Metallurgy

Hammerscale is the product of high-temperature oxidation of iron alloys and it is particularly associated with the forging of iron. Due to its magnetic properties hammerscale is easily recovered from archaeological contexts. While most hammerscale consists of flakes of iron oxide, a small proportion consists of spheres. This paper presents the results of the microscopic examination and chemical analysis of both flake and spheroidal hammerscale from archaeological contexts as well as material recovered during experimental forging and welding. In addition, the experimental fire-welding of iron has been recorded using high-speed digital video. This demonstrates that spheroidal hammerscale is produced during forge welding. The chemical analysis of the experimental hammerscale shows that it isformedfrom oxidized iron with a small but significant contribution from the non-metallic inclusions in the metal.

चषालः caṣāla on Yupa, made of wheat straw, an Indus Script hieroglyph, signifies pyrolysis/carburization in smelting ores into steel/hard alloys

Yupa is a kunda, a pillar of bricks. This kunda signifies a fire-alter or agnikunda in Vedic tradition. A signifier of the pillar is a चषालः caṣāla as its top piece. This चषालः caṣāla (Rigveda) is made of wheat straw for pyrolysis to convert firewood into coke to react with ore to create hard alloys, e.g. iron reacting with coke to create crucible steel or carburization of wrought iron in a crucible to produce steel. See: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_steel

The sacredness associated with चषालः caṣāla is demonstrated by the architectural splendour of ancient varaha sculptures in the Hindu tradition. On the varaha monolith in Khajuraho, the चषालः caṣāla is signified by Devi Sarasvati. On many other sculptures of varaha, the चषालः caṣāla is associated with Mother Earth भूदेवी bhudevi. A gallery of varaha sculptural splendour is embedded together with explanatory notes on the dcipherment of  metal work catalogue in a Rakhigarhi seal with a rhinoceros decorated with a scarf (dhatu 'scarf' rebus: dhatu 'ore').

The Indus Script hieroglyphic hypertexts get expanded into metaphors during the historical periods narrating Varaha as the third Avatara of Vishnu. In archaeometallurgical parlance, the चषालः caṣāla is the core pyrolysis process to create crucible steel and/or hard alloys in smelting processes.

See the yupa as a signifier on Kuwait gold disc with Indus Script hieroglyphs:

Hieroglyph: kunda = a pillar of bricks (Ka.); pillar, post (Tu.Te.); block, log (Malt.); kantu = pillar, post (Ta.)(DEDR 1723).

Rebus: kun.d. = a pit (Santali) kun.d.amu = a pit for receiving and preserving consecrated fire; a hole in the ground (Te.) kun.d.am, kun.d.a sacrificial fire
pit (Skt.) kun.d.a an altar on which sacrifices are made (G.)[i] gun.d.amu fire-pit; (Inscr.)
See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2016/01/octagonal-yupo-bhavati-satapatha.html चषालः caṣāla is made of wheat straw according to Satapatha Brāhmana.
caṣāla चषाल This is a Rigveda word which signifies the top-piece of the Yūpa.


