Pre-Roman Iron Age

During repeated archaeological investigations of the Krogsgård area near the city Esbjerg in the period
2002-2010 a farm complex, consisting of at least three simultaneous farm units from the Roman Iron Age
and a cemetery from the same time were excavated. During the investigations we used a rare opportunity
to uncover a larger area than usual, which in turn gave us the settlement, the cemetery and the “empty”
spots in-between, thus giving us an example on how the people in the early Iron Age used the landscape.

The religion of the ancient Germanic people is largely unknown to modern historians. It exerts signs of being the predecessor to the later Norse religion, as well as the successor to the proto-Indo-European religion. Using ancient sources, etymology, and archaeology this paper seeks to uncover what is known of the early Germanic religion during the Pre-Roman Iron Age, roughly from 500 B.C - 100 A.D.

Funde der Przeworsk-Kultur in ihrem sekundären Verbreitungsgebiet werden seit der erstmaligen Entdeckung als Hinweise auf eine Wanderungsbewegung aus Polen nach Westen gedeutet. In drei Regionen finden sich kleine Gräberfelder, auf denen sich Przeworsk-Keramik in Kombination mit Brandgrubenbestattungen nachweisen lassen und somit die Ansiedlung von Trägern der Przeworsk-Kultur in sog. kulturellen Inseln indizieren. In einer dieser Regionen wurden drei Siedlungen großflächig ausgegraben, die zur Zeit im Rahmen eines Kooperationsprojekts ausgewertet werden. Für die drei Plätze wurde eine gemeinsame Keramikklassifikation definiert, die als Grundlage einer übergreifenden statistischen Auswertung des Fundmaterials dient und dadurch eine vergleichende Bewertung der Siedlungen auf einer völlig neuen Ebene ermöglicht: Es werden Unterschiede in der Entwicklung jeder Siedlung sowie die Beziehungen zwischen lokal tradiertem Fundgut und Przeworsk-Keramik deutlich fassbar.

The paper deals with the basis of the Pre-Roman Iron Age chronology in Southern Scandinavia. It was established during the 1950'es as a typologically based three-period system with an almost findless middle period. While from the 1950'es and onwards new two-period systems have been established in most neighbouring regions only minor ajustments have been made to the Danish chronology system. This paper argues that a typologically based three-period system may obscure the real development and that the lack of finds in the middle period is in fact a product of this. Therefore,  it is argued that the very material originally forwarded by C. J. Becker as arguments for the tripartite system can be used as arguments for a bipartite chronology system. In this way many of the "problems" of connecting Early with Late Pre-Roman Iron Age disappears while at the same time the period gains a dynamic appearance with fundamental chances in the transition from early to late, bringing it in concordance with what we see in other parts of Northern and Northern Central Europe

The silver cauldron from Gundestrup allegedly manufactured by Celts or Thracians on behalf of Celts remains a unique and enigmatic object until today. Since its discovery in Denmark in 1891 and first publication in 1892 the Gundestrup Cauldron has been subject of many publications and is mostly dealt with as evidence for Celtic religion. More recent investigations raise doubts, however, whether all parts of the cauldron were manufactured at the same time. Further, the manufacturing technique has been analysed and classified as non-professional.
The connection of the cauldron with the Celts appears questionable for various reasons. This paper argues that the cauldron was manufactured in a Thracian workshop on behalf of German Bastarni and from silver plaques that were not originally designed for a cauldron. Thus originating from a nonrecurring and casual historical situation the Gundestrup Cauldron is indeed unique.

This is a compilation of what is known about the Germanic people of the north during the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 B.C - 100 A.D). Using ancient primary sources as well as other disciplines such as archaeology and linguistics I address everything known about their tribes, religion, government, and lifestyle in this essay.

Side note: I wrote this because I was playing Rome II Total War as the Suebi Confederation and after attempting to research what was known of my faction I found there was little written on this people in general. I felt I needed to change this!

Papers from an international conference on the chronology of the Pre-Roman Iron Age held at University of Copenhagen 1992. With contributions from Poland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Contributors: Ryszard Wolagiewicz, Horst Keiling, Monika Rasch, Per-Oscar Nybruget, Claus Kjeld Jensen, Jes Martens, Uffe Rahbek, Kaare Lund Rasmussen, Påvel Nicklasson and Per Ole Rindel. The report is sold out.

