Dura Europos

SUMMARY: Chapter 9, in Renfrew & Bahn's textbook (Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice), covers the various types of trade and exchange in past societies, and how one may assess it, including different types of interactions (e.g., gift exchange), various scientific techniques (e.g., microscopic examination of materials; trace-element analysis; isotopic analysis), studying material and/or artifact distributions, assessing production and consumption, and analyzing the various means of exchange and interaction.  In my view, this is one of the best college textbooks available, and is invaluable for students, archaeologists, and the public in general, to obtain a top notch overview of approaching and interpreting the archaeological record. UPDATED/REVISED March, 2021, some editing and new formatting, minimal new materials.

The Hellenistic, Parthian, and Roman site of Dura–Europos (or simply “Dura”), dubbed the “Pompeii of the Syrian Desert” by Yale historian and archaeologist Michael Rostovtzeff, was jointly excavated by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and Letters from 1928 to 1937. Given the outstanding preservation of art and architecture at Dura, it is not surprising that four obsidian artifacts have escaped attention, despite evidence that stone tools – including obsidian ones – continued to be used into and after the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean. After more than eight decades, the character of Dura's connections to the Classical world remains a matter of debate. Pottery includes not only local ceramic wares but also North African and Aegean ones. Our nondestructive pXRF testing establish that the Dura artifacts match the three most widely used Eastern Anatolian obsidian sources: Nemrut Dağ volcano as well as the Bingöl A and B sources. If indeed obsidian arrived at Dura via long-standing mechanisms of Mesopotamian exchange, these Eastern Anatolian obsidians would be expected. Unfortunately, the artifacts' precise locations at Dura are unclear, the excavations lacked stratigraphic con- straints, and Near Eastern obsidian distribution patterns have been rarely studied beyond the Early Bronze Age. Keeping in mind these limitations, our findings are most consistent with past suggestions regarding the im- portance of local Mesopotamian influences and resources at the site.

Few direct clues exist to the everyday lives and beliefs of ordinary Jews in antiquity. Prevailing perspectives on ancient Jewish life have been shaped largely by the voices of intellectual and social elites, preserved in the writings of Philo and Josephus and the rabbinic texts of the Mishnah and Talmud. Commissioned art, architecture, and formal inscriptions displayed on tombs and synagogues equally reflect the sensibilities of their influential patrons. The perspectives and sentiments of nonelite Jews, by contrast, have mostly disappeared from the historical record. Focusing on these forgotten Jews of antiquity, Writing on the Wall takes an unprecedented look at the vernacular inscriptions and drawings they left behind and sheds new light on the richness of their quotidian lives. Just like their neighbors throughout the eastern and southern Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, Arabia, and Egypt, ancient Jews scribbled and drew graffiti everyplace--in and around markets, hippodromes, theat...

Sur les fresques de la synagogue à Dura-Europos, le cycle d'Ézéchiel (mur nord) représente la résurrection eschatologique, plutôt que la réalisation historique de la prophétie d'Ez 37. Cela correspond à la littérature rabbinique ancienne : le Targum sur le Cantique présente les principaux aspects de la peinture qui divergent du texte biblique. La montagne de la fresque est donc le Mont des Oliviers, où les morts seront rassemblés selon les prophéties tardives du Jour du Seigneur (cf. Za 14). La dernière scène pourrait aussi représenter le châtiment des idolâtres dans la Cité Sainte (Ez 8-10).

In the frescoes at the Dura-Europos synagogue, the Ezekiel cycle (northern wall) represents the eschatological resurrection, rather than the historical meaning of the prophecy (Ezek. 37). It corresponds to ancient rabbinic literature: the Targum of Canticles presents the main aspects of the painting that diverge from the biblical text. The mountain of the fresco is therefore the Mount of Olives, where the dead will be gathered according to the late prophesies of the Day of the Lord (cf. Zech. 14). The last scene might also represent the chastising of the idolaters in the Holy City (Ezek. 8–10).

"Entendiendo el arte como una manifestación de la actividad del ser humano, enmarcada en el tiempo y lugar en que se lleva a cabo y con una finalidad comunicativa con diversos propósitos, el Arte Paleocristiano engloba todas aquellas expresiones artísticas que se dieron allá donde el Cristianismo Primitivo, el cristianismo de los primeros siglos de nuestra era, tuvo presencia."

