Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

Groundwater potential mapping (GWPM) in the coastal zone is crucial for the planning and development of society and the environment. The current study is aimed to map the groundwater potential zones of Sindhudurg coastal stretch on the west coast of India, using three machine learning models: random forest (RF), boosted regression tree (BRT), and the ensemble of RF and support vector machine (SVM). In order to achieve the objective, 15 groundwater influencing factors including elevation, slope, aspect, slope length (LS), profile curvature, plan curvature, topographical wetness index (TWI), distance from streams, distance from lineaments, lithology, geomorphology, soil, land use, normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and rainfall were considered for inter-thematic correlations and overlaid with spring and well occurrences in a spatial database. A total of 165 spring and well locations were identified, which had been divided into two classes: training and validation, at the ratio of 70:30, respectively. The RF, BRT, and RF-SVM ensemble models have been applied to delineate the groundwater potential zones and categorized into five classes, namely very high, high, moderate, low, and very low. RF, BRT, and ensemble model results showed that 33.3%, 35.6%, and 36.8% of the research area had a very high groundwater potential zone. These models were validated with area under the receiver operating characteristics (AUROC) curve. The accuracy of RF (94%) and hybrid model (93.4%) was more efficient than BRT (89.8%) model. In order to further evaluate and validate, four different sites were subsequently chosen, and we obtained similar results, ensuring the validity of the applied models. Additionally, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) technique was applied to predict the groundwater table and validated by measured wells. The mean difference between measured and GPR predicted groundwater table was 14 cm, which reflected the importance of GPR to guide the location of new wells in the study region. The outcomes of the study will help the decision-makers, government agencies, and private sectors for sustainable planning of groundwater in the area. Overall, the present study provides a comprehensive high-precision machine learning and GPR-based groundwater potential mapping.

In 2003, the authors were shown a chart which contained an obscure reference to ‘hulks’ that were located along the entrance to the Yarra River at Melbourne, Australia. Local researchers had identified that the vessels on the map may have been the remains of former gold-rush era prison hulks which were once located off Williamstown,bin Hobsons Bay. If true, these buried vessels represent a significant resource for understanding the nature of
this nineteenth century form of incarceration. However, geo-referencing of historic plans indicates that the last known position of the hulks is now beneath reclaimed land. With limited scope for invasive testing, an interesting methodological question emerged of how to confirm the archaeological potential for physical remains to survive in situ. This paper briefly reports on the historical context of the five Victorian government prison hulks, known as the ‘Yellow Fleet’ (Vinson 1988: 4). In particular it presents an overview of the operation and discard of the prison
vessels Deborah and Sacramento (1852—85), and considers
the case developed through documentary research and GIS analysis that these later became the Yarra River hulks. It also explores the potential for the presence of surviving physical remains through the use of ground penetrating radar. This research forms part of a larger ongoing studies of maritime infrastructure in the Port Phillip Bay region (Duncan 2006), shipbreaking industries (see Duncan 2008a; 2008b & 2012; Gibbs & Duncan 2013) and of Australian Convict and prison systems (Gibbs 2012).

Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a technique based on sending electromagnetic (EM) waves through the structure and then recording the reflected signals, which present at dielectric discontinuities into the structure. Peak detection of GPR data is important for the diagnosis of ground infrastructures. This paper describes the application of lifting wavelet transform (LWT) to detect peaks in GPR signals. These peaks are used to calculate the two-way travel times ti of the EM waves between the antenna and the layers i. Then distances di are calculated from these times. The measured values (distances) are compared with the manually determined values. The performance of peak detection with Lifting Wavelet Transform was evaluated by computing the mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). The results clearly indicate that this method is perfectly able to estimate thickness within 14.27%, mean average error rate which justifies and validates the model used.

With the Church Act in 1706, the General Assembly of South Carolina established the Church of England as the official church of the colony and defined ten parishes. Soon after, missionaries were dispatched from England and churches constructed. Little archaeological research has been conducted on colonial South Carolina Anglican churches, so any archaeological intervention offers a rare opportunity to understand them.

