Bilingual Based on world-wide

Teaching
research, this booklet
provides a wealth of
classroom possibilities,
and teachers can chose

Methods
what fits their own
context and preferences

Colin Baker

a quick
reference
guide for
educators

Enlli Môn Thomas

Dafydd Apolloni
Nia Mererid Parry
Introduction
The aim of this booklet is to provide a brief overview
of the international literature relating to teaching
and pedagogical methods in the context of bilingual
education and bilingual classrooms, relating those
practices to the education context here in Wales.

It is hoped that this booklet will be a These strategies will take us a step
useful reference resource for teachers as closer towards fulfilling one particular
they go about planning their lessons with aspect of the Welsh Government’s
a view to enriching and/or developing vision, namely to secure a generation
the Welsh language skills of children, be of teachers who are aware of the key
they ready Welsh-speakers or learners steps required in realizing Cymraeg:
at different stages of the journey. 2050, and who are research-informed:

This booklet is intended for use by teachers

designing strategies for teaching in Welsh- …the effectiveness of any
medium schools, in bilingual schools, and
[bilingual teaching] method
for bringing pupils into contact with Welsh
in English-medium schools in Wales. or approach is less influential
than the skill and competence
of the teacher delivering it

Fitzpatrick et al., 2018, p.59.

2050
Content List
1. Main bilingual learning/teaching models 04.

2. Methods of interaction 06.

A. Language correction: 07.

Targeting the appropriate use of Welsh

B. Discourse strategies 08.

C. Teacher input - child output: 10.

ensuring opportunities to create
extended language

3. Translanguaging 16.

4. Cymraeg Bob Dydd 20.

5. Native speaker models 24.

6. Content Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) 26.

7. Task-based Learning 30.

8. Bibliography 34.

Important terms
Throughout this booklet your will see the L1 first language
following terms. Please take a moment
to familairse yourself with them. L2 second language

© 2018
Enlli Môn Thomas
Dafydd Apolloni
Nia Mererid Parry

ISBN: 978-1-84220-171-8
Main Bilingual Learning/
Teaching Models

1. Monolingual Models 2. Bilingual Models

There is a general tendency The first of these is based on the deliberate

separation of the learner’s two languages within the
to divide bilingual teaching school and classroom context in general - a practice
models into one of two which (if we ignore the minor translations that occur
types: the type that follows in order to increase learners’ understanding) is still
to be found in classrooms across Wales (Lewis et
a monolingual approach, al., 2013) as well as in Canada (Byrd Clark, 2012)
on the one hand, and the – “despite Wales having a progressive tradition in
type that follows a bilingual bilingual education, it is the case that, especially at
the secondary school classroom level, there tends
approach on the other. to be some degree of language separation rather
than a considered approach to translanguaging”
(Jones, 2017, p.213). In such situations, the language
of teaching is often different from that of the child’s
first language, and opportunities to take advantage
of and use their full linguistic repertoire are rare.
Such models are often implemented for the purpose
of language preservation; in that regard, it could
be argued that such strategies are essentially
intended to encourage pupils’ development in the
target language (such as in the immersion method),
rather than representing a specific educational
methodology per se (Ó Duibhir, 2018). Amongst
the models that encourage language separation
are what the formal academic literature refer to
as the direct method, the audiolingual approach,
and some aspects of CLIL models (Content and
Language Integrated Learning) (Paradowski, 2017),
along with some extreme versions of immersion
education.
 05.

The idea that the target language has to be isolated

from other languages in the learners’ repertoire has
old roots in the direct and audio-lingual methods
Cenoz & Gorter, 2017, p. 310

Currently in Wales, as in many other In that respect, learning a language is very similar to learning
anything else: when coming across new information, the brain
countries of the world, there is an is able to relate that piece of information to existing information
increasing awareness of the bilingual and expand knowledge – accommodating and assimilating
information as Piaget would put it. When learning a second
speaker’s unique linguistic profile
language or developing two languages simultaneously, the
(Grosjean, 1985) - the multi-competence bilingual can benefit from his/her ability to compare and
that arises from learning and being contrast - across their two languages - different words, phrases,
sounds and structures, and discover differences in meanings
able to communicate in more than attached to those forms. This develops an awareness of the
one language (Cook, 1992). vast extent of languages - “what languages are, how they
work, how they are used and can be learnt” (Paradowski,
The notion that bilingual speakers function as two monolinguals 2017, p. 141) – referred to in the literature as metalinguistic
is incorrect, and drawing comparisons between, or to have the skills - skills that influence strongly the child’s later linguistic
same expectations of second language speakers and native first successes (Carlisle, Beeman, Davis & Spharim, 1999).
language or monolingual speakers is inappropriate. By now, our
recognition and understanding that bilingual speakers have two There is, therefore, an increasing emphasis on the second
languages that not only influence each other in different ways type of bilingual teaching model, suggesting that practices
(e.g. by transferring grammatical structures and vocabulary have moved away from strict language separation and
from one language to the other; by promoting, enriching and towards approaches and models that allow, promote and
sometimes slowing down the development and understanding encourage a mix of languages in the classroom (Lewis et
of forms in one language or the other - see Cook, 1992), but also al., 2012), reflecting more accurately the learner’s real-life
have a more universal effect on the individual’s cognitive system experiences. This does not mean that there is no key role for
(see Thomas & Webb-Davies, 2017), forms a core part of the Welsh-medium education! On the contrary, ‘immersing’ children
thinking that underpins effective language pedagogy. in Welsh is essential, and ensuring frequent opportunities to
see, hear, process and use the language naturally is crucial if
the language is to thrive. In such contexts, bilingual teaching
methods serve to enrich pupils’ experience of being educated
the key – and indeed primarily through a minority language, with the ultimate goals

defining – feature of ensuring that learners become confident bilinguals.

that distinguishes the Those models that tend towards bilingualism vary, and
include a wide range of practices that can be more, or less,
learning/acquisition of formal, structured or spontaneous, derive from deliberate
a foreign/second/third planning on the part of the teacher or depend on pupils’
chosen language, some of which will feature in this booklet.
etc. tongue from first
language acquisition...
This booklet will therefore focus on
is the presence of at least
the second model type - pedagogical
one other linguistic system
approaches and strategies that allow
in the speaker’s mind
access to and awareness of the
Paradowski, 2017, p. 3 learner’s linguistic experience and
background, whilst helping them develop
into confident bilingual speakers.
Methods of Interaction
Teaching knowledge or a subject (the ‘content’) through
the medium of a language that is new to a child (the
linguistic medium) is challenging, and the linguistic
interaction between the teacher and the child is key, not
only for the purpose of identifying the child’s achievements
linguistically and intellectually, but also in terms of
encouraging the child’s continued use of the language.

Teachers in immersion schools act as both

content teachers and language teachers and
they attempt to create naturalistic conditions
similar to those in which L1 learning takes place
Ó Duibhir, 2018, p. 55

The informal context of the early years

classrooms lends itself well to naturalistic
speech and interaction amongst children.
However, at this early age, many of the
children lack sufficient conversational abilities
in Welsh which means that for those who are
lacking exposure to Welsh outside school, the
only way to converse fully with another child
(and also with the teacher) is in English
Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012, p. 255
 07.