*****

"Understanding art as a manifestation of the activity of the human being, framed in the time and place in which it is carried out and with a communicative purpose for various purposes, the Paleochristian Art encompasses all those artistic expressions that occurred there where Early Christianity, Christianity of the first centuries of our era, had a presence. "

The Roman astral-cults of the Sun (Sol) and Moon (Luna) enjoyed imperial sponsorship for 300 years, as evidenced by their images on Roman coinage from the end of the 1 st century (Salzman 1990, p. 150; Clauss 1997, p. 250; Hijmans 2003, p. 383).  However, on the Dies Natalis Invicti, AD 25 December 274, Roman Emperor Aurelian decreed Sol Invictus as the Dominus Imperii Romani, and ordered imperial coins honoring Mithras-Sol Invictus to be minted and the Templum Solis Aureliani to be built in Rome (Figure 1).

    The research focus of this paper study is to investigate the hypothetical role of astronomical orientation of Mithraic temples as a supplement to  traditional approaches to the History of Architecture, e.g., iconography, inscriptions, geometry, literature, and mensuration, (see Scavi et al. 2016).  The present study examines the orientation of four Mithraic temples (mithraea) adjacent to imperial Roman army forts (three on Hadrian’s Wall and one at Dura-Europos, Syria).  The paper presents counter evidence rejecting the claim that the major axes of two  of these mithraea were oriented to the sunrise on the Winter Solstice (December 22nd) or Dies Natalis Invicti (December 25th) (cf. Sparavigna 2017a, 2017b).  Rather, all three known mithraea on Hadrian’s Wall are oriented respectively to the rise of the three brightest stars of constellations represented in the Mithraic bull-slaying tableau (tauroctonos) ca. AD 250, viz.: Aldebaran (α Taurii), Antares (α Scorpii), and Sirius (α Canis Major), thereby independently confirming the astral interpretation of K.B. Stark (1869).  Every 19 years, the Dura-Europos mithraeum in Syria is oriented to the midwinter Full Moon rise at the minor lunar standstill, just as a mithraeum on Hadrian’s Wall is oriented to the Full Moon rise marking the death of Deified Hadrian (July 10th) .

Greek and Roman art abounded with images of plants, including flowers, and their naturalistic representations means that many are readily identifiable. There is a distinctive four-petalled motif which featured prominently in floral decoration, most notably in Hellenistic and Roman art, although it is also spread well beyond the boundaries of the Graeco-Roman world. It is a symmetrical flower comprising four radiating, cordiform (heart-shaped) petals, often interleaved with elongate elements. In polychrome media the petal colour is usually red, pink, or frequently a combination of both, and these petals are often separated by dark green or black elements. An analysis of this flower's morphological elements reveals it to be a stylised representation of a rose. This study provides a systematic identification of various forms of the rose, including enduring conventions for rose petals and rose buds, and it is organised by typology. It discusses the different morphologies, noting earlier precedents where relevant, and considers the variations and developments in the depiction of the motif. There are also short observations on rose imagery in later Roman and post-Roman art, including its presence in Iranian art. The objective of this typological study is not an exploration of the cultural significance and emblematic values of roses but is intended as a prelude to an exploration of their potential semantic roles in specific contexts in future articles.

Roman Dura Europos' (165 CE-256 CE) urban topography, especially the conglomeration of sacred spaces, is most inviting for a study of cross-cultural and interreligious interaction in the city's neighbourhoods. This article focuses on the Jewish edifice: its location, the remains and finds from the excavations, and the traces left by the people who frequented the place. The wall-paintings in the Jewish edifice as well as in other buildings in this quarter seem to bear evidence of shared aesthetic and cultural values, social interaction, or at least the hiring of the same workshops. The article offers a comparative study of the wall-paintings and inscriptions, trying to discern expressions of self-representation of commissioners and perception of onlookers. The consideration of these paintings and inscriptions within their larger urban context will offer refreshing insights into Jews entangled in a complex composition of a multicultural and multi-religious Dura-Europos.