The Caribbean island of Carriacou is notable for its recurrent drought, paucity of large, native land animals, and well-developed bank and barrier reef system. These environmental conditions presented challenges and opportunities to the Amerindians, Europeans, and enslaved Africans who settled here through time. While available evidence suggests human presence has altered island ecology through agriculture, deforestation, erosion, species introductions, and extinction, overall human ecodynamics remain poorly understood. In 2018, the Carriacou Ecodynamics Archaeology Project (CEAP) initiated a field program investigating long-term human-environment interaction to reconstruct Carriacou’s landscape history. The CEAP seeks to develop high-resolution records for anthropogenic habitat modification and change in biotic communities from initial Amerindian settlement (ca. AD 400) through the colonial period (1740s–1974) up to the present. Pilot investigations comprising pedestrian survey, test pitting, site mapping, and geophysical survey targeted the coastal archaeological site Sabazan, where ca. 1,600 years of pre- and post-contact settlement are recorded. Here, we present the results of this first field season, demonstrating the potential of geophysical survey approaches in the Caribbean and the need for renewed, focused attention to Carriacou’s archaeological resources which are being rapidly lost due to coastal erosion.

Colle Rotondo is a Latin nucleated village which lies on an 8-hectare plateau about 45 kilometres south of Rome and 7 km north of the Latin city of Antium.
Since 2009 this area has been investigated by the joint research project of the University of Rome Tor Vergata, University of Roma La Sapienza and University of Roma Tre.
The site was settled since the Mid Bronze Age, but for the Final Bronze Age - Early Iron Age there is evidence of a complex defensive system composed of a ditch and an earthwork reinforced by a framework of wood, which delimits an area of about 8 hectares.
Between the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 6th century the settlement had a further inner fortification, which reinforced the military value of the site, but the whole village was abandoned by the end of the 4th century BC when the Romanization of the area, after the Latin war, led to the dismantling of the previous boundary fortress.

Abstract Borre in Norway is famous for its Late Nordic Iron and Viking Age (AD 400–1050) monumental burial mounds. Recently, ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys have revealed three large structures close to the mound cemetery. Their unusual layout and size, and location within such a prominent burial site, suggest that they were halls—high-status buildings mentioned in the Nordic sagas. The authors present the GPR results, discuss the buildings’ typological classification and provide a preliminary chronological framework. The latter suggests that the buildings coexisted with some of the burial mounds, and raises important questions about the significance of such buildings in Nordic mound-building societies.

Today in the twenty first century the Missile technology is rapidly developing with the advancement of the science. In today's world all types of missiles uses the principle of combustion for its movement. So, until the new technology initiates the tracking of the missile is possible. These missiles can be tracked with the help of Radar, microwave sensing, etc. These equipment are highly advanced and too costly for every developing country to purchase and implement it for their safety.In order to make its design simple, easy to install and to achieve its efficiency, keeping this in background the project has been designed in such a manner that the Missile is detected using an Ultra-sonic sensor at cheaper cost. This will make the proposed system to be an economical, portable and low maintenance solution for tracking a missile. A plane or a unrecognized object by is sensed by the radar up to a certain limit. The thought achieves the same results by the robotic action automatically for possible application in military and industrial usage.

The main aim of the study is to indicate the a predictive deconvolution and F-K filtering processing to the ground penetrating radar (GPR) data to remove clutter effects and multiple reflections in a stratified media such as a thin layered coalmine in Afsin-Elbistan, Turkey. The second aim was to research a probable sinkhole form and map instable site. A predictive deconvolution and F-K filtering has been employed together to the traditional processed the GPR data to remove clutter and multiples in Afsin-Elbistan coalmine which has been formed by the inter-bedded coal and gyttja about a hundred meters. It was important to determine possible sinkhole forms near to surface in the study area. However, clutter effect and multiples were covering the actual data on the traditional processed GPR radargrams. The processed radargrams including the predictive deconvolution processing, F-K filtering and migration indicated that these noise was almost removed according to the traditional processed radargrams. Finally, the possible instable areas were mapped on the site.