Language correction:
Targeting appropriate use of Welsh
If a child’s utterance is ungrammatical in Welsh, if they use an incorrect word for a particular
meaning, or if they over-use (or are over- or totally dependent on) another language, it is
good practice to respond by discussing the correct meaning or the appropriate form by
resorting to one of the following (Lyster & Rannta, 1997 - from Ó Duihbir, 2018, p 43):

Explicit correction Correcting the utterance

Recasts The teacher recasts the utterance without repeating the ‘error’.

Clarification requests Communicate to the child that the utterance is not comprehensible to the teacher or that
the utterance is poorly formed and that it is necessary to re-present or reconstruct it.

Metalinguistic Discuss by questioning, commenting or sharing information relating to the

feedback appropriateness of the utterance without presenting the target form.

Elicitation of This may involve asking the child directly to re-present the utterance; re-presenting part
another response of the utterance to the child and encouraging him/her to complete the utterance; asking
the child directly which form is most appropriate for the utterance, etc.

Repetition Repeating and drawing specific attention to the

divergence from the target form/meaning.

Lyster et al. (e.g., Lyster & Rannta, 1997; Lyster & Mori, 2006),
found that recasts were the most frequent feedback used
by teachers. Recasts were considered to be effective as it
When to ‘correct’?
encourages the pupil to concentrate on form. However, this type
It is not possible to ‘correct’ every
of approach is likely to be more effective with older rather than
younger children - children who have a relatively good grasp of
divergence from the target form by
at least one language system - and there is plenty of evidence every pupil in every lesson. Doing so
that correcting the utterance of very young children, even by would not only reduce the time for
encouraging them to imitate the exact same sentences when
focusing on lesson content and the
corrected, is difficult (see example from McNeill, 1966).
child’s conceptual understanding of
the subject, but would also destroy
Child: Nobody don’t like me. the pupil’s self-confidence.
Correcting a child (individually, or in front of others)
Mother: No, say ‘nobody likes me’. directly can also have a negative effect on their self-
confidence, by sending a clear message that his/her
Child: Nobody don’t like me. Welsh, despite their best efforts, is not good enough.

This is why it is important to discuss the utterance

this interchange repeated eight times! with the child in a constructive manner, and to
do so after receiving the child’s utterance and
Mother: No, now listen carefully; his/her attempt to communicate in Welsh.

say ‘nobody likes me’. The utterance the child produced can be discussed
in a sensitive and more constructive manner by
Child: Oh! Nobody don’t likes me. comparing and contrasting other utterance forms
that carry the same target meaning, thereby
nurturing those critical metalinguistic skills that will
McNeill, 1966 contribute to further language skills in due course.
 Discourse strategies

Monolingual discourse strategies Bilingual discourse strategy

Declaration of an inability to understand Accepting - no matter in which language

the child’s English utterance or insisting that - the child’s utterance and continuing
the child use the target language (Welsh) the conversation bilingually

In contexts where the lesson/education is through the child’s

second language, there is often a tendency for the child to
rely on his/her first language when responding orally.

When this occurs in conversation the teacher has three

obvious choices: encourage or insist the child respond in his/
her second language; accept the utterance and continue to
converse (either in the child’s second language or by turning
to his/her first language); or a combination of both.

Example:

Monolingual discourse strategy Bilingual discourse strategy

(a fictitious example) (example from Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012)

Teacher: Oes gen ti glustffonau? Teacher: Oes gen ti glustffonau?

‘Do you have earphones?’ ‘Do you have earphones?’

Child: I don’t need them Child: I don’t need them

Teacher: Yn Gymraeg os Teacher: Ond mae pawb arall isio

gwelwch yn dda i ti ddefnyddio nhw
‘In Welsh please’ ‘But everyone else wants
you to use them’
or
Child: There’s no sound
Teacher: Sut mae dweud hynny
yn Gymraeg?
‘How does one say
that in Welsh?’
 09.

Advantages/Disadvantages
(Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012)
Advantages Disadvantages

Bilingual • Child knows they are understood • This type of strategy does
discourse nothing to encourage the child’s
• Child demonstrates what active use of spoken Welsh
strategy they understand of the
language they are hearing

• Child is not made to feel

uncomfortable for having used their
stronger L1 or to feel humiliated
for getting the Welsh ‘wrong’.

• Such sensitivity is important

Monolingual • It is possible to follow the strategies • Child may feel humiliated for not having
discourse mentioned above (obvious the skills to respond so well in Welsh
correction; recasts, etc.) when
strategy • Child may feel uncomfortable for
encouraging the use of Welsh
having used their stronger L1
• Child is provided with an opportunity
to use their oral skills in Welsh • Child can feel forced rather than
encouraged to use their Welsh
• Teacher is indicating that they know – teachers need to be cautious
that the child can speak Welsh in their chosen language

• Child’s home language (and therefore

their culture/heritage) is disrespected

Penalising the learner for using her/his L1 may be sensed as down-grading its
status, making it ‘inferior’, which is an insensitive and inconsiderate approach

Paradowski, 2017, p. 201

Recommendations for good practice

• One could hold a bilingual conversation with a child, • It is possible to keep a record of the types of expressions
especially a young child who has a weaker grasp of the children tend to present in English over Welsh, to identify any
language, and compliment the child afterwards for having specific forms that may require attention.
the ability to hold such a conversation – a signal that they
understand Welsh. At the end of the conversation, a short
Ultimately, encouraging extended use
discussion could take place regarding appropriate vocabulary
and expressions should the child respond in Welsh. of the target language is a fundamental
part of bilingual education.
• As the child becomes older this conversation can take
place bilingually, followed by a discussion of relevant Welsh
vocabulary and expressions, before carrying out the same
We will look at this aspect
conversation once again, this time by encouraging the child to in the next section.
hold the whole conversation in Welsh.
Teacher input - child output:
creating opportunities to
produce extended language

…it has been observed that the teacher

does most of the talking in content-
oriented classes with pupils having little
opportunity for sustained production
Ó Duibhir, 2018, p. 36

Listening to teacher input and engaging with

written material in Welsh allow children to
develop a working knowledge of the language,
particularly in terms of literacy and the
development of academic vocabulary, but
this alone is not enough to ensure productive
mastery of the language and to develop the
underlying confidence to use the language
in any situation, which many children lack
Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012, p. 257
 11.
The classroom does not provide the second The essence of this is that there needs to be a
language learner with the same breadth of focus on learning Welsh in an active manner,
linguistic experiences as he/she experienced when not passively, encouraging children to contribute
learning his/her first language. Consequently, through extended language to conversations
and activities both in and outside school.
one cannot expect that there will be
the same opportunities for output In terms of pedagogical methods, then, the focus
or for the diversity of input required here is on the teachers’ use of Welsh, particularly
in terms of formulating questions for the class or
Ó Duibhir, 2018, p. 36 individual children, which provide an opportunity
for children to respond and communicate by
However, school classrooms in Wales offers the opportunity
using extended sentences/answers in Welsh.
not only to ensure children experience constant contact
with Welsh, but also to encourage them to produce and
formulate responses in the form of extended language,
and to consider methods and appropriate use of those
responses in different situations and in different domains.

