Wetland Book
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Wetlands and related ecosystems are vital components of British Columbia's ecological
diversity. This useful and beautiful guide presents descriptions of more than 100
wetland, floodplain, estuarine, shallow-water, and "transitional" site associations and
their plants, wildlife, and soils. It provides a common language to describe wetland
ecosystems and also provides an ecological basis for the management of wetlands.
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outlines essential environmental and biological attributes.
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LAND
52 MANAGEMENT
HANDBOOK
Wetlands
Wetlands
of British Columbia
A GUIDE TO IDENTIFICATION
of British Columbia
A GUIDE TO IDENTIFICATION
Ministry of Forests
Forest Science Program
Wetlands of
British Columbia
A GUIDE TO IDENTIFICATION
William H. MacKenzie
Jennifer R. Moran
Ministry of Forests
Forest Science Program
The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the
information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute
an official endorsement or approval by the Government of British Colum-
bia of any product or service to the exclusion of any others that may also
be suitable. Contents of this report are presented as information only.
Funding assistance does not imply endorsement of any statements or in-
formation contained herein by the Government of British Columbia.
Citation
MacKenzie, W.H. and J.R. Moran. 2004. Wetlands of British Columbia: a guide
to identification. Res. Br., B.C. Min. For., Victoria, B.C. Land Manage.
Handb. No. 52.
<http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/Lmh52.htm>
When using information from this or any Forest Science Program report,
please cite fully and correctly.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This field guide could not have been completed without the assistance of
many. The silver-backs of the provincial ecology program (Jim Pojar,
Del Meidinger, Dennis Lloyd, Ray Coup, Allen Banner, Craig Delong)
were as solid ground amid the quaking mires in support of this effort.
The initial vision of Allen Banner sparked like a beacon on the misty
moors of ignorance. Jim Pojar and Del Meidinger were wise men leading
through the shin-tangle of classification.
Fieldwork was assisted by many individuals including Candice Ford,
Janice Hooge, Kristi Iverson, Larrisa Puls, Danielle Colbert, Arman
Mirza, and Dennis Angels (Dan Bissonnette, Scott Black, Nicole Brand,
Mona Doney, Shane Ford, Kim Johnston, Vanessa Larson,
Jessica MacDonald, David Mige and Mike Ryan).
Invaluable review comments and material were provided by Marty
Kranabetter, Jim Pojar, Del Meidinger, Ray Coup, Kristi Iverson,
Carmen Cadrin, Lisa Mahon, and Reg Newman.
The layout of this document was initially inspired by Harris et al. (1996)
Field Guide to the Wetland Ecosystem Classification for Northwest Ontario.
Paul Dwyer and others at Fractal Design assisted in the design of this
document. Paul Nystedt and the staff of the Production Resources Sec-
tion helped guide this project to completion. The book was designed by
Anna Gamble, typeset by Donna Lindenberg of Newport Bay Publishing
Limited, and edited and proofread by Steven Justin Smith.
Funding was generously provided by Forest Renewal BC, the Ministry
of Forests Research Branch, and the Ministry of Environment Habitat
Inventory Branch.
iii
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Other Sources of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Guide Content and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Ecology and Classification of Wetland Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Characteristics of Wetlands and Related Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
A Synopsis of the Classification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Classification of Wetland and Riparian Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Regional Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Summary of Sampling and Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Procedures for Site Description and Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Describing and Identifying Site Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4 Site Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Key to Site Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Brief Descriptions of Site Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5 Site Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Layout and Conventions for Site Class Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Site Association Fact Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Taxonomic Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.1 Bogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Wb01 Black spruce Creeping-snowberry Peat-moss . . . . . . . 56
Wb02 Lodgepole pine Bog rosemary Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . 57
Wb03 Black spruce Lingonberry Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Wb04 Western hemlock Cloudberry Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . 59
Wb05 Black spruce Water sedge Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Wb06 Tamarack Water sedge Fen moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Wb07 Lodgepole pine Water sedge Peat-moss. . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Wb08 Black spruce Soft-leaved sedge Peat-moss. . . . . . . . . . 63
Wb09 Black spruce Common horsetail Peat-moss . . . . . . . . 64
Wb10 Lodgepole pine Few-flowered sedge Peat-moss . . . . . 65
Wb11 Black spruce Buckbean Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Wb12 Scheuchzeria Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Wb13 Shore sedge Buckbean Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Wb50 Labrador tea Bog-laurel Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
v
Wb51 Shore pine Black crowberry Tough peat-moss . . . . . . 70
Wb52 Common juniper Tufted clubrush Hoary rock-moss. . 71
Wb53 Shore pine Yellow-cedar Tufted clubrush . . . . . . . . . . 72
Additional Bog Site Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Fens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Wf 01 Water sedge Beaked sedge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Wf 02 Scrub birch Water sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Wf 03 Water sedge Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Wf 04 Barclays willow Water sedge Glow moss . . . . . . . . . . 85
Wf 05 Slender sedge Common hook-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Wf 06 Slender sedge Buckbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Wf 07 Scrub birch Buckbean Shore sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Wf 08 Shore sedge Buckbean Hook-moss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Wf 09 Few-flowered spike-rush Hook-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Wf10 Hudson Bay clubrush Red hook-moss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Wf11 Tufted clubrush Star moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Wf12 Narrow-leaved cotton-grass Marsh-marigold . . . . . . . . . 93