The rich tradition and profound spirituality of Judaism has touched people the world over for thousands of years. With the arrival in the Near East of Alexander the Great and the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, the synagogue came to represent a new era of this powerful religion, one which witnessed a greater emphasis on shared religious experience and prayer. In turn, the synagogue, derived from the Greek, meaning an "assembly," has come to mean the Jewish house of worship, evolving into a "sacred realm," in which the Torah came to play a central role linking the biblical past with the messianic future. Of course, the synagogue has been much more that a house of worship--it served the Jewish people as a place of learning, a community center, and often as the official seat of Jewish self-government. Indeed, it is the institution most closely associated with the development of post-biblical Judaism throughout the ages.
Sacred Realm: The Emergence of the Synagogue in the Ancient World offers the first comprehensive history of the architectural and archaeological development of the synagogue from the third century BCE to 700 CE. Telling the story of over one hundred ancient synagogues throughout the world and their place in the history of Judaism and of Western civilization, this book provides a fascinating representation of the cultural, intellectual, and artistic achievements of three thousand years of Jewish experience. Informative essays detail every aspect of the ancient synagogue, while beautiful illustrations and maps take the reader to the actual historic site.
Sacred Realm is an accompaniment to a monumental exhibition organized by the Yeshiva University Museum in New York. Borrowing from museums in North America, Europe, and Israel, the exhibition presents a unique collection of artifacts and manuscripts--including many pieces never before displayed in the United States--and will depict for the first time an in-depth history of the synagogue during the Greco-Roman period. From fourth-century Egyptian incense burners and inscribed bowl fragments to fifth-century Gaza mosaics decorated with Menorah and Shofar, Piyyut (liturgical poetry) manuscripts, and assorted textile, column, and pottery fragments, this collection is the most significant presentation of ancient Jewish religious life ever assembled in the United States.
Lavishly illustrated with both color and black and white photographs of the artifacts, manuscripts, maps, site diagrams, and reconstructions, Sacred Realm is not only a detailed record of this historic exhibit, but a guide to the evolution of Judaism's most sacred institution.

Article published in ECA 9 (2012-2013), p. 63-78 on the wall painting of the so-called 'women in procession' in the baptistery of Dura-Europos. In this article I argue that the women can be identified as the wise and foolish virgins.

The PDF provides the first pages of the article, if you want a copy of the article, please send me an email: s.f.klaver@uva.nl

One of the many interesting facts to emerge from the archive of the Twentieth Cohort of Palmyrenes at Dura-Europos concerns the detailed treatment of the cavalrymen’s horses. It is surprising to learn that the Roman army’s copious record-keeping was not confined to the personnel, but extended to cover their mounts as well. So what exactly do we know about the management of the Roman army’s horses?

Although by its title, this book seems to be about a specialized topic, the spread of Mithraic societies and its avatars, in time and geographical expanse, much enhances its relevancy. From Roman legionaries to chivalry orders, from dervish circles to guild organizations, and from Freemasons to French revolutionaries, the hierarchy of Mithraic societies, their initiation rites, and their oaths of secrecy, provided a model for brotherhood organization that was efficient, but also flexible. They could adapt their philosophy to the prevailing politico-religion conditions of the day, because they did not worship any particular god. Mithra was the initial guarantor of their oath, and if need be it could be replaced by Jesus, Allah, or any other divinity. Their “religion” was their brotherhood, and as such they usually provided a counter-balance to the power elite, and had the potential to become politically active. Occasionally, they would even make a bid for power, sometimes successfully and sometimes not. By the same token, they could be comrades in arms with nascent religious movements, as with Christianity, or be an adversary when their paths diverged. In this book, its author traces back the appearance of these societies to the early days of the Achaemenid Empire and to the religious cataclysm that Herodotus has dubbed as Magophonia. The Mithraic magi were pursued and massacred, and to avoid persecution, they went underground, often literally. That’s how—secret—brotherhood societies were born.

