Epic poetry

Kumaravyasa, the 15th century author of the epic, Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari (a retelling of the famed Mahabharata) is generally celebrated as one of the two greatest poets in the millennium-plus long tradition of Kannada literature.  He is also very popular, being the favorite subject of the typically Kannada tradition of musical recitation of poetry known as Gamaka. Yet, he is unknown outside Karnataka, let alone outside India.  In this talk, intended for the general audience, I hope to convey a glimpse of the genius of Kumaravyasa and why his work should rank among the world classics. 

No comparison other than that with Shakespeare will do justice to the vastness of Kumaravyasa’s genius.  I will support this admittedly tall claim with illustrations of Kumaravyasa’s scale, depth, originality and creativity:  his originality and creativity in adapting a familiar story line; his deftness in interweaving cosmic themes with keenly observed minutiae of human and behavior;  insightful portrayal of human nature in its many dimensions from grandeur to evil in a vast array of memorable characters; his narrative skill in developing the plot through dramatic situations embodied in powerful dialogues and moving descriptions;  the charm, power, and evocativeness of his language;  the astounding,  almost impossible, profusion of brilliant metaphors;  his versatile command of the spoken idiom, ranging from the colloquial to the sublime; his gifted ability to  concretize and dramatize the inner workings of the mind; his creative use of multiple levels of intertextual resonance;  his employment of objective correlatives on a grand scale; his critique of social and political mores;  his sense of humor and irony;  his ability to sustain freshness and naturalness of idiom across 8500 sextets without being constrained by a peculiar rhyme scheme; and much more.  I will end with a discussion of the contemporary relevance response to this classic and the challenge of translating it into English.

A pesar de su publicación hace muchos años, recupero para academia.edu este análisis  muy detallado del episodio del <<Poema de mio Cid>>, donde se cuenta la treta del Campeador, quien llena de arena dos arcas que, una vez recubiertas de cuero y <<clavos bien dorados>>, simulan contener atractivas riquezas que le sirven para conseguir un préstamo de Rachel y Vidas, mercaderes burgaleses.
  Comienza el estudio con la constatación de que se trata de un tema tradicional que guarda relación con un motivo folclórico de vieja raigambre, cuya versión más antigua se encuentra en la <<Historia>> de Heródoto y, después, en el <<Epítome>> de Justino, la <<Disciplina clericalis>> de Pedro Alfonso, la colección <<Gesta Romanorum>>, el <<Decamerón>> de Boccaccio, la <<Estoria de España>> de Alfonso X, el anónimo <<Libro de los enxemplos>>, el <<Portacuentos>> de Timoneda y el <<Guzmán de Alfarache>> de Mateo Alemán. Tras esta comprobación, examino la recreación realizada por el autor del <<Poema de mio Cid>>, deteniéndome especialmente en los nombres de los personajes y en la ambientación del pasaje.
  En cuanto a los protagonistas, sus nombres (Rachel y Vidas) no constituyen razón suficiente para catalogarlos como judíos, según ha ocurrido con distintos críticos, aunque merecen un largo escudriño que aquí realizo, para escrutar luego otros datos que aseguran su judaísmo y que proceden de la localización del episodio y de las actividades a que la pareja de consocios se dedica.
  Así, Rachel y Vidas viven en la zona del castillo de Burgos (más en concreto, la judería superior o <<de Arriba>>), es decir, el lugar donde habitaban los judíos, siguiendo una costumbre que remontaba a las más remotas épocas de su dispersión y que fue común a otras juderías hispanas de la Edad Media. En consecuencia, para cualquier burgalés de la época la mención del <<castiello>> servía para determinar sin más precisiones la casta a que pertenecían Rachel y Vidas, con lo que el episodio adquiere un carácter localista y se acomoda a la realidad concreta e histórica del público al que se dirige el relato.
  Por otra parte, no puede tratarse sino de judíos, puesto que a actividades propias de ellos se dedican Rachel y Vidas: el préstamo concedido mediante el depósito de una prenda, el compromiso de pagar un interés y la fijación de un tiempo concreto para la devolución de lo prestado, es decir, una actividad usuraria que constituyó una de las principales actividades judías en el Occidente cristiano, apoyada en el Deuteronomio, que aprobaba la imposición de usura al extranjero, frente a la autoridad de la Iglesia que prohibió el préstamo con interés apoyándose en el Evangelio de Lucas (VI, 35). Además, en la operación aparece como garante un intermediario (Martín Antolínez), quien  exige como pago de su servicio unas <<calças>>, solicitud que no es caprichosa sino que responde a una costumbre típica de la Edad Media (al menos, en España, Francia e Italia) como gratificación o comisión por un favor o servicio, según pruebo con un amplio puñado de textos.
  Las precisiones anteriores conducen a indagar en el significado del pasaje que es un episodio de ficción, inventado por el poeta en función de las necesidades del relato, pero inspirado en notas y rasgos minuciosamente captados de la realidad circundante y con la estructura típica del <<exemplum>>. Con el episodio, el autor del <<Poema>> busca, al mismo tiempo, conseguir la risa del público y excitar su antisemitismo, aunque no religioso sino de base socioeconómica, es decir, fundamentado en la percepción de que los judíos monopolizaban el comercio del dinero y obtenían perversas ganancias de los cristianos a través de la usura. Cabe, con todo, encontrar otros propósitos secundarios (ensalzar el empleo de mañas para el engaño; censurar la avaricia; burlarse de un grupo exento de participar en la guerra, bien reprobable en un poema épico).
  Las últimas páginas de este artículo se dedican a explicar la reclamación del préstamo que, tres años después, plantean Rachel y Vidas a Minaya, quien les contesta de manera esquiva y casi sarcástica. Pese a interpretaciones muy diferentes, se trata, a mi juicio, del colofón de la burla planteada por el autor en función del halago de sus oyentes. Por último, como resultado de muchas precisiones hechas a lo largo del estudio, deduzco que el examen del pasaje apoya las teorías de quienes piensan en un autor culto, perito en Derecho, que dirige su poema, especialmente, a los habitantes de Burgos.
[Con el mismo título, pero con algunos cambios, puede leerse este artículo en las <<Actas del VIII Congreso de la Société Rencesvals>>, Pamplona, 1981, pp. 431-449].

