Open AccessArticle

An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Late Islamic Cemeteries Within the Cathedral (15th–18th Century CE) and the Ruins of Adulis (Mid-19th–Early 20th Century CE), Massawa, Eritrea: Funerary Architecture, Funerary Rituals, Burial Rites, and Bioarcheological Data Identifying Late Islamic Graves in Central Eastern Eritrea

Omar Larentis

^1,2,3,*

Nelly Cattaneo

⁴

Paolo Lampugnani

³,

Susanna Bortolotto

⁵

Emanuele Zappa

⁴

Andrea Gregorini

⁴,

Yotam Gezae

⁶,

Tsegai Medin

⁷,

Ilaria Gorini

^2,3 and

Serena Massa

^3,8

Laboratorio Bagolini Archeologia, Archeometria, Fotografia—Bagolini Archaeology, Archaeometry, Photography Laboratory, Department of Letters and Philosophy, University of Trento, 38122 Trento, Italy

Centre of Research in Osteoarchaeology and Paleopathology, Department of Biotechnologies and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy

Centro Ricerche sul Deserto Orientale—Centre of Research for the Eastern Desert, 21100 Varese, Italy

⁴

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Politecnico of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy

⁵

Department of Architecture and Urban Studies, Politecnico of Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy

⁶

Northern Red Sea Regional Museum, Massawa P.O. Box 73 , Eritrea

⁷

Eritrean Commission of Culture and Sports—Archaeological Heritage Research Branch—AHRB, Asmara P.O. Box 242, Eritrea

⁸

Department of History, Archeology and Art History, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 20123 Milan, Italy

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Heritage 2025, 8(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8010001

Submission received: 3 December 2024 / Revised: 18 December 2024 / Accepted: 19 December 2024 / Published: 24 December 2024

(This article belongs to the Section Archaeological Heritage)

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Figure 1
(a) Location of the archaeological site of Adulis (Longitude: 39.6602053, Latitude: 15.262725), Zula Bay, situated between the villages of Afta and Zula in the Foro district, south of Massawa. (b) Excavations in the city have uncovered numerous secular buildings, such as the “palace” excavated by Richard Sundström and religious structures like the Northern Urban Church in Sector 2, the so-called “Eastern Church” in Sector 4, the church known as “The English Church”, now referred to as the Cathedral, and an elitarian building close to the Cathedral in Sectors 3–6. Graphic elaboration by Nelly Cattaneo. "> Figure 2
Orthoimage of the Cathedral after the 2023 excavation campaign. Foundations of structures, outlined with lines, rendered for better clarity. Excavated tombs (SU 6039, 6041, 6116b, 6124) are highlighted in blue, with probable tombs (SU 6126, 6127) in light blue with perimeter markings. "> Figure 3
(a) SU 6116b during excavation. (b) SU 6124 in the last part of the excavation. (c) DEM of area SU 6116b during excavation obtained with photogrammetry. (d) DEM of area SU 6124 in the last part of the excavation obtained with photogrammetry. Dashed lines connect the same burial. "> Figure 4
Textured 3D models obtained with photogrammetry of (a,c) SU 6116b during excavation and (b,d) SU 6124 in the last part of the excavation. Dashed lines connect the same burial. "> Figure 5
Tomb SU 6124. (a–e) The various excavation phases, presented in chronological order, highlight the tomb within the nave, delineated by two schist slabs vertically embedded in the ground marking the pit boundaries. (A) A platform, just a few centimeters above the cut, was formed by flat-lying schist slabs placed horizontally on the ground ((a), white rectangle). (e,f) Adjacent to the southern vertical slab, a thick lens of soil rich in charcoal was uncovered ((e), white rectangle). Arrows sign the North. "> Figure 6
(a) Southern schist slab of tomb SU 6124, showing an area rich in carbonaceous material with a darker color (indicated by a white rectangle) and the location where the cowry shell was found (marked with a white circle). (b) Top and bottom views of the cowry shell, displaying its perforation. (c,d) Local ceramic fragments recovered from the slate slab platform near the tomb. "> Figure 7
(a) During the survey, a Zula village elder demonstrated the construction technique of Muslim tombs. In this example, two lines drawn in the sand represent the trench and the lateral chamber carved at the trench’s base to house the deceased. (b,c) For each tomb, data such as size, funerary architecture, and the presence of ritual elements were recorded. "> Figure 8
(a) Tomb of a prominent figure within the Zula community characterized by elaborate architecture. (b–f) Nearby graves, especially those close to more complex structures, exhibit prestigious funerary architecture. These are typically rectangular or ellipsoidal in shape and rise significantly above ground level, surrounded by perimeter walls made of flat-laid shale slabs. "> Figure 9
(a) Circular tomb constructed with roughly hewn basalt blocks. (b,c) Circular tomb surrounded by squared basalt blocks. (d) Tomb identifiable by the white quartz pebbles. (e) Probable female tomb demarcated by squared basalt blocks. (f) Tomb damaged by erosion from the Haddas River. "> Figure 10
The tomb point-shape file on the satellite imagery. In red, Bet Khalifa’s Clan cemetery; in orange, Scheik Mahmoud’s Clan cemetery; and in yellow, the other graves. North is at the top of the figure. ">

Versions Notes

Abstract

Systematic studies on Late Islamic cemeteries that integrate architectural, ritual, and biological aspects remain relatively rare, particularly in Islamic countries or regions with an active Muslim presence. Typically, available research focuses more on epigraphic and artistic features. Since 2018, excavations at the Cathedral and surveys in the ruins of the city of Adulis (Massawa, Eritrea) have uncovered 326 Muslim graves: six dating to the 15th and 18th centuries CE and 320 attributed to the mid-19th to the early 20th century CE. These discoveries have enabled, for the first time in Eritrea, a detailed scientific study of the biological characteristics of the human remains, the funerary architecture, and the burial rites of Muslim communities from the 15th to the early 20th century. The skeletal remains were analyzed through taphonomic and anthropological studies. The graves were categorized into various typologies based on their structural features, while evidence of funerary rituals was documented as indicative elements of the burial practices adopted. These findings were further enriched by ethnographic sources and collaborative work with local communities, who acted as custodians of the historical memory and traditions of the region. The results provide insights into a historical period of Eritrea that is otherwise poorly documented. More broadly, they contribute to the understanding of the history of the Horn of Africa, a region with limited data from funerary and archaeological contexts. The Muslim cemeteries of Adulis represent the most extensively investigated Muslim burial site in recent years, providing critical insights into the historical Muslim presence in the region. These findings also allow researchers to hypothesize the succession of various communities that chose Adulis as a central location for interring their deceased, reflecting its enduring significance as a focal point for cultural and ritual practices across different periods.