The Latin documentary papyri housed in the Beinecke Library at Yale University are a sore spot for scholarship. One the one hand, they constitute a unique finding, inasmuch as they all come from the archive of a Roman cohors (the XX Palmyrenorum) stationing at Dura Europos, on the banks of the Euphrates, between 200 and 260 AD. There is nothing of the sort in extant documents from Roman army; nothing so abundant (more than 90 papyri) and so cohesive in origin and purpose. On the other hand, most of them are conspicuously fragmentary, ridden with holes and spots, and shrivelled – not easily allowing the researcher into their real meaning. Three subsequent editors (Gilliam, Fink, and Marichal) have fought against these difficulties; they have produced sometimes very different texts; attempted at replacing and re-joining many tiny scraps, invariably altering the record numbers of the fragments (fr. a becoming h, fr. k becoming c+g and the like) and sometimes puzzling the reader. The last overall edition dates back to 1976 and was done on photographs; a further survey made at the library in the Nineties re-framed all papyri, had several fragments resurface from the stacks, and once again changed many record numbers, adding to the confusion.

This paper originates within the framework of ERC project PLATINUM, devoted to Latin texts on papyri. It will offer some preliminary result of an ongoing personal inspection, reassessment and re-edition of the Latin military papyri from Dura Europos. It will argue for a total make-over of fragments such as P.Dura 60, 61 or 68, whose text must be re-written; it will deal with issues concerning newly found fragments (P.Dura 62), which are in need of a brand new edition; it will inquire into wormholes and damages which could help re-joining or replacing fragments such as P.Dura 66 yy and aaa, 76, 77. These textual reassessments will be the basis for providing new insights and new perspectives in the history of everyday military life in this Roman outpost on the Eastern border of the Empire.

During the excavations at Dura Europos between 1922 and 1937 only few literary papyri were discovered: one belonged to Appian. This papyrus is composed of two small scraps, which were firstly considered to be part of Bellum Mithridaticum; then Bellum Civile and finally in 1994 the fragments have been assigned to Bellum Ibericum (§§ 4,15 e 5,17). P.Dura 2 is noteworthy since it represents the only papyrus fragment of Appian. The same happens among other greek historians from II B.C. to III A.D. (e.g. Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Flavius Josephus, Arrian, Phlegon of Tralles, Cassius Dio), of which only few ancient fragments are preserved.

The synagogue at Dura-Europos is undoubtedly the most prominent of the Jewish remains uncovered at the site. Dozens of Jewish coins found in excavations throughout the city have merited far less attention. Alfred Bellinger published a list of these coins in 1949; among the corpus of 14,017 coins found altogether at the site, 47 were identified as coins minted in Judea by Jewish rulers. This study offers the first comprehensive presentation and analysis of these Jewish coins. Following a review and analysis of the limited data on all 47 Jewish coins published in the original report, a full report is presented for the six coins from the Dura collection which are currently housed at the Yale University Art Gallery. This is followed by a discussion about the possible reasons why such a large assemblage of Jewish coins found its way in antiquity from Judea to distant Dura-Europos.

The article summarizes and evaluates Mithraic evidence from Ancient Syria. At the same time, it tries to answer two interrelated questions: 1) whether there is a special “quality” in Mithraic material from  Syria which would justify us to postulate the existence of a special variety of Syrian Mithraism different from  its  Western  form;  2)  whether  some  of  the  Mithraic  monuments  from  Syria  can  help  us  to  clarify the vexed problem of Mithraic origins. After a careful analysis of the most important evidence answers to  both questions must remain negative. Although the Syrian monuments clearly share some “Syrian artistic conventions”, they generally follow the norms and motifs known from the western provinces of the Roman  Empire.  The  Syrian  monuments  are  also  usually  relatively  late,  connected  with  the  Roman  military  or administrative presence and do not contribute to our search for Mithraic origins in any decisive way.

