Metaliterature

Proponho, neste artigo, uma leitura do romance a máquina de fazer espanhóis (2010), do consagrado escritor português Valter Hugo Mãe, quer enquanto sátira sociopolítica e religiosa, quer enquanto reflexão sobre os lugares e os significados da literatura e da arte em geral.

Nota: Até à publicação, em 2011, de O Filho de Mil Homens, Valter Hugo Mãe escrevia apenas com minúsculas. Por se tratar de uma opção idiossincrática (e/ou ideológica), mantenho, ao longo deste artigo e no seu título, o critério do uso de minúsculas nos títulos das obras do autor (mas não no seu nome), incluindo a palavra inicial. Quando cito textos de Valter Hugo Mãe ou quando refiro uma personagem, um topónimo, etc., respeito igualmente o uso das minúsculas. Nas “Obras citadas”, todavia, prevalece o formato da norma bibliográfica escolhida.

Lettura in chiave metaletteraria del personaggio del giudice Holden e dell'intreccio intertestuale che caratterizza Blood Meridian (1985) di Cormac McCarthy.

Link al sito della rivista: http://www.treccani.it/magazine/chiasmo/lettere_e_arti/Frontiere_confini/cormac_mccarthy.html

Hantologie – terme composé, formé par Jacques Derrida – signifie : « ontologie (c'est-à-dire, science de l'être) de ce qui “hante” : les spectres, les fantômes » (Charles Ramond, Le Vocabulaire de Jacques Derrida). Le néologisme derridien est une paronomase, le paronyme d’un mot – ontologie –, dont il n’est pas un synonyme. L’hantologie est une « « catégorie […] irréductible, et d’abord à tout ce qu’elle rend possible, l’ontologie, la théologie, l’onto-théologie positive ou négative », écrit Jacques Derrida (Spectres de Marx). C’est une ontologie, l’ontologie de l’être du non-être et du non-être de l’être, de quelque chose ou quelqu’un qui « n’est pas là », « comme tout fantôme digne de ce nom » (Ibid.). « Il n’y a pas de Dasein du spectre mais il n’y a pas de Dasein sans l’inquiétante étrangeté, sans l’étrange familiarité (Unheimlichkeit) de quelque spectre » (Ibid.) Il n’y a pas d’ontologie, donc, sans hantologie. Appliquée à l’étude des textes, l’hantologie derridienne n’est pas une nouvelle méthodologie de l’analyse littéraire. Elle vise moins à définir un texte qu’à se demander, d’abord, quelle question nous posons lorsque nous demandons : qu’est-ce qu’un texte ? S’agit-il d’une question d’ordre ontologique ? phénoménologique ? En demandant : qu’est-ce qu’un texte ?, nous disons déjà que le texte est quelque chose, quelque chose dont nous sentons bien qu’il n’est pas qu’une chose. Qu’il soit un objet, d’ailleurs, cela n’est pas sûr, et s’il l’est, il reste à savoir pourquoi et comment. Il l’est, si l’on souscrit au discours du structuralisme. Il ne l’est plus, si l’on adopte la définition barthésienne du texte comme productivité. L’hantologie du texte n’est pas un simple catalogue des fantômes de la littérature. Elle consiste surtout à étudier les hantises de l'écriture et de la lecture – les mots fantômes notamment (anagrammes, palindromes, etc.) et les textes fantômes (hypotextes, intertextes). C’est une recherche attentive au procès de signifiance du texte, appropriée aux œuvres de Poe et de Baudelaire, et dont la proposition critique est elle-même déductible de leurs créations. Notre thèse cherche à mettre en évidence les possibilités d'une telle déduction à travers des études comparées de leurs œuvres littéraires, poétiques, traductions de Poe par Baudelaire comprises, en portant une attention toute particulière aux figures et motifs de la revenance, à la problématique de l'image et du langage, laquelle intègre les questions de traduction (copie, fidélité à la lettre ou à l’esprit de la lettre, etc.).