Keywords:

eastern desert; Sub-Saharan area; Horn of Africa; tombs; graves; modern era

1. Introduction

The ancient city of Adulis is in central Eritrea, south of Massawa (Figure 1a), and is a multi-layered archaeological site with evidence ranging from prehistory to the modern era (2nd millennium CBE—early 20th century CE) [1,2].

The human presence during the 2nd millennium BCE in the area where the city later arose had already been suggested by the discovery of pottery during Roberto Paribeni’s excavations at the beginning of the 20th century [1,3,4].

Most scholars support the hypothesis that the Adulitan territory, along with parts of Eritrea, was part of the Land of Punt, together with regions of Sudan and Somalia [1,5,6,7,8]. Punt was an ancient kingdom known for producing and exporting aromatic resins, incense, ebony, ivory, baboons, and panther skins and noted for its trade relations with ancient Egypt [5,9]. Adulis developed into a significant commercial hub along trade routes between the Mediterranean and the East, as recorded by merchants and classical authors [10,11]. The city’s importance within the Red Sea economy and broader networks grew, reaching its zenith during the Aksumite Empire (100 BCE—960 CE) [1,6,7,12]. Adulis was the main access to the net of international exchanges for this empire, one of the most important towns together with Qohaito, Matara, Kaskase, and Toconda, cities located along the trade route that connected the port with the capital.

Its prominence goes from the 3rd to the 4th century CE and likely continued until at least the 7th century CE, based on a gold coin probably attributable to Hethasas and dated to 620 CE found within the “palace” of Adulis [1,13]. The city’s activity might have persisted longer, but current archaeological data cannot provide more precise estimates. During its peak, Adulis saw the construction of monumental secular and religious structures, including the well-known Northern Urban Church in Sector 2 (previously identified as the “Ara del Sole” by Paribeni [3]), the Eastern Church in Sector 4, and the English Church in Sectors 3–6 (Figure 1b) [1,2,6,7,12]. The latter name stems from a brief English mission led by William West Goodfellow under the British Museum’s auspices. This mission described the site as an “Early Christian Church” [14,15]. The chronology of these structures is still debated, but their construction—at least regarding the latest phase of their use, which is also the one that has been excavated—can be dated to a period between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE.

Since 2018, systematic excavations of the church in Sectors 3–6 have been conducted under the scientific direction of Professor Serena Massa, who also leads the Ce.R.D.O. (Centro di Ricerche per il Deserto Orientale—Research Center for the Eastern Desert). These excavations removed the backfill material left by Goodfellow at the end of the 19th century, revealing structures that were part of a large church now renamed the Cathedral. During a 2018 campaign, a burial containing the remains of an adult in a lateral position was found within the nave. This burial was excavated and analyzed in 2019 [16,17]. The discovery of a second grave and another individual in 2020 suggested that the Cathedral nave was used as a burial area [18].

The stratigraphic data, combined with taphonomic factors, biological characteristics of the individuals, and ritual evidence, identified these tombs as Muslim burials. These aspects are thoroughly addressed within the contribution, particularly in the discussion section. These were dated to a period after the church’s abandonment but before the English excavation. Radiocarbon dating confirmed this hypothesis [16,17,19], identifying these graves as part of the first Late Islamic Eritrean cemetery excavated stratigraphically and analyzed anthropologically. The available radiocarbon dates, calibrated to calendar years, currently range from 1480 CE (human bone—SU 6039) to 1795 CE (human bone—SU 6041) [19]. In this contribution, the term Late Islamic period follows Simpson’s definition, which encompasses evidence from the late medieval period through to the Modern Era [20].

Four other burials were identified in the nave and compared with clusters of Muslim tombs found in Adulis, dated to the second half of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. These graves are distributed across multiple cemeteries, typically organized based on clan affiliation of the ancestors from the nearby village of Zula. To obtain data comparable with the graves in the Cathedral and establish a homogeneous dataset, the entire archaeological area—historically favored for funerary use by Muslim communities—was subjected to a detailed survey. This investigation enabled the geolocation, cataloging, and description of an additional 320 Muslim burials. The information was further enriched through ethnographic research in collaboration with elders from the neighboring villages.

The constructive, stylistic, and ritual analysis of these burials has enabled for the first time the classification of specific elements, offering taxonomic criteria for identifying and describing these tombs within Eritrea.

2. Materials and Methods

This research adopted an interdisciplinary approach, integrating taphonomic, bioarchaeological, and ritual data obtained from the study of the tombs excavated in the Cathedral. These burials were meticulously documented through photography, and the collected data facilitated the creation of digital models of the findings. Subsequently, the focus shifted to comparing the funerary architecture of the extensive cluster of tombs located among the ruins of Adulis. These tombs were geolocated within the site using GNSS coordinates and photographically documented. The structural analysis and examination of ritual evidence were carried out with the collaboration of specialists, including surveyors, historians, and physical and cultural anthropologists, and enriched by contributions from the local community.

Documentation of the tombs of the Cathedral and their excavation was conducted in situ and involved capturing textured 3D surfaces with a handled digital scanner and taking photographs suitable for producing digital models such as the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and 3D reconstructions with photogrammetry. These captures were performed before, during, and after the excavation. A Faro Freestyle 2 digital scanner was adopted since it is compact and easily portable and provides a real-time representation of results, immediately allowing us to check that the entire requested region had been scanned. Moreover, it can scan up to 220,000 pints/s, with RGB texture. The measuring distance range was from 0.4 to 5 m with an uncertainty of 1 mm in most of the acquisition conditions. The digital images for photogrammetry of a single tomb were acquired with a 16 MPixel reflex camera while the ones for the reconstruction of the DEM of the full Cathedral were acquired with a DJI Air 2S drone, with a 5472 × 3648 pixel digital camera, pixel size of 2.4 microns, and 8.38 mm focal length lens. The flight altitude for image acquisition was 25 m, with a ground sampling distance of about 7 mm.