The Karakalpak-Australian Expedition to Ancient Chorasmia (KAE) archaeological works at the “Mausoleum” of the Ancient Chorasmian site of Akchakhan-kala in modern-day Uzbekistan/ Karakalpakstan resumed in 2014 after a hiatus of almost twenty years. New data on this structure, located at the exact centre of the upper enclosure of the site, underline its monumental characteristics and help to rectify and update the preliminary hypotheses presented in 2001 by the KAE. Examined in the historical context of I century b.c.–II century a.d. Chorasmia, Akchakhan-kala has proven to be a site incredibly rich in archaeological data that are enlarging our historical knowledge on this ancient polity and more in general on the Central Asian region during Antiquity. The Central Monument of Akchakhan-kala, a Chorasmian royal seat abandoned at the end of the II century a.d., from which a new perspective on Zoroastrianism is emerging, is perhaps one of the most interesting complexes related to this Eastern-Iranian region and to Zoroastrian religion.

The graffito from Dura-Europos depicting a heavily armored cavalryman is one of the most important sources used to reconstruct the armament of Iranian cavalry units seen in the middle of the third century A.D. The graffito presents a hybrid cuirass that is composed of mail and lamellas. It was probably originally an Iranian construction. The use of hybrid armor should be connected with the process of the adaptation of mail in the Parthian empire and then adjusting this new type of body armor to the realities of cavalry combat. The new hybrid cuirass served its purpose well. It not only survived the Parthian era but also the Arabic conquest of Sasanian Iran in the middle of the seventh century A.D., which is evidently demonstrated by the fact that it was present in the military equipment of Muslim armies in the 16th and 17th centuries A.D.

Greek and Roman art abounded with images of plants, including flowers, and their naturalistic representations means that many are readily identifiable. There is a distinctive four-petalled motif which features prominently in floral decoration, most notably in Hellenistic and Roman art, although it is also found across a wide geography. It is a symmetrical flower comprising four radiating, cordiform (heart-shaped) petals, often interleaved with elongate elements. In polychrome media the petal colour is usually red, pink, or frequently a combination of both, and these petals are often separated by dark green or black elements. An analysis of this flower’s morphological elements reveals it to be a stylised representation of a rose.
This study provides a systematic identification of various forms of the rose, including enduring conventions for rose petals and rose buds, and it is organised by typology. It discusses the different morphologies, noting earlier precedents where relevant, and considers the variations and developments in the depiction of the motif. There are also short observations on rose imagery in later Roman and post-Roman art, including its presence in Iranian art. The objective of this typological study is not an exploration of the cultural significance and emblematic values of roses but is intended as a prelude to an exploration of their potential semantic roles in specific contexts in future articles.

This thesis provides an overview of the Roman correspondence on papyrus, ostrakon and tablet.
Communication was very important in Roman army, as in the armies of every time. The Roman military letters show a world where Latin and Greek are both official languages of the soldiers and where barbarians and provisioning are the most pressing matters.
This overview will mainly deal the four largest corpora (the Vindolanda tablets, the ostraka from the Eastern Desert of Egypt, the Dura Europos papyri and the ostraka from Bu Njem) and many texts from these corpora will be analyzed. A specific section will also focus on the mail management and transportation.

Illegal excavations in archaeological heritage sites (namely "looting") are a global phenomenon. Satellite images are nowadays massively used by archaeologists to systematically document sites affected by looting. In parallel, remote sensing scientists are increasingly developing processing methods with a certain degree of automation to quantify looting using satellite imagery. To capture the state-of-the-art of this growing field of remote sensing, in this work 47 peer-reviewed research publications and grey literature are reviewed, accounting for: (i) the type of satellite data used, i.e., optical and synthetic aperture radar (SAR); (ii) properties of looting features utilized as proxies for damage assessment (e.g., shape, morphology, spectral signature); (iii) image processing workflows; and (iv) rationale for validation. Several scholars studied looting even prior to the conflicts recently affecting the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Regardless of the method used for looting feature identification (either visual/manual, or with the aid of image processing), they preferred very high resolution (VHR) optical imagery, mainly black-and-white panchromatic, or pansharpened multispectral, whereas SAR is being used more recently by specialist image analysts only. Yet the full potential of VHR and high resolution (HR) multispectral information in optical imagery is to be exploited, with limited research studies testing spectral indices. To fill this gap, a range of looted sites across the MENA region are presented in this work, i.e., Lisht, Dashur, and Abusir el Malik (Egypt), and Tell Qarqur, Tell Jifar, Sergiopolis, Apamea, Dura Europos, and Tell Hizareen (Syria). The aim is to highlight: (i) the complementarity of HR multispectral data and VHR SAR with VHR optical imagery, (ii) usefulness of spectral profiles in the visible and near-infrared bands, and (iii) applicability of methods for multi-temporal change detection. Satellite data used for the demonstration include: HR multispectral imagery from the Copernicus Sentinel-2 constellation, VHR X-band SAR data from the COSMO-SkyMed mission, VHR panchromatic and multispectral WorldView-2 imagery, and further VHR optical data acquired by GeoEye-1, IKONOS-2, QuickBird-2, and WorldView-3, available through Google Earth. Commonalities between the different image processing methods are examined, alongside a critical discussion about automation in looting assessment, current lack of common practices in image processing, achievements in managing the uncertainty in looting feature interpretation, and current needs for more dissemination and user uptake. Directions toward sharing and harmonization of methodologies are outlined, and some proposals are made with regard to the aspects that the community working with satellite images should consider, in order to define best practices of satellite-based looting assessment.