The paper aims at demonstrating a southeast European origin of the Gundestrup cauldron and at giving its origin and way to Denmark a context. It is argued that the cauldron was brought to its final resting place along routes that have long traditions - ie. the route that connected the Baltic with the Black Sea.

The paper presents the weapon finds from the Pre-Roman Iron Age on Zealand and in Scania and discusses typology, chronology and interpretation within an Northern European context. It is suggested that the finds represent a longue duree of East-West contacts and conflicts which are traceable in the present Danish area at least from the Pre-Roman Iron Age up to the Medieval period suggesting that the Hjortspring army was a composite army With contingent from East and and South Scandinavia as well as the continent.

The chapter written together with M. Rudnicki and A. Strobin in a book: "The Past Societies. Polish lands from the first evidence of human presence to the early Middle Ages", vol. 4: "500 BC - 500 AD" (ed. A. Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz), Warszawa 2016, pp. 133-161.

The paper deals with the problem of establishing a "northern extend" of the Jastorf culture. The problem is reviewed historically showing a disagreement between German and Danish researchers on the problem. While German archaeology tends to include all of Jutland within the Jastorf culture Danish researchers either omit the discussion or tend to place the "border" as far south as possible. Though the disagreement may be rooted in 19th century politics the archaeological record it self clearly shows that the northern provinces of Jutland cannot be classified as "Jastorf culture". Further the meaning of "an archaeological culture" is discussed and it is argued that such cultures are first and foremost a system of classification, that should not without caution be taken as expression of historical social entities.

At the end of the Hallstatt and in the beginning of the La Tène period (Lt A), a gradual depopulation of Silesia can be observed. In the mentioned time, the region was inhabited by local Lusatian and Pomeranian culture communities, which were in contact with the La Tène cultural zone. This is indicated by the presence of Celtic craft products in the area. The available archaeological sources do not allow any conclusions concerning the coexistence of indigenous societies and Celtic settlers. The earliest burial finds, which might reflect the influx of Celtic settlers to Silesia can be dated to the phase Lt B1a. However, they were only recorded in Lower Silesia, while graves of Lt B1b were found in the whole region. Settlement finds from the early La Tène period are scarce and might suggest that the population inhabiting the area at that time was not numerous.

Review of settlements and settlement archaeology in Scandinavia with special focus on the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Settlement archaeology has taken different paths at
varying paces in different regions of southern Scandinavia.
Until recently houses of the Pre-Roman Iron Age
were only known in a few regions, but during the latter
two decades this picture has changed radically. The
emerging picture is that of diversity, although some trails
and tendencies are seen everywhere. First of all, the period
appears to be one of settlement expansion. Furthermore,
social inequality seems to be expressed through architecture
already from the start of the period, although it becomes more accentuated towards the end of it. The regionality
in house architecture and structure of the settlements
at large is another important facet of the material culture,
which may prove to be important when interpreting
the meaning of cultural contacts and social organization
of the Pre-Roman Iron Age.

