| Beyond Afghanistan and the

Present: an historical overview

of the Islamic heritage of the
region
by Flemming Aalund
Flemming Aalund, PhD., is a consulting architect based in Copenhagen with a private practice
specialized in cultural heritage preservation. He worked in Herat as architect-restorer in 197879
and has subsequently been a consultant to UNESCO. As a member of the ICOMOS International
Scientific Committee on Cultural Tourism, he has been involved in the drafting of the ICOMOS
International Charter on Cultural Tourism.

Crossroad of cultures

Intentional destruction of cultural heritage has a

long precedence in history, but new technology and
globalization have led to unforeseen consequences
and infamous deeds in the wake of international
conflicts. More than 50 countries have experienced
significant periods of conflict since 1980, often
resulting in a complete breakdown of the state.

Of all places, Afghanistan has been a focus

of conflicts, whether imposed by imperialistic
powers or by rivalries between local ethnic or
religious groups. The historian Arnold Toynbee
used the phrase crossroad of cultures to describe
the diverse cultural identity of Afghanistan,
influenced by Persian, Greek, Buddhist, Hindu and
Muslim cultures, thereby creating an extraordinary
architectural heritage. Most unfortunately, the
material heritage has survived only in fragmented
condition, but there is an all the more urgent need
to preserve what has survived all these misfortunes.
The blowing up of the Great Buddhas in the
Bamiyan Valley and the deliberate destruction of

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 | Beyond Afghanistan and the Present
Flemming Aalund

pre-Islamic art objects have defied all the basic within its own territory (Art. 5). These ideal
principles of respect for and tolerance of cultural stipulations have only limited relevance in conflict
diversity and therefore also represent a direct and post-conflict areas, where civil order is
violation of international standards of ethics. disrupted and economic resources are limited. In
this chaotic situation the basic needs of the
When Robert Byron travelled to population are the first priority, but the re-
Afghanistan in 1933, he wrote the vivid and establishment of civil society and national unity
learned literary travel book, The Road to Oxania, also requires regaining the confidence and mutual
permeated with a romantic view on the lost trust of the ethnic and religious groups. Much post-
cultures of Central Asia and spoke in praise of the conflict reconstruction has been in rebuilding
magnificent ruins which had survived in spite of infrastructure, but there is also a need to address
ignorance and destruction. During the subsequent social needs and intangible cultural values in
decades a widely accepted view on preservation society, which have been appreciated by the local
and restoration of cultural heritage evolved on the communities within civil society.
basis of the Venice Charter of 1964 and a
succession of international charters, conventions Formally Afghanistan ratified the World
and international declarations. Heritage Convention in 1979 with only limited
consequences during a period of occupation and
After 30 years of operation the World civil war. The new Afghanistan Interim Authority,
Heritage Convention has become an important which was established as a transitional government
instrument for international cooperation in the field following the disintegration of the Taliban regime,
of cultural and natural heritage preservation. has received international recognition prompting
Judging from the number of signatories totalling UNESCO to resume activities in Afghanistan. As an
175, the World Heritage Convention is the most immediate initiative the Minaret and the
successful intergovernmental UNESCO agreement archaeological remains of Jam as well as the cultural
ever achieved. More importantly, the agreement was landscape and archaeological remains of the
reached on a definition that the cultural heritage Bamiyan Valley were inscribed on the World
belongs to all people and that nations have a Heritage List in 2002 and 2003 respectively. The
responsibility to protect and care for the natural timely inclusion of these sites is also a symbolic act
and cultural heritage on their territory. Special appealing for international solidarity for the
efforts have been invested in the protection of the preservation of Afghanistans heritage. By being
outstanding monuments and sites inscribed on the simultaneously declared as sites at risk and being
World Heritage List as testimonies of major cultural put on the List of World Heritage in Danger, they
achievements in the history of mankind. Less qualify for emergency action and possible economic
consideration is being paid to the stipulation that support from the World Heritage Fund. Otherwise,
each State Party has the duty to ensure that effective the World Heritage Convention provides no
and active measures are taken for the protection, particular protection apart from raising awareness
conservation and presentation of heritage properties of the importance of these sites and establishing a