Studies show a relation between the extent of time a child

spends hearing (input) and speaking a language (output),
and his/her proficiency in that language. Language input
includes what is spoken by others (adults and children’s
peers), and what the child hears him-/herself produce.

Eliciting extended sentences from children therefore adds to

and facilitates the relationship between input and output, and
provides exposure to more complex forms of the language.

Research by Ramírez et al. (1991):

observing the interaction between teacher
and child in immersion classes in the USA:

In over half of cases When responding with language, those responses

children’s responses often included expressions the children knew
involved non-verbal from memory (e.g. one-word answers), or the
responses and repetition of parts of the teacher’s question, thereby
gestures. diminishing the need for the children to produce
and formulate new expressions for themselves.

Responding in this way can have a negative effect on children’s general cognitive/
academic development. If the pedagogic format allows passive interaction with what
is being taught, the experience of dealing with and manipulating complex higher-order
thinking - which is essential for academic development – becomes somewhat of a rarity.
The following represents findings from a study that conducted
intensive observations of the interactions between pairs of
interlocutors (teacher-child and child-child) in three classes
in each of 10 schools across Wales.
The frequency of types of interactions observed during 30 minute blocks
are presented in the table below (Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012) *:

Type of Child Extended One-word Non-verbal, Responses

language responses gestural in English
responses

Children in L1 child: girl 134 59 12 0

teacher-child
interactions L1 child: boy 143 64 3 2

L2 child: girl 188 101 3 55

L2 child: boy 168 93 8 61

Children in L1 child’s
193 15 0 39
child-child response: girl
interactions
L1 child’s
219 17 0 45
response: boy

L2 child’s
230 15 0 273
response: girl

L2 child’s
207 8 0 329
response: boy

*Note that the number of utterances varied according to the nature of the task given to the pupils.

Interesting observations emerging from the study:

• Gestural, non-verbal responses were rare, which suggests • When the majority of children in a class was from
children in Wales do respond orally when questioned. non-Welsh-speaking homes, there was a tendency
to use more English when responding to teachers’
• L1 and L2 children – male and female – were given opportunities
questions, with even children from non-Welsh-speaking
to respond in the form of extended speech, and did so
homes often responding in English in that context.
more frequently than they used one-word responses.
• Younger children, 4- to 7-years-old, who had no contact
• However, children’s responses did vary, with the extent of this
with Welsh outside school, tended to respond and
variation linked to the linguistic dynamics of the area where the
chat in English, despite Welsh-language instructions.
school was located, and on the number of speakers and the
linguistic dynamics between L1 and L2 speakers in the class. • Among peers, this tendency on the part of children from
non-Welsh-speaking backgrounds was even stronger,
• There were ample opportunities to respond in the form of
and, to a greater extent, formed the socializing norm.
extended language when speaking with peers, although there
were also plenty of opportunities when speaking with the teacher. • Girls tended to make more use of Welsh than boys.

• English responses were rarer among children from • L2 children tended to migrate toward each
Welsh-speaking families when speaking with the other when undertaking group work, with a
teacher – greater when speaking with their peers. tendency for L1 children to work together too:
 13.

In some cases, young 4- and 5-year-old L1 Welsh-

speaking children may also be limited in their knowledge
of English. In some classrooms, for this reason, L1 children
may continue to address the L2 child in Welsh and the
L2 child may continue to address the L1 child in English.
When possible, they seem to choose to interact with
others who speak their preferred language well

In some cases, the teacher would remind children

to use Welsh in the classroom. When this happened,
those using English usually changed to using Welsh;
however, they soon reverted back into English

Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012, p. 255

When the teacher is not overseeing or directly contributing

to an activity, it is difficult to ensure that children will
continue to use Welsh, unless a specific task is set
(see Translaguaging, and Task-based Learning).
Examples of good practice
seen among teachers:
Follow-up from a one-word Adapting information
response question to a question
eliciting an extended response When communicating with a class
of children from different language
backgrounds, teachers formed questions
Be ydi hwn?
by translating some key elements, such as
‘What is this?’
individual words (rather than repeating the
Lle mae . . . entire sentence in the other language).
‘Where is . . .’,
Although this helps ensure that each child in the class
Pa wlad ydi . . . understands the information provided, it is doubtful as to
whether children will use/remember the term in Welsh rather
‘Which country is . . .’,
than in English without encouragement or a specific reason
to repeat it, or without having a wider discussion about the
Oes ganddyn nhw . . .
term that would help lead to its co-activation alongside
‘Do they have . . .’, the English term within the neural networks of the brain.

O be maen nhw’n adeiladu eu tai? When children responded in Welsh but with English
‘From what do they build their houses?’ etc. vocabulary (e.g. Miss, ’di X ddim yn shario! ‘Miss, X isn’t
sharing!’ Miss, mae X wedi give hwnne i Y ‘Miss, X has
given that to Y’), the teacher tended to respond by asking
whether the child meant ‘rhannu/share’ or ‘rhoi/give’,
or by asking them to say the word/phrase in Welsh.

A ‘monolingual’ strategy of this kind can increase the child’s

Be maen nhw’n ei wneud i gael bwyd yno?
awareness that a Welsh form exists and that it is possible to
‘What do they do to get food there?’ express their intended meaning in Welsh. However, these
example demonstrate the child’s lack of awareness of (or
Pa fath o fraw gaethoch chi?
inability to remember) some verbs or verb forms in Welsh,
‘What kind of a ‘scare’ did you have?’ and the discussion could be followed-up by talking about
the different forms of the verb, comparing how the same
Be ’dach chi wedi’i ddysgu o ddarllen hyn? meaning can be expressed in full in Welsh and in English, etc.
‘What have you learned from reading this?’
 15.

Recommendations
(from Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012, p.257-258):
• When addressing the class as a whole, the teacher can subtly • Promoting the use of Welsh amongst L2 speakers is a
address some errors in production (which all children access) clear objective for all schools. However, encouraging
by reiterating the child’s answer in the appropriate way whilst L1 children to use Welsh with their L2 peers is key to the
continuing the conversation with the child, thus accepting fulfilment of such an objective in order that they become
and expanding further on the child’s response. Since the willing facilitators of a ‘language monitor’-type role.
language of interaction between children often changes into Raising awareness of the importance of speaking Welsh
English when engaged in group work (see below), providing and of the benefits of being bilingual in the multicultural
children with modelled ways of expressing themselves in and multilingual world we live in is paramount to this
Welsh (beyond single-word responses) during the whole goal and should be encouraged and supported.
class address may encourage children to continue to express
themselves via complex extended speech during peer–peer • Teachers need to be vigilant (but not demanding or
work activity, particularly for those for whom Welsh is their L2. prescriptive) about children’s use of language in their
activities, aiming to allow L1 children time to work/
• Carefully pre-selected work-pairs that rotate throughout the play with other L1 speakers for the purpose of language
year would be one way of ensuring linguistic enrichment enrichment, whilst giving L1 children a ‘facilitator’ role in
amongst L1–L1 pairings (see e.g. Lewis 2004), encouraging encouraging use of Welsh in mixed language pairings.
minority language use amongst L1–L2 speakers, and
careful selection of pair-work activity (e.g. a requirement • Groups of L2 speakers or L2–L2 pairings need constant
to produce a short verbal report of their activity to the intervention from the teacher/teacher assistant in
class at the end of the session/end of the day) with regular order to keep the children’s Welsh active, in the spoken
monitoring of language use by the teacher would ensure as much as in the receptive and written domains.
target language development amongst L2–L2 pairings.