Edição bilíngue integral do poema De Rerum Natura de Lucrécio
https://grupoautentica.com.br/autentica/livros/sobre-a-natureza-das-coisas/2025
https://www.amazon.com.br/Sobre-Natureza-das-Coisas-Lucr%C3%A9cio/dp/6559280799/ref=rvi_5/139-4214272-9123822?pd_rd_w=G2wIU&pf_rd_p=efdee74a-69c9-4b49-9f9d-7952b2b8eb2e&pf_rd_r=HXT9EQA1Z337M3Y5E2B1&pd_rd_r=14727686-9499-4a00-9540-631ae8bde5ab&pd_rd_wg=JQSJ2&pd_rd_i=6559280799&psc=1

Il breve frammento del testo epico conosciuto col titolo Gormund et Isembart è uno sguardo sul cantiere aperto delle primissime chansons de geste della Francia medievale. Il poema infatti, se non è la più antica canzone di gesta che conosciamo – è pressoché contemporaneo alla ben più nota Chanson de Roland (fine XI secolo) –, presenta senz’altro il maggior numero di tratti arcaici, che rivelano una tecnica poetica in via di definizione, per certi aspetti grezza e lontana dalla levigatezza e dalle altezze spirituali dei poemi epici successivi, ma allo stesso tempo già dotata dell’iconografia della guerra e del mondo carolingio che caratterizzerà l’epica francese per almeno due secoli. I 661 versi sopravvissuti cantano la fine eroica di Gormund e Isembart, alla testa di un’armata saracena alla conquista della Francia di re Ludovico, in una battaglia che riecheggia lo scontro tra una banda vichinga e i francesi svoltasi a Saucourt nell’881.

Edizione del testo originale, versione italiana, introduzione e commento a cura di Andrea Ghidoni.

The Ifugaos seem to be the only people in the world who have developed peacemaking ideology in a typically aggressive genre of oral literature. The rich literature on epic traditions worldwide portrays a highly male-centered genre of song glorifying heroic values and warlike acts. Ifugao male epics represents aggressive ideology, which it shares with all the corresponding genres from India to Iceland. But what is specific of the Ifugao epic lore is that it contains two trends. The /hudhud/, female epic tradition of the Ifugaos, is a unique specimen of peacemaking, even pacifist ideology in epic form. This ideology has developed in the peak of headhunting period, i.e. it is genuine, not imposed by the influence of other cultures as, for instance, the motives of regret that appeared in Kalinga Ullalim under the influence of Christianization and American &quot;order&quot;.