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plan for their management as part of the deliberately destroyed in order to crush pride and
nomination procedures. self-esteem and enslave populations to achieve
absolute supremacy. The cynical reasoning seems to
The Hague Convention of 1954 related to be that a population despoiled of its cultural
UNESCOs fields of competence aims to establish heritage is deprived of identity and therefore
rules for the protection of cultural heritage during without a claim to the future. Examples are
war and armed conflicts. Protection of cultural plentiful.
heritage is also integrated in international
humanitarian law, e.g. the Geneva Conventions and The current tragic situation in Afghanistan
the protocols added to these in 1977 and in follows on from more than a thousand years of
particular as stated in Article 22 of the United imperialism and civil strife in Central Asia. The
Nations Declaration of Human Rights. The report of most devastating destruction appeared as a result of
the World Commission on Culture and the violent attack on all the land between China
Development from 1995, Our Creative Diversity, and the Black Sea conducted by the notorious
further elucidates the interdependence between Genghis Khan and his hordes in 1221 and the
culture and sustainable development being fostered subsequent years. The effect was devastating
through cultural freedom and tolerance, including a beyond imagination as it destroyed the finest
gender perspective. With this new insight and civilizations of the thirteenth century and left
understanding it may be expected that cultural deserted cities and silted wells and channels Shah
heritage preservation is placed high on the agenda Khoshak, Shah-i Zohak and Shah-i Gholghola, only
for the post-conflict reconstruction of civil society to mention a few localities that never recovered.
during a period of transition. The situation is a Over time, erosion washed away the walls and
critical one, demanding international solidarity and fortified towers of the former great cities, turning
assistance. the sun-dried brick walls into the same soil from
which they originated and leaving only the ruined
A long history of conflicts contours of the mighty walls as a testimony of
ancient civilizations and human aspirations.
Despotic rulers have repeatedly demonstrated their Likewise, ancient cities and buildings have vanished
overwhelming ambition through the construction of and only a few historic buildings constructed in
new buildings and monuments, which could testify baked bricks have survived.
to a new epoch in history and to glorifying
themselves for posterity. Such vanity creates great The monumental tomb of the Samanids in
monuments, which may eventually be included on Bukhara dating from the ninth century has survived
the World Heritage List, but the ambition often as a memorial to the first Muslim dynasty due to its
resulted in wanton destruction of previous solid construction in baked brick. The intricate
achievements, which could possibly overshadow ornamental pattern on the faades imitating flat
the lustre of the new. We have had ample woven carpets provides evidence of a new
experience of how cultural heritage has been architectural style, which differs from the

64 | Published by Blackwell Publishing, 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ (UK) and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148 (USA)
 | Beyond Afghanistan and the Present
Flemming Aalund

polychrome stucco decorations generally used

during the first Islamic expansion into Central Asia
with inspiration originating from the royal Abbasid
palaces of Samarra.

This rich ornamental brick architecture

evolved from the homelands of the Seljuks in
Khorasan and Transoxania in the following
centuries. The Ghurids and Ghaznavids were
among the local dynasties, who refined and
disseminated this highly sophisticated architecture
in the neighbouring areas from their respective
homelands at Ghor in the Central Hindu Kush

Flemming Aalund
mountain range and Ghazni to the south-east of
present Afghanistan. From there they embarked on
empire building, which led to a great renaissance of
the Early Islamic period and the few surviving
14
buildings are among the most valuable treasures in
Afghanistan. 14. One of the Towers of Victory representing ornamental
Ghaznavide architecture that emerged during the 11th century in

The Ghaznavids had seized control of the Khorasan.

Khorasan south of the Oxus River in the year 994.