Dura Europos: the Jewish Aramaeans, their Synagogue, and the Fake History fabricated by the Zionists
ΑΝΑΔΗΜΟΣΙΕΥΣΗ ΑΠΟ ΤΟ ΣΗΜΕΡΑ ΑΝΕΝΕΡΓΟ ΜΠΛΟΓΚ “ΟΙ ΡΩΜΙΟΙ ΤΗΣ ΑΝΑΤΟΛΗΣ”
Το κείμενο του κ. Νίκου Μπαϋρακτάρη είχε αρχικά δημοσιευθεί την 25η Νοεμβρίου 2019. Αποτελεί συνέχεια του προηγούμενου κειμένου του το οποίο έχει ήδη αναδημοσιευθεί εδώ:
"Δούρα Ευρωπός, το Τέλειο Πρότυπο Πολυπολιτισμικότητας: Αραμαίοι, Έλληνες, Πάρθες, Ρωμαίοι και Πέρσες σε Μοναδικό Θρησκευτικό Συγκρητισμό δίπλα στον Ευφράτη" https://www.academia.edu/66009699/Έλληνες_Πάρθες_Ρωμαίοι_και_Πέρσες_σε_Μοναδικό_Θρησκευτικό_Συγκρητισμό_δίπλα_στον_Ευφράτη
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First republished on 27th December 2021 here:
https://medium.com/@megalommatis/δούρα-ευρωπός-οι-ιουδαίοι-αραμαίοι-η-συναγωγή-και-η-νεώτερη-ψευτοϊστορία-των-σιωνιστών-7e297d248040

This dissertation is about the concept of hybridisation in the Hellenistic period. Its research argument evaluates its practice as an ideology from Hellenistic kings in the Near East through deliberate policies of cultural diffusion and ethnic unification to increase their imperial power. The structure of this dissertation comprises four chapters in which I argue about the application of the concept of hybridity in the field of archaeology and the employment of other similar concepts, its practice during the Achaemenid Empire, then by Alexander and his Successors, and finally during the Roman Empire in the Near East. Furthermore, I examine two archaeological case studies of two Seleukid cities in the Near East: Ai-khanoum in the Bactria region in modern-day Afghanistan, and Dura Europos in Syria. Throughout the dissertation, I use modern scholarship and ancient literary sources as well as archaeological evidence to support my argument.
The Introduction considers the overall definition of hybridisation and its interpretation in contemporary scholarship, its context in the Hellenistic period and the dissertation structure.
Chapter One is about the interpretation of hybridity in classical archaeology through the concepts of etic and emic borrowed from anthropology and sociology, supported by an overview of a case study regarding terracotta female figurines in the cities of Babylon, Seleukia-on-the-Tigris and Uruk. Still in this chapter, I discuss the nuances of other words that have similar meanings to hybridisation, namely entanglement, syncretism and creolisation. For each concept, I provide one example, so for entanglement is the fine ware pottery brought by the Mycenaeans that was found in Philistine territory in the Levant, for syncretism Zeus-Ammon, and for creolization the case study of Epona written by Jane Webster.
Chapter Two examines the exercise of hybridity in the Achaemenid Empire as the antecedent of Hellenistic rule, then during the reign of Alexander across his empire and in his court, and finally in the Seleukid kingdom.
Chapter Three contains the case studies of Ai-khanoum and Dura Europos, in which I describe their foundations, buildings and their main functions, architecture and material culture that was excavated in different archaeological campaigns.
Chapter Four is about the legacy of hybridity with a brief description of it during the Roman Empire in the Near East.
The Conclusion of the dissertation is an overview of all chapters along with concluding remarks.