Anthropological, taphonomic, and historical analyses and radiocarbon dating were carried out on the unearthed remains [16,17,19] using standardized protocols. Due to the dense soil adhering to the bones, micro-excavation was necessary to preserve taphonomic details for understanding conservation conditions and decay processes [21,22]. The most delicate portions were extracted in blocks and studied in greater detail at the Massawa Museum. Age estimation was based on analyzing the surface of the 4th rib, the auricular surface, and the pubic symphysis [23,24,25]. These methods rely on skeletal senescence processes and were chosen because, during an initial preliminary assessment, the individuals appeared to be adults. Sex was determined by assessing dimorphic traits of the cranium and pelvis, and the latter was also evaluated metrically [26,27,28]. The metric evaluation of the pelvis is particularly important in contexts where remains are highly fragmented or fragile. It is crucial that this operation be carried out during the excavation, as transportation to the laboratory could inevitably cause damage to the remains. The poor preservation of bone tissue, particularly the external cortex, hindered the identification of potential pathological changes. Nevertheless, some osteophytes and alterations in articular and periarticular areas were observed. Their interpretation was guided by comparative analyses using the available paleopathological literature [29,30,31,32]. The preliminary bioarchaeological data of the individuals, which provide insights into anthropological aspects, have been published and are available for consultation [16,17,18,19].

The fieldwork, aimed at documenting and classifying the funerary architecture and traces of burial rituals of the Muslim graves scattered among the ruins of Adulis, was structured into three parts. The first was the ethnographic research in strict collaboration with the inhabitants and elders of Zula. The elders were individuals who held an important role within the community and whom the community relied upon when it came to significant decisions that affected them. These individuals were identified by the community itself based on their age—thus serving as the historical memory—wisdom, lineage, or merits earned throughout their life in the village. Today, approximately ten villages are situated along the western shore of the gulf. In the area near western Zula Bay, following the decline and eventual collapse of Adulis, the next notable permanent settlement appears to have been the village of Zula. The name “Zula” may bear some historical or linguistic connection to Adulis. The inhabitants of Zula buried their dead within the ruins of Adulis, suggesting a continuation of cultural and ritual practices tied to the region’s historical significance [19]. This activity enabled a better understanding of the rules underlying the locations of graves, their general layout, and their making and shape. Oral traditions provided a unique perspective on contemporary funerary practices and valuable comparisons with those of the Late Islamic period. Field meetings with village elders and local authorities uncovered new information that complemented and enhanced the knowledge derived from archaeological materials, creating a narrative that intertwined both the history and the present state of Adulis.

The second part dealt with mapping. No positional data were available on the burial areas and satellite and aerial imagery could not support the identification of every single grave, as sometimes they were detectable only thanks to a minimal elevation of the ground or the relative position of a couple of vertical stones. Moreover, no metric and descriptive data were available. Every grave has been represented in the map by a point; all the points constitute a point-geometry shapefile to be used in a GIS (Geographic Information System) environment that links the location of each tomb to the information regarding it (attributes), both textual and numeric, and attached documents (i.e., in our case, photos).

The positions of the tombs were acquired thanks to an instrument that is easily available; therefore, the fieldwork can be considered as a procedure test that can be replicated. The tool is the application Mobile Topographer (MT), which can be installed on any Android smartphone, enabling fast and accurate GNSS geopositioning. Fast geopositioning, though with lower accuracy, provides a good empirical estimation of the quality of data; the position of Adulis on a plain, without disturbing the environment, offers very good conditions for good geopositioning through satellite navigation systems. To evaluate the quality of the acquired data, a test was carried out on Sector 2: 8 targets were in fact located within the fence of the area and geopositioned both with the MT application and the topographic GNSS Sokkia GRX3 used in RTK mode, which can estimate positions with an accuracy of around 5 cm, without connections to data communication networks. Having made the test on 8 points, the output was not used for statistical analysis, but we could observe that the maximum discard in the X or Y position was 2.12 m and the minimum was 0.052 m; the average of the ΔXY discard was 1.54 m (0.733 in Y latitude and 0.647 in X longitude). For the objective of this mapping activity and considering that the position was always taken at the center of each grave, we could infer that the point acquired would be within the area of the burial itself.

The third part concerned the information collected for each grave. The data are structured in the attribute table of the shapefile (Table 1).

The analysis of historical sources formed a fundamental component of this study, integrating taphonomic data and providing vital insights for interpreting evidence and placing it chronologically within the Adulis context. Ancient documents (i.e., Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia and Cosma Indicopleustes, Topographia Christiana), colonial administrative records, and reports from previous excavations were examined [3,13,14,15,33]. This documentation enriched the knowledge derived from archaeological findings, enabling a more nuanced understanding of the social dynamics influencing burial practices over time and facilitating comparisons with mid-19th to mid-20th century Muslim tombs.

3. Results

The results of the analyses are presented in two sections. The first focuses on the research conducted within the Cathedral, showcasing tombs from an early Late Islamic period (15th–18th century CE). The second section highlights findings from the cemetery associated with a later phase of the Late Islamic period (mid-19th–early 20th century CE), which is located on the ruins of what was once the city of Adulis.

3.1. The Graves of the Cathedral (15th–18th Century CE)

The stratigraphic excavation of the Cathedral’s nave uncovered structures interpreted as potential burials based on their stratigraphic relationships, shapes, and the nature and arrangement of the construction materials. Four structures were excavated (SU 6039, 6041, 6116b, 6124), while two others (SU 6126, 6127) were identified as probable tombs based on archaeological, stratigraphic, and typological grounds (Figure 2).

From a spatial distribution perspective, the tombs were predominantly located within the nave, except for SU 6041, which was constructed above the northern perimeter wall of the Cathedral. The structures lacked a homogeneous orientation, although their longer axis generally aligned in an east–west direction.

Analysis of the excavated tombs identified them as Muslim burials from the 15th to the 18th century CE (Table 2) [16,17,18,19].

Excavations of SU 6116b and 6124 reached depths of approximately 60 cm, halting before extensive digging in the nave. Both burials were documented photographically and using 3D scanning technology. These data were processed to produce DEM and 3D models of the tombs, both before and during the excavation (Figure 3 and Figure 4).

