Survey (Archaeological Method & Theory)

George P. Nicholas, Amy Roberts, David M. Schaepe, Joe Watkins, Lyn Leader-Elliot and Susan Rowley Department of Anthropology, Simon Fraser University; Department of Archaeology, Flinders University; Stó:lō Research and Resource Management Centre; Native American Studies Program, University of Oklahoma; Department of Archaeology, Flinders University; Museum of Anthropology, University of British Columbia nicholas@sfu.ca; amy.roberts@flinders.edu.au; dave.schaepe@stolonation.bc.ca; jwatkins@ou.edu; lyn.leader-elliott@flinders.edu.au; srowley@interchange.ubc.ca

Increased interaction between indigenous peoples and archaeologists has raised a number of issues, primary among which is the nature of appropriate theoretical structures. Many alternate perspectives may be useful. However. the issue is complicated by the presence of two types of knowledge systems: subjective knowledge held unavailable for evaluation (e.g. some religious beliefs). and objective knowledge that can be evaluated by individuals employing different perspectives (e.g.. some migration stories). Subjective knowledge is inherently personal and consensus on these issues may not be possible. In contrast. evaluation of objective knowledge may allow indigenous groups and archaeologists to reach a consensus concerning the past.

Este libro plantea una síntesis de uno de los temas metodológicos que más desarrollo ha conocido en la Arqueología de los últimos treinta años. Desde que en la década de los 1960 la disciplina arqueológica superase definitivamente el esquema que mantenía al artefacto como objetivo epistemológico principal y a la excavación como único vehículo capaz de alcanzarlo, las teorías, métodos y técnicas de reconocimiento y análisis territorial se han expandido de una forma acelerada. Ello ha creado un ámbito de estudio y práctica profesional de la Arqueología, del cual, a pesar de su pujanza y de la diversidad y complejidad de procedimientos técnicos y nociones teóricas que aparecen implicadas, todavía no se había realizado una verdadera síntesis en lengua española. Este manual ofrece a los jóvenes estudiantes y practicantes de la Arqueología actual un tratamiento riguroso, pero accesible, de los principios aplicados tanto en la detección y caracterización de sitios arqueológicos en el territorio actual (prospección de superficie, prospección geofísica, empleo de imágenes captadas por plataformas aéreas y espaciales, cartografía arqueológica), como en la interpretación de las pautas de aprovechamiento, organización y percepción del territorio que se dieron entre las sociedades del Pasado.

SUMMARY: Chapter 3, in Renfrew & Bahn's textbook (Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice), covers many approaches to looking for and finding sites, and archaeological remains within sites, such as historical and local reports, ground reconnaissance (e.g., walking surveys; sampling strategies), aerial surveys (e.g., LiDAR; crop marks), satellite remote sensing, recording & mapping (e.g., GIS), subsurface detection (e.g., probes), ground-based remote sensing (seismic; acoustic; electromagnetic; magnetic; etc.), excavation techniques, underwater archaeology, and processing & classification.  In my view, this is one of the best college textbooks available, and is invaluable for students, archaeologists, and the public in general, to obtain a top notch overview of approaching and interpreting the archaeological record.  REVISED: Jan. 2023.

The dynamic environmental history and relative sea level (RSL) changes experienced on the Northwest Coast of North America during the early post-glacial period and the early Holocene resulted in significant archaeological visibility challenges for prospection of early coastal archaeological sites. This study offers an integrated methodological approach in support of locating palaeo-coastal sites by combining: (1) geomorphic interpretation of landscape attributes captured by LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) mapping; (2) GIS-based archaeological site potential mapping; and (3) local RSL history. The RSL history for the study site (Quadra Island, British Columbia, Canada) shows notable regression over the past 14,300 years from a highstand of at least 197 m resulting from post-glacial isostatic rebound. Late Pleistocene and early Holocene palaeo-shorelines are found inland from, and elevated above, modern sea level and represent key areas for archaeological prospecting. Bare-earth D...