Keywords: Hybridisation, hybridity, entanglement, syncretism, creolisation, Near East, Achaemenid empire, Alexander, Seleukids, Ai-Khanoum, Dura Europos, Roman empire.

The soldiers of auxiliary forces were depicted in the arts of Roman Syria. Specifically Dromedarii from Palmyra, in local dress, armed with bows and lances, and riding horses or camels were shown in detail. These combat units operated long ahead of the Roman annexation. In Palmyra, the internal units of the local militia were also tolerated by the Roman authorities. These units, described in modern scholarship as meharistes, used to patrol the desert and protected the caravans. During the second century this practice continued and so did the iconography described above. At the same time, at least from the reign of Lucius Verus, the auxiliary forces were stationing in Palmyra. Initially, they were shown like the meharistes. Further, Legio IIII Scythica was stationed in Zeugma, whilst veterans of Legio III Cyrenaica settled in Auranitis. Their representations share some similarities with the Palmyra. Units from all over Syria were stationed also on the northern limes, their tombstones with particular elements of decoration and epigraphy have been preserved in Danubian provinces. But the third century brought a revolution in their imagery. Syrian soldiers were portrayed in a new, more unified way, though still with local traits, now shared regionally. The fresco of tribune Julius Terentius from Dura Europos associates military units with the imperial cult, while the funerary representations from Palmyra resemble the portraits of Syrian emperors, namely Caracalla and Philip Arab. This suggests the emergence of a new, strong military class, defending Syria against the Sasanid threat. It was the group, from which came Odainath, corrector totius orientis, husband of Zenobia and father of Wahballat.

By engaging with recent developments in the study of empires, this book examines how inhabitants of Roman imperial Syria reinvented expressions and experiences of Greek, Roman and Syrian identification. It demonstrates how the organization of Greek communities and a peer polity network extending citizenship to ethnic Syrians generated new semiotic frameworks for the performance of Greekness and Syrianness. Within these, Syria's inhabitants reoriented and interwove idioms of diverse cultural origins, including those from the Near East, to express Greek, Roman and Syrian identifications in innovative and complex ways. While exploring a vast array of written and material sources, the book thus posits that Greekness and Syrianness were constantly shifting and transforming categories, and it critiques many assumptions that govern how scholars of antiquity often conceive of Roman imperial Greek identity, ethnicity and culture in the Roman Near East, and processes of 'hybridity' or similar concepts.

This study explores a previously overlooked aspect of the Mesopotamian context of the synagogue at Dura-Europos. It considers the function of the Jewish murals together with that of the contemporaneous pictorial art of the Manichaeans and thus brings a fundamentally new perspective to the most famous and commented-upon aspect of the synagogue. While the archeological records of the painted synagogue are silent, various characteristics of the mid-third-century Manichaean paintings are documented in literary records, including what they portrayed and the pedagogical reasons for how and why they were used. As evidenced by Iranian, Coptic, and Syriac textual sources from between the mid 3 rd and the late 4 th /early 5 th centuries, the founding prophet of Manichaeism, Mani (active from 240 to 274 or 277 C. E.), wrote down his teachings and commissioned visual representations of them on a solely pictorial scroll-the Book of Pictures-used for oral instructions while missionizing across greater West Asia and the East Mediterranean region. When accessed together, the available evidence demonstrates that correlations between the religious function of Durene Jewish and Sasanian Manichaean art go beyond surface similarities: they both displayed a visual library of doctrinal subjects, that is, they capture in the pictorial form a large sample of core tenets, which were also recorded in the sacred texts of their respective religions; and they both fulfilled a primarily instructional role since their scenes were sermonized about and discussed in light of living interpretations.