Tomb SU 6124, noted for its distinctive construction and the wealth of associated ritual evidence, was in the northeastern portion of the nave, adjacent to the remains of the northern wall (Figure 3b,d, Figure 4b,d, Figure 5, and Figure 6). The structure is considered distinctive and noteworthy as it features vertically embedded schist slabs acting as stelae, a ritual platform, local pottery, the presence of charcoal, and offerings associated with indigenous Muslim rituals. Its presence within the Cathedral was evident early in the excavation due to two vertically positioned schist slabs (Figure 5a–e). The northern slab was close to and parallel with the remnants of the north wall, while the second slab, symmetrical in placement, extended further into the nave. Numerous stones used as fill material positioned between the two vertical slabs indicated the extent of the burial pit (Figure 5a–e). East of the pit, stratigraphically associated with it, several horizontally placed schist slabs were uncovered (Figure 5a). The pit’s limits were defined during the excavation by the removal of the fill, which consisted of large pebbles and roughly hewn basalt fragments, likely repurposed materials. A few centimeters below the surface, near the southern vertical slab, a layer of charcoal-rich soil was identified, providing further evidence of ritual activity near the grave (Figure 5f and Figure 6a).

A perforated cowry shell was discovered at the center of the meridional schist slab (Figure 6a,b). Additionally, fragments of local pottery were identified among the slate slabs forming the rectangular platform near the grave (Figure 6c,d).

3.2. The Cemeteries in the Ruins (Mid-19th–Early 20th Century CE)

The survey work among the ruins of Adulis began with ethnographic methods, incorporating knowledge from the elders of the Zula village and collaborative discussions between the local community and researchers from Eritrea and Italy (Figure 7).

The Zula village residents, Muslims from the Tigre ethnolinguistic group, provided essential insights. Until recently, the Zula community customarily buried their dead at Adulis, valued for its elevation, protection from river erosion, and abundant building materials. This practice led to the burial of many prominent figures from Zula, whose graves attracted those of less near villages.

This dialogue was instrumental in identifying traditional tomb construction techniques, enabling researchers to initiate the mapping and documentation of individual graves. Before the survey, the elders explained that the lhat method was likely the sole burial technique used in Adulis’ Late Islamic cemetery (Figure 7a). lhat involves preparing an east–west-oriented trench, approximately 1.5–2 m long, 2.5 m deep, and 1.5 m wide. A side chamber is carved into the northern trench wall, symbolizing the house of the deceased. The body is placed in this chamber on its side, with the face oriented north toward Mecca and the body east to west. Flat shale stones seal the chamber, plastered with mud, before backfilling the trench (Figure 8a). Surface markers often include rectangular or oval-shaped rocks, with two stones indicating a male burial and three (two at the ends and one in the center) signifying a female burial (Figure 8b–f and Figure 9c).

Prestigious tombs in Adulis are distinguished by features such as lime or mortar coverings and large shale or alabaster slabs (Figure 8a). These high-status graves often incorporate reused elements from Adulis’ monuments, reflecting their prominence. These elements, made from precious materials such as alabaster or marble and/or characterized by special features like large slabs, columns, or decorative motifs, are found only in the tombs of the Sheikhs and those nearby. In contrast, the other tombs use simple squared basalt blocks that were part of the fill from the collapsed structures of the monuments. These elite tombs are typically rectangular and sometimes ellipsoidal, featuring significant height through a surrounding perimeter wall made of flat shale slabs (Figure 8b–d). This architectural style is particularly evident in the cemetery associated with Shek Mahmoud (Shek, or in Arabic language, Sheikh) where privileged graves are enclosed within a quadrangular boundary.

Other graves reflect a more modest funerary architecture. Some are round and slightly elevated above the ground by a platform constructed from rough basalt blocks, often repurposed from the city ruins (Figure 9a,b).

Others are marked only by subtle perimeters of stones or vertically placed shale slabs (Figure 9c,e). A unique indicator of graves is the presence of white quartz pebbles, remnants of an ancient tradition where visitors brought these pebbles as offerings during an annual pilgrimage or zyara to honor notable Sheikhs in October, accompanied by a religious feast called sedeka. In some cases, these quartz pebbles are the sole markers of a burial.

Most graves are now located on elevated areas within the ancient city’s ruins. However, southern graves are particularly vulnerable to seasonal flooding from the Haddas watercourse, which continues to erode them (Figure 9f).

Data on 320 tombs were collected (Figure 10). There were two main burial areas: in Bet Shek Mahmoud cemetery, 64 tombs were mapped; in Bet Khalifa’s, there were 37. Along the Haddas banks, in the southern part of Adulis, there were over 200 tombs, and a dozen other scattered and isolated tombs seemed to be distributed around the archaeological area.

Other tombs were likely washed away by the seasonal floods of the Haddas watercourse. Evidence of this could be seen in the schist slabs that were precariously balanced and the fragments of graves visible along the riverbank cliff. Compared to the map in Paribeni’s publication, the current extent of the burial areas appeared broader. This suggests significant changes and expansion over the last century. Paribeni’s map highlights two relatively small cemeteries, which must have transformed over time.

The region near the Haddas merits further investigation, as it does not seem directly associated with the main Bet of Zula. Since the map specifically refers to graves dating to the mid-19th–early 20th century CE, it excludes the earlier Late Islamic period tombs near the Cathedral and those from archaeological strata. For these earlier burials, a recent synthesis is available [19].

4. Discussion

4.1. Elements of Continuity and Discontinuity in the Late Islamic Cemeteries of Adulis

The analysis of funerary architecture, rituals, and burial rites in the 15th–18th century CE cemetery near the Cathedral, as well as those from the mid-19th to early 20th century CE, has allowed for the identification of elements of continuity and discontinuity in the mortuary use of Adulis over the past 600 years.

Before discussing the data on these tombs, it is important to highlight that photogrammetry has proven to be an efficient method for quickly capturing orthographic images of small ground sections during excavation. In fact, even though the photogrammetric pipeline usually requires a long processing phase, the image acquisition is fast and can be scheduled in the strict timing of the in-field operations [34]. Moreover, if the only product of interest during the experimental campaign is an orthoimage with good resolution, then the processing time is remarkably reduced. Hence, this acquisition method is faster in the field but still requires processing at the base camp, which must be scheduled according to available electrical power. With a consumer-grade laptop, processing images of three tombs required a full computer charge due to the high energy demands of such tasks. The handheld 3D scanner, on the other hand, required slightly longer preparation in the field but delivered results more quickly. However, surface texture quality was lower compared to photogrammetry. On the positive side, the accuracy of the acquired geometry was superior with handheld 3D scanning. This methodological approach also proved useful in correlating burial elevations with those of the Cathedral. The data obtained stratigraphically aligned the tombs (SU 6039, 6041, 6116b, 6124) with an Islamic cultural context. Indeed, recent excavations have made it possible to determine, from a stratigraphic perspective, that the pits were dug into the infill of the nave, composed of loose soil and stones from the collapse of the Cathedral [17,18]. This places them in a chronological phase following its abandonment and the removal of the floor covering. The only tomb excavated within a perimeter wall is SU 6041, and the position of the structure suggests that there was no longer any memory of all the original elevations of the building. This likely makes this tomb the last one dug within the Cathedral [18,19].