This empire expanded its power to include Iran, starting a process which still plagues the
Afghanistan and India. A great general, Sultan subcontinent.1
Mahmud, conducted at least seventeen successful
campaigns against India. He added northwest India The Ghurids themselves were not less
and the Punjab to his empire, and enriched his destructive towards other cultures. The most
treasures by looting wealthy Hindu temples. The remarkable monument, now inscribed on the
archaeological remains at Lashkari Bazaar give but World Heritage List, stands on the banks of the
a glimpse of the grandiose and luxurious summer Hari Rud in the central part of the Hindu Kush
palaces where ceremonial events took place, mountains. The original purpose of this enigmatic
attended by four thousand men. At the royal city minaret is obscure, but the tower probably
of Ghazni, the capital of the empire, thousands of commemorates the ultimate victory over the
objects have been excavated, including marble Ghaznavides. The future excavations in the
statues of Hindu gods used as stepping stones surrounding valley may eventually reveal traces of
under the thresholds in the principal mosque. the Ghurid capital. Half a century later in 1199,
What was probably more problematic is the fact the Quth Minar in Delhi (India) was erected by
that many Hindus were converted to Islam, another Ghurid sultan from the spoils of some

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15 16

1516. Sah-i Mashad Madrassa ruins in Badghiz and details of the [name missing].3 From the reading it is evident
bas-relief terracotta decoration of its faade. that all the adjectives are written in the feminine.
However, the name of the founder has been erased,
twenty-seven Indian temples as symbolic evidence as is the case with so many founding inscriptions in
of the triumph of the Islamization of northern historic buildings. The cynical motives have often
India. Only the minaret in Jam has survived, been to emphasize individual power at the expense
together with a few other contemporary of previous achievements, and in this case perhaps
monuments, due to its isolated location. Now to conceal the fact that a woman of high rank had
inscribed on the World Heritage List of monuments endowed this very fine building.
in danger, UNESCO has launched an emergency
rescue operation in order to consolidate its Only a handful of structures remain from the
foundations and prevent further deterioration from Ghurids, all of them situated in isolated mountainous
flooding.2 surroundings and only accessible with great
difficulty. Other buildings from this era were altered
Another remarkable Ghurid building was beyond recognition in later times, as in the case of
identified as late as 1970 on the banks of the the Masjid-i Jami in Herat, which have luckily
Murgab River in a remote area of northern survived further damage during the recent conflicts.
Afghanistan. The ruined structure is one of the
earliest madrassas still existing within the Islamic Herat, the Timurid capital of Khorasan
world. The commemorative inscription gives
571/11756 as the year of construction and praises The Mongols brought to an end both the Ghurid
the founding patron in the name of God the and the Ghaznavide dynasties, but unlike
clement and merciful, she has commanded to build Tamerlane, the subsequent reign of Timur Lenk and
this madrassa, the blessed, exalted, fortunate, wise his descendants created an extraordinary

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 | Beyond Afghanistan and the Present
Flemming Aalund

renaissance of Islamic art and culture in Central

Asia during the fifteenth century. Artisans and
master masons from all over the extended empire
were called to Samarkand, Bukhara, Herat and the
other bustling cities of Central Asia taking
advantage of free trade and cultural exchange along
the caravan routes. Tamerlane died in 1405 as he
prepared to march on China and his empire was
partly breaking up, but his successors became
patrons of the arts par excellence and
commissioned remarkable edifices, which became
models for the subsequent Safavid architecture in

Flemming Aalund
Persia and the Mongul architecture in India.