1.162.01 Let neither Mitra nor Varun.a, Aryaman, A_yu, Indra, R.bhuks.in,nor the Maruts, censure us; when we proclaim in the sacrifice the virtus of the swift horse sprung from the gods. [a_yu = va_yu (a_yuh satataganta_ va_yuh, vaka_ralopo va_); r.bhuks.in = Indra; but,here Praja_pati, he in whom the r.bhus,or the devas, abide (ks.iyanti); sprung from the gods: devaja-tasya = born as the type of various divinities, who are identified with different parts (e.g. us.a_ va_ as'vasya medhyasya s'irah: Br.hada_ran.yaka Upanis.ad 1.1.1); legend: the horse's origin from the sun, either direct, or through the agency of the Vasus: sura_d as'vam vasavo niratas.t.a].
1.162.02 When they, (the priests), bring the prepared offering to the presence (of the horse), who has been bathed and decorated with rich (trappings), the various-coloured goat going before him, bleating, becomes an acceptable offering to Indra and Pu_s.an. [The prepared offering: ra_tim-gr.bhi_ta_m = lit. the seized wealth; the offering to be made for the horse; pu_s.an = Agni; the goat is to be tied to the front of the horse at the sacrificial post, such a goat, black-necked, kr.s.nagri_va (a_gneyah kr.s.n.agri_vah: Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 5.5.22), being always regarded as an a_gneya pas'u, or victim sacred to Agni, and to be offered to him (Ka_tya_yana Su_tra 98). A black goat is also dedicated to pu_s.an, along with soma (Yajus. xxix.58; but, he is also to be attached to the na_bhi or middle of the horse (Yajus. xxiv.1)].
1.162.03 This goat, the portion of Pu+s.an fit for all the gods, is brought first with the fleet courser, to that Tvas.t.a_ may prepare him along with the horse, as an acceptable preliminary offering for the (sacrificial) food. [The portion of Pu_s.an: he is to be offered in sacrifice to Pu_s.an or Agni; Tvas.t.a_ = sarvasyotpa_daka, the producer of all forms; tvas.t.a_ ru_pa_n.i vikaroti (Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ 1.5.92); or, identified wiith Agni;preliminary offering purod.a_s'am = offering of cakes and butter; purasta_d-da_tavyam, that which is to be first offered].
1.162.04 When the priests at the season (of the ceremony), lead forth the horse, the offering devoted to the gods, thrice round (the sacrificial fire); then the goat, the portion of Pu_s.an, goes first, announcing the sacrificer to the gods. [The goat is to be first immolated]. 1.162.05 The invoker of the gods, the minister of the rite, the offerer of the oblation, the kindler of the fire, the bruiser of the Soma, the director of the ceremony, the saage (superintendent of the whole); do you replenish the rivers by this well-ordered, well-conducted, sacrifice. [The invoker of the gods: designations applied to eight of the sixteen priests employed at a solemn rite: the two first are: hota_ and adhvaryu; avaya_j = pratiprastha_ta_, who brings and places the offering; agnimindha = agni_dh, the kindler of the fire; gra_vagra_bha = the praiser of the stones that bruise the Soma,or he who applies the stones to that purpose; s'am.sta_ = pras'a_sta_; suvipra = Brahma_ (brahmaiko ja_te ja_te vidya_m vadatibrahma_ sarvavidyah sarva veditumarhati: Nirukta 1.8); replenish the rivers: vaks.an.a_ apr.n.adhvam, nadi_h pu_rayata, fill the rivers; the consequence of sacrifice being rain and fertility; or, it may mean, offer rivers of butter, milk, curds, and the like].
1.162.06 Whether they be those who cut the (sacrificial) post, or those who bear the post, or those who fasten the rings on the top of the post, to which the horse (is bound); or those who prepare the vessels in which the food of the horse is dressed; let the exertions of them all fulfil our expectation. [The post: twenty-one posts, of different kinds of wood, each twenty-one cubits long, are to be set up, to which the different animals are to be fastened, amounting to three hundred and forty-nine, besides two hundred and sixty wild animals, making a total of six hundred and nine (Ka_tya_yana); the text seems to refer to a single post: cas.a_lam ye as'vayu_pa_ya taks.ati: cas.a_la = a wooden ring, or bracelet, on the top of the sacrificial post; or, it was perhaps a metal ring at the foot of the post]. 

Satapatha Brāhmana describes this as made of wheaten dough (gaudhūma).

गौधूम [p= 369,3] mf(ई g. बिल्वा*दि)n. made of wheat MaitrS. i Hcat. i , 7 (f(आ).) made of wheat straw S3Br. v , 2 , 1 , 6 Ka1tyS3r. xiv , 1 , 22 and 5 , 7.

http://www.sanskritdictionary.com/agnir/961/6#sthash.aDu8onbZ.dpuf

"Pyrolysis has been used since ancient times for turning wood into charcoal on an industrial scale...Pyrolysis is used on a massive scale to turn coal into
coke for metallurgy, especially steelmaking."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrolysis In archaeometallurgical terms, the use of wheat straw to prepare the चषालः caṣāla fixed atop a Yupa may relate to such pyrolysis process to convert charcoal used in the fire-altar (furnace) into charcoal/coke to react with the dhAtu in the earth subjected to smelting/melting process (e.g. iron reacting with coke in a crucible to be transmuted as steel).