Ethnographic comparisons with oral accounts from village elders, custodians of a collective memory likely dating back to the early 19th century CE, confirmed the exclusive use of the lhat construction technique for tombs from the mid-19th to early 20th century CE. In Islamic tradition, this funerary architecture is known as Laḥad and serves a practical purpose: preventing soil and stones from directly pressing on the deceased’s body [35].

This method was not observed in the earlier Cathedral cemetery, where the absence of lateral chambers suggests simpler trench burials, more or less refined, comparable to the construction technique known as aklyet. This funerary architecture is known in the Islamic culture as Shaqq, which involves digging a trench in the center of a grave tailored to the size of the deceased [36]. The sides of the trench are reinforced with bricks or similar materials to prevent collapse. The body is on its right side, facing the Qiblah, ensuring alignment with Islamic customs. The trench is then covered with stones, wooden planks, or other materials, creating a raised ceiling to ensure that no part of the grave’s filling comes into direct contact with the deceased. Finally, the remaining space in the grave is filled with soil, completing the burial by Islamic rites. The tombs in the Cathedral were built using this technique; however, this cannot be definitively stated for tomb SU 6124, as its bottom has not yet been excavated.

The burials in the Cathedral broadly follow an east–west orientation and are mostly situated within the nave. It is possible that these tombs do not belong to a single burial phase, with enough time passing between them to prevent uniform alignments. It is important to note that, in a Muslim cemetery, orientations should ideally align with the Qiblah, as the deceased must face its direction. While there is a general sense of alignment, it is worth acknowledging that the actual orientations of structures and the deceased’s faces may have varied slightly due to the inherent difficulty of consistently and accurately identifying the direction of Mecca [37,38,39].

The burials, regardless of their chronological context, utilized locally available materials. These often included roughly hewn basalt blocks salvaged from the ruins of Adulis structures or flat schist slabs of varying dimensions, also repurposed from the ancient city. Larger slabs, particularly in the later cemeteries, served as grave markers. It is possible that this practice was already in use in earlier phases, as evidenced by SU 6124. However, it is worth noting that the upper portions of other Cathedral tombs were likely removed by the British in the late 19th century, necessitating further data acquisition to explore this hypothesis.

The use of prestigious construction materials—such as columns, monumental slabs, marble carvings, and alabaster panels from Adulis monuments—became prevalent only in the mid-19th century. This was not observed in earlier phases, although the loss of coverings on five of the six tombs in the Cathedral cemetery at the time of their discovery necessitates cautious interpretation.

Funerary rituals and commemorative practices reflect shared and distinct traditions across the two periods. Charcoal, linked to ritual practices in honor of the deceased, is evident in the 15th–18th century and the mid-19th to early 20th century structures. Some rituals involving the burning of charcoal for incense offerings continue to this day around the most prominent graves in the later cemeteries. It is plausible that these rituals held similar meanings and served as offerings to the deceased in both periods, as evidenced on the one hand by the archaeological findings and on the other by the persistence of these rites in today’s commemorations in the village of Zula.

Tributes to the deceased are well documented in the later cemeteries of Adulis through the deposition of local ceramics near tombs and the placement of quartz pebbles during pilgrimages to ancestral graves. However, no evidence of the pilgrimage ritual specifically called zyara was found in the Cathedral cemetery, suggesting that this tradition emerged with the development of newer cemeteries in the mid-19th century, especially those surrounding clan leaders’ graves. These leaders were revered as holy figures among their communities [19].

The positioning of a perforated cowry shell suggests that it was once attached to a perishable cord and offered to the deceased by placing it around the schist slab marking the grave. This placement implies a spiritual or ceremonial significance, potentially symbolizing wealth, protection, or a connection to the afterlife. The custom of honoring the dead with marine objects, such as shells and corals, is also attested in the cemeteries of the mid-19th to early 20th century.

These findings, alongside ceramic shards, provide insights into the community’s cultural practices. These artifacts could represent either practical grave goods or components of ritual offerings, pointing to a complex mortuary tradition. Personal or symbolic items were incorporated into the burial process to honor the deceased, reflecting the broader societal beliefs and customs of the time.

At present, the amount of human remains recovered does not allow for identifying or hypothesizing elements of the ritual, objects, or materials specifically associated with the gender of the deceased.

4.2. Who Buried Their Dead in Adulis During the Late Islamic?

The identification of the cultural and ethnic affiliations of the Adulis cemeteries is a complex undertaking due to the city’s long history as a significant sub-regional and supra-regional center of attraction. Adulis was a burial site for at least 600 years after its decline, but this choice cannot be explained only by practical reasons. Its elevated position protects it from the Haddas’ seasonal floods, it offers plenty of construction materials, and the ground allows for digging deep enough to construct a burial site. However, these factors alone do not account for the long-standing burial tradition in this location.

The ancient city likely held significant symbolic and spiritual value. This is evidenced by funerary remains dating from the 2nd to the 7th century CE, which are integrated into the city’s fabric [2,3,9,13,19]. Such evidence reflects a longstanding relationship between the living and the dead, shaping the perception of Adulis over time. This relationship imbues the city with a layered meaning transcending its physical practicality as a burial site. These tombs, uncovered during the first systematic excavations of the city in the early 20th century, differ from the Muslim ones in several aspects: their construction technique (such as the use of enchytrismos for children and monumental tombs built with well-squared stone blocks), their location respecting pre-existing religious buildings, the positioning of the interred within the structures, and the elevation levels, which must be analyzed in relation to the use of urban space [19].

Adulis should not merely be seen as a convenient place for interments but rather as a locus imbued with cultural and symbolic significance. Over the centuries, this elevated the city to a spiritually charged site of attraction for different communities. The continuity of its use for burial underscores its deep-seated role as a symbolic and spiritual center, which cannot be divorced from its historical and cultural context.