Herat was made the new capital during the

reign of Shah Rukh, son of Tamerlane, and his 17
renowned queen, Gowhar Shar. Not only did they
17. Citadel of Ikhtyarrudin, restored by UNESCO from 1974 to 1980
launch a vast building scheme, the rich cultural
revitalizing traditional skills and the use of traditional materials.
climate also fostered a large number of famous
artists with the miniaturist Bihzad as the most
prominent representative. precarious condition and pieces of fifteenth century
glazed tiles are scattered all over the site.
During succeeding periods of decline and
poverty, these glorious structures could no longer The Soviet army subsequently arrived in
be maintained, but half a century later the ruins of 1979 and continued the degradation of the former
the Sultan Hussain Baiqara Madrassa in Herat were magnificent Timurid capital ranking in reputation
still renowned by travellers as some of the most with Bukhara and Samarkand and rightly famed all
imposing ruins in the whole of Central Asia. In along the Silk Road throughout Central Asia as the
1885 the remaining parts were partly blown up by most important cultural centre during the fifteenth
the British colonial army in an attempt to clear century.
fields of fire because of the threatening Russian
invasion of Herat. Only the Mausoleum of Gowhar Despite the many changes wrought to the
Shah and nine of the ten minarets remained form of the historic city, Herat is one of the very
standing. Two of the remaining minarets fell during few Islamic cities that retains its original square
earthquakes in 1931 and 1951, one toppled in the form as defined by the remaining parts of the city
1980s and the structural stability of yet another is walls. A security zone was established in the 1980s
critical due to a large hole in the shaft caused by to the western and southern fringes of the city by
shelling. The surviving five minarets are now in a razing all structures along a peripheral security

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zone about 500 metres wide. Since then the old The original building is only revealed in the
city was virtually the front line between restored entrance porch at the rear of the building
government forces in the town and the opposition presenting the authentic Ghurid decoration of
groups based in the surrounding villages. As a terracotta bricks in deep relief to the one side of the
result it is estimated that more than 1,000 homes in iwan, and the preserved, overlying flat Timurid
the historic city alone have suffered extensive facing of polychrome faience mosaics to the
damage or deterioration after they were opposite side and the inner vault. In this way, the
abandoned.4 original Ghurid entrance portal was brought to light
and partly preserved in a happy symbiosis with
The Great Mosque of Herat parts of the overlaying Timurid facing. With the
unearthing of the original Ghurid brickwork in
Luckily, the Masjid-i-jami and the Gazergah shrine deep relief, bright colours in vermilion and
complex immediately to the north of Herat has verdigris green were revealed, contrasting with the
been spared destruction. As it appears today, the natural brown colours of the terracotta bricks. This
Great Mosque is a result of three different modest restoration was carried out in the 1960s
construction periods. The mosque was under with the assistance of UNESCO as on-site training
continuous restoration from the 1940s up to the for Afghan architects, who learned to appreciate the
1970s, when most of the external faade was traditional crafts and acquired basic knowledge of
renewed with polychrome mosaics of glazed tiles of architectural restoration.5 The hidden-away
an exquisite ornamental design that was produced entrance porch to the Great Mosque may be a
by the local workshop as a free interpretation of the memento mori of all the absurd destruction, which
original Timurid models. The entire mosque has occurred to the cultural heritage of Afghanistan.
appears visually complete, totally remodelled in a From a more positive viewpoint, this porch may
fashion, which can be compared with the best of also be considered a symbol of the creative diversity
tradition practised in Europe during the nineteenth of Afghan history and an emblem of an ethical
century, when reconstruction was favoured with a approach by which religious, ethnic and cultural
preference for architectural unity. This approach is differences are being respected.
not generally considered to be in compliance with
the recommendations of the Venice Charter. Principles of inclusive conservation
However, executed in traditional techniques by
local craftsmen according to original methods of The disintegration of social and political stability in
construction, the work can hardly be criticized, the wake of the Soviet occupation and the
though the patina and subtle qualities of weathered subsequent civil war of some 20 years have put
surfaces would have lent more architectural cultural heritage preservation far down the list of
richness and material authenticity to the building. priorities. Without cultural and political consensus
Still in use as the main congregational mosque, the on basic issues in a society, any effort to safeguard
long history of Afghanistan and the Islamic identity the remaining part of the cultural heritage becomes
combine to represent a living heritage. meaningless to the local communities. The obvious