A new dream begins at the end of the Ancient Nubian Empire ruling over blue and white Nile lands of Kush.
Can Taharka, the great builder and conqueror maintain his ancestral traditions, or will he be swept away in the tides of change?

In an act of oneiric espionage, Moloch, the all-seeing Owl of the Babylonian Parliament has stolen the secret mysteries of the Royal Priesthood in an effort to control the future.

The Empress strikes back in her mission to reassemble the parts of the Royal Family across space and over time.
She gives birth to a champion as she searches for her cosmic counterpart.

Now, the Prince is of age and ready to ascend to the throne that had been usurped by the Parliament of Owls.
The Hawkeye returns in a story of vision, vengeance and vigilance.

Can the Nubian legacy remember its rightful place as the ruling family of royalty, or will the penultimate pharaoh of the last Kushitic dynasty to unite the crowns be forgotten as the lush vegetation that has become desert?  Scruffmouth the Scribe shares a story of courage, conflict and cliax as the civilizations of the world and even the universe hangs in the balance.

THE TAHARKA TRIAD
King Pharaoh and the Owl
Queen Mother Knows Best
The Hawkeye Prince

Taharqa’s twenty six year reign (690-664) stands out from any other in the Third Intermediate Period by the extent of the building program he implemented in the first sixteen years of his reign, and the extent of the fighting with the Assyrians in the later years.

In 701 BC King Shebitku, Taharqa’s uncle and predecessor, sent Taharqa to head a military force to support the rebellion of King Ezekiah of Judea against his Assyrian overlords. But Ezehkiah surrendered, and the Egyptians had to retreat to Egypt. Beset by matters closer to home, then by internal succession problems, the Assyrians did not pursue any pretension to Egypt for another twenty six years. This lull in the Assyrian threat allowed the newly crowned King Taharqa to devote himself to cultural issues.

Buoyed by the riches of Nubia and providential bumper crops brought by extraordinarily favorable climatological conditions, Taharqa invested considerable resources into celebrating the glory of Amun, first in his own Kingdom of Napata, but also in his Egyptian territories. Immensely respectful of Egypt’s cultural heritage, Taharqa set out to draw on the traditions of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, using new materials (previous Intermediate Period cash-strapped kings had taken to pilfering stone from older buildings) to restore and build anew. In his kingdom of Napata, he built in every important site: Sanam, Napata, Abu Dom, and Kawa. In Kawa particularly, he rebuilt and expanded on a temple complex that became the second most important in his kingdom of Napata. In Egypt, it is at Karnak that he made the greatest impact, thanks to the energy of the man he installed as Prince (mayor) of the City: the great Mentuemhet. At Karnak, the Sacred Lake structures, the kiosk in the first court, and the colonnades at the temple entrance are all owed to Taharqa and Mentuemhet. Memphis, the capital of the Old Kingdom and royal residence of Kushite kings also received much attention, paying much respect to the importance of the god Ptah, despite the Kushite’s devotion to Amun.

This devotion of Egypt’s resources towards peaceful undertakings would not last. In 674 BC, the Assyrian army first attempts to invade Egypt. Taharqa swiftly rebukes their advance, and the invaders retreat. But three years later, in 671 BC, the Assyrians try again and succeed. They take Memphis, capture the royal queen and the crown prince. Taharqa retreats south. The Assyrians install their representatives in all key positions. In Sais, Nekau swears allegiance to the Assyrians and his son is sent to Assyria for political training. As soon as the Assyrians leave, Taharqa drives his forces north and regains control of Egypt. In 667 BC, the Assyrians come back, pushing much further south this time. Taharqa flees to Napata, and the Assyrians once again get Egyptian governors to pledge allegiance to Assyria. When they leave again, several local kings and governors plot to bring Taharqa back. But this time, the Assyrians squelch the insurrection by having all plotters assassinated. The only surviving Egyptian is Nekau, who had prudently abstained from participating in the plot while his son (the future Psamtik I) was still in the hands of the Assyrians. With northern rulers no longer supportive, Taharqa abandons his hopes of ever regaining Egypt.