To address this question, it is useful to start with the phases for which we have the most information: the mid-19th–early 20th century CE. The burial areas in Adulis during this period provide a link to the closest chronological phases of the landscape. The spatial organization of the graves reflects the social structure of the village of Zula at the time. By the early 20th century CE, Zula was composed of three Bet (families, clans): Bet Shek Mahmoud, Bet Khalifa, and, by then, Bet Cadi [33].

Of these, the most detailed information pertains to Shek Mahmoud. According to oral tradition, he was a revered holy man descended from one of seven priests who journeyed from Mecca to Aussa before settling in Zula. Shek Mahmoud Maasini, born around 1780 in Zula, passed away circa 1852. During his lifetime, he was believed to have performed miracles and predicted the future [40]. His monumental tomb is significant, as are others in its vicinity. Some stones used in these tombs were sourced from nearby ruins, demonstrating the reuse of local building materials. These tombs remain destinations for annual pilgrimages, during which visitors leave contemporary objects or offerings. Archaeological surveys have also identified pottery sherds scattered around these graves.

Thus, the tombs in the mid-19th–early 20th century CE cemeteries belong to the ancestors of Zula’s villagers [1]. There are three principal cemeteries, each associated with one of the three main village leaders. The tombs of these leaders serve as focal points, with other graves arranged around them [41]. The closer a grave is to a leader’s tomb, the more prestigious it is deemed. Burial customs and religious practices followed Islamic precepts, consistent with the Muslim identity of the community.

Understanding the earlier cemetery of the Late Islamic period requires archaeological comparisons and the study of available documents, while cautiously considering oral traditions. However, oral traditions often lose reliability when reaching back to such distant timeframes.

Comparing the Muslim cemetery of the Cathedral with others of the same period in the region is challenging due to the scarcity of contemporaneous and geographically proximate Islamic burial sites that have been studied. Contemporary local cemeteries of the Christian tradition feature simpler structures and do not display any indication of an intent to highlight the importance of one deceased individual over another. Nevertheless, recent findings on tomb structures and funerary practices in the northern Ethiopian highlands offer valuable insights. For example, the medieval Muslim cemetery of Bilet (4th–13th century CE, the Muslim graves are post-7th century), located in Tigray, Ethiopia (approximately 200 km south of Adulis), has been excavated and studied. This site provides an important reference point, thanks to a recent analysis of its epigraphic data and the development of a systematic protocol for documenting tomb structures post-7th century CE [42].

These findings are particularly relevant for comparing the tombs at the Cathedral in Adulis and, more broadly, for understanding Islamic burial practices in the region. Despite the geographical distance, the data from Bilet contribute to a better understanding of the ritual and architectural aspects of medieval and early modern Muslim cemeteries, which may illuminate the practices in Adulis during the Late Islamic period.

The first significant difference noted in Adulis is the absence of vertical schist slabs (stelae) with inscriptions. While not all stelae in north Ethiopian cemeteries are engraved—since engraving typically requires higher levels of technical skill and investment, often reflecting the wealth and social standing of the deceased’s family—the lack of such stelae in Adulis is notable. This absence might be attributed to a variety of factors: a later period in which the tradition of engraving stelae was abandoned, a local territorial peculiarity, the lack of skilled artisans capable of carving the stones, and a difference in legal traditions. While some interpretations of Islamic law initially disapproved of the use of headstones in Muslim burials, they became fairly common during later Islamic periods [43]. Notably, even the tombs of prominent figures like the Sheikhs in Adulis do not bear inscriptions, though some do feature schist slabs serving as monumental markers. While the exact reason remains unclear, it is possible that this absence reflects a regional characteristic unique to Adulis. The chronological and geographical scope of this practice should be explored further through systematic studies.

Similar to Bilet, Adulis tomb SU 6124 and other later cemeteries feature ceramic vessels made of local pottery placed near graves. These containers in Adulis clearly served as repositories for offerings to the deceased, likely deposited during burial or in rituals designed to preserve the memory of ancestors.

The funerary architecture of Adulis is strikingly heterogeneous compared to other sites. In the cemetery of Bilet, grave surface markers consist solely of rectangular drystone platforms. In contrast, cemeteries in the Arra region display significant architectural variation in both form and size. At Habera, for instance, tombs are rectangular or ellipsoidal, their perimeters marked by stones. In Meyda Zelegat and Tsomar, circular structures are found, varying in height [44].

In Adulis, rectangular structures like those in Bilet are primarily found in the elite sections of cemeteries, particularly around the tombs of leaders (Sheiks). Simpler structures resembling those at Habera are situated outside these privileged areas, forming the cemetery spaces of less prominent family groups. Adulis also contains circular tomb structures like those in Meyda Zelegat and Tsomar, particularly in the southwestern section of the city. One of these circular tombs was excavated by Roberto Paribeni in the early 20th century. The discovery of a skeleton by Paribeni confirmed the funerary purpose of these structures.

During the survey conducted within the city, village elders identified most of the tombs as belonging to the ancestors of their Bet. However, they could not recall who the circular tombs belonged to. A similar situation occurred in the early 20th century when locals were unable to remember the owners of those tombs during Paribeni’s excavation. Interpreting these tombs requires considering two possibilities. On the one hand, the lack of memory could indicate their significant antiquity, suggesting that these tombs predate the development of local cemeteries remembered by the current inhabitants, which began to emerge around the mid-19th century. On the other hand, they might represent a non-local construction technique and could belong to groups from neighboring regions who viewed Adulis as a symbolic place to bury their dead.

These two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive; the circular tombs could represent evidence of a pre-mid-19th century cemetery used by a group from the surrounding area. It is unlikely that these tombs are associated with the nearby village of Afta, as elders from that village confirmed that they have no recollection of their ancestors being buried within the city. Finally, it must be noted that without recent excavations providing reliable biological and archaeological data, and in the absence of information from oral traditions, it is impossible to definitively identify these tombs as being Muslim burials.

Regarding the cemetery near the Cathedral, it is interesting to note that it predates the arrival of clans from the village of Zula. For this reason, it is cautiously suggested that these burials might be connected to the Asaorta pastoralists. Early references to the Asaorta in the literature date back to the 15th century. Regarding their seasonal migrations, British anthropologist Nadel stated, “During the coastal rains, from November to April, the Asaorta live in the plain west of the Bay of Zula; from May to July, they move up to the foothills and the western edge of the plateau, which at that time of the year are covered with rich vegetation; afterward, during the inland rainy season, the tribe moves up to the Plateau itself.” [45]. This interpretation requires new archaeological data and biological analyses of the individuals to investigate their mobility within the region.

