History of Bengal (ancient-medieval period)

I am in the beginning stages of establishing the Southeast Asian Numismatics Digital Archive (NOTE: An early proof-of-concept site can be found at seanda.omeka.net. A proposal currently under consideration would adopt the numisdata platform of dedalo.dev, the best example of which is monedaiberica.org). The main objective of SEANDA is to be an ever-evolving authoritative curated database of coinage produced in Southeast Asia from the fifth century CE to the beginning of the modern era. Initially, the project will focus on pre-Islamic coin series from mainland and island Southeast Asia, with Islamic and post-1400 CE material added as organizational resources become available.

SEANDA will include full descriptions of all coin series, types, and varieties produced in the region together with high-quality digital images of the best examples available to researchers. Entries will be based upon the study of institutional holdings, private collections, previous research, dealer catalogues, auction offerings, and archaeological excavation reports among other resources. A full bibliographic apparatus will be supplied, together with links to additional online resources. To assist in their detection, modern forgeries, fakes, and fantasy pieces will be included as well.

Analysis of representative coin specimens and associated artifacts will assist in understanding design choices and symbolism, weight standards and denominations, mint practice, metallurgical content, as well as their function within Southeast Asian prestige, tribute, and trading networks. The inclusion of hoards and individual coin finds will be used to determine the numismatic geography for each series, type, and variety. Seals, sealings, seal impressions, renderings of coin motifs found in various media, copper-plate and stone inscriptions, as well as other related  historical documents, will be included in the database as well.

The objectives of SEANDA are three-fold. First, to provide a standard for describing and identifying Southeast Asia's numismatic heritage by archaeologists, researchers, museum professionals and collectors. Second, to bring together in a single location all reliable information regarding coin finds in the region. And third, to present that information in a readily accessible format. For more information, see USING THIS SITE.

SEANDA is dedicated to honoring the numismatic contributions of Jan Wisseman Christie (1947-2021), Pamela Gutman (1944-2015), Vasilijs Mihailovs (1978-2015), B.N. Mukherjee (1932-2013), M. Harunur Rashid (1925-2010) and Nicholas Rhodes (1946-2011).

If you are interested in contributing to this effort, please contact me:
Robert S. Wicks, Ph.D.
Professor Emeritus
Miami University Art Museum, Director (2000-2021)
Oxford, OH 45056
wicksrs@miamioh.edu

The relation between currency management and mint towns is closely related. One of the most interesting features of the Bengal Sultanate is the presence of various mint towns within its boundaries in time and space. Recent research has mentioned about 40 mint names inscribed on the sultanate coins of Bengal (M.R. Karim 2013: 322). More recently a researcher has listed 47 mint names on coins of the Bengal Sultanate (S.M.I. Alam 2015). Finding such a large number of mint names does not necessarily mean this number of mints actually existed. Bengal was not geographically large enough to justify such a large number of mint towns. The actual number has been estimated to be between 16 (Jahan 1953: 225) and 26 mints (Shahnawaz 1999: 37). In the sultanate period of Bengal, the day-today local need for silver or gold coins was very limited. Local people were comfortable with cowries to purchase their daily commodities (M. Alam 2014: 70). Silver or gold coins were used only for large transactions, internal and external trade, and for religious offering purposes. Although the demand for metal coins by the general inhabitants of Bengal during the sultanate period was limited, the volume of coins of that period, especially silver coins, found till today is immense. Hundreds and thousands of silver coins of the Bengal sultans are preserved in various museums around the world and in private collections, and still more continue to be unearthed from various locations in Bangladesh, West Bengal, Assam, and the Tripura region. The existence of various mint towns within Bengal appears to indicate the decentralised monetary policies of the Bengal sultans. In order to gain a clearer view of this, it is necessary to study the metallic composition of the coins issued by a single mint, from its first appearance to its last known issue. Without studying the coins of a mint thoroughly, it will not be possible to explore the metallic and technological characteristics of that mint. A thorough archaeo-metallurgical analysis of the coins of a mint that is geographically identified can also create an opportunity to judge the interrelations of metal flow, trade and political relations between the mint towns within the sultanate and with other kingdoms. An attempt has been made here to analyse the silver coins of Sunargaon mint as part of a series of metallurgical analyses of the silver coins of all the mints of the Bengal Sultanate. Silver coins were selected from their first appearance to the end of their production (on the basis of availability and date). In total, 22 coins of Sunargaon mint from a private collection have been analysed by WDXRF. On the basis of the silver percentages of the coins of each year, an attempt has been made to relate the reason for such percentages with contemporary political history, to find out possible sources of silver of that period, and also to make observations on the other elements found in our metallurgical analysis.