During the past few years, systematic field survey has revealed an important regional variation within Roman Italy. The settlement pattern that emerges in the Marche-region along the Central- Adriatic coast has many points of similarity with other regions of Italy, yet the precise details are unique. For example, the region was clearly wealthier than Molise, where there was a striking decline in the number of sites inhabited between the late Republic and the second century AD. On the other hand, comparisons with Latium or South Etruria may be inappropriate, given the superior markets available to those areas. Rural settlement in the Marche reaches a peak in the first century BC, when land allotments were made to army veterans, and in the first century AD. From the second century on, there is a gradual reduction in the number of sites in occupation, and absorption of smallholdings by the larger estates, although the small farms continued to surpass the number of large villas in late Roman times. Some late Roman villas were excavated in the northern area near Emilia-Romagna, influenced by the city of Ravenna, capital of the Western Roman Empire since the early fifth century.

The article presents some of the preliminary results of the project Carta Archeologica del Comune di Nettuno, conducted by the Groningen Instituut of Archaeology (GIA). Surveys within the borders of the community of Nettuno show the presence of a subsistence based economy at least until the mid-Republican period. The construction or paving of the road from Lanuvium to Antium triggers a dramatic shift in settlement type and location and brings the social-economic integration within the Roman Empire for the area under study.

Los yacimientos olvidados: registro y musealización de campos de batalla is a project that aims to encompass all aspects of battlefield archaeology, in order to be a reference work in this study area. Therefore, a detailed historiographical study about this branch of archaeology has been made, from early origins until the present day, allowing us to gain a deeper understanding of the evolution of battlefield archaeology. Two methodologies, archaeological and museographical, are proposed for the treatment of this particular type of archaeological site. In order to prove the viability of both methodologies, a theoretical application has been carried out in two research examples from different periods, demonstrating both the project’s methodological validity and reinforcing our theories.

Two registers were made regarding battlefields ¬- one historical and another archaeological. The purpose of this was to catalogue all possible existing sites in the interior of the Iberian Peninsula from Roman times through to the Spanish Civil War, which will hopefully serve as a point of reference for future researchers. Through this book, people will be able to understand the great potential of Spanish battlefields and their heritage. Furthermore, Spain could be regarded as a very important country regarding battlefield archaeology.

This paper is focused on the virtual reconstruction of a portion of the naos of Temple G of Selinunte, as a case study for the definition of a method of virtual anastylosis and reconstruction of collapsed colonnades in archaeological contexts. Reconstruction is based on the combination of historical research, archaeological analysis, digital surveying, image-based modeling and laser scanning methods. The complexity of the ruins of the temple suggested a thorough archaeological analysis of the fragments of the inner colonnade of the naos. This analysis made it possible to identify reference surfaces and protective or sacrificial surfaces. The study of these surfaces, together with the dimensional data surveyed, provided the information necessary to reposition the fragments in their supposed original position, and thus develop a virtual anastylosis of the colonnade based on reliable data. This experience has shown how virtual reconstruction can be a valid alternative to real re-erection, and can contribute to the advancement of studies of an archaeological monument whilst also ensuring the conservation of the landscape of ruins.

This report describes and summarises the results of a project undertaken on North and South Uist in 2012–13 by RCAHMS in partnership with the Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Western Isles Council) archaeology service (CES). Brief accounts of this project have previously appeared in Discovery and Excavation in Scotland (2013, 205; 2014, 196). The project was undertaken with the primary aims of (a) revising the existing archaeological records for two areas of the Uists, bringing interpretations and descriptions up-to-date; (b) identifying and recording previously unidentified sites; and (c) to enhance the corpus of measured surveys for these areas of the Uists. The highlight of the results was the discovery of a chambered cairn at Hogha Gearraidh and of four prehistoric houses, including a wheelhouse, at Uisinis.

A brief report (67pp: 3 maps, table and SRFs) on a reconnaissance archaeological site survey of part of the Denize Farm Block, at the northern end of Whangapoua Beach on the east coast of the Coromandel Peninsula. The objectives were: to examine historic structures and features known to the Denize family through discovery and previous NZAA recording; to walk over paddocks located within 1km of the coast and record additional archaeological sites; and to report on the survey and provide an interpretation of the archaeology and comment on the significance of the identified historic places.