Hauntology – a compound term created by Jacques Derrida – means the “Ontology (that is to say, the science of being) of what “haunts”: specters, ghosts” (Charles Ramond, The Vocabulary of Jacques Derrida). The Derridean neologism is a paronomasia, the paronym of a word – ontology – of which it is not a synonym. The hauntology is a “category […] irreducible, and first of all to everything it makes possible: ontology, theology, positive or negative onto-theology”, Jacques Derrida writes (Specters of Marx, tr. Peggy Kamuf). It is an ontology, the ontology of the being of non-being and the non-being of being, of something which, or someone who “is not there”, “like any ghost worthy of the name ». (Ibid.) “There is no Dasein of the specter, but there is no Dasein without the uncanniness, without the strange familiarity (Unheimlichkeit) of some specter.” There is no ontology, thus, without any hauntology. Applied to the study of text, the Derridean hauntology is not a new methodology of literary analysis. It aims less to define a text than to ask us, first, what is the question we ask when we de-mand: what is a text? Is this a question of ontological order? phenomenological? In asking: what is a text ?, we are already saying that the text is something, something of which we feel that it is not just a thing. That it is an object, moreover, it is not sure, and if it is, it remains to know how and why. It is, if we subscribe to the structuralist discourse. It is not anymore if we adopt the Barthesian definition of text as a productivity. The hauntology of text is not a mere catalog of ghosts in literature. It consists above all in studying the hauntings of writing and reading, such as ghost-words (like anagrams, palindromes, etc.) and ghost-texts (hypotext, intertext). This research is attentive to the process of what Barthes calls the signifiance of text, and quite appropriate to the works of Poe and Baudelaire. Indeed, our critical proposition is itself deductible from them. Our thesis thus aims to highlight the possibilities of such suggestions by and through comparative studies of their literary and poetical works, translations of Poe by Baudelaire included, in paying very particular attention to figures of revenance, and the problematic of image and language, which incorporates many issues of translation (copy, faithfulness to the letter or the spirit, etc.).

"(For an abstract in English, covering both parts of this article, please scroll down). Questa è la prima parte di un articolo che individua una comune tematica metaletteraria nei primi tre romanzi di Alessandro Baricco. Questa prima parte si occupa di Castelli di Rabbia (1991).

This study argues that the metaliterary aspect constitutes a fundamental and unifying concern within Alessandro Baricco’s first three novels. This author’s leaning towards a self-reflexive mode of representation is demonstrated by the endings of Castelli di rabbia and Oceano mare. However, this aspect pervades all the main thematic strands of both novels, amounting to a consistent vision on Baricco’s part. This also relates to the author’s views on the relationship of the general public with art and culture, as illustrated in Baricco’s newspaper articles and musicological essays. A similar vision applies to the author’s third novel, Seta, which, though it does not include an explicitly metafictional epilogue, can in fact be seen as a daring and coherent metaphor of the role and development of fiction in the last few centuries."

(For an abstract in English covering both parts of this article, see Part I above.) Questa è la seconda parte di un articolo che individua una comune tematica metaletteraria nei primi tre romanzi di Alessandro Baricco. Questa seconda parte si occupa di Oceano Mare (1993) e Seta (1996).

Der vorliegende Beitrag soll einerseits wichtige Aspekte hervorheben, die mit der Rolle der interkulturellen Literatur in der zeitgenössischen Kanondebatte zusammenhängen und andererseits die metaliterarischen Repräsentationen einiger Autor/innen des deutschsprachigen Kanons im Werk einer der wichtigsten und bekanntesten Autorinnen der sogenannten Chamisso-Literatur, Yoko Tawada, besprechen. Im ersten Teil des Beitrags soll Aufschluss darüber gegeben werden, inwieweit eine Integration der interkulturellen Literatur in die ‚traditionelle‘ kanonische Literatur im Kontext des
deutschsprachigen Raums durch die Beobachtung bestimmter kultureller Prozesse (z. B. Vergabe von Literaturpreisen) möglich wäre. Im zweiten Teil des Beitrags geht es um metaliterarische Überlegungen im Werk Sprachpolizei und Spielpolyglotte von Yoko Tawada in Bezug auf den Sprachgebrauch und den Stil bei kanonischen deutschsprachigen Autoren wie Jandl, Celan und Goethe und der Dichterin Lasker-Schüler. Auf diese Weise übernimmt Tawada die Rolle einer Stilkritikerin und veranschaulicht die Idee einer fruchtbaren Begegnung zwischen Kanon und interkulturellem Schreiben.