Drones are becoming essential in the field of heritage surveying, especially for large-scale archaeological site. The precision offered by the new survey tools (UAVs, sensors, processing software, etc.) should make it possible to obtain enough information to complete the plan of a site on an urban scale. This paper shows the use of two types of sensors embedded simultaneously on a UAV with the aim of highlighting information that is often difficult to detect on the ground. By crossing RGB and thermal data, certain built-up limits seem to appear. Thanks to this new information, hypotheses of the urban structure are proposed. In other words, the aim is to bring out circulation hypotheses within a large complex archaeological site. Unlike the field of architectural survey where thermography is widely used, for example, to identify certain building pathologies, in archeology this technique does not seem to be part of the traditional survey pipeline and even less on large-scale sites. The possibility of using a third type of sensor is also sketched. The aerial-GPR would in fact make it possible to confirm the presence of a buried structure without having to go through systematic excavation and could provide a threedimensional image of the ruins.

The multi-segmented stronghold in Tarnawa Rzepińska is located approximately 2 km north of the village Tarnawa Rzepińska and approximately 5.5 km east of Rzepin. Using the physical and geographical division of Poland, it can be located in the physical and geographical mesoregion of the Torzymska Plain, previously known as the Rzepińska Plain. The site was located on a three-apex keme, occupying the eastern, highest and steepest kem hill.
The main segment of the hillfort, with external dimensions of about 100 × 66 m, is located in the eastern part of the hill. The courtyard, circa 70 × 30 m, is lowered in relation to the top part of well-preserved walls by about 1 m. The relics of the fortifications from the outer base are 8 to 9 m high. In the western part, a clear gap is visible in the wall, which may be a trace of the gate. On the west side, the oval stronghold is adjoined by two horseshoe-shaped sections with an area of 0.5-0.6 ha each. There are probably traces of gates visible in both of them, on the axis. In total, all these elements of the stronghold cover an area of approximately 1.9 ha.
The hillfort was already known in the pre-war period as a stronghold in Rypine or Poleńsk (German Pollenzig). The information included in the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie from 1897, indicate that during the research carried out at that time, fragments of pottery, animal bones and stone axes were discovered there. The research in the post-war period was carried out only in 1957 (surface survey by Wojciech Śmigielski, and excavations were carried out in June and at the beginning of July, 1966. They were conducted by Edward Dąbrowski on behalf of the Lubusz Museum in Zielona Góra. At that time only one trench was made (clearly visible on the Digital Terrain Model) and three small test trenches. Later, only surface surveys were carried out in the settlement, led by Adam Kołodziejski (in 1973) and Andrzej Marcinkian (in 1982). In 2019, as part of the project financed by National Institute of Heritage and the Friends of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences, a non-invasive research was carried out, which mainly covered the northern part of the hillfort. In 2020, surface resistivity sounding survey was continued in the southern part of the site. In 2019-2020, detailed research related to the reconstruction of the natural environment in the Early Middle Ages was also carried out.
Not much space has been devoted to the stronghold in Tarnawa Rzepińska in the literature so far. Apart from the pre-war mentions briefly discussed above, the most information was collected in the last volume of Studies and Materials for the Settlement of Early Historical Greater Poland. On the basis of a preliminary analysis of the pottery, it was determined that the stronghold functioned in phases B and C of the Early Middle Ages.
During this two-year project, detailed analyzes concerning the reconstruction of the original natural environment (palynological, geomorphological and zooarchaeological analyzes) were carried out, including also detailed geophysical surveys and elaboration of the results of excavations conducted in 1966, which resulted in the discovery of several features and a collection of over 4,000 pottery fragments. Ceramics was analyzed with using interdisciplinary research model, as in addition to the classic macroscopic analysis of pottery fragments, specialist analyzes were performed – petrographic and chemical.
Palynological analyzes