చషాలము [ caṣālamu ] chashālamu. [Skt.] n. A chalice, or cup used in sacrifice. A ring attached to the sacrificial post in a horse sacrifice. రాజ మాయము నందు యూపస్తంభమునకు అడుగున తగిలించే కడియము.څليَ ṯs̱alaey, s.m. (1st) A ring for the finger. 2. A pillar of mud or stones as a mark for land. 3. A butt or mark for arrows. 4. A mound or platform for watching a field. 5. A temporary building or shed. Pl. يِ ī. See منا (Pashto)

चषाल [p= 391,2]mn. (g. अर्धर्चा*दि) a wooden ring on the top of a sacrificial post RV. i , 162 , 6 TS. vi Ka1t2h.xxvi , 4 (चशाल) S3Br. &c चषालः caṣālḥचषालः 1 A wooden ring on the top of a sacrificial post; चषालं ये अश्वयूपाय तक्षति Rv.1.162.6; चषालयूपत- च्छन्नो हिरण्यरशनं विभुः Bhāg.4.19.19.-2 An iron ring at the base of the post.-3 A hive.

In lokokti, the yupa is associated with potaraju. The word pota signifies casting or smelting of metal.

పోతురాజు or పోతరాజు pōtu-rāḍsu. n. The name of a rustic god, like Pan, worshipped throughout the Telugu, Canarese and Mahratta countries. He represents the male principle associated with the village goddesses Gangamma, Peddamma, &c. A proverb says పాడుఊరికి మంచపుకోడుపోతురాజు in a ruined village the leg of a cot is a god. cf., 'a Triton of the minnows' (Shakespeare.) పోత [ pōta ] pōta. [Tel. from పోయు.] n. Pouring, పోయుట. Casting, as of melted metal. Bathing, washing. Eruption of the small pox. ఆకుపోత putting plants into the ground. పెట్టుపోతలు శాశ్వతములుకావు meat and drink (literally, feeding and bathing) are not matters of eternal consequence. పోత pōta. adj. Molten, cast in metal. పోతచెంబు a metal bottle or jug, which has been cast not hammered.

పోతము [ pōtamu ] pōtamu. [Skt.] n. A vessel, boat, ship. ఓడ. The young of any animal. పిల్ల. శిశువు. An elephant ten years old, పదేండ్ల యేనుగు. A cloth,వస్త్రము. శుకపోతము a young parrot. వాతపోతము a young breeze, i.e., a light wind. పోతపాత్రిక pōta-pātrika. n. A vessel, a ship, ఓడ. "సంసార సాగరమతుల ధైర్యపోత పాత్రికనిస్తరింపుముకు మార." M. XII. vi. 222. పోతవణిక్కు or పోతవణిజుడు pōta-vaṇikku. n. A sea-faring merchant. ఓడను కేవుకు పుచ్చుకొన్నవాడు, ఓడ బేరగాడు. పోతవహుడు or పోతనాహుడు pōta-vahuḍu. n. A rower, a boatman, a steersman. ఓడనడుపువాడు, తండేలు.

Shapes of Yupa: A. Commemorative stone yupa, Isapur – from Vogel, 1910-11, plate 23; drawing based on Vedic texts – from Madeleine Biardeau, 1988, 108, fig. 1; cf. 1989, fig. 2); C. Miniature wooden yupa and caSAla from Vaidika Samsodana Mandala Museum of Vedic sacrificial utensils – from Dharmadhikari 1989, 70) (After Fig. 5 in Alf Hiltebeitel, 1988, The Cult of Draupadi, Vol. 2, Univ. of Chicago Press, p.22)

Clonfad is an early medieval ecclesiastical enclosure, 10% of which was excavated in 2004-5, in advance of the N6/N52 link road. Work revealed important evidence for iron hand-bell production, intensive iron-working, and other artisan and agricultural production activity. Clonfad, founded in the mid 6th century (by Librán) was a daughter house of St. Finnian's Clonard, Co Meath and roughly the same size and morphology as Nendrum, Co Down. This extract includes selected chapters from the book, P.Stevens & J.Channing 2012 Settlement and Community  in the Fir Tulach Kingdom, NRA and Westmeath County Council, detailing three neighbouring and contemporary enclosure sites, excavated on the N6/N52 road schemes in Co Westmeath by the authors.

This book presents a new study of Greek large-scale bronze statuary of the late Archaic and Classical periods. It examines the discovery, origin, style, date, artistic attribution, identification, and interpretation of the surviving bronzes, and focuses in particular on their technical features and casting techniques. It contains over 170 plates of photographs and drawings to illustrate its discussion.