During more than four hundred years of Pala rule (8th-12th century AD), many centres of sculptural art flourished simultaneously in different regions of the extensive empire of Bengal and Bihar. The products of these centres were not only varied but also numerous. Thousands of sculptures of this period have been discovered and they now form part of the collections of a number of museums in Bangladesh and India. Many of them have also found their ways into a number of museums in Europe and America

বাংলা একাডেমি আয়োজিত একুশে বক্তৃতামালায় আজ ২০ ফেব্রুয়ারি ২০১৮ বিকাল ৪টায় "বাংলাদেশের হাজার বছরের ইতিহাস: বহুত্ববাদ এবং স্বাধীন বাংলাদেশের চার রাষ্ট্রনীতি" বিষয়ে প্রবন্ধ উপস্থাপন করেছি। আলোচক হিসেবে উপস্থিত ছিলেন আমার শিক্ষক অধ্যাপক সৈয়দ আনোয়ার হোসেন। সভাপতিত্ব করেছেন বাংলা একাডেমির মহাপরিচালক শামসুজ্জামান খান।

যে-বিষয়ে প্রবন্ধ পড়েছি তার ব্যাখ্যা-বিশ্লেষণের রয়েছে বহুমাত্রিকতা, রয়েছে তাত্ত্বিক বিতর্ক। আমার নিজস্ব ক্ষুদ্র চিন্তা ও উপলব্ধির ভিত্তিতে আলোচনার সুচনা করেছি। বেশ কিছুদিন ধরেই বিষয়টি নিয়ে পড়ালেখা করছিলাম, ভাবছিলাম এবং একটু একটু করে লিখছিলাম। চিন্তার অনেক খোরাক রয়েছে এখানে।

বিষয়টি নিয়ে যেকোনো আলোচনা-সমালোচনা, তর্ক-বিতর্ক, মত এবং ভিন্ন-মত জানতে ও বুঝতে চাই। কারো কাছে এ বিষয়ের কোনো গ্রন্থ বা প্রবন্ধ সম্পর্কে তথ্য থাকলে অনুগ্রহ করে আমাকে জানাবেন। প্রবন্ধের একটি খসড়া কোনো রকমে তৈরি করেছি। আপনার সহযোগিতা আমার এ-বিষয়ক চিন্তা-কে আরো কিছুটা পরিণত করতে পারে।

প্রবন্ধটির খসড়া তৈরিতে নিরলসভাবে সাহায্য করেছে আমার ছাত্র হাবিবুল্লাহ মিলন, আলমগির, আনিকা, সামিলা এবং আমার ছোট ভাই ইতিহাস সমিতির সাইদুর। তাদের জন্যে শুভেচছা আর ভালবাসা।<3

This paper focuses on the geographical factors in cultural aspects of early Bengal from the 5th to the 13th centuries CE. In South Asian history, this period has been considered as the time when significant socio-cultural transformations took place and regions in the subcontinent were moulded into distinct contours. These changes and dynamics lead to the socio-cultural formations of the later age. Bengal was one of these geographical regions where distinct geographical features played a role to make it a 'cultural territory' in the given chronological bracket. Therefore, the purpose of the paper is to bring together the variety of data available in the sources and to highlight the contributions of geography in aspects of socio-cultural trends in early Bengal.