Special Thanks to OBCDN & BZZLE for providing cover art and interior illustrations. Concept, design, digital imagery and story created by Kevan Anthony Cameron for Black Dot Roots and Culture Collective.

This paper is an elementary introduction to the late antique Greek poet Kollouthos and his epyllion 'The Rape of Helen' (Ἁρπαγὴ Ἑλένης), with some fragments in a first Dutch hexameter translation. The article is part of a diptych with a similar introduction to Triphiodoros, that was published September 2016 (Hermeneus 88.4). The fragments have been selected from a complete translation of both poets that will hopefully see the light someday.

Resonances of Art and Poetry:  A post-conflict reflection from a visit to Shusha, Nagorno-Karabakh, Azerbaijan. Princess Khurshidbanu Natavan (1832-1897) entertained Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870) in Baku. Dumas was a close friend of the O’Donnell Counts, descendants of the Princes of Tyrconnell, in Paris in the 19th century. Princess Natavan was the daughter of the Mehdigulu Khan, the last ruler of the Khanate of Karabakh, under Persian suzerainty, his only child, and was born in Shusha. She learnt music, painting and poetry in her youth. Her poetry was mainly in Azeri or Persian languages, and she was known for her romantic ghazals and rubaiyat. She inherited vast wealth and lands and was very philanthropic and culturally active, and described as both artistocratic, progressive, and bohemian.

"Estoy desplegado en el tiempo. Fluyo en él como una criatura sin señales. Su inicio apenas lo vislumbro. Y su final es un vaho que percibo en el aire. Una estela de gemidos, no obstante, me contiene. Pasan las generaciones apoyadas en mi hálito. Y como el viento en la arena de la tormenta, me hundo en lo transcurrido". (p. 11)
Así comienza el último libro de poesía en prosa publicado por Pablo Montoya, y el sexto de su carrera literaria que comprende ya más de treinta años. El protagonista, a diferencia de sus poemarios anteriores, no es París, el viaje, la pintura, la música, la religión o el arte, sino el tiempo. Sin embargo , es un tiempo perfumado por la aventura, el color, la textura, el oboe, la cruz y los grandes monumentos del hombre pasado. Hombre en ruinas-que en el manejo poético y en la búsqueda del ser evoca su novela Lejos de Roma nació, según comenta Montoya, cuando visitó Roma en diciembre de 2009. El impacto que le produjo el recorrido por las ruinas del Foro, y otros parajes del antiguo Imperio romano, lo motivó a emprender la escritura de esta colección de 15 poemas en prosa de largo aliento, divididos a su vez en fragmentos. El libro, meditación sensible sobre la ruina y la velocidad del tiempo, es en su conjunto un mapa que persigue la huella y los vestigios del pasado.

In 'Weapons of Words: Intertextual Competition in Babylonian Poetry' Selena Wisnom offers an in-depth literary study of three poems central to Babylonian culture: Anzû, Enūma eliš, and Erra and Išum. Fundamentally interconnected, each poem strives to out-do its predecessors and competes to establish its protagonist, its ideals, and its poetics as superior to those that came before them.

The first of its kind in Assyriology, Weapons of Words explores the rich nuances of these poems by unravelling complex networks of allusion. Through a sophisticated analysis of literary techniques, Selena Wisnom traces developments in the Akkadian poetic tradition and demonstrates that intertextual readings are essential for a deeper understanding of Mesopotamian literature.

Գիրքը հեղինակի՝ հայկական վիպական բանահյուսության վերաբերյալ մի շարք ուսումնասիրությունների ամբողջություն է, որը կարող է որոշակիորեն նոր պատկեր ստեղծել նյութի վերաբերյալ։ Քննվում են էպոսների հնագույն՝ առասպելաբանական շերտերը, նրանց հիման վրա էպոսի ձևավորման և զարգացման խնդիրները։ Ներկայացվում են բազում նոր հնդեվրոպական, հնագույն մերձարևելյան և կովկասյան կապեր, ցույց է տրվում հայկական էպոսների ծագումը միևնույն առասպելաբանական հիմքից, նոր հայացքով է դիտվում ողջ հայ վիպական բանահյուսությունը՝ ազգածին ավանդությունից մինչև խորհրդային «էպոս» և վիպական կերպարների ծագումն ու զարգացումը։ Նախատեսվում է մասնագետների, ուսանողների և ընթերցողների լայն շրջանակների համար։

Texto bilingüe comentado del canto 5 de Ilíada, con establecimiento del texto griego, traducción y numerosas notas y comentarios sobre el poema. Todo el material está disponible en forma online en https://www.iliada.com.ar. Los invito a visitar el sitio y suscribirse a nuestro newsletter.