Après s’être nourri du « monde réel », Aragon puise son sujet, et plus encore son écriture, dans les théories linguistiques contemporaines. La trame diégétique s’entrelace au champ linguistique, le personnage romanesque incarnant la théorie lue, devenue elle-même fiction. Comme en retour, cette théorie prend vie : à travers la fiction, elle est présentée en cours d’élaboration, et non figée en dogme ; elle est en acte, objet d’interrogations plus que d’affirmations. Plus encore, la théorie linguistique y devient roman : la réflexion portant sur les pronoms entraîne ainsi une vertigineuse méditation sur la relation amoureuse; les topoï romanesques sont revisités à l’aune de la théorie linguistique qu’il représente et élabore. Linguiste, Gaiffier est aussi l’apprenti grammairien du couple – c’est-à-dire romancier. Aussi la linguistique n’est-elle pas seulement thématisée dans Blanche ou l’oubli : elle guide – ou égare – l’écriture romanesque.
Ce roman de 1966 rompt dès lors, et de façon définitive, avec la théorie qu’Aragon avait prétendu appliquer dans ses œuvres précédentes, le réalisme socialiste. Il substitue à cet exercice de transposition d’un dogme défini a priori l’écriture tâtonnante d’une théorie elle-même en cours d’élaboration, de définition et d’interrogation. L’écriture narrative de la théorie linguistique redéfinit ainsi l’écriture romanesque. Par le collage, l’intertextualité affichée (en particulier avec Flaubert et Hölderlin), les marques de l’énonciation et d’incessantes irruptions d’auteur, on voit Aragon compliquer à plaisir l’esthétique précédente : la narration s’est obscurcie, en même temps que la croyance en un avenir communiste. Le roman n’est plus seulement, ni plus principalement, l’instrument d’une connaissance critique du monde réel, il est aussi « machine à transformer au niveau du langage la conscience humaine  ». Il n’en est donc pas moins politique : l’étude accusatrice de l’infrastructure économique et sociale a simplement laissé la place à celle de la superstructure langagière – et littéraire.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze Propertius’ poem 1,2,
where Cynthia is introduced to the readers. Following the hermeneutical guide of those scholars who interpret amor and puella as metaliterary tropes, and abandoning, thus, the traditional biographical reading, I claim that a close reading of this elegy allows us to conclude that the figure of the beloved functions as a metaphor of the ideal poetical product envisaged by Propertius. Shaping what will become
a Leitmotiv in his subjective amatory poetry, Propertius establishes the indivisible association of poetry and love through the identification of Cynthia with his own love poetry.

In his 2011 novel «Midnight Movie» (co-written with Alan Goldsher), director Tobe Hooper portrays a semi-fictional version of himself dealing with the retrieval of his likewise fictional juvenile film Destiny Express; after the movie is screened at a local film festival in Austin, Texas, a strange disease begins to spread throughout the United States, turning the infected into aggressive and sexually hyperactive zombies. The epidemic quickly evolves into a pandemic, the side effects of which consist in an increasing rate of antisocial behaviors, drug addiction, suicides, and body mutations, as well as criminal and terrorist activities; the pandemic also affects every economic sector, notably including cinema. The rapidity of the sickness' outbreak and its disastrous consequences force Hooper to embark on a mission to track down the film and break the curse which it is seemingly bound to. «Midnight Movie» is written as a collection of personal blogs and diaries, social media chats, articles from on-line journals and e-mail exchanges, shaping all together a collective picture of America plunging into insanity and paranoia. The novel can be analyzed according to the main topics of memory and representation: memory and its loss-both individual and collective-act as a link between film-making, disease, the corporate management of information, and the elaboration of global tragedy in the principle of refusal and repression. The second and equally important theme is the increasing commingling of reality and fiction into a dystopian revelation of hyperreality (Baudrillard), as the multiplication of written and audiovisual accounts of the pandemic persuades the population to question the contradictory representations of the phenomenon, thus contributing to the global narration of the pandemic. As a metaliterary (as well as meta-filmic) exercise, «Midnight Movie»'s mixture of horror tropes, cinematic references, autobiography, and auto-fiction, provides a reflection on auteurship and its impasse in the multiplicity of apocalyptic narrations, according to the concept of "death of the author" (Barthes).