Analyzing the economic history of Indian subcontinent, it can be perceived that crafting always came second to cultivation in agronomy. Following this sequence, handicrafts thrived due to the invention and utilization of local technology by the Bengali people, to fulfill their daily needs. However, the use of local technology for crafting did not have a steady flow since the earliest times. During the early medieval period due to the negligence of the ruling class, local and international trading centers, including Tamralipti and Ganges were shut down, which hindered the progress of craft and technology and weakened the economy of Bengal. Capitalizing on the advantage of the puny socioeconomic and political condition of Bengal the Muslim conquerors gave Bengal's economy a new momentum and it flourished once again alongside the other regions of the Indian subcontinent. The Muslims of medieval Bengal imported numerous machineries and technologies from outside the Indian subcontinent, as well as used local technology to array their luxurious lifestyle. As a result of using those technologies and agricultural components, cottage industries of different scales developed in Bengal, similar to the ones in Muslim ruled regions of the Indian subcontinent. During that period, handicraft initiatives or factories did not exist in accordance to the modern definition of large-scale industries. However, in small scale factories or individual households, different types of handicrafts were in production. 1 During the mid-14th century, the Sultanate rule stimulated the rapid growth of industrialization and during Mughal rule, the import of updated technology and its usage caused Bengal's artistry to reach optimum level. While there are many contemporary accounts of the development of handicrafts in Bengal, the description of all the technologies used in the growth of this industry is missing. Regardless of the lack of sources, we will refer to the verified information in order to highlight the technologies invented and developed in medieval Bengal. Coming and settling down of the Muslims in Bengal awakened its socioeconomic field; consequently, different occupational classes emerged in Bengal as a result of the then ruling policy and demand of the time. Due to

Mirza Nathan’s Bahristan-i-Ghaibi was for long lost to the historians. J N Sarkar discovered the manuscript of the book from the Bibliotheca Nationale of Paris and published few articles on it in Prabasi and Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society. Later it was translated and annotated by M. I. Borah, which was published by the Government of Assam in 1936 in two volumes. The book is divided into four daftar dealing with the period of different subahdars during the region of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. The book deals with the local history of Bengal and the adjoining areas. It contains the details of the battles between the Imperial Mughal army and the Local Zaminders of Bengal.  Apart from the description of the battles and wars the book contains very vivid and accurate information about the topography of Bengal. It also narrates the social and economic organization of Bengal. Due to this book no part of history of Bengal in Medieval period is as fully known as the history of Jahangir’s reign is known.  The author Mirza Nathan was son Ihtimam Khan, who was appointed as the admiral of imperial fleet sent to Bengal to subjugate the Bara Bhuiyans. Probably this book was not written in Bengal but the author spent his military career in Bengal. While writing the book the author not only used the Mughal official records and reports received from the other sources but also used his own experiences. Although Mirza Nathan is generally charged for speaking too much about his own and claiming credits for his own success in the battle fields. He is also charged for putting no dates/ wrong dates in his books. Despite the lacking of the book in mind the present article will try to evaluate the book as the first regional history of Bengal during the Mughal Period.

email: sahidulsajal@yahoo.com

'Bengal' is more of a historical entity than a clearly defined territorial or regional entity. This paper is an attempt to indicate a separate 'unit' within  Bengal in geographical terms and identify the factors that create the difference. By using ancient available sources the paper illustrate how this geographical 'Bengal' gradually developed as historical-geographical sub-units or sub-regions where separate territorial consciousness started making the separate politics and polity in the ancient period. The paper revisited some of these territorial sub-units to shed lights with an indication that Southeast Bengal gradually transformed into an individual 'entity' in terms of distinct political and cultural ethos, geographical connectivity and trade and commercial linkages with the lands beyond her territory.