El archivo ha sido actualizado en diciembre de 2023, con ampliaciones y correcciones.

Ormerod d’Édouard Glissant peut se lire comme une forme de réponse à Omeros de Derek Walcott, relation que nous analysons à travers un motif central aux deux œuvres, celui du voyage aux enfers. L’analyse de la réécriture et de la réinvention de ce motif par les deux auteurs permet d’interroger la façon dont les deux œuvres se construisent face au canon européen, et plus précisément face à la tradition épique. Les voyages ou descentes aux enfers dans Omeros et Ormerod se présentent comme des parcours initiatiques, mais également comme des lieux privilégiés de questionnement du rapport entre écriture et récit historique et du rapport entre la littérature et le monde. L’étude de ce topos permet ainsi de voir comment deux auteurs caribéens majeurs situent leur écriture l’un face à l’autre tout en situant leurs œuvres au sein de l’espace littéraire mondial.

En el Cantar de mio Cid, principal representante de la épica medieval hispánica, confluyen varias tradiciones. En la presente monografía se analizan las relaciones y la influencia que la épica francesa ejerció en el poema castellano en los niveles de los motivos y del formulismo. A partir de un amplio corpus de veinticinco chansons, y desde una perspectiva comparatista, se lleva a cabo un estudio pormenorizado de ambos niveles, para determinar tanto el influjo ultrapirenaico en el Cantar como las particularidades que, pese a ello, este sigue manteniendo respecto de sus modelos franceses.

En este artículo, se realiza un repaso de los constituyentes épicos en "Shadow of the Colossus", videojuego de Play Station 2 desarrollado por Team Ico y publicado en 2005. Se abordan sus constituyentes de producción y recepción según códigos de la teoría literaria, a partir de tres conceptos: la indeterminación conceptual, la mezcla de culturas y la pérdida de referentes morales. Con ello, se esboza la importancia de este juego como representante de una "nueva épica" que apuesta por la interacción del jugador/lector a un nivel mucho más intenso de lo que permitía la épica oral y escrita del pasado.

Achilles is a complex hero. His brief, brilliant life is sacrificed to avenge the death of his beloved friend. He is a consummate warrior, yet he is childlike in his rage; and outside the Homeric Iliad we learn that he was dressed as a girl to escape being sent to fight at Troy. Marta González González explores the many facets of this fascinating figure, deftly applying insights from modern theories, literary and psychological, to help bring him into focus. It is a pleasure to read. (- Professor David Konstan, New York University, USA)

Achilles is the quintessential Greek hero, but that does not mean that he is a conventional hero. His uniqueness is dictated by his birth, as the son of a sea goddess, and his education at the hands of a centaur. The hero’s exceptional nature also forms part of the tension that both unites and opposes him to Apollo.

Achilles presents the different episodes in the life of this hero conventionally, in chronological order, based primarily on the Greek sources: birth, education, deeds in Troy, death and subsequent destiny as a figure of worship. On the other hand, this study employs the hero Achilles to reflect on various issues, all of them crucial for historians of the Greek world: what it meant to be and become a man in ancient Greece, what a hero’s aretê consisted of, how the Greeks represented the concepts of friendship and camaraderie, what moved them to revenge or reconciliation, what hopes they harboured as they faced their fate, how they imagined something as difficult to conceive of as a human sacrifice, and how they developed their ideas about the afterlife and hero cult..