Gegenstand vorliegender Arbeit ist der Versuch, in neuer Weise den Wandel, zu dem es am Ende des 1. vorchristlichen und zu Beginn des 1. nachchristlichen Jahrhunderts im uns interessierenden Gebiet kam, zu betrachten und zu interpretieren. Es handelt sich folglich um einen breiteren Horizont als nur die Phase, während der das Marbod-Reich bestand. Eine sehr wichtige Rolle spielen dabei Funde aus dem Gebiet an der Nida, vor allem von den durch den Verfasser geführten Grabungen bei Pełczyska. Hier befindet sich ein großes und reiches Siedlungsensemble, welches Fundplätze vom Neolithikum bis zum Frühmittelalter umfasst. Zur riesigen Fundmasse als Zeugnis außergewöhnlicher vor- und frühgeschichtlicher Siedlungsaktivität gehört auch eine umfangreiche Artefaktsammlung aus der uns interessierenden Phase. Dieses Material spiegelt hervorragend die komplizierten Besied- lungs- und Kulturveränderungen wider, welche in Kleinpolen zu jener Zeit vonstatten gingen, füllt in bedeutender Weise Wissenslücken und wirft neues Licht auf eine Reihe von Problemen. Die Funde von Pełczyska demonstrieren, wie unzureichend unsere Quellenbasis ist, auf der wir die komplizierte Thematik angehen. Hier werden nämlich die Probleme von Migrationen, von kulturellen und ethni- schen Differenzierungen sowie vielschichtige Fragen überregionaler Bedeutung berührt, alles von dynamischen, kurzfristig ablaufenden Umgestaltungen betroffen. Doch sind die Quellengrundla- gen dazu sehr bescheiden. Dies betrifft unter anderem das wenig umfangreiche Metallmaterial vonSiedlungen, was – nach Meinung des Verfassers – vor allem auf die hauptsächlich in den fünfziger und sechziger Jahren, zum Teil auch noch später, angewandte Grabungsmethodik zurückzuführen ist. Dies betrifft nicht nur Kleinpolen, aber Symbol dessen wurde das vor kurzem entdeckte, keltische, überregional bedeutsame Handwerks- und Handelszentrum vom Typ Roseldorf-Němčice auf dem Gelände einer in dieser Zeit untersuchten Siedlung bei Nowa Cerekwia, pow. Głubczyce, woj. opolskie. Ein weiteres Problem ist das Fehlen von Gräberfeldern der vorrömischen Eisenzeit, erklärbar nur mit spezifischen Bestattungssitten der Kelten seit der jüngeren Phase der Mittellatènezeit. Das nahezu völlige Fehlen auch von Gräberfeldern der Träger der Przeworsk-Kultur wird traditionell mit der Übernahme keltischer Sitten erklärt. Neue Funde, darunter von Pełczyska, scheinen anzudeuten, dass diese Deutung in Gänze oder zu großen Teilen falsch ist. Die Gründe für das genannte Phänomen sind offenbar viel prosaischer. Aus ökologischer Sicht gehört das uns interessierende Gebiet zu den degradiertesten ganz Polens. Durch Charakter und Umfang negativer Umformungen führte die Anthropopression die Landschaft in einen katastrophalen Zustand. In Konsequenz dessen wurden archäologische Fundplätze in unvorstellbarer Weise gestört. Die Entdeckungen auf den Fundplätzen bei Pełczyska, besonders den sepulkralen, waren durch glücklichen Zufall und dank der angewandten Untersuchungsmethoden möglich. Dadurch verdop- pelte sich innerhalb weniger Jahre die Zahl donauländischer Importe der Phasen LT D2 – B1a. Von weitreichenden, vorher unbekannten Kontakten der ansässigen Bevölkerung zeugt eine Reihe von Neufunden. Dieses Beispiel zeigt eine einsetzende, weitreichende Neubewertung des Charakters und der Rolle Kleinpolens bei den breit verstandenen Kontakten zwischen Caput Adriae und den Gebieten an der Ostsee an der Wende von der vorrömischen Eisen- zur römischen Kaiserzeit. Dies betrifft auch die Frage seines Verhältnisses zum Marbod-Reich, die in der Fachliteratur im Grunde noch überhaupt nicht gestellt worden ist.

Die Latènekultur kann gut als Einheit beschrieben werden, jedoch basiert eine Definition für die ältere Latènekultur auf anderen
Grundlagen als die für die jüngere Latènekultur, welche auch als Oppidakultur bezeichnet werden kann. Aufgrund des Paradigmas
des keltischen Ethnos wurden keine Untergruppen definiert, wie es für die Jastorfkultur unternommen wurde. Insbesondere
anhand des frühlatènezeitlichen Ringschmucks und anhand spätlatènezeitlicher Münztypen lassen sich kleinräumige Verbreitungsbilder
herausarbeiten, die eventuell mit Untereinheiten der Latènekultur in Verbindung gebracht werden können. In der
Spätlatènezeit werde von Caesar auch Stammesnamen genannt, jedoch ist zu dieser Zeit das Fundmaterial in der Regel großräumiger
verbreitet. Aber nur mit wenigen Formen kann die gesamte Latènekultur abgedeckt werden.

The chronology and distribution of the lentil shaped shield buckle is discussed as well as the chronology and origin of the weaponry from the Hjortspring weapon deposit. Basing on recent finds from Scandinavia it is sugested that at least a part of the Hjortspring army could have come from the Scandinavian peninsula.