The present paper intends to throw light on the cannons of Pre-Mughal Bengal and her neighborhoods, from introduction of cannons from the  Husain Shahi dynasty to the physical appearance of cannons of the Mughal period. The details of the existing Cannons of Ḥusain Shāhi Dynasty, Sher Shāh Suris, Bara-Bhuiyans; cannons of Kochbihar, Kamta and Tripura are described here with physical dimension and inscriptions.

The rural settlement is always in a state of flux for its centuries of transformation and variation. It is also the critical indicator of the social process which is why we must look at a settlement as a 'small communitiesʹ rather than as a site or the region. The studies of rural Settlement lay the foundation for the understanding of socioeconomic and cultural milieu of rural history. Can we imagine the sustained growth of urban centre or 'Anytown' without the support of rural settlement? Why does suburbanization invade the rural area? This paper has made a dynamic view at the previous archaeological work and focused on the process of expansion and changes of settlement in the plain regions with an eye to getting the summation of the historical process and socioeconomic transformations.

[Abstract: Bell and Chain decoration has been used widely in stone and terra cotta media in Sultanate Architecture of Bengal. It has been found profusely in re-used pre-Islamic stone pillars of Sultanate mosques and an evolution of this motif is observed in decoration used in different newly built edifices. In this period chain has taken somewhere the abstract form of a pendant rope tray (shika) of traditional Bengal and in other places the form of a lamp. It has been observed in the tomb of Zafar Khan Ghazi at Tribeni, Chota Pandua, and West Bengal, India and on the facets of the pillars of the nearby Bari Mosque. Bell and chain motif used in the Adina mosque at Hazrat Pandua, West Bengal, India is often compared to those used in the tomb at Sonargaon, Bangladesh. Hanging lamp in a chain is observed in the mihrab of Adina mosque. The place of the mihrab has been emphasized here by this in comparison to other places of the mosque. At the same time an indication has been given to light. Allah has been described as light (an-Nur) in the Holy Qur'an, the religious book of the Muslims. One calls to mind the remembrance of Allah (dhikr) by repeated use of lamp in the mihrab of this mosque. Because, Sufis repeatedly pronounce the name of Allah at the time of their dhikr. An evolution of the diversity and various abstract forms of this motif has been attempted to analyse in this paper. It has also been attempted to trace if this motif resembling pendant rope tray (shika) of traditional Bengal has any folk origin.] A special characteristic feature of Sultanate Architecture of Bengal is the use of bell and chain motif of decoration. Bell and chain and its various abstract or stylized forms have widely been used in the decoration of the then Bengal. Specimen of Sultanate Architecture of Bengal of the initial period is not found in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. But from 1300 AD onwards use of this motif is uninterrupted in decoration of almost all types of Muslim monuments. Its use

Bengal is the largest delta of the world where villages occupy an important position as human settlement. Historians and social scientists have explored different aspects of urban life in the history of Bengal. But villages remain almost out of their focus. European scholars began research on Bengal villages at the beginning of the colonial rule. Most of these research studies based on the gazetteers, census reports and district reports were published for the smooth operation of the revenue system and administrative structure. Our present knowledge on pre-colonial Bengal villages is mainly based on these colonial records. This paper tries to explore various aspects of Bengal villages during fourteen-seventeenth centuries using the foreigners accounts as primary sources. Most of the foreigners, who came during the period under review, were travelers and traders. They have visited various areas of Bengal and left a vivid description about the rural areas. Using these descriptions this paper concludes that the general pattern of villages in Bengal has not changed over a long time. Villages have historically played a very important role in the nourishment of human culture in Bengal. 1 Although several urban centers flourished in different areas of Bengal, villages have continued to be the heart of all human activities in this deltaic land. European scholars started the study of rural Bengal after the acquisition of the Diwani (in 1765) by the British East India Company. Before the promulgation of the Permanent Settlement 2 in 1793 several commissions were formed to study the state of revenue collection in this region. Many Reports and Minutes were published where a variety of issues were discussed on rural Bengal.