Questo volume è dedicato al primo libro dell'Iliade, e riunisce insieme tre elementi: il testo dell’Iliade, una traduzione interlineare rigorosamente letterale ed un commentario. Non sono a conoscenza di un altro testo in cui tutti questi tre elementi siano riuniti insieme, e siano presentati in lingua italiana. Non intendo rivendicare l’aver colmato alcuna lacuna: ho semplicemente voluto realizzare lo strumento a mio parere più pratico, per un lettore appassionato di Omero, al fine di consentirgli allo stesso tempo e con un unico volume tra le mani di leggere il testo greco del poema, confrontare una proposta di traduzione ed approfondire vari aspetti del testo con un esteso commentario a piè di pagina.
La traduzione ed il commento sono preceduti da un'introduzione al libro, e seguite da alcune schede lessicali e di approfondimento. La traduzione, le schede lessicali e l’impostazione complessiva del presente lavoro sono originali, mentre per il commento e le note mi sono mi sono appoggiato in larga misura ai due fondamentali commentari di W. Leaf e G. S. Kirk, che ho parzialmente tradotto e variamente integrato tra di loro e con altre fonti. Le note sono principalmente focalizzate sul lessico e sulla grammatica. Per un'analisi grammaticale dettagliata che si integra al testo greco e ad una traduzione letterale interlineare, si veda il lavoro di J. J. Jackson.

The author continues a series of articles on the history of value analysis as implemented in Russian epic studies and analyses the period covering the second half of the 20th century. This time is characterized both by the class approach predominant in the analysis of bylina values and the strengthening of the party “historicism” principle (V.I. Chicherov, B.A. Rybakov, etc.), but the comparison between the bylina value codes and those of the Old Russian chronicles was not then undertaken, since it would not provide support for their possible identification. With this approach, the scholars excluded from their sight those values (of compassion, donation, service, prayer, etc.) which were not easy to explain through the specifics of a particular historical situation, while the structure of epic heroes’ value centre—as well as the concepts of love-charity, honor, courage, resistance-to-temptations, etc.—were hardly studied at all. The representatives of the Historical-Typological School (V.Ya. Propp, B.N. Putilov, etc.) attempted to overcome the limitations of the party ideological treatment of Russian folk epics, but they did not implement axiological analysis of bylinas as well. The best Soviet epic scholars were bound by the confrontation between the Historical and the Historical-Typological Schools—and could not reveal the true value-oriented meanings of Russian folk epics.

O gênero épico tinha por objetivo mais nobre a preservação de histórias contadas por gerações e nessas histórias, narradas por versos cantados – elemento antigo para memorização –, preservavam os nomes de heróis, pais fundadores, espaços míticos, cotidiano antigo, pensamentos arcaicos, buscava-se preservar o máximo de um contexto ao qual os ouvintes já não faziam mais parte ou, notavam resquícios de um tempo que não conheceram. Foi a escrita que eternizou, na melhor das hipóteses, todo esse elemento épico que estava por ameaça constante do esquecimento.

Introduction of my master's degree thesis, whose purpose is to investigate the possible anatolian origin of the Greek epic poetry represented by the Homeric poems. Inside the Introduction I also offer my vision upon the Homeric question. Thanks to my mentors, professor A. Rodighiero and professor F. Giusfredi.

The period known as the Italian Renaissance witnessed a rebirth of Greek learning and, along with it, a renewed impetus to translate the two epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, attributed to Homer in antiquity. During the course of one century (1362-1460s) there were more than a dozen attempts to translate Homer from Greek into Latin. These Latin versions were the first to be printed in the fifteenth century and in turn offered a template for the first vernacular translations well into the seventeenth century. In addition to translation practice, humanists also began to develop increasingly more sophisticated ways of thinking about the task of the translator and thus did much to advance the field of translation theory. Despite this decisive contribution to the history of Homer's reception and interpretation, critical commentary on the period as a whole has been largely negative. The argument of this dissertation is that much of the scholarship on Homer's reception in the Renaissance is still beholden to aesthetic assumptions inherited from the period in question. Chief among them is the assumption that translation can only take place between two texts (source and target) and that one of the most important features of a good translation is its fidelity to the source text, whether that be in word or sense. Additionally, scholars often expect a translation to stand alone as a piece of literature in its own right. Many humanists of the day and scholars thereafter held Homeric translations up to these standards and judged them a "failure." By applying a historical-contextualist methodology, I put pressure on the "failure thesis" by arguing that there was never any consensus about the standards to which translators ought to hold themselves; these standards changed over time; and in many cases they were simply impossible to fulfill. These translations can be divided into three phases: Literal ("The Feather") (1362-1440s), Oratorical ("The Wing") (1438-1460s), and Verse translation ("The Flight") (1440s-1500).