The paper deals with the LT C and LT D brooches found in Poland, which can be seen as a trace of close relations with the 'Boian' zone of La Tene culture. Imported specimens, as well as local products are discussed. The first ones can be interpreted as trade goods or as an evidence of the presence of Celtic people (women) in the Germanic settlement area, thus suggesting personal relationships. The latter ones, on the other hand, prove direct contacts of the Germanic and the Celtic ('Boian') craftsmen.
Moreover, in the case of 'trade' interpretation, the course of so called 'Amber Route' during the Late La Tene period is also discussed.

The paper revises the chronology of the weapon burials in Scandinavia in the light of the new Pre-Roman Iron Age chronology of Jutland suggested by the author in 1995 (see Praehistorische Zeitschrift vol. 71.2, 1996, pp. 217-243). This enables the author to split up the material into three chronological "waves" with different diagnostic types spreading from different centres. The meaning of the weapon burial rite is discussed and it is demonstrated that there is no direct link between weapons and other wealth indicating goods in the graves, neither between the equipment and the possible role the person played in actual warfare. The choice of equipment in the grave is a strictly ideological expression.

Paper presented at the Przeworsk conference september 21st-23th 1992 in Lublin. Since the discovery of the Kraghede site the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age of North Jutland has been assumed to have a special relationship with the Przeworsk culture of Central Poland. In this paper the local background is discussed and it is demonstratede that very little if any, even in the pottery style testifies a przeworsk influence in North Jutland. On the other hand it is pointed out that the pottery style of a site like Brzesc Kujawski in Central Poland could be interpreted as a result of influence from Jutland. Further the chronology of the Pre-Roman Iron Age in Jutland is discussed and it is suggested that the tree-phased Becker system should be replaced with a two-phased system dividing the period into an early and a late stage following the example of the modern chronology systems of North Germany.

A review of fortified places in Northern Central Europe and Scandinavia dated to the Pre-Roman Iron Age. It is shown that only very such places have been investigated, but that the diversity in spite of this is great. In Denmark two fortified villages have been investigated while in most other places the inner space of the fortifications have either not been excavated or did not show signs of settlement of a permanent character. Beside enclosures also a number of cross country barrages  as well as sub marine barrages are known. The implication of the various types of fortifications for our understanding of the Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern Europe is finally discussed.

The subject of the present analysis are bronze rings (bracelets/armlets?) decorated with a cord ornament, known in archaeological literature as type Șimleul Silvaniei and Rustoiu 3. The paper starts out with an overview of past research on the impact from the Dacian territory on Iron Age inhabitants of Poland since type Șimleul Silvaniei bracelets are an element of this phenomenon. It follows with an analysis of the context of discovery of these ornaments in the area to the north of the Carpathians and the Sudety. Next, insights obtained from this analysis are used as a point of departure to examine the chronology, origin and distribution of type Șimleul Silvaniei in reference to the conclusions of Romanian researchers Aurel Rustoiu and Cristinel C. Plantos.

The transition from the Early to the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age in Northern and Northern Central Europe is analyzed from the view point of the North Jutland cultural group. The archaeological record of the Late Pre-Roman Iron Age is compaired with the one from the preceeding period and the changes are being source critically analyzed. The phenomenon of the so-called latenization is described and discussed.

Die Przeworsk-Kultur prägt in ihrem polnischen Kerngebiet und mit ihrem Ausstrahlen in benachbarte Regionen die jüngere vorrömische Eisenzeit (Ende 3. bis 1. Jhd. v. Chr.) im östlichen Mitteleuropa. Bislang wird sie fast ausschließlich anhand ihrer Grabfunde definiert und bewertet. Die vorliegenden Beiträge, die auf einen Workshop des Exzellenzclusters Topoi zurückgehen, nehmen erstmals die Siedlungskeramik der Przeworsk-Kultur ausführlich in den Blick. Die intensiven Diskussionen prägen die Beiträge des hier vorgelegten Bandes.

During the last two centuries BC, iron became the most frequently used metal to produce armaments and tools and various dress accessories on Polish territories. Objects made of bronze are relatively scarce for most of the Late Pre-Roman Period, especially in the Przeworsk Culture, and to a lesser extent in the Oksywie Culture. So far, however, no question has been asked who was the user of bronze ornaments and pieces of clothing discovered in Poland, and why are they so few?