সান্যাল, মৈত্র, ভাদুড়ী, বাগচী ও লাহিড়ীরা বরেন্দ্রী ব্রাহ্মণ নামে পরিচিত। এই প্রত্যেকটা পদবীই আসলে গাঁয়ী পদবী। আর বরেন্দ্র শব্দটা সম্ভবত – বারোজন ইন্দ্র (রাজা) কিম্বা বারিন্দ (প্রাচীন পলি ও লাল মাটি গঠিত অঞ্চল যা পার্শ্ববর্তী অঞ্চলের থেকে কিছুটা উঁচু) শব্দ থেকে এসেছে। মধ্য যুগে গোটা বরেন্দ্র ভূমি জুড়ে বিশাল বিশাল অগভীর ঝিল বা হাওড় জাতীয় জলাভূমি ছিল।

যে সান্যাল পদবীটা আদতে গাঁয়ী পদবী। অর্থাৎ, সান্যাল শব্দের কোন আক্ষরিক অর্থ নেই, এর উৎস হচ্ছে আদতে একটা গ্রামের নাম। তাই এই সঞ্জীবনী গ্রাম থেকেই লোকমুখে বিবর্তিত হয়ে সান্যাল পদবীর উদ্ভব হয়। বলিহার রাজবংশের কুলপঞ্জিকা অনুযায়ী এই সঞ্জীবনী গ্রামের অবস্থান ছিল অধুনা বাংলাদেশের নওগাঁ জেলায় (রাজশাহী)। বাংলার সামাজিক ইতিহাস বইতে লেখা আছে যে সঞ্জামিনী গ্রামকে ছোট করে আঞ্চলিক ভাষায় সানি বা সান্ডি গ্রাম বলে ডাকা হত । সেখান থেকে ‘আল’ প্রত্যয় জুড়ে সময়ের সাথে সাথে সান্যাল শব্দটা এসেছে ।

The paper thus aims to fill in this gap of our knowledge and focuses on Atiśa’s place of birth and his family affiliation. It challenges the unanswered question of Atiśa Dīpaṃkara Śrījñāna’s actual origin. It has been said in various Tibetan sources that Atiśa was born in a royal family of Eastern India in the land of Vaṇgala (Tib. Bhaṃ ga la), in the domain of the Chandra dynasty with its capital in Vikramapura (Tib. Bi kra ma ni pu ra). Unlike these specific local names provided, Atiśa’s family lineage is identified by the textual sources only by the Tibetan names of his father Śrīkalyāṇa (Tib. Dge ba’i dpal), mother Śrīprabhā (Tib. Dpal mo ’od zer) and his two brothers Chandragarbha (Tib. Lta ba’i nying po) and Śrīgarbha (Tib. Dpal gyi snying po). The venerable teacher Atiśa himself is referred to in texts as Padmagarbha (Tib. Pad ma’i nying po). The purpose of this paper is to answer the question whether in reality there was any kinship link between Atiśa and the Chandra royal dynasty.

This article published in souvenir of Kolkata Numismatic Society Exhibition in December 2019 outlines the copper coins found in the province of erstwhile  Bengal during Aurangzeb reign. Coppers from eastern India are rare and hence all coins are of significance

The focus of the volume is on conducting epigraphic study of the sultānate period coins of Bengal, analyzing the calligraphic styles used on these coins and documenting a few new numismatic findings of the period. Coins issued from Bengal during independent sultnāte as well as Delhi interludes have been considered and studied. A few known chronicles and a few new additions to the history of Bengal have been presented in this volume. For epigraphic analysis, as first step, the images of 77 coins have been converted into gray-scale drawings or into color drawings. Then the drawings have been segregated and decrypted with a view to make the illustrations decipherable to readers. One important additional focus of the volume, the calligraphic style of the inscriptions on the coins of Bengal Sultānate, may be noteworthy. The authors believe that this endeavor should have added value in the area of numismatics of Bengal Sultānate. The authors of the volume have critically followed previous works and deviations of opinions have been noted clearly.
Publisher: black N orange, Dhaka
P. 300, Hardcover, B&W and Color
Price: BDT 1750 / $ 30