It is always an irony to write about an admired friend after his demise. The only way this tribute can be dutifully paid is to write something this person would have enjoyed reading. We are thus making the labor of mourning more arduous with the strange feeling we are depriving our late addressee of the very pleasure he/she actually deserved. As I am writing this, I am, ironically again, almost sure Ross would have appreciated this remark, I feel the need of sharing and checking it with him… I miss him more.

Explorando o conceito de tradução e a importância do domínio da língua de chegada e de partida, este ensaio explica o ponto de vista que leva António Feliciano de Castilho e alguns teorizadores portugueses coetâneos a acreditar que, se Ovídio tivesse sido um poeta português do século XIX, as suas obras teriam sido escritas como as traduções românticas realizadas nesse período.

The article, after a brief introduction in which the origin, development, ideology and main features of steampunk genre are reviewed, analyses the novel El mapa del tiempo by Félix J. Palma, primarily from two pieces of information: self-references and metaliterary elements, on the one hand, and time allusions, on the other. The interconnection between both elements allows us to conclude that in this novel the author seems to use the idea of literature in a metaphorical sense, with which reflects upon the dual consideration of artistic creation like potency and act at the same time. This last point would be related to the idea of "parallel universes", which allows the possibility for contesting the absolute value of the idea of time.

In Apollonius Rhodius’ poem the Argonauts, on their return after stealing the Golden Fleece, faced the dangerous Sirens. Orpheus’ lyre made noise in order to trouble and to drown out their deadly melody, however the enchantment took place and the sailor Butes, fascinated by the sweet Sirens sounds, gave up his companions and plunged towards the Sirens island. In Apollonius he was saved by the goddess Aphrodite, who gave him the Lilibeo promontory in Sicily as a place to live. This episode is meant by the Alexandrine poet as a homage to Homer’s Odyssey, thus activating a meta-literary reflection and a dialogue between myth and Sicilian ancient history.

Sono ormai parecchi anni che l’idea di crisi della critica letteraria si è trasformata in una sorta di topos, che rende ardua l’identificazione di una via d’uscita. Il mio intervento intende riflettere sul recupero della forma del saggio “letterario” (ciò che negli ultimi anni nell’accademia è rubricato sotto l’etichetta di literary nonfiction), in parte diversa da quella del più tradizionale saggio “critico”, quale una delle alternative capaci di rivitalizzare la riflessione contemporanea sulla letteratura. Per fare ciò è però necessario interrogarsi sulla natura del saggismo, su cosa esso sia nella sua essenza, isolando dei tratti che lo distinguano da qualsiasi altra modalità di analisi del testo letterario. Grazie alla sua natura proteiforme e il suo “incedere verso” la comprensione à sauts et à gambades, il saggio “letterario” permette un’affermazione molto meno reticente del soggetto all’interno del discorso critico, con le sue idiosincrasie e le sue esperienze personali, ed è in grado di fornire una prospettiva che, dopo gli anni dell’eccesso di scientifizzazione e di presunto oggettivismo, possa finalmente riavvicinare la critica al lettore comune, recuperando con successo la dimensione soggettiva nel processo di descrizione, interpretazione e valutazione dell’opera d’arte.
Se queste considerazioni in Italia si legano soprattutto alla figura di Francesco De Sanctis e dei suoi “allievi”, in area anglosassone parlare di letteratura tramite forme a pieno titolo letterarie è una pratica che ha alle sue spalle una tradizione molto più ricca e consolidata: basti pensare alla saggistica dei prosatori romantici che culmina nel Novecento in Virginia Woolf. Nel mio intervento vorrei proporre solo alcuni esempi, ricavati tuttavia da una tipologia coerente e specifica: quella per così dire “metasaggistica”, dei saggi che parlano del saggio, all’interno della quale, pur trattando una materia che a pieno titolo può dirsi teorica, gli autori riescono a catturare l’attenzione del lettore (anche profano) ricorrendo ad argomentazioni idiosincratiche e personalissime.
In particolare vorrei fare riferimento a testi che spaziano da “On the Knocking at the Gate in MacBeth” di Thomas De Quincey (1823), a “Trying Truth” di Nancy Mairs (2007), passando per la tappa inevitabile di Virginia Woolf, per dimostrare come il saggismo per sé, non soltanto dunque il tradizionale saggio critico, sia una risorsa formidabile, e ancora in gran parte da scoprire, per la critica letteraria degli anni Zero.