Studies on the reconstruction of the former environment showed that the natural vegetation in the vicinity of the site in Tarnawa Rzepińska was composed of forest communities. They had the character of multi-species deciduous ecosystems or with the dominance of one taxon. A number of deciduous plant communities were associated with water reservoirs. There were riparian forests in the river valley, and alders developed in oxbow lakes and in flooded areas.
Zooarchaeological analyzes
The examined sample of animal remains made it possible to obtain another set of zooarchaeological data from the so-called borderland of Greater Poland-Lubusz in the pre-Piast period. It is however one of the less numerous, among those studied so far. Hence, the set of information obtained from it is also very small. It seems that only the list of fauna and the number of remains of individual taxa can be a reliable basis for reflection on some features of the principles of animal management.
Geophisical surveys
Due to the fact that the entire area of the stronghold (three segments) could have played residential role and traces of houses, invisible on the surface, could be preserved, in order to study the structure of the fortifications, it was decided to conduct non-invasive research using three geophysical methods: magnetic, electrical resistivity and radar. The use of three methods resulted from the repeatedly confirmed observation that the integration of the results of several geophysical methods gives a much larger amount of information than only in the case of using a single method.
Summarizing the results of the geophysical prospecting, it should be stated that despite the relatively good condition of the site, none of the methods used allowed to register traces of regular structures within the suburbiums and acropolis. Considering the highest part of the site (“acropolis”), magnetic studies have shown the existence of a settlement episode, most likely related to the modern stage of history. Within the highest part of the site, anomalies have been documented, which may suggest the existence of additional fortifications at the tops of the embankments surrounding this part, and in their external coatings. A similar situation was also observed in the area of the first and second suburbiums. In addition, the presence of fortifications beyond the defense system visible in the LiDAR imaging was detected using the magnetic and electrical resistivity methods. An interesting feature is also a negative magnetic anomaly with a circular outline, located in the western part of the second borough. Directly next to it, on the west side, two anomalies were also found, which may be the remains of a wooden gate. The northern one of these anomalies is reflected in a higher-resistance structure recorded at the same location.
It should be borne in mind that not all archaeological features may be manifested in the image resulting from geophysical research. For this reason, the interpretation of the lack of internal structures should be treated with appropriate caution. Similarly, interpretations regarding fortifications and the remains of a possible gate require verification in test trenches or archaeological coring.
Analysis of pottery
Research carried out in 1966 resulted in the discovery of over 4,000 pottery fragments. Fragments of the vessels predominate (4,072 shards: 382 rims, 3,572 bellies and 118 base parts), but also 59 construction daub and 37 fragments of the so-called prażnice – clay roasting pans, were discovered. The records in the field inventory show that two fragments of clay spindle whorls were also found, but now these items should be considered lost.
During the analysis the pottery finds, I consciously gave up of considering such elements as: macroscopic determination of the type and amount of the temper and the method of firing. These features were discussed before by Piotr Gunia in separate chapters of this publication. 331 taxonomic units (hereinafter units) were analyzed in detail, including 9 units which were examined with using specialized analyzes. The use of methods taken from the natural sciences made it possible to compare the obtained research results with the results of similar analyzes carried out for over 600 samples of early medieval pottery from the Mid-Odra river area. Macroscopic analyzes were performed on the following features of the vessels: the morphological type of the fragment, walls thickness, diameter of the rim and base, texture and degree of alignment of both surfaces, traces related to the structure of the vessel (various impressions, traces of kneading and joining of clay tapes, smoothing and traces of coting). The final stage of the macroscopic analysis was to determine the type of rim, the base, assigning the vessel to a specific family of form types and the methods of decoration.
Almost 70% of units was ornamented. The motifs from group II, type IV and IX, characteristic for the Menkendorf pottery, were the most numerous. Fragments of pottery of the Feldberg Type were noted sporadically. There are no fragments that can be connected with the Tornow Type.