4.3. New Perspectives in the Study of Cemeteries of the Late Islamic Period

Funerary practices, while varying across time and cultures, represent a universal social phenomenon [46,47]. These traditions engage and reflect the cultural dimensions of societies, such as economy, religion, politics, and technology, uniting individuals into social groups and transmitting collective memory and cultural identity [48]. Cemeteries and tombs have long been privileged study objects for disciplines like anthropology, history, sociology, and geography, which interpret them as material and symbolic testimonies to the moral, political, and economic progress of civilizations [49].

Countries where Islam has been a significant religious presence are particularly attractive to archaeologists worldwide. Researchers are drawn to study materials, ancient city ruins, or artifacts. However, compared to Western contexts, research in Islamic countries often lacks anthropological and funerary data, particularly concerning the last 1400 years. This is largely due to prohibitions against excavating graves, a mark of respect upheld by archaeologists and researchers toward Muslim communities. Consequently, this leads to limited knowledge about paleodemographics, prevalent diseases, diets, mobility, and other aspects. Our mission benefited from the support of the Eritrean authorities and the local community, the result of dialogue and cultural exchange that took place over several years prior to the excavations.

In Adulis, however, an exception exists. Graves in the Cathedral cemetery were previously uncovered during late 19th-century British excavations. Recent work has merely identified structures buried under the debris left from those earlier digs. Continued archaeological investigation was made possible through careful collaboration with Eritrean archaeologists and an extended dialogue with local inhabitants [6]. These discussions not only facilitated research but also involved locals as active participants, contributing valuable insights into local funeral traditions. Similarly, at the Bilet site, a human skeleton was recently discovered during excavations. This occurred due to the grave’s lack of visible markers, leading to its inadvertent excavation. The individual was used for radiocarbon dating, which helped contextualize the cemetery’s usage period alongside other carbon-dated samples from tomb-related charcoal. This represents the only instance at Bilet where a human skeleton was excavated and partially analyzed, and, even then, it was an accidental, non-deliberate act. Based on the number of stelae, at least 35 burials are estimated at the site [42].

At Adulis, biological data from two individuals from the Cathedral site were collected, alongside architectural information from 326 graves. This highlights the significant role of the Adulis context within the corpus of Islamic-period tombs in the Horn of Africa.

It is believed that Islam introduced standardized funerary practices and structures, ensuring their applicability to all, irrespective of socioeconomic or political status. Tombs are generally sized to accommodate the body, reflecting the Islamic prohibition of including grave goods. Burial typically occurs in communal cemeteries, with private burials being rare exceptions. This approach is closely tied to the political value of Islam and its expansionist policies, which are also expressed through funerary rituals. However, the Islamic religion exists within complex socio-cultural systems where funerary architecture and rituals can vary significantly.

At Adulis, elements of continuity and discontinuity during the Late Islamic period highlight the lack of uniformity in architectural and ritual practices, suggesting a multifaceted genesis for these sites. Cemeteries represent an ongoing process, a continuous dialogue between the world of the living, the dead, and the places they inhabit. Numerous questions remain about the social and identity transformations underlying funerary and ritual spheres, which can be inferred by studying these sites. Indeed, the dead do not bury themselves, underscoring the importance of this type of research.

This study represents the first attempt to tackle this topic in Eritrea, focusing on the Late Islamic period—a historical phase previously shrouded in centuries of obscurity regarding archaeological and funerary knowledge in Adulis and Eritrea more broadly. The upcoming excavation campaigns aim, on the one hand, to gather new biological information about the individuals through their recovery and anthropological analysis, and, on the other, to compare the funerary evidence characterizing the area around Adulis and the entire Gulf of Zula. This systematic research approach is the only viable method to investigate a phenomenon—the presence of Islam in Eritrea from the medieval period to the present—about which we currently have very limited information.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, O.L., N.C. and S.M.; methodology, O.L., N.C., E.Z., A.G. and S.M.; software, N.C., S.B., E.Z. and A.G.; validation, O.L. and N.C.; formal analysis, O.L, N.C., P.L., S.B., E.Z., A.G., Y.G. and S.M.; investigation, O.L., N.C., P.L., A.G., Y.G. and S.M.; resources, S.B. and S.M.; data curation, O.L., N.C. and E.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, O.L. and S.M.; writing—review and editing, O.L., N.C., P.L., S.B., E.Z., A.G., Y.G., T.M., I.G. and S.M.; supervision, O.L. and S.M.; project administration, T.M. and S.M.; funding acquisition, N.C., S.B., E.Z. and S.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research, financed by Eritrea, Ce.R.D.O., and Piccini Group, has received contributions from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation since 2012 and received contributions from AICS (Agenzia Italiana per la Cooperazione allo Sviluppo) within the project VITAE in 2020. It is also supported by ISMEO (Associazione Internazionale di Studi sul Mediterraneo e l’Oriente). The scientific research was directed by Serena Massa, in collaboration with the Eritrean Archaeological Heritage Research Branch, responsible Dr. Tsegai Medin, and the director of the Northern Red Sea Regional Museum of Massawa Dr. Yohannes Gebreyesus. Our warmest thanks to the Commissioner of Culture and Sports, Ambassador Zemede Tekle, Piccini Group, Mr. Tedros Berhane, and all the Eritrean and Italian colleagues and workers.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, O.L., upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

We extend our gratitude to our Eritrean colleagues Merhawit Ghebreamlak, Hermela Mehari, Aminadab Habta, and Soliana Mebrahtom for their invaluable assistance in mapping and cataloging the tombs on site. We also thank the Piccini Company for their logistical support, the Commission of Sport and Culture of Eritrea, and the Northern Red Sea Regional Museum of Massawa for their support and collaboration.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. (a) Location of the archaeological site of Adulis (Longitude: 39.6602053, Latitude: 15.262725), Zula Bay, situated between the villages of Afta and Zula in the Foro district, south of Massawa. (b) Excavations in the city have uncovered numerous secular buildings, such as the “palace” excavated by Richard Sundström and religious structures like the Northern Urban Church in Sector 2, the so-called “Eastern Church” in Sector 4, the church known as “The English Church”, now referred to as the Cathedral, and an elitarian building close to the Cathedral in Sectors 3–6. Graphic elaboration by Nelly Cattaneo.