Archaeometallurgy has become a significant brunch of Archaeology. Coins are the most important and frequently found artifacts of the sultani period of Bengal. The political history, chronology and geographical area of the kingdom of Bengal sultans have been exposed by the direct help of coin. But no archaeometallurgical analysis has been ever done before on any sultani coin of Bengal. Metal content of sultani coin can tell us much information such as economic, political and social history of that period by proper and in depth archaeometallurgical analysis. As we know nothing about the metallurgy of the coins of Bengal sultans, it can be an adventurous and exciting step to research on the unknown facts of sultani period of Bengal.

Call it Bengalee Islam, Sufi Islam, Ma’arefoti Islam or whatever, the overarching truth behind the phenomenon’s finds roots in several coordinates that endeared them to the genetically secular Bengalees. For one, the idea of peace, brotherhood and respect for fellow human beings has always been integral in the belief systems of all major religions of the world with Bengal and Bengalee Islam being no exception. Secondly the lofty ideals of cohesion and assimilation that the Vaishnavite expounded where in no way dissimilar to what the Sufi Muslims where preaching and coalesced very well when they were making their initial inroads into India. And thirdly and most importantly, the Bengalee respect for food, agriculture and the natural cycles and its rejection of crass capitalism meant that these so-called ‘subordinate cultures of the riff raffs’ had many a common element to resist the aggression and oppression of the British rulers who had looted and pillaged India, leaving it to a state of pauperization. This is quite opposed to the wealth and prosperity witnessed before the British entered India. Therefore when it came to resistance, Bengalees had more reasons to challenge the imperial status quo, and all of it to consolidate itself with penchant for music and prayers.

This paper focuses on one of the least studied areas – the geographical factors in the 'syncretistic tradition' of early Bengal. A comprehensive study on this issue is yet to be conducted. The proposed study is a preliminary attempt to do so.

From Niharranjan Ray to Mamtajur Rahman Tarafdar all have agreed on the preponderance of pre-Vedic/non-Brahmanic legacy in the culture of the people of the deltaic Bengal. The belated arrival of the brahmanical orthodoxy in ‘Bengal’ should be attributed to the far distance of her location from the entry route of the brahmanical inflow and the distinct geographical environment. The brahmanical orthodoxy has taken more than one thousand years to enter into ‘Bengal’. This relatively late-Brahmanization in Bengal had strengthened and entrenched the pre-Vedic/non-Brahmanic culture in the 'region' on the one hand and on the other the local inhabitants have found a kind of ‘mental attitude’ of accepting very little of external elements without renouncing their own individualities. Niharranjan Ray mentioned that ‘Bengal’ has been much less brahmanised than central Gangetic India: the mind of central Gangetic India was, to a large extent, ill-disposed to change, whereas that was not at all true of ‘Bengal’. The people of the Bengal delta did not really swim with the current, when defeat was inevitable, but sought to compromise in the working out of a synthesis.

The initial stage of the process of ‘brahmanical way of accommodating local culture’ in Bengal took place between 4th century BCE and 4th century CE, which continued in the next two centuries. The brahmanical influence is naturally expected to become weaker on its long eastward journey. ‘Bengal’ received it at a stage when its pre-Vedic legacy found opportunity of becoming firm and the ‘personality’ of the land got imbibed with it. The characteristic socio-religious and cultural attitudes of the people of the land of early Bengal which can be said to be typically Bengali are, no doubt, the result of the fusion of the incoming elements of culture with the indigenous elements, which acted as the moderating factors. 