Nação Crioula, de José Eduardo Agualusa, é, antes de mais, uma afirmação de cariz metaliterário sobre o valor da literatura enquanto forma de comunicação  e  enquanto  ferramenta  para  uma  resposta ética aos traumas da história. Uma leitura paralela de Nga Muturi de Alfredo Troni e de “Samba” de Castro Soromenho permitir-nos-á identificar as diferenças de perspectiva introduzidas pela literatura pós-moderna relativamente à subjetividade do eu, o poder da memória, e às potencialidades e falhas da literatura como sistema de produção de significado e comunicação.

José Eduardo Agualusa’s Nação  Crioula  is  first and foremost a metaliterary statement on the value  of  literature  as  a  means  for  communication and as a tool for an ethical response to the traumas of history. A parallel reading of Alfredo Troni’s Nga Muturi and Castro Soromenho’s “Samba” will enable us  to  pinpoint  the  different  outlook  introduced  by postmodern literature in terms of the subjectivity of the self, the power of memory, and the strengths and weaknesses of literature as a system for the production of meaning and communication.

Empleando nociones de la teoría metaliteraria y poética, este ensayo afirma, a 65 años de la publicación del poemario Poemas y antipoemas (1954), de Nicanor Parra,  que  la  antipoesía,  en  tanto  proyecto  de  un  solo  autor,  no  solo  estaría  hablando constantemente de un modo de enunciar poesía, sino de cómo ganar ese lugar de enunciación. Otra manera de verlo: que, de una forma más o menos explícita, bajo el discurso humorístico y coloquial de la antipoesía se presenta en estado latente un metadiscurso, una forma de confrontar a la poesía, pero con poesía. En efecto, como han comentado otros críticos, en la obra de Parra hay un planteamiento en clave posmoderna a la crisis de la representación propia de la literatura del siglo XX, pero en la posibilidad de un proyecto tan mayúsculo el autor advertirá pronto que si solo trasgrede la retórica de cierto tipo de poesía, apenas habrá rebajado la polisemia del texto literario. Eso que se ha conocido como desacralización  del  lenguaje  poético  y  del  ejercicio  mismo  de  la  poesía,  en  Parra  funciona  al  comienzo  como  dispositivo  expresivo  antipoético,  pero  luego  se  volverá  su  eje  donde  pivote  la  propuesta  entera:  la  de  un  profesor  de  liceo obscuro capaz de inventar no un lenguaje literario, sino un movimiento de  neovanguardia  que  alcanza  hasta  la  plástica,  la  traducción  y  la  anécdota  cotidiana.  Ya  sea  como  incordio,  ataque  directo,  chiste,  artefacto  plástico  o  canción popular, Parra parece confirmar el núcleo duro de la antipoesía: que es, ante todo, metapoesía amarga, recursiva, y que tiene el recurso humorístico solo como puerta de acceso.

Abstract:
Using notions of the metaliterary and poetic theory, this essay states, 65 years from the first publication of the poetry book Poemas y antipoemas (1954), that antipo-etry as a project of a single author would not only be constantly speaking about a way to enunciate poetry, but also about how to achieve that place of enunciation. Another way to see it: in a not so explicit form, under the humoristic and colloquial speech of the antipoetry, there is a metadiscourse in a latent state, a way to confront poetry with poetry. In fact, as some other critics have said, in the work of Parra there is an approach in postmodern key to the crisis of representation of the proper literature of the 20th century, but in the possibility of a major project, the author realized soon that if he transgressed the rhetoric of certain kind of poetry, the poly-semy of the literary text will have been barely reduced. This, that has been known as desacralization of the poetic language and the actual exercise of poetry, at first functions as an expressive antipoetic device in Parra, but then it comes back to its axis where the entire proposal pivots: a dark school teacher capable of inventing not a literary language but a movement of Neo-avantgarde that covers plastic works, translation  and  the  everyday  anecdote.  Either  as  nuisance,  direct  attack,  a  joke,  a  plastic  artifact  or  a  popular  song,  Parra  seems  to  confirm  the  hard  nucleus  of  antipoetry:  it  is,  above  all,  bitter  and  recursive  metapoetry  in  which  humor  acts  only as an access door.