Figure 2. Orthoimage of the Cathedral after the 2023 excavation campaign. Foundations of structures, outlined with lines, rendered for better clarity. Excavated tombs (SU 6039, 6041, 6116b, 6124) are highlighted in blue, with probable tombs (SU 6126, 6127) in light blue with perimeter markings.

Figure 3. (a) SU 6116b during excavation. (b) SU 6124 in the last part of the excavation. (c) DEM of area SU 6116b during excavation obtained with photogrammetry. (d) DEM of area SU 6124 in the last part of the excavation obtained with photogrammetry. Dashed lines connect the same burial.

Figure 4. Textured 3D models obtained with photogrammetry of (a,c) SU 6116b during excavation and (b,d) SU 6124 in the last part of the excavation. Dashed lines connect the same burial.

Figure 5. Tomb SU 6124. (a–e) The various excavation phases, presented in chronological order, highlight the tomb within the nave, delineated by two schist slabs vertically embedded in the ground marking the pit boundaries. (A) A platform, just a few centimeters above the cut, was formed by flat-lying schist slabs placed horizontally on the ground ((a), white rectangle). (e,f) Adjacent to the southern vertical slab, a thick lens of soil rich in charcoal was uncovered ((e), white rectangle). Arrows sign the North.

Figure 6. (a) Southern schist slab of tomb SU 6124, showing an area rich in carbonaceous material with a darker color (indicated by a white rectangle) and the location where the cowry shell was found (marked with a white circle). (b) Top and bottom views of the cowry shell, displaying its perforation. (c,d) Local ceramic fragments recovered from the slate slab platform near the tomb.

Figure 7. (a) During the survey, a Zula village elder demonstrated the construction technique of Muslim tombs. In this example, two lines drawn in the sand represent the trench and the lateral chamber carved at the trench’s base to house the deceased. (b,c) For each tomb, data such as size, funerary architecture, and the presence of ritual elements were recorded.

Figure 8. (a) Tomb of a prominent figure within the Zula community characterized by elaborate architecture. (b–f) Nearby graves, especially those close to more complex structures, exhibit prestigious funerary architecture. These are typically rectangular or ellipsoidal in shape and rise significantly above ground level, surrounded by perimeter walls made of flat-laid shale slabs.

Figure 9. (a) Circular tomb constructed with roughly hewn basalt blocks. (b,c) Circular tomb surrounded by squared basalt blocks. (d) Tomb identifiable by the white quartz pebbles. (e) Probable female tomb demarcated by squared basalt blocks. (f) Tomb damaged by erosion from the Haddas River.

Figure 10. The tomb point-shape file on the satellite imagery. In red, Bet Khalifa’s Clan cemetery; in orange, Scheik Mahmoud’s Clan cemetery; and in yellow, the other graves. North is at the top of the figure.

Table 1. Data collected and cell formatting and compilation used in the survey.

Feature	Cell Format	Cell Compilation
Shape	text	elliptical, rectangular, circular, undefined, other
M length	number	measures in cm
M width	number	measures in cm
M height	number	measures in cm
Collapsed	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Eroded	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Quartz	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Schist slabs	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Basalt blocks	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Stones	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Carbon ritual	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Local pottery	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Malacofauna	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Non-human bones	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Glass	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Metal containers	text boolean	0 = absent; 1 = present
Additional info	text	notes
Photo link	text	photo name

Table 2. Summary of the main archaeological and biological data from the excavation of the Cathedral. Age is expressed in years, while the chronology is given in calibrated calendar years. / = data not available.

SU	Orientation	Filling	Shape	Location	Individuals	Sex	Age	Chronology
6039	NE–SW	Elliptical	Elliptical	Nave	1	F	35–45	1480–1799
6041	E–W	Elliptical	Oval	N wall	1	M	30–34	1641–1795
6116b	E–W	Elliptical	Oval	Nave	/	/	/	/
6124	NW–SE	Elliptical	Oval	Nave	/	/	/	/
6126	NE–SW	Elliptical	Oval	Nave	/	/	/	/
6127	NE–SW	Elliptical	Oval	Nave	/	/	/	/

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Larentis, O.; Cattaneo, N.; Lampugnani, P.; Bortolotto, S.; Zappa, E.; Gregorini, A.; Gezae, Y.; Medin, T.; Gorini, I.; Massa, S. An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Late Islamic Cemeteries Within the Cathedral (15th–18th Century CE) and the Ruins of Adulis (Mid-19th–Early 20th Century CE), Massawa, Eritrea: Funerary Architecture, Funerary Rituals, Burial Rites, and Bioarcheological Data Identifying Late Islamic Graves in Central Eastern Eritrea. Heritage 2025, 8, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8010001

AMA Style

Larentis O, Cattaneo N, Lampugnani P, Bortolotto S, Zappa E, Gregorini A, Gezae Y, Medin T, Gorini I, Massa S. An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Late Islamic Cemeteries Within the Cathedral (15th–18th Century CE) and the Ruins of Adulis (Mid-19th–Early 20th Century CE), Massawa, Eritrea: Funerary Architecture, Funerary Rituals, Burial Rites, and Bioarcheological Data Identifying Late Islamic Graves in Central Eastern Eritrea. Heritage. 2025; 8(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8010001

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Larentis, Omar, Nelly Cattaneo, Paolo Lampugnani, Susanna Bortolotto, Emanuele Zappa, Andrea Gregorini, Yotam Gezae, Tsegai Medin, Ilaria Gorini, and Serena Massa. 2025. "An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Late Islamic Cemeteries Within the Cathedral (15th–18th Century CE) and the Ruins of Adulis (Mid-19th–Early 20th Century CE), Massawa, Eritrea: Funerary Architecture, Funerary Rituals, Burial Rites, and Bioarcheological Data Identifying Late Islamic Graves in Central Eastern Eritrea" Heritage 8, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8010001

APA Style

Larentis, O., Cattaneo, N., Lampugnani, P., Bortolotto, S., Zappa, E., Gregorini, A., Gezae, Y., Medin, T., Gorini, I., & Massa, S. (2025). An Interdisciplinary Analysis of the Late Islamic Cemeteries Within the Cathedral (15th–18th Century CE) and the Ruins of Adulis (Mid-19th–Early 20th Century CE), Massawa, Eritrea: Funerary Architecture, Funerary Rituals, Burial Rites, and Bioarcheological Data Identifying Late Islamic Graves in Central Eastern Eritrea. Heritage, 8(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage8010001

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