In the religious culture of early ‘Bengal’, the 'syncretistic tradition' had definite, far-reaching and more profound effect. Brahmanism, Buddhism and Islam in ‘Bengal’ imbibed local characteristics of pre-Vedic/ pre-Puranic origin and thereby attained a character quite different from its original/fundamental character. Bengal’s continuous association with the non-brahmanic goddesses is attested to by vernacular evidence as far back as it goes, but cannot take us beyond the beginning of the 2nd millennium CE. Thus, the role of ‘brahmanical assimilative process’ in the making of the regional cultures cannot be ignored.

All these factors need to be examined further in an elaborate manner. Therefore, I would like to attempt an investigation as to how and in what scale the 'syncretistic tradition’ and the 'assimilative process’ influenced and moulded the socio-religious life of Bengal in the early period and contributed in the making of a distinct religious culture which bears a definite stamp of this deltaic land.

The Bengal Delta is a place of many migrations, cultural transformations, invasions and religious revolutions since prehistoric time. With the help of archaeological and historical records, this essay present the hypothesis that, albeit there were multiple waves of large and small scale socio-cultural assimilations, every socio-political change did not brought equal formidable outcome in the Delta. The study further illustrates that, the majority of cultural components were formulated by Indigenous-Aryan-Buddhist assimilations in early phase, whereas the Buddhist-Aryan-Islamic admixtures in relatively forbearing and gracious socio-political background of medieval period contributed the final part in the formation of Bengal Civilization.

There are two different schools of thought regarding the identification of Danujamarddana Deva. According to the first, which was introduced by Bhattashali and later accepted by some other historians, Danujamarddana and Raja Ganesh were the same person. This proposition is mainly driven by the information received from the Riyaz-us-Salatin, Hamilton and other literary sources, and from the correspondence of contemporary saints backed by numismatic evidence. The second school identifies Danujamarddana as a ruler of southern Bengal, backed by different understandings and contradictions among the literary sources. Due to the absence of authentic information, it is important to put the emphasis on primary evidence such as numismatic and epigraphic records. This paper has attempted to shed some light on an obscure period of Bengal Sultanate history on the basis of updated numismatic evidence, and has also discussed the inconsistencies and contradictions in contemporary and modern histories. It does not offer any new proposition, but rather supports the second school of thought, proposed by R.D. Banerjee, Ahmed Hasan Dani, Syed Ejaz Hussain, and Richard Eaton, in the light of latest numismatic discoveries, that Danujamarddana Deva was apparently a local ruler of southern Bengal.

The  work  distinguishes  the  governing  strategies  of  the  Nawab  of  Bengal ( Siraj)  to  that  of  the  Mysore  Sultans  by  tracing  their  patterns  of  handling  and  reacting  to  issues  of  British  encroachment  and  violations  of  their  authority.

The northwestern part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal, India are included into Varendri or Gauda subregion during Early Medieval period. Archaeological research in Dinajpur-Joypurhat-Thakurgaon Districts of Bangladesh have generated new sets of data from the fieldwork. Various new ideas, questions and problems have emerged in this studies and this paper presents summarized findings of excavations of two archaeological places at Kaharol and Birol Upazila of Dinajpur District. The area is located, geologically, on the distal part of Teeta Mega Fan (TMF), which has different despositional history than the adjoining Barind Terrace and associated floodplains of different channels. The time consuming excavations in two seasons of 2016 and 2017 have revealed brick built structures and associated material cultures. A navaratha Brahmanical temple was found at Kaharol and it has been assumed that the temple was associated with Brahmanical God Vishnu. The temple was converted later, possible, into another edifice with different function during medieval period. The place at Birol, on the other hand, revealed an interesting evidence of conversion of a Buddhist temple, first, into a Brahmanical one, and then, into a secular habitational space as well as a sacred place associated with a mazar (tomb of a Muslim Holy saint). In both cases, stratigraphic understanding has been key to the retrieval, and analyses of data within a geoarchaeological framework. Evidence of natural catastrophic events like earthquake was detected on the structural remains of both of these places. Both of these places, besides, are located within flood zones and they offer a framework within which the accepted wisdom about human-landscape interaction can be questioned.