It also places the development of the casting techniques in connection with the stylistic evolution in Greek free-standing sculpture. During the Classical period, artists preferred bronze to marble when creating their contrapposto figures. Indisputably, bronze gave particular freedom to artists in creating three-dimensional figures. In addition, the evolution in style encouraged the development of the uses of bronze to serve the new needs and tendencies in sculpture during the late Archaic and especially the Classical period. Through the examination of how technical matters affect style, this book presents fresh interpretations of these important monuments of Greek art and offers a new approach in the field of Greek free-standing bronze sculpture.

The article analyzes the current status of innovative-investment development of metallurgical enterprises of Ukraine. The use of modern technologies of steel production and of resource-saving is investigated. The properties of the innovative-investment processes in the metallurgical industry are determined. The methods of stimulation of innovative-investment development of metallurgical enterprises by the state are proposed.

В отходах пирометаллургического производства меди накоплено значительное количество отвальных шлаков. Даже при среднем содержании меди в них 0,30–0,80 %, видно, что потери металлы
составляет значительных. В этой связи задача создания  рациональной и комплексной технологии переработки шлаков и промпродуктов медного производства является весьма актуальной. В статье рассмотрен инновационный метод снижения потерь меди со шлаком. Для проведения этого исследования
использованы восстановительно-сульфидирующих комплексы (ВСК), состоящие из клинкеров цинкового производства и хвостов обогатительных фабрик АГМК. Полученные результаты  показывает, что внедрение данной технологии в промышленность позволит повысить комплексности использование сырья.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the production feasibility of triaxial whiteware using sand from cast iron moulds as a raw material instead of silica, and recycled glass in place of feldspar. Formulations were prepared using sand, glass waste, and white-firing clay such that only 50% of the composition was virgin material (clay). The ceramic bodies were formed by pressing and fired at different temperatures (between 1100 and 1300 degrees C). Specimens were characterized in terms of green density prior to firing; and their flexural strength, linear shrinkage, and water absorption were measured after firing. The microstructure was determined by scanning electron microscopy. Possible environmental impacts of this recycling process were also evaluated, through solubility and leaching tests, according to Brazilian standards. Gaseous emissions during the firing process were also analysed. The results showed that it is possible to produce triaxial ceramics by using such alternati...

Heterogeneous synthesis of monodisperse pure nickel nanoparticles in aqueous medium has been carried out using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and a lower alkylammonium bromide mixture of tetraethylammonium bromide and tetrabutylammonium bromide. The presence ...

Har yili dunyo miqyosida insonlarning koʻpayishi, ishlab chiqarish va
sanoatning kengayishi katta shaharlarning globallashuvi bu - oziq-ovqat tanqisligi, ishlab chiqarish va sanoat chiqindi gazlari, qattiq hamda suyuq chiqindilari, maishiy chiqindilarni hosil boʻlishiga olib kelmoqda. Misol qilib aytsak, yer yuzida har kuni 11 250 000 tonnadan ortiq chiqindi hosil boʻladi va bu balandligi 3 km, eni 1 km boʻlgan chiqindi togʻi deganidir. Bundan tashqari, sanoat va ishlab chiqarish chiqindilari hajmi maishiy chiqindidan bir necha marotaba koʻproq miqdorni tashkil etadi. Bu holat esa kelajakda inson va atrof-muhitni qanday katta ekologik muammolarga duch kelishi mumkinligini isbotidir.

Purpose of this paper is to improve parameters of metal structures elements of hoisting-and-transport machines (HTMs) by means of systematic approach to study changes of their stress-strain state during design or usage stage. Subject of the study is pattern of changes in distribution and values of stresses in elements of metal structures of HTMs depending on the structural and parametric characteristics. Design methodology of metal structures of HTMs on the basis of a portal crane is proposed, it is based on strength calculations using methods of allowable stresses and FEM, 3D computer simulation, system analysis of the stress-strain state and structural-parametric synthesis. Results of modeling of loading state and calculations of the portal crane metal structures on strength by FEM in CAD/CAE system, analysis of their stress-strain state, structural-parametric synthesis are presented. Recommendations on practical application of the results are given. Possible ways of further development of proposed solutions are identified.

Vertical cylindrical vessel-chambers as a part of coal — drying plants, whose purpose is to collect wastewater, are supported at 3 points in upper dish head area and are made of fine-grained Mn steel plates, joined by welding. Significant thinning and leaking in upper dish head area of the vessel occurred due to original design provoking an intensive abrasion, cracking and rupture. After reconstruction, in the upper zone of cylindrical shell, two new joints were made in sity by manual arc welding, with subsequent, local post-weld heat treatment. However, cracks appeared firstly in new welded zones in radial and axial joints, and then in zones of openings. Later, the similar failure features began to appear in the area of original welded joints. All of these cracks were repaired by properly specified technology. Unfortunately, after some period of exploitation the initiation of new cracks was observed, at first by the visual inspection. This problem was detected in the repaired areas...