• Group-work activity should ideally involve mixed groups

of boys and girls where possible, including a mixture of
L1 and L2 children (if there is enough of a variety in the
classroom). Boys clearly need more encouragement to
use their Welsh and need structured activities that relate
to male interests that require oral fluency in the language.
Having a ‘feedback’ goal to an activity could allow for
the purposeful selection of one boy per group to report
– in Welsh – to the class about the process of completing
their task, another to report on the findings, another to
report on limitations of what they did or how they did it, or
how else they could have solved the problem, etc. Such
activities would compel the boys to discuss their work
with their peers in Welsh in order to achieve that goal.
Translanguaging
...a pedagogical practice that alternates
the use of Welsh and English for input and
output in the same lesson. The idea is to get
information in one language and to work
with that information in the other language
Cenoz & Gorter, 2017, p. 311

Definition/background/aim
According to García (2009), Translanguaging, in The term, and its related connotations, is rooted in the
pedagogical tradition, particularly in minority language contexts,
the original sense, occurs where the input of the
although the term has since been adopted to refer to the
lesson (the receptive/passive skills, e.g. reading complex and unique language behaviour of the multilingual.
materials, the teacher’s speech) and the output
The aim of translanguaging as an educational approach is to
(the productive language skills, e.g. written work,
address the fact that children who receive their education in
group discussion) are intentionally planned Welsh (or in any other language) are likely to access educational
and varied across the different languages. information by various means (and of various types) in English
(or in another language, such as Welsh), whilst also recognising
According to Lewis et al. (2012), this variety that omitting a child’s first language is more damaging to
allows the child to make use of his/her stronger the development of his second language than allowing
the child to take advantage of his skills in both languages.
language in order to promote development of
However, many are of the opinion that translanguaging
his/her weaker language, thereby enriching permits an increasing use of English in the classroom,
understanding, which can contribute to thereby posing a threat to pupils’ development of Welsh.
greater proficiency in both languages.
Baker (2006) claims that translanguaging offers a deeper
The cognitive skills that are triggered when using two languages understanding of a subject than that provided in a monolingual
simultaneously are different from the skills triggered when context, where students can write about a topic without fully
reading, listening, speaking and processing one language, understanding it. With translanguaging, processing information
and develop Executive Function skills such as information is essential if it is to be re-presented in another language. It
management, choosing and selecting information, qualifying is also claimed that translanguaging helps to develop verbal
and assimilating information, etc. - key skills which are often communication and literacy in the weaker language and that it
strongest among speakers of more than one language. serves as a means of integrating L1 and L2 speakers. A further
advantage is that it offers the opportunity for monolingual
As is the case with translation, translanguaging requires a parents to discuss and contribute to their children’s school
deep understanding of the language and the content of work although the work occurs in a language they do not
the input material if the meaning of that content is to be understand, as translanguaging leads to the processing
effectively communicated in the output language. Unlike and communication of information between languages.
translating, however, which is a temporary activity which
requires recalling and recognising equivalent vocabulary
and phrases with the main purpose (in the classroom) of
increasing the capacity to work in the second language
(Lewis et al, 2013), the task of translanguaging requires deep
processing, as well as the exchange of meaning which enriches
language development and contributes in due course to
the development of the learner’s meta-linguistic skills.
 17.

Its use in the classroom

Translanguaging is used largely amongst
Evidence shows that translanguaging tends to be more
children aged 7 - 11 rather than amongst younger typical in certain subjects than others. In one study it was
children, probably due to the need to focus seen to be used in 16.7% of the Mathematics and Science
lessons, but in 72.2% of Arts and Humanities lessons observed.
on Welsh immersion methods during the early This can stem from a variety of factors, for instance the
years, and a lack of awareness on the part of greater availability of written texts that can be read in one
language then analysed in the other, in, for example, a
L1 Welsh children of English, and of L1 English
geography lesson, as well as the perception that subjects
children of Welsh, in the 4 - 7 age group. such as maths are more international and carry less local
emphasis, thus justifying a greater use of English.

Different models:
There are different models of Student-led translanguaging occurs where those students
are competent speakers, and able to arrange their language
translanguaging, such as teacher-led skills when receiving and producing information.
and child-led translanguaging. In both cases it is possible to use translanguaging cues to
The former occurs with the teacher’s support either scaffold the child’s use of his/her weaker language in order
for new bilingual speakers, when the teacher suggests to ensure that the activity is then undertaken in the target
which language should be used to complete the task and language – e.g. by helping the child form appropriate
offers elements of scaffolding, or for competent bilingual responses in Welsh, or by designing a template of the
speakers, when the teacher offers suggestions only. appropriate syntax. This can come either via the teacher
or via another pupil with stronger skills in the language.

Teacher-led Child-led

An example of teacher-led An example of student-led

translanguaging: translanguaging:
A Religious Education Class of 7 - 9 and A History lesson in a class of 9-11 year olds,
9 - 11 year olds, with mixed L1 and new L2 L1 and L2 balanced bilinguals. The topic
speakers. The subject of the lesson was the of the lesson was Stone Age eating habits.
Jewish festival of Hanukkah. The teacher had Students had received English information
prepared an English worksheet. The task from the teacher taken from the internet,
was to write facts based on the worksheet and used listening and reading skills to
in Welsh. To do this, the teacher helped the process the information. The results were
children when reading the English sheet, then recorded in Welsh, using Welsh terms
showed them models for sentence patterns without the use of a dictionary. The results
to be used for the writing task, providing were presented to the class in Welsh.
scaffolding for the new bilingual speakers.
 19.

Translanguaging in
the classroom
Within the classroom, two other layers of translanguaging can
be found - translanguaging without a specific pedagogical aim
(Basic Interpersonal Translanguaging - BIT) and translanguaging
for learning and teaching (Cognitive Academic Translanguaging
- CAT) (Jones, 2017). Although both types overlap naturally within
the class, it is essential that teachers ensure opportunities for
pupils to use translanguaging skills in pedagogical contexts (in
relation to a specific piece of work or information) and in non-
pedagogical contexts (such as within personal interactions).

Advantages/Disadvantages
Translanguaging makes extensive use On the other hand, the lack of online information in Welsh means
the number and range of lessons that can be based on Welsh
of English as an input language (English
language input are limited. Ensuring a constant balance in terms
reading and listening materials), encouraging of the kind of information or activity that is presented in one or
children to discuss and present work based the other language is therefore difficult.
on those materials through Welsh. Translanguaging can work well in Wales particularly in contexts
Consequently, some teachers are unwilling to adopt it as an where there are students with a good grasp of both languages.
approach to teaching, in order to maintain and protect the use of
The variety of English material provides a wide range of
the minority language, fearing that the use of English texts may
possibilities for translanguaging between the two languages.
lead to an increased use of English in the classroom.