The brief inspection revealed 11 archaeological sites adjacent to Whangapoua Beach and two of these had been previously recorded (T10/177 and T10/261) being a pa and a pits/terraces and shell midden site. A further three sites outside of the survey were not inspected. The historic places are an interesting collection and together with the sites in the wider area represent a range of both Maori and European activities. The recorded sites broadly suggest the locality has been a favoured settlement area throughout the period of human occupation.

States vegvesen region midt har ansvaret for regionens kulturminner i forbindelse med vegnettet. Dette omfatter blant annet steinhvelvsbruer fra 1800-tallet og gamle vegfar som denne tilstandsanalysen tar for seg. Denne rapporten forsøker å avdekke tilstanden til de synlige kulturminnene og vegens beskaffenhet i forbindelse med de gamle vegene over Gjevingåsen i Stjørdal, Sør-Trøndelag. Tre av de fire eldste vegene ble befart som henholdsvis er fra 1700-tallet, 1835 samt 1859. I tillegg ble fergeleiet "Ferjemannstuggu" ved Sandferhus og et segment av et ukjent vegfar befart. I noen tilfeller gir forfatteren forslag til utbedringer av eventuelle skader, slitasje eller neglisjering av vegfaret.


Norwegian Public Roads Administration has the responsibility for the region’s cultural heritage in connection with the road network. This includes, among other things, stone-arch bridges as well as old roads which this survey focuses on. This report attempts to uncover the physical state of the visible cultural heritage and the condition of the old roads over Gjevingåsen in South-Trøndelag, a hill south of Stjørdal (which lies in North-Trøndelag County). Three of the four oldest roads were inspected; the oldest was constructed during the 1700s while the other two were built in 1835 and 1859. The ferry port, "Ferjemannstuggu" at Sandferhus and a segment of an unknown road were also inspected. In some of the cases, the author gives suggestions for improvements on of any damage, wear or neglect of the roads.

In 1984, on the 50th anniversary of the establishment of the Missouri Archaeological Society (MAS), an article by Eric van Hartesveldt was published in MAS Quarterly 1(4). It was entitled “A Fifty-Year Perspective on the Archaeological Survey of Missouri.” The article provided a brief history of the efforts of archaeological site recording in Missouri from 1934 to 1984 and included a map showing the breakdown of sites recorded by county. By including this figure, the author hoped to illustrate the geographic trends that had characterized site recording during this period and to highlight those counties where relatively few sites had been recorded. It was hoped that MAS members would work to redress this imbalance. Much has changed in our world and in the Missouri archaeological community since 1984, including the trends of archaeological site recording in the state. I was invited by the editors of MAS to provide an update on this subject as a retrospective on the trends that have characterized site recording in Missouri over the past 36 years. Following on the 1984 article, I have also provided a map (Figure 1) showing the numbers of sites by county as they stand at the time of writing, although by the time you read this the numbers will already be out of date since over the course of a year the Missouri SHPO averages about two new site form submissions per day.

With the emergence of modern techniques of environmental analysis and widespread availability of accessible tools and quantitative data, the question of environmental determinism is once again on the agenda. This paper is theoretical in character, attempting, for the benefit of drawing up research designs, to understand and evaluate the character of environmental determinism. We reach three main conclusions: (1) in a typical pattern of research design, studies seek to detect simultaneous shifts in the environmental and archaeological records, variously positing the former to have influenced, triggered or caused the latter; (2) the question of determinism involves uncertainty about the justification for the above research design in particular in what comes to biologism and the concept of environmental thresholds on the one hand and the externality of the drivers of transformation in human groups and societies on the other; (3) adapting the concepts of the social production of vulnera...

Despite a long history of research and conservation dating back to the late 19th century, when the current stage in the management of the three large Antequeran megalithic monuments started in 2004 there was an almost complete absence of high-resolution cartography to support their study and protection. To being to solve this severe deficiency, a high-resolution cartographic survey of Menga through terrestrial laser scanning, 3D modelling and photogrammetry was carried out in 2005. In this paper we present a short summary of that work, describing its technical and conceptual basis as well as the results that were obtained. In addition, we briefly discuss some examples of the highly positive impact this newly developed cartography has had on the management and research of this megalithic monument.