Monel is an enigma. Poorly understood and grossly under-researched, the alloy has largely been ignored despite its importance in the first half of the twentieth century in the history of metallurgy and the moderne style. In exterior environments Monel’s weathered appearance is commonly misidentified as Bronze, while in interior contexts, it is regularly assumed as nickel silver. The break-up of the International Nickel Company has scattered historical and technical data, leading to an information vacuum that sees historic Monel painted, waxed, or lacquered, with no grasp of the potential impact on it. The first part of this published work covers the production and processes of the International Nickel Company, the dominance of the Creighton mine, the methods for ore separation and smelting in Ontario, Canada, and the subsequent refining in West Virginia, United States. Covering the impact of both world wars, demand and discoloration, it explains the background on this rare and underappreciated architectural “white metal.”

PCDD/F homologue profiles and 2,3,7,8 chlorine-substituted congener patterns are studied using principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis. Measurement data from different industrial metallurgical processes such as iron and steel manufacturing, copper smelters and aluminium plants are compared. It appears that the PCDD/F homologue profiles from industrial metallurgical processes are similar to those from municipal solid waste incinerators. The 2,3,7,8 chlorine-substituted congener pattern from copper smelters is also very similar to that of municipal solid waste incinerators. However, the 2,3,7,8 chlorine-substituted congener pattern from an aluminum plant is very different, 2,3,7,8-TCDF being by far the most important TCDF congener.

Rotary degassing is one of the most frequently used melt treatment technologies used for processing liquid aluminum alloys. Despite this, the information available about the possible effects of this method on the double oxide-and nitride film (bifilm) content, especially when using different purging gases, is quite limited. For this reason, in this study, the effects of multiple rotary degassing treatments conducted with N 2 and Ar purging gases on the bifilm quantity of a casting aluminum alloy were compared. The characterization of the melt quality was realized by the computed tomographic (CT) analysis of reduced pressure test (RPT) specimens, image analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the fracture surfaces of K-mold samples. Based on the results, by the application of Ar as a purging gas, relatively low bifilm content can be achieved. On the other hand, while the use of N 2 leads to the formation of numerous small-sized nitride bifilms, which significantly increased the pore number density inside the RPT specimens. This can be associated with the nitride formation by the chemical reaction between the liquid aluminum alloy and the N 2 purging gas bubbles during the degassing treatments.

As a result of optimisation of high current circuit for the furnace 7.75 MVA, its substitute values of phase reactances have been considerably decreased and its asymmetry has been minimised. Decrease in the voltage drop of the high current circuit influenced advantageously a change in furnace electrical parameters and forced increase in its electric resistance. It influenced positively increase in power factor cos φ and increased the furnace active power. In spite of an  improvement in properties of the high current circuit, in the early stage after furnace modernisation, a deterioration of technical and economic indices of ferrosilicon FeSi75 melting process was experienced and an expected improvement in energy consumption rate was not achieved. It was  found that it was connected with the influence of the change in electric parameters of the high current circuit on decrease in the depth of immersion of electrodes which influenced negatively temperature conditions of the process.

Laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing is used for demanding applications in industries such as aerospace. However, machine-specific, optimized process conditions and parameters are required to assure consistent part quality. In addition, differences in supplied powder can cause variation in the mechanical properties of the final parts. In this paper, the variability in mechanical properties of 316L stainless steel produced with two different laser powder bed fusion machines from two different powder batches was studied by producing an identical set of tensile and impact toughness test specimens. The samples were subjected to stress-relieving, solution annealing and hot isostatic pressing to assess the effectiveness of standardized heat-treatments in reducing variation in the mechanical properties of the built parts. Porosity, microstructure, tensile properties, and impact toughness of the specimens were measured to study the effect of changing the material, machine, and heat treatment. The maximum differences observed between the studied machine-powder combinations were approximately 7% for tensile properties and approximately 20% for impact toughness. HIP reduced the variability in all other studied properties except elongation. All the specimens fulfil the minimum requirements set in ASTM F3184-16 for AM 316L.