Examples of good practice

• It is possible to prepare and plan lessons in detail using • Providing translanguaging cues (scaffolding) is important
the translanguaging strategy, fine-tuning it so as to focus for encouraging the use of Welsh, for ensuring that
on different aspects of the same task. For instance, in Welsh is being developed while carrying out the task,
classes that contain different ages and a mix of bilingual and for providing sufficient opportunities for children
L1 and L2 speakers, lesson tasks can also be varied, to have to consider for themselves how to convey and
allowing older children with a better command of both express themselves fully in the target language. This
languages to expand their activity, for instance by working can include relating the meaning of a word to its form
independently and extending their work (e.g. by comparing in one language and then transferring that information
Hanukkah with Christmas in the case of the example to the other language (e.g. discussing the meaning of
above), turning to further written material in English ‘canran’/‘percentage’ - a part of a hundred - in Welsh when
before recording their results on the computer in Welsh. discussing the word ‘percent’ in English - Jones, 2017).

• This ability to adapt material is important if we consider the

variety of language contexts that exist throughout Wales.
The relationship between Welsh as a minority language and
English as a majority language can have a positive (enriching
children’s bilingual skills) or a negative influence (by hindering
development of Welsh) on children’s language ability and
their perceptions of each language, if the balance between
the two languages is not suitable within the given context. It
would be good practice therefore to consider the balance
between the individual’s two languages, between the two
languages in the classroom and within the larger community,
in order to design suitable translanguaging strategies.
Cymraeg Bob Dydd
Incidental Welsh
Welsh–English bilingual children in Wales acquire English
regardless of the medium of instruction at school, language
experience in the home and in the community or the child’s
own engagement with using the language. However, their
acquisition of Welsh, at least for certain aspects of the
language, is dependent on a number of factors, including:
the frequency of exposure they have to the language
in the home, at school and in the community; their own
engagement with using the language; and their motivation
to learn...The school experience is thus critical for the
transmission of Welsh to these children, but the success of
this transmission is contingent upon the child’s own use
of Welsh both inside and outside of the school gates

Thomas, Lewis & Apolloni, 2012, p. 246

Definition/background/aim
The aim of Cymraeg Bob Dydd is to present Most pupils in English-medium schools come from homes
where there is no exposure to the Welsh language. It is at
simple, everyday Welsh within all subject lessons
school therefore that they come across the vast majority
across the curriculum in English-medium of the language. By introducing Cymraeg Bob Dydd,
schools with a view to encourage pupils to children hear and see the language outside formal Welsh
learn new Welsh words in an implicit way. lessons, thereby demonstrating that the language is not
restricted to that lesson, but rather that it is something
Notable researchers such as García (see her volume
that can become normalised in everyday life.
Bilingual Education in the 21st Century) have argued for
many years that we must move away from traditional The science behind this approach stems from claims that
pedagogical approaches wherein languages are kept children can learn a large number of new words (around
apart. The aim of Cymraeg Bob Dydd, therefore, is to 1000) through formal, explicit education, but that once a stock
present the Welsh language alongside English as a means of vocabulary has been acquired, new vocabulary can be
of normalising the use of Welsh outside Welsh lessons. learned (and added to the stock) effortlessly, without children
being aware that they are learning. The claim therefore is that
Schools were specifically requested to implement Cymraeg Bob
Cymraeg Bob Dydd will serve to expand on what the pupil
Dydd following a report by Sioned Davies (2012) which suggested
learns formally (and explicitly) in the Welsh lesson by exposing
that schools should introduce Welsh across the curriculum.
the children - without excessively drawing their attention to it - to
The concept of Cymraeg Bob Dydd is very important vocabulary and simple grammatical forms during other lessons.
for the development of Welsh within English-medium
It is thought that ‘incidental’ learning of this kind is an
education. In contexts where pupils learn Welsh as a subject,
easy way of learning as it doesn’t require much effort
learning words outside the lesson is critical in forming
on the part of the pupils (Saffran et al., 1997).
a base for language development, and Cymraeg Bob
Dydd allows for this in a simple and effortless way.
 21.

Its use in the classroom

According to an evaluation by Parry & Thomas (in
progress) of Cymraeg Bob Dydd in secondary schools,
the use of Cymraeg Bob Dydd that was observed can
be divided into five separate categories:

Framing the lesson The use of Welsh was seen frequently when starting and
closing lessons, with examples such as ‘p’nawn da’/‘good
afternoon’ and ‘dewch i mewn’/‘come in’ heard often.

Fixed phrases As with phrases used to open and close lessons, there were
some phrases during the lesson that also arose frequently,
such as ‘yma’/‘here’ when answering the register, and teachers
asking ‘Oes unrhyw un eisiau…?’/‘Does anyone want…?’ These
phrases were repeated several times, which coincides with
research showing that the more often words are repeated the
better they will stay in memory (Huckin & Coady, 1999).

Cassroom Occasionally the use of Welsh was evident when controlling

classroom behaviour. Examples of this were commands such
management as ‘Eisteddwch i lawr’/‘Sit down’ and ‘Tri, dau, un…’/‘Three,
two, one…’ when trying to get pupils to be quiet.

Bilingual Discourse In subject lessons the teacher could be heard translating, saying
something in Welsh first and then saying the same thing in English.
Strategies Arguably, this method is not likely to help the child remember new
(translation and words as he/she will naturally tend to listen to the English version.
code-switching) During Welsh lessons (Welsh as a subject), examples of code-switching
could be heard, e.g. ‘go into chwech o grwpiau’ (‘go into six groups’).
This shows Welsh words being introduced into an English-language
situation, enabling pupils to make sense of the words in Welsh. This is
a particular way of teaching new words when the target language
is in itself an obstacle to learning, as it combines new words with a
language pupils are already familiar with (Greggio & Gil, 2007).

Visual aids In each school, the bilingual use of wall space was
particularly effective. This meant not only that pupils are
exposed to Welsh through listening, but visually also.
 23.

Advantages/Disadvantages
• Research shows that aspects of the brain - and therefore • In order to further develop children’s skills, it
of our cognition - continue to develop throughout life. is necessary to move on and vary phrases/
vocabulary used relatively regularly, so that children’s
• This means that the way we learn will be
vocabulary and their extended phrases progress
different at different stages of our lives.
beyond what is taught in the Welsh lessons.
• Whilst young children, whose brains develop quickly,
• Although this method is best suited to developing children’s
have the capacity to learn implicitly, older children
vocabulary, it is possible, through effective planning, to
(especially of secondary school age) tend to learn better
expose children to different grammatical forms also (e.g.
via more explicit methods (Spada & Tomita, 2010).
Pwy sydd wedi gwneud eu gwaith cartref? Who has done
• When we consider that Cymraeg Bob Dydd is essentially their homework? Lle mae dy waith cartref? Where is your
an implicit tool (with the expectation that pupils homework? Wnest ti gwblhau dy waith cartref? Did you
absorb Welsh without too much effort), it is necessary finish your homework? Ydi pawb wedi cwblhau gwaith
to ensure effective follow-up to the use of Welsh if cartref? Has everyone finished their homework? Beth
older children are to gain from this exposure. oedd y gwaith cartref? What was the homework? etc.).