This paper will explore the relationship between the methodologies used in archaeology for recording buildings and landscapes and the development of computer visualisation technology, with specific reference to late antique and Byzantine archaeology. The principal aim is to highlight the applicability of visualisation technologies as the critical solutions to the presentation and investigation of survey data and reciprocally to demonstrate that meaningful computer visualisations benefit from a secure underpinning of archaeological survey data. My intention is to show that computer visualisation should not be seen solely as a vehicle for archaeological reconstruction but rather can be viewed as an integral part of the process of interpretation.

The first of two case studies is the Anastasian Wall Project, a survey of a massive linear fortification in Turkish Thrace, which presented a series of practical problems both in terms of data capture and representation. The applicability of computer-based techniques for the integration and visualisation of various forms of survey data will be further investigated through the study of the Alacami, a multi-period Byzantine church in Cilicia,
before some final comment is made on the current and potential roles of
computer visualisation in Byzantine archaeology.

The Applied Archaeology Laboratories (AAL) of Ball State University conducted an archaeological reconnaissance project for archaeological materials in Hamilton County, Indiana, for an FY2012 Historic Preservation Fund Grant (Grant #18-12-41921-4). This Historic Preservation Fund grant project investigated the archaeological resources of Hamilton County, Indiana. This specific project focused on the White River and its associated tributaries, as well as the southern half of the county. Approximately 565 acres (228.55 ha) of agricultural land underwent pedestrian survey, uncovering 230 new archaeological sites and 1625 artifacts. Over 157 acres (63.54 ha) underwent soil phosphate survey, revealing multiple possible prehistoric agricultural fields or gardens. The project recovered 1154 prehistoric artifacts and 471 historic artifacts from 9 different parcels of land within Hamilton County. Multiple cultural periods are represented in the artifact assemblage, including diagnostics of the Early Archaic, Middle Archaic, Late Archaic, Middle Woodland, Late Woodland, and Historic periods. The average site density recorded for the project was one archaeological site per 2.46 acres (0.41 sites/acre). The average artifact density was one artifact per 0.34 acres (2.9 artifacts/acre).
A total of 13 sites are recommended as potentially eligible for Indiana Register of Historic Sites and Structures or the National Register of Historic Places.

Shortly after the release of Google Earth, its applications to archaeology was theorized and tested, but thus far there has been little research to evaluate its applicability to survey previously well researched and accessible areas. In order to test this potential application of Google Earth images, I surveyed 965 sq. km of Northumberland by defining 23 small survey areas. These survey areas were scattered across the county using the Landscape Characterization Zones, to take into account the different landforms, as well as past and present land uses, that may impact the site distribution. In the survey, I identified 170 potential archaeological sites, of which more than 21% were previously unrecorded according to the Heritage Environment Records. A comparison with aerial photographs of a sub-sample of my sites, as well as analysis of my results, revealed very important information about the site distribution in Northumberland, and about the applicability of Google Earth images to archaeology. Although Google Earth is far from the perfect tool for archaeological surveys, its success in past surveys as well as in the present survey clearly indicates that it is a very useful tool for archaeological surveying, even in accessible and previously well-researched areas.

Since 2005 the Aswan-Kom Ombo Archaeological Project (AKAP), managed by Yale and Bologna Universities, has investigated a number of selected areas in the region between Aswan and Kom Ombo. Many of the rock art sites identified within the concession areas are under threat, due to the impact of modern human activities. Three-dimensional technologies, such as digital surveying, laser scanner and photogrammetry, were used for the first time in the Egyptian Nile Valley in order to document the rock art and its environmental setting in a very detailed manner. The aim is that of improving data recording and analysis while saving economic resources and reducing field work time.

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The term "isolated find" has frequently been taken as a disposable artifact category in cultural resource management (CRM). Efforts were made to empirically demonstrate the fallacy of this concept and its use, using modified field sampling strategies, the inclusion of fine screen artifact analysis, and statistical analyses. Six sites containing prehistoric occupations on Camp McCain National Guard base in Grenada County, Mississippi were reinvestigated using these methods; their datasets were expanded in terms of site size, density, function, and temporal association, which may change their eligibility status for the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Fieldwork and classification based solutions are offered to account for biases introduced by current standard methods of sampling and site delineation during Phase I archaeological survey.