Santa Elena, located on Parris Island along the coast of South Carolina, was the first capital, and northernmost permanent settlement, of Spanish La Florida. Over two decades of occupation (AD 1566-1587), five forts were successively built while by AD 1569 a burgeoning Spanish settlement of over 200 people, complete with artisans, farmers, and Jesuit missionaries, flourished. Here, we articulate the results of recent, full-coverage ground-penetrating radar and magnetic gradiometry surveys with over 40 years of extant archaeological data to elucidate organizational characteristics of the Spanish settlement at Santa Elena. In particular, we use geophysical data to identify the potential locations of buried Spanish wells across the site. We identify roughly 200 potential well locations and compare these locations to the distribution of Spanish artifacts across the site yielded through a full-coverage shovel test survey, the arrangement of Spanish structures known from large-scale block excavations, and the likely position of roadways and house lots. This new data is used to contextualize and refine extant understandings of Santa Elena's town plan while also contributing to a broader research program devoted to exploring Spanish colonial life and settlement in 16 th-century North America (The Santa Elena Landscape Project). As Santa Elena is a National Historic Landmark currently threatened by rising sea levels, this work contributes to an efficient, minimally invasive research program devoted to exploring the Spanish settlement at Santa Elena and to documenting the range of cultural resources present at the site for the purposes of protection and remediation in the context of significant, ongoing shoreline erosion.

In this article, we present the most significant results of the Monte Albán Geophysical Archaeology Project. Using groundpenetrating radar, gradiometry, and electrical resistance, we carried out a systematic survey of the site's Main Plaza to identify buried prehispanic features that might shed light on Monte Albán's early history. The most important discoveries include three buried structures dating between the Danibaan (500-300 BC) and Nisa phases (100 BC-AD 100). We argue that the largest structure, measuring 18 × 18 m, was probably a temple platform and that all three of the structures were razed and buried by the end of the Nisa phase at the latest. Furthermore, we contend that these events were part of a major renovation and expansion of the site's Main Plaza that occurred during a pivotal period of dramatic sociopolitical transformation in the Zapotec capital.

The paper presents a brief research history of the Roman auxiliary fort of Călugăreni and the results of the
recent GPR measurements made in the north-eastern corner area of the fort. During the measurements the
exact location of the angle tower, parts of the defensive features and buildings from the praetentura have
been identified.

This article will present for the first time some of the results of unique research in which Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) was used to produce scans and images of the stones of the Western Wall in the area of Robinson’s Arch. The imaging was done in the southern part of the Western Wall, from Mughrabi Gate ramp south as far as the southwestern corner of the Temple Mount enclosure. The length of the southern part of the wall is c. 63 m and the height of the walls mapped is between 17.30 and 28.90 m (Fig. 1). These data do not include the portions of wall excavated under the Herodian Street, where we took sample measurements.

This research highlighted the advantages of using GPR to collect and record detailed data from the stones of the southern portion Western Wall. It also showed how this method of mapping and investigation of archaeological monuments allows us to fairly easily obtain graphic data in two-dimensional and/or three-dimensional images Perhaps useful for archaeological analysis.