• Often, in English-medium secondary school, and particularly • Approaches of this kind tend to focus too much
in eastern parts of Wales, teachers themselves are unable to on increasing children’s exposure to a language,
speak Welsh or lack confidence in doing do. Some teachers focusing far less on eliciting responses form children
may become excessively worried about having to present in in the target language. Once again, with careful
Welsh, a feeling which, in turn, may affect their mental health, planning, it is possible to ensure that children receive
influence teaching standards and, consequently, undermine sufficient encouragement - through scaffolding, where
children’s achievements (Barber & Mourshed, 2007). But appropriate - to respond orally, or in writing, in Welsh.
you do not have to be fluent in Welsh to present Cymraeg
Bob Dydd. With careful planning and appropriate training,
everyone can have a part to play in fulfilling this goal.

• The number of times an individual hears a word will influence

how well they will remember it (Huckin & Coady, 1999) – the
more often the better! Cymraeg Bob Dydd gives teachers the
opportunity to repeat appropriate vocabulary and phrases for
different contexts over and over (e.g. when framing the lesson,
or controlling behaviour), which is a way of establishing
information about those forms within a specific context.

Good practice:
• In order to encourage more explicit learning in the classroom, • Students who concentrate their learning on specific words
the teacher can draw learners’ attention to target structures or terms are much more likely to remember those words
within the lesson, or encourage learners to discover structures than reading texts containing those words alone:
by themselves before checking them later with the teacher.

• It must be ensured that Cymraeg Bob Dydd gives pupils the Focusing attention and
opportunity and the encouragement to produce oral verbal intentional learning activity on
responses in Welsh that will lead to the pupils producing
statements in Welsh voluntarily. This is done by providing form and meaning of individual
constructive feedback and a supportive atmosphere vocabulary items enhances
to ensure continuous and consistent use of Welsh.
vocabulary uptake, but this
must be strategically applied

Fitzpatrick et al., 2018, p. 35

Modelling native language
In societies where two languages coexist but one dominates
over the other in terms of prestige, number of speakers,
and/or domains of use, gaining enough native input and
exposure to the “minority” language is a challenge. As a
result, children learning a minority language as an L2 often
fail to achieve fluency, retaining only passive or “incomplete”
knowledge of that language... In the face of these
challenges, therefore, it is necessary to turn to alternative
sources of minority language input as means of supporting
L2 acquisition when native-speaker input is limited

Williams & Thomas, 2017, p. 2

In situations where access to native speakers is

limited, two alternative sources of native language
input include printed language (e.g. books) and
recorded oral language (e.g. television).
There are valid concerns about the potential negative consequences
of over-exposure to television and electronic devices. However, there
is evidence to show that watching television whilst interacting with
an adult can aid the development of children’s vocabulary.

Some facts
(from Williams & Thomas, 2017, p2-3):
Co-reading books:
Shared book reading (or storytelling) provides
children with a rich source of linguistic input.
Shared book reading with young children has been shown In addition to the benefits of shared book reading, story books
to develop vocabulary (Collins, 2005; Farrant & Zubrick, have been shown to contain far more examples of lower
2012, 2013; Robbins & Ehri, 1994; Sénéchal & Cornell, 1993; frequency, complex structures than does Child Directed Speech
Sénéchal, LeFevre, Hudson, & Lawson, 1996), develop problem- (speech directed toward the child in normal day-to-day
solving abilities (Murray & Egan, 2014), trigger higher levels interactions). Stories thus offer an additional level of richness
of frontal brain activation (Ohgi, Loo, & Mizuike, 2010), and to a child’s linguistic input.
help develop reading skills (Burgess, 1997; Lonigan, Anthony,
Joint attention has long been identified as a precursor to later
Bloomfield, Dyer, & Samwel, 1999; Reese & Cox, 1999).
linguistic development (e.g. Tomasello & Farrar, 1986), and shared
book reading provides an easy context for dyadic interaction.
 25.

Co-watching television programmes:

There is mixed evidence regarding instance by singing, dancing, and drawing. There is therefore
a variety of verbal and non-verbal input, which increases
the effects of television viewing the opportunity for children to grasp language patterns.
on child development. Unlike co-viewing of television programmes, story-telling is a
Some are of the opinion that it is harmful – that it more limited activity, with the teacher’s telling of a story the
delays language development, reduces the ability to main input, restricting children to more passive activities.
concentrate, leads to a loss of interest at school, and The benefit gained from interacting on tasks, whether
may lead to several behavioural problems (Ohgi et in storytelling or co-viewing of television, is restricted
al., 2010; Paquette & Rieg, 2008; Paradis, 2010). specifically to vocabulary. There is no clear evidence
Others claim that watching television - for specific periods that this approach is beneficial for grammar, although
of time - leads to enhanced cognitive skills, including a clear connection has been shown to exist between
numeracy and literacy, better reading skills, better social recognising and paying attention to the prosodic elements
skills and an improved knowledge of vocabulary (Mares of language and later grammatical development:
& Pan, 2013; Calvert et al., 2001; Linebarger, 2000; Rice,
Huston, Truglio & Wright, 1990; Wright et al., 2001).
Attention to prosodic features (e.g.
Communicating about the contents of a television programme
rhyme, rhythm) in oral input can aid the
provides an opportunity to draw and hold the child’s attention.
This is done through the use of non-verbal activities as well development of grammatical competence
as word repetition (names, prepositions, verbs, and so on), for
Fitzpatrick et al., 2018, p. 38

Recommendations for good practice

(from Williams & Thomas, 2017, see p. 14 & 19)
• As social environmental factors are key in providing • It should be ensured that watching television for extended
children with a rich vocabulary, complex structures, periods is a shared activity, where there is constant
and communicative interaction (Hoff, 2006; Tomasello, communication and discussion between child and teacher.
2000), engaging with a responsive partner is all the more Having said that, making use of television programmes rather
important. In a busy classroom where teacher-child than telling stories at the end of the day can be a valuable
interaction is not possible, “talking books” (Chambers, way of providing contact with the minority language where the
Cheung, Madden, Slavin, & Gifford, 2006; Chera & Wood, teacher does not feel confident enough to tell stories in Welsh.
2003) have also been shown to help develop children’s
literacy skills, in the same way as “interactive” computer • The nature of the programmes viewed is
games may also lead to enhanced phonological awareness important, with some offering a wider range of
among “at-risk” children (Barker & Torgesen, 1995). vocabulary and language than others.

• In the case of television, real-life social interaction with an • While co-viewing television programmes, children are
adult during viewing has been shown to lead to better verb encouraged to draw, sing, move and repeat words
learning among 30-month-old children, although older and gestures related to what is being seen. Classroom
children (age 3+) seem able to learn verbs from video alone activities can be designed to accompany the contents
(Roseberry, Hirsh-Pasek, Parish-Morris, & Golinkoff, 2009). of programmes, focusing for example on actions/
This was also found in the Williams & Thomas (2017) study. gestures/movements in order to learn verbs.

