create journalistic material. Data can serve as a tool for the disclosure of
a particular journalistic history, and its source. The development of data journalism
is associated with the design of technologies that allow storing and processing
large amounts of data, and the movement towards greater openness of information.
Data journalism is related to computer science, design and statistics.
Emotional Transfer — the process of generating emotions to transfer them
to content. For example, a Coca-Cola ad shows happy, beautiful people, but tells
us nothing about the product. The fact is that you feel good and convey this
feeling to the brand or product. This is the number one and most important media
manipulation process.
Fact — proven, reliable knowledge of a real event.
Factoid — descriptive information, which can only be partially verified, since
it represents only some of the parameters of what happened.
Fact-checking — a fact check that identifies inconsistencies between published
facts and those that actually exist.
Gender Statistics — an integral part of each of the traditional areas of statistics
and serves to identify, produce and disseminate statistics reflecting the real life of 117
women and men, and is taken into account when developing gender policies. 23
Hoax — a deliberate attempt to mislead people by providing them with non-ex-
istent facts.
Hook (syn. information event (newsbreak, inject)) — an event that serves to form
and provide information support to the community, to form a different view, to
correct the view on the subject of the information occasion.
Information Culture of Personality — one of the components of a person’s
general culture; a set of information outlook and a system of knowledge and skills
that provide targeted independent activities for the optimal satisfaction of individual
information needs using both traditional and new information and technologies.
It is the most important factor in successful professional and non-professional
activities, as well as the social security of the individual in knowledge society
(Gendina, N. I. 2002).
Insert — a shock piece of text or a bright phrase from an interview, typed in
a large size and decorated as an independent text block using a frame, or fill, or
lines. The insert is placed inside the text, it visually “facilitates” a large array of text.
Plays the role of lead, prompting to read the text.
Media Impact — the impact of media texts on the audience: in the field of
education and upbringing, development of consciousness, shaping behavior,
attitudes, reactions, responses, information dissemination, etc.
A. P. Korochenas The Fifth Power? Phenomenon of Media Criticism in the Context of the
24
25
Worsnop, C. Screening Images: Ideas for Media Education (1999). Mississauga, Ontario: Wright
Communications.
26
Kubey, R. Media Education: Portraits of an Evolving Field. In: Kubey, R. (Ed.) Media Literacy in
the Information Age. — New Brunswick & London: Transaction Publishers, 1997, P .2
track links between their “friends”, join various communities, create groups, open
or close their profile information for everyone to access, comment on the content
that his friends post, and much more.
Timeline — a story of all your posts. It’s something like a tape of all your events
in chronological order.27
Trolling — the publication of deliberately provocative messages to get a negative
user reaction. They provoke individuals as well as groups of people. Network trolls
can also act in groups and conduct co-ordinated or random psychological attacks.28
Trolling is an organised system through which messages are distributed via
profiles that are controlled by trolls — real people.
Trolls — network users, as a rule, violating the ethics of network interaction,
exhibiting various forms of aggressive and offensive behaviour to provoke conflicts.
Verification — identification of the adequacy of received and transmitted
information using logical methods.
120
project/stoptrolls/
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ANNEX 1
ISBN 978-9943-5811-2-8