This study investigates Cristovão Tezza’s chronicles published in Gazeta do Povo newspaper between 2008 and 2014, analyzing themes, content, stylistic forms and relating this texts to the author ficctional and essayistic production. The corpus of this analysis is formed by
metaliterary chronicles, in other words, those in which Tezza reflects about literature issues in a direct dialogue with his autobiographical novel O filho eterno (2007), the essayistic book O espírito da prosa – uma autobiografia literária (2012) and the conferences published in the ebook Literatura à margem (2014). In all these books, Tezza goes deep into issues related to his own métier, thinking about his novelist status, defending realism and his choice of a more classic literature, analyzing Brazilian literature panorama from his own writing path or discussing issues related to publishing industry. By interacting with other spheres of his work, Tezza’s metaliterary chronicles reveal the literary writer above the chronicle writer, willing to face his topic of interest no matter the writing territory, but aware of the need to take into account the characteristics of each speech – knowing for instance that the challenges to reflect on his own work in a newspaper language are different from those faced in a breathtaking production such as O espírito da prosa.

SPACE, OR A PARTHIAN GRAMMATOLOGY (AN INTRODUCTORY INTERPRETATION OF "SŁOWO I CIAŁO" BY TEODOR PARNICKI)
The author comments on the writing stratefy of the fictional narrators of T. Parnicki's epistolary novel, Słowo i ciało (The Word and the Flesh, 1959). The Parthian duke, Khosroes, the author of the letters to Markia (cf. the first part of the book) appears as a textual nomad, who undertakes a never accomplished effort of constructing his own biography and image. His discourse his centred on a criticism of universalist ideologies and theosophies (such as Buddhism, or Christianity) and on incessant referring to numerous situational, cultural, and literary contexts. An utterance becomes a "rhizome" of many equivalent, narrative threads and persistent motifs, or turns of speech. A digressive mode of writing, with constant switching between one topic and another (from the "word-sign" to the "body-sign" and vice versa) is predominant here. Markia, the alleged author of the letters in the second part of the book, is teh source and purpose of Khosroes's writing, since, however, she is most probably long dead, she functions in the novel as a kind of 'aporia', on which the coomunicative game, played here, is based. As a source and purpose of writing, and as a wirter, Markia is an absence veiled in writing, a woman that appears in no other way than from behind the curtain, a curtain behind nothing and nobody is hidden. She is reality of the illusion of the sender's and receiver's presence, of truth and enlightenment. In that novel, which inidactes an important turn in Parnicki's writing career, one may notice a concept of writing that in many ways corresponds to Derrida's grammatology

Reseña y dedicatoria que escribí para la presentación en La Central del Raval (Barcelona) de "Sucede en la voz de otros (apuntes mundanos de poesía)", que compartí junto al autor, Juan Manuel Macías, y el editor Sergio Gaspar.
Puede accederse a la reseña en el siguiente link:
http://www.ieturolenses.org/revista_turia/index.php/actualidad_turia/una-voz-propia/

This paper discusses two recapitulatory speeches at the end of Heliodorus' Aethiopica. Parts One and Two explore the metaliterary significance of the speeches, arguing that they call the reader's attention to the novel's narratological heterogeneity. Part Three discusses those elements of the novel's ending which subvert its teleological drive, thereby challenging the novel's seemingly strong closure.

Compiling and publishing a folk narrative anthology is anything but a trivial, neutral undertaking, especially if this is set in a period of great literary and cultural fervour as was the late nineteenth century in Ireland. With his Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (1888) and Irish Fairy Tales (1892) W.B. Yeats gives rise to a complex narrative system in which, necessarily, heterogeneous, if not contradictory voices and points of view meet, and the editor’s task is precisely to make this polyphony work. In the anthologized stories one observes the overlapping and interweaving of narrative levels that reflect a wide range of ideas, beliefs, knowledge, values from which emerges a picture of cultural and social Irish stratification, as well as of relationships being established between the lower and ruling classes, folklore and literature, orality and literacy. After examining in general the folk narrative anthology as an inherently polyphonic object, this essay proposes a specific reading of the Yeatsian collections, focusing in particular on the paratextual apparatus, namely on the borders, the frames of the text – where interactions take place between several narrative levels, as well as historical, cultural, and social meanings – in order to identify, if possible, elements of unity and coherence in a system constitutively plurivocal and open to a variety of interpretations.
Keywords: anthology, folklore, Irish Revival, storytelling, W.B. Yeats