• According to Singer and Singer (1998), preschoolers who

watched 10 preselected episodes of Barney and Friends
over a period of 2 to 3 weeks in a daycare setting showed
gains in their vocabulary when compared to children who
did not watch the same Barney episodes. Their gains were
even larger if children participated in 30-minute lessons
about the episodes after viewing, suggesting that the
learning experience from television is enhanced through
interactive dialogue around the content that is viewed.
Teachers should aim to be actively engaged with pupils
if such media is used in order to receive the full benefits
offered by such an exercise. Nonetheless, some studies
maintain that these benefits are achievable regardless
of adult mediation (for a short review, see Hoff, 2006).
Content and Language
Integrated Learning
CLIL is about using a foreign language or a lingua
franca, not a second language (L2). That is, the
language of instruction is one that students will
mainly encounter in the classroom, given that it is
not regularly used in the wider society they live in
Dalton-Puffer, 2011, p. 182

CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) In that respect, CLIL as a teaching method is
very similar to the immersion model.
is an approach which teaches a subject, and
therefore the contents of that subject, through the Nonetheless CLIL requires a good grasp of writing and
reading in the first language, and is therefore a model that,
medium of a foreign language. In this way, specific
more often than not, is applied in the Secondary sector, while
subjects within the curriculum are taught through immersion models are more often seen in the Primary sector.
a language that is not the L1 of the majority of
Unlike immersion or Welsh-medium secondary education,
the children in the class, thereby integrating the where a large part of the pupils come from non-Welsh
learning of subject content, be that Geography, speaking homes and are taught most subjects through the
History, Biology, and so on, with the continued medium of Welsh, in the CLIL model approximately 50% only
of the curriculum is offered through the target language.
linguistic development of the learner in the
language through which the subject is taught. As is currently the case in the rest of Europe, the teacher
is not required to be a native speaker of the target
language. Since there is a balance between two core
elements – subject and language – and since the language
element is supported in separate language lessons, it is
more essential that the teacher is a subject specialist.

Its use in the classroom

According to Coyle (1999), there • Content (progression towards knowledge, skills and understanding
are four levels in ensuring a which are connected to specific parts of the curriculum);
successful CLIL lesson, what is
• Communication (using a language to learn
referred to in the literature as the
content whilst enriching language skills),
4Cs (Content, Communication,
Cognition and Culture): • Cognition (developing mental skills), and

• Culture (exposure to different perspectives which

deepen awareness of others and of themselves).
 27.

Example of a lesson plan (from Coyle, 1999, p 13):

Castles
1. To successfully teach a CLIL introductory Humanities
lesson in French to year 8 in a team-teaching situation.
2. To introduce the theme of ‘castles’ in French.

Teaching aims: Teaching results:

What I intend to teach What the learners will be able to
do at the end of the lesson

A: Content
• An introduction to castles and defences With help:
• 4 key locations • Describe locations (spelling/writing)
• 4 key functions • Describe functions (spelling/writing)
• An understanding of the relation between • Describe, explain and justify choices (spelling/writing)
function and location…leading to • Learn key words by heart
• The essential characteristics of castles • Learn key sentences by heart and use them

B: Cognition
• Understanding and qualifying concepts • Learn key sentences by heart and use them in different forms
• Making decisions about locations of castles • Transfer key language
• Justifying those decisions with reasons • Understand justifications
• Independent research • Make reasonable choices
• Transferring information

C: Communication
C1: Teaching language C2: Language for learning: C3: Language through
(e.g key vocabulary/grammar (language needed to act in the learning learning:
connected to the subject content and environment and in this lesson in particular) • Use of dictionary to expand
theme. vocabulary
Language:
Example of key sentences needed: • Research homework
• How to describe
Le château est situé • How to explain
(the castle is situated)...
• How to justify/present a case
La fonction du château est
The language has to be scaffolded with frames
(the function of the castle is)...
for writing and speaking and through activities
Il nous faut
(we need).... Learning how to learn:

Parce que • Language for group work

(because)... • Understanding instructions
• How to deal with not understanding
• How to make a short presentation

D: Culture/citizenship
• Understanding valid images • Raise awareness about castles in other countries
• Researching Château d’lf • Discover things about Château d’lf
• Understanding the difference between Château/château fort • Explain the difference between Château/château fort
Practical CLIL lessons work much better than lessons As mentioned above in the section on Cymraeg Bob
that are not practical in nature (Denman et al., Dydd, words from the target language can be used
in the context of the first language to help pupils
2013). It is suggested that pupils get to work on a
make sense of new words through the medium
task quickly in a lesson, and that they attempt a
of a language they are already familiar with:
number of short activities that hold their attention.
Another important aspect of CLIL classroom practice is the
use of code-switching. Although the goal of CLIL is to teach
when teachers switch between languages
a subject through a target language, it may be that the in order to maximise their instruction,
tendency would be to model a monolingual teaching method code-switching can function to enhance
(attempting to immerse the children in the target language
students’ understandings and provide
by preventing the use of the children’s first language) if
children’s skills in the target language are to be improved.
students with opportunities to take part
However, the CLIL method in fact allows children and teachers in the discussion…This endorses research
to make use of both their languages (or more) to enrich their in the past few decades that confirms
understanding of the subject and the language. The use of
code-switching as a linguistic strategy
code-switching in this context can therefore be distributed
into various categories that reflect the different aims.
rather than merely a language problem

According to Cahyani, de Courcy and Barnett (2018, page 470), Cahyania, de Courcy & Barnett, 2018, p. 466
there are four main functions to code-switching in a CLIL lesson:

1. Knowledge construction: this includes pedagogical

scaffolding (i.e. for lesson content), strengthening
concepts, endorsing the main technical terms
in the language, and subject revision.

2. Classroom management: changing the subject

or topic within a lesson, controlling pupils’
behaviour by developing self-awareness,
drawing attention and telling off.

3. Interpersonal relations: discussing different socio-

cultural identities, and maintaining a humanitarian
class that praises and establishes good relations.

4. Personal or affective meanings: allowing the

teacher to convey personal experiences and
feelings as well as socio-cultural functions
such as displaying disappointment.

Relevance to Welsh
Although there is little use of CLIL here in Wales, But for this to work there must exist a good language
ethos, strong support and a clear awareness of the
in English-medium secondary schools where the
importance of encouraging pupils’ bilingual skills among
majority of pupils are already literate in Welsh staff, parents, pupils and the wider community:
and where the use of Cymraeg Bob Dydd is
too basic for the children, the language can be
…any movement towards developing
integrated into the main stream of up to 50% of the
CLIL in the Welsh context would require
curriculum, so that it can be used when teaching
negotiations with the wider school
a number of subjects. There is also scope for CLIL
community to ensure support for
to help increase or maintain a Welsh language
developments of this nature, including a
ethos and policy within schools, so that Welsh
realisation that there would be implications
is not limited to Welsh language lessons only.
for teachers’ training / development.
However, equal weight must be given to securing
specialist subject content and constructive language Fitzpatrick et al., 2018, p. 61
experiences that foster bilingual teaching methods where
appropriate, in order to ensure pupils’ progress. It is therefore imperative that there is support
within the school for continuing to transfer Welsh
language skills effectively to the children.
 29.