A pesar de la atención prestada por la historiografía al problema del sistema portuario antiguo gaditano persisten aún numerosas lagunas en su conocimiento. La génesis de este sistema se remonta a la colonización arcaica fenicia y su desarrollo posterior atiende a los sucesivos cambios políticos y culturales producidos en la ciudad de Gadir/Gades que fue pieza clave en los circuitos de navegación Atlántico-Mediterráneos. Además la comunidad y la ciudad gaditana no se concibe como una construcción mononuclear sino como una expresión polinuclear que ocupa y ordena el espacio hoy conocido como la Bahía de Cádiz, donde se instala una compleja realidad poblacional y un no menos complejo sistema portuario, sometido a lo largo de la Antigüedad a vicisitudes e importantes cambios históricos y geográficos durante más de un milenio.
Pero el avance de las investigaciones arqueológicas aportan cada vez más datos e información para revisar las hipótesis sobre la ubicación y el funcionamiento del sistema portuario gaditano antiguo, obligando a incorporar nuevos elementos, y reforzando la perspectiva de la existencia de un sistema portuario articulado no tanto sobre la ciudad de Gades y sus inmediaciones, sino sobre la integridad del espacio litoral de la bahía gaditana.
La particular geomorfología de la bahía, tanto del archipiélago que acoge a su principal ciudad como del entorno geográfico costero, ha dificultado adicionalmente la localización de su sistema portuario. Presentamos en esta contribución los datos e hipótesis principales existentes actualmente sobre la localización de las infraestructuras portuarias, tanto en la urbs de Gades como en otros enclaves de la Bahía. Para valorar estas evidencias consideramos de especial interés los trabajos que nuestro equipo de investigación viene desarrollando sobre los antecedentes históricos del puerto gaditano, gracias al hallazgo del asentamiento portuario púnico de La Martela (El Puerto de Santa María) mediante el empleo del georradar multicanal, un establecimiento de una magnitud que obliga a repensar los modelos de puertos antiguos que se quieren identificar en el ámbito gaditano.

The excavated architecture of the exceptional prehistoric site of Akrotiri on the Greek island of Thera/Santorini is endangered by gradual decay, damage due to accidents, and seismic shocks, being located on an active volcano in an earthquake-prone area. Therefore, in 2013 and 2014 a digital documentation project has been conducted with support of the National Geographic Society in order to generate a detailed digital model of Akrotiri's architecture using terrestrial laser scanning and image-based modeling. Additionally, non-invasive geophysical prospection has been tested in order to investigate its potential to explore and map yet buried archaeological remains. This article describes the project and the generated results.

The Roman city of Balsa: new data and some problems of geophysical prospecting in very humanized environments. From May 2016 to May 2017, archaelogical work was carried out in the ancient Roman city of Balsa, a classified site located in the vicinity of Luz de Tavira. Systematic archaeological surveys, geophysical surveys and archaeological surveys were conducted in a large área. After a brief introduction to the importance and potential of the archaeological site, object of several destructions, we presente the results of the developed field work, focusing on the geospatial contextualization of the archaeological data, being later approached the chronoestratigraphic information. This sequence is dictated by the methodological consistency applied in the terrain and results obtained, by the scale of the áreas probed in relation of the size of the territory of the city of Balsa, and by the high archaeological-patrimonial relevance of the site. Finally, an approach is taken to some problems arising from the application of the diferente geophisical methods in abandoned urban sites, but with na intensive agricultural use of the soils for more than a Millennium, as is the case of the lands where the Roman city of Balsa was implanted.

The time (vertical) resolution enhancement of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data by deconvolution is a long-standing problem due to the mixed-phase characteristics of the source wavelet. Several approaches have been proposed, which take the mixed-phase nature of the GPR source wavelet into account. However, most of these schemes are usually laborious and/or computationally intensive and have not yet found widespread use. Here, we propose a simple and fast approach to GPR deconvolution that requires only a minimal user input. First, a trace-by-trace minimum-phase (spiking) deconvolution is applied to remove the minimum-phase part of the mixed-phase GPR wavelet. Then, a global phase rotation is applied to maximize the sparseness (kurtosis) of the minimum-phase deconvolved data to correct for phase distortions that remain after the minimum-phase deconvolution. Applications of this scheme to synthetic and field data demonstrate that a significant improvement in image quality can be achieved, leading to deconvolved data that are a closer representation of the underlying reflectivity structure than the input or minimum-phase deconvolved data. Synthetic-data tests indicate that, because of the temporal and spatial correlation inherent in the GPR data due to the frequency-and wavenumber-bandlimited nature of the GPR source wavelet and the reflectivity structure, a significant number of samples are required for a reliable sparse-ness (kurtosis) estimate and stable phase rotation. This observation calls into question the blithe application of kurtosis-based methods within short time windows such as that for time-variant deconvolution.