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 | Beyond Afghanistan and the Present
Flemming Aalund

question is in the words of the World environmental and planning policies contributing
Commission on Culture and Development how to enhancing the quality of life. The Convention
hatred can be replaced by respect and cultural further recalls the importance of handing down to
freedom be implemented.6 In a destabilized future generations a system of cultural references,
country with limited domestic security and little improving the urban and rural environment and
respect for basic human rights, it is difficult to thereby fostering economic, social and cultural
imagine exactly how the concept of cultural policy development.7
can expand beyond a totalitarian and
fundamentalist interpretation of the Quran. During the intermediate time, globalization
became one of the most dominant features of
The ultimate destruction by the Taliban in development in the last decades of the twentieth
March 2001 of the Great Buddhas in the Bamiyan century. Technological advancements have made it
Valley, ranging among the greatest manmade possible to travel all over the world and news of
sculptures in the world, was carried out despite current events can instantly be exchanged
repeated entreaties from UNESCO and worldwide. These profound changes, initiated in
governments around the world. Not since the the twentieth century, brought to light by the same
iconoclasm against religious images appeared in token the fragile condition of life and the common
Europe during the Middle Ages had a similar aspect of our identities.
outrageous act of vandalism been witnessed, clearly
demonstrating the reactionary absurdity of the Seen in this perspective the threats against
Taliban regime, completely counteracting their own the environment are no longer a local or regional
interests. issue as, indeed, living conditions are challenged on
a global scale. This goes for our physical
Policies on preservation of cultural heritage environment, but it also relates to our cultural one.
were first formulated in Europe at the beginning of As a result, cultural heritage is now being
the last century and then mainly restricted to considered a non-renewable resource, which is
concern for individual monuments, mainly manor endangered in line with genetic heritage as
houses, castles and cathedrals. Integrated expressed through the principle of diversity in
preservation of historic districts and urban areas nature. This understanding has influenced the
became part of European policy in the 1970s and concept of the conservation and restoration of
formulated in the Convention for the Protection of monuments and sites as expressed in the World
the Architectural Heritage of Europe from 1985, Heritage Convention. This convention extends to a
which was adopted by the member states of the common understanding that cultural and natural
Council of Europe. This treaty acknowledged the heritage belongs to all people and stipulates the
preservation of cultural heritage as an essential joint responsibility to preserve this heritage as a
town and country planning objective, and universal asset of humanity. The practical
emphasized that the architectural heritage implementation of the convention is further
constitutes a major feature of cultural, described in the Operational Guidelines and more

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emphasis is now being put on what may be termed

inclusive conservation. In post- conflict areas like
Afghanistan, there is a real need for employment
among all those who have been displaced and a
food-for-work programme may be but one measure
to help. Fired bricks can be salvaged, while soil
material can be reused for the manufacture of mud
bricks for reconstruction work. Immediate concern
is centred on the reconstruction of damaged
settlements, thereby helping people to return to
their homes, but sustainable development is
nurtured by cultural identity, which is rooted in
traditional building methods, the revival of
ancestral skills and the restoration of historic
buildings and monuments.

| NOTES

1 L. Dupree, Afghanistan, Princeton University Press, 1973.

2 The recent mission was undertaken by the Italian architect Andrea

Bruno in continuation of the efforts for consolidation of the foundation
started by UNESCO in the 1970s.

3 M. Casimir and B. Glatzer, Sah-i Mashad, a Recently Discovered

Madrassa of the Ghurid Period in Gargistan , East and West, 1971,
pp. 53-67.

4 Mission report on war damage in Afghanistan by Jolyon Leslie,

UNCHS-Habitat, 1990.

5 Restoration of the Ghurid entrance porch at the Masjid-i jami in Herat

was directed by the Danish architect Erik Hensen in cooperation with
young Afghan trainees.

6 The World Commission on Culture and Development, Our Creative

Diversity, UNESCO 1995, p. 25.

7 The Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of

Europe, Granada 1985, Article 10.

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