Advantages/Disadvantages
Avantages Disadvantages
Much of the research shows an increase in the vocabulary • Although research shows positive effects on vocabulary
knowledge of children who receive this approach. There via CLIL, there is also a suggestion that other
is evidence that pupils who learn through CLIL achieve a factors may influence performance, such as:
better understanding of grammar than those who learn the • the number of contact hours with the
language as an individual subject within the curriculum: target language in general;
“CLIL is more effective than teaching a language as a
school subject for the development of some areas of • children’s previous contact with the target language;
grammatical competence” (Fitzpatrick et al., 2018, p. 38) • variation in the quality of the input for
the vocabulary in question; and
• Compared with learners who do not follow this approach,
CLIL learners display better writing skills in their L2. • the fact that a higher number of children who choose
to receive this approach may be from families that are
• Learning via CLIL leads to more target-like and already more supportive and enthusiastic towards the
more fluent spoken language than learning target language, leading to better performance and effort.
via approaches that do not use CLIL.
• CLIL does not appear to lead to any substantial
• Research shows that CLIL learners perform better in improvement in L2 pronunciation.
oral communication activities than other learners,
• There is no clear evidence to show that CLIL leads to
and that they use more complex structures.
additional improvements in writing, reading or listening.

Recommendations for good practice

• Research shows that post-reading or -listening activities, • There is evidence that 12 years is the optimum
for example word tests, lead to better memorisation of the age for increasing the use of CLIL. It is claimed
content/target language than reading or listening alone. that this is the age when cognitive ability matures,
Activities, therefore, should be designed around the main allowing faster and more effective learning.
aim(s) of the lesson in order to focus more explicitly on
the subject’s linguistic content (Norris & Ortega, 2001). • An example from Catalunya shows Physical Education
being taught through CLIL, with obvious and positive
• The intentional use of the children’s L1 when focusing results. Teaching techniques were adapted for these
on vocabulary can help children to remember words lessons, with teachers incorporating language structures
and terms that arise from the text (Sesek, 2007). into the lessons, and planning for collaborative
activities that involved considerable interaction and
• Applying CLIL requires a sufficient number of teaching oral communication. This research showed that English
hours, since the method’s success may depend on competence of pupils in schools with CLIL programs
contact. The extent of contact with the target language was higher than in those without CLIL, illustrative
can therefore be relative to the rate of linguistic of the program’s success (Coral et al., 2018).
progress: “Teacher language competence and number
of hours’ instruction are more influential factors than
instruction type” (Fitzpatrick et al., 2018, p. 38).
Task-based Learning (TBL)
[I]f we believe that learners learn better
through taking part in meaning-oriented
interactions, then we ought to be thinking
in terms of providing such opportunities for
interaction. It is these that I am calling `tasks’
Jane Willis

The task-based teaching approach has become In the classroom context, the learners are responsible
for completing the task, which is the main element of the
very popular over the last three decades
lesson. The aim is to enable pupils to find their own way
(Ahmadian, 2013). This new surge of interest is of learning, thereby decreasing their dependency on the
believed to be due to its focus on producing teacher. TBL uses tasks with a high involvement load, where
outputs that are linked to real world activities - there is a requirement to complete several tasks as well as
spending more time than usual on the overall activity.
storytelling, problem solving, providing instructions,
In that respect, it is an approach which moves away from
etc - so that children can carry the language and
more traditional strategies of presentation, practice and
skills they have learned through completing the production, where the teacher is central to all the activities.
tasks over into their everyday lives (Ellis, 2003).

Its use in the classroom

According to Willis (1986), the tasks can be divided into three main parts,
although it is not necessary to include all parts in a lesson:

Pre-task The task Post-task

1. 2. 3.
The aim of the first part is to frame the activity, perhaps by
completing a similar task, while the final part involves an analysis of
the task content, perhaps a report by the learners or an additional,
follow-up task. The central part, which is the only essential
part of the approach, is where the task itself is completed.
 31.

Step 2: The task

In order for the content of Step 2 to count as a ‘task’
(and therefore be effective), it should fulfil the following:

According to Ellis (2009): According to Widdowson (1993):

1. The main focus should be on meaning 1. Meaning is essential (see left)

- through collaboration, children
must mean what they say, and use 2. Learners must work towards an aim
language to exchange meaning for a
3. The result must be one that
task that is useful on a practical level.
can be evaluated
2. There should be some kind of ‘gap’
4. There must be a relation between
(e.g. the need to convey information, to
the task and the real world
express an opinion or gather meaning).

3. Learners should be able to rely on their

own resources, whether linguistic or
not, in order to complete the task.

4. There is a clear result arising from the

task, apart from language use (i.e. the
language is intended as a means to
completing the task, not as a result in itself).

You can learn more about the types of tasks that are appropriate for this approach here:
www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/criteria-identifying-tasks-tbl
willis-elt.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/JaneWillisLanguageShow09handout.pdf

[Task-based learning] provides learners with natural

exposure (input), chances to use language (without
fear of getting things wrong) to express what they
want to mean (output), to focus on improving their
own language as they proceed from Task to Report
stage, and to analyse and practise forms
Jane Willis, 2009, p.2
 33.

Relevance to Welsh
Tasks with a high involvement load, as well as the
need to spend an extended period of time on tasks,
can address the common problem of a lack of
contact with Welsh on the part of a high percentage
of learners in a large number of areas in Wales.
Since it is expected that learners will have ownership of the tasks
and that they will feel a sense of achievement when the task is
completed, this may induce pupils to be more willing to learn Welsh.

Advantages/disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
• It stimulates children so that they see the need to • There may be difficulties where learners are new to
discover specific words, and to analyse the meaning the approach, and lack experience of conducting
of those words in order to adapt them to the task. more independent work, and where the teacher’s
expected role within activities is limited.
• It encourages flexibility, creativity, inventiveness
and independence on the part of the learners. • Overemphasising pre-tasks may give the impression that
the aim of the lesson is to practise earlier vocabulary, so
• It encourages communication and interaction to a
that learners concentrate on remembering a few words
far greater extent than more traditional approaches.
from the ‘pre-task’ stage when completing the task.
Consequently, learners are free to experiment linguistically
by using a wide range of phrases and structures. • With the increased freedom and the decrease in
teacher input during the task completion stage, it must
• It offers additional freedom to use natural language,
be ensured that children have the necessary ability
rather than reproducing the language of the teacher.
to undertake the task. If there is extensive variety in
ability, there is an additional risk that some learners will
monopolise speaking time and push others to one side.

Recommendations for good practice

• ‘Pre-task’ activities help to prepare learners for the main • Vocabulary rather than grammar activities are more effective
task, motivating them to take an interest in the task to as ‘pre-tasks’, as they can increase fluency and confidence
come. This can be done either by completing a similar task, by carrying over into the main task. Examples of tasks of
by discussing possible methods for completing the main this kind are brainstorming for relevant vocabulary, co-
task, completing a different activity from the task activity, searching dictionaries, and linking words to definitions.
or by planning a strategy for completing the main task.
• It is necessary to determine whether fluency or linguistic
• ‘Pre-task’ activities are likely to ensure that some learners with accuracy and complexity should be the aim of the main
no experience of the approach will adapt to a new method. task. Evidence suggests that setting a specific time limit on
a task is likely to increase the first, while leaving it open-
• Whilst task repetition is an important part of this approach, ended tends to result in the development of the second.
there is evidence that completing follow-up tasks is more
effective than repeating the exact same task. Preparing
for a new, different task is believed to provide further
opportunities for learners to communicate and interact.
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