Wf13 Narrow-leaved cotton-grass Shore sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Wf50 Narrow-leaved cotton-grass Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Wf51 Sitka sedge Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Wf52 Sweet gale Sitka sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Wf53 Slender sedge White beak-rush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Additional Fen Site Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.3 Marshes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Wm01 Beaked sedge Water sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Wm02 Swamp horsetail Beaked sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Wm03 Awned sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Wm04 Common spike-rush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Wm05 Cattail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Wm06 Great bulrush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Wm07 Baltic rush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Wm50 Sitka sedge Hemlock-parsley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Wm51 Three-way sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Additional Marsh Site Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.4 Swamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Ws01 Mountain alder Skunk cabbage Lady fern . . . . . . . . . . 128
Ws02 Mountain alder Pink spirea Sitka sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Ws03 Bebbs willow Bluejoint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
vi
Ws04 Drummonds willow Beaked sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Ws05 MacCallas willow Beaked sedge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Ws06 Sitka willow Sitka sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Ws07 Spruce Common horsetail Leafy moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Ws08 Subalpine fir Sitka valerian Common horsetail. . . . . . 135
Ws09 Black spruce Skunk cabbage Peat-moss . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Ws10 Western redcedar Spruce Skunk cabbage . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Ws11 Spruce Subalpine fir Skunk cabbage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Ws50 Pink spirea Sitka sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Ws51 Sitka willow Pacific willow Skunk cabbage . . . . . . . . . . 140
Ws52 Red alder Skunk cabbage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Ws53 Western redcedar Sword fern Skunk cabbage . . . . . . . 142
Ws54 Western redcedar Western hemlock Skunk cabbage . . . 143
Ws55 Yellow-cedar Mountain hemlock Skunk cabbage . . . . 144
Additional Swamp Site Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.5 Shallow-waters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.6 Estuarine Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Em01 Widgeon-grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Em02 Glasswort Sea-milkwort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Em03 Seashore saltgrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Em04 Seaside plantain Dwarf alkaligrass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Em05 Lyngbyes sedge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Em06 Lyngbyes sedge Douglas water-hemlock . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Ed01 Tufted hairgrass Meadow barley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Ed02 Tufted hairgrass Douglas aster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Ed03 Arctic rush Alaska plantain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Additional Estuarine Site Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.7 Flood Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fl01 Mountain alder Common horsetail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Fl02 Mountain alder Red-osier dogwood Lady fern . . . . . . . 181
Fl03 Pacific willow Red-osier dogwood Horsetail . . . . . . . . . 182
Fl04 Sitka willow Red-osier dogwood Horsetail . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fl05 Drummonds willow Bluejoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Fl06 Sandbar willow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Fl07 Water birch Rose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fm01 Cottonwood Snowberry Rose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Fm02 Cottonwood Spruce Red-osier dogwood. . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fm03 Cottonwood Subalpine fir Devils club . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
vii
Fl50 Sitka willow False lily-of-the-valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fl51 Red alder Salmonberry Horsetail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Fm50 Cottonwood Red alder Salmonberry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Additional Flood Site Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.8 Transition Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Gs01 Alkali saltgrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Gs02 Nuttalls alkaligrass Foxtail barley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Gs03 Field sedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Gs04 Tufted hairgrass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Sc01 Scrub birch Kinnikinnick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Sc02 Grey-leaved willow Glow moss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Sc03 Barclays willow Arrow-leaved groundsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6 Conservation and Management Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Livestock Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Timber Harvest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Wetlands as Wildlife Habitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3.1. Important site and soil features for identifying site units . . . . . . . 27
4.1. Summary of characteristics for wetland and related
ecosystem Site Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.1 Distribution of Bog Site Associations by biogeoclimatic zone . . . 53
5.1.2 Bog Species Importance Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2.1 Distribution of Fen Site Associations by biogeoclimatic zone . . . 79
5.2.2 Fen Species Importance Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.3.1 Distribution of Marsh Site Associations by
biogeoclimatic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.3.2 Marsh Species Importance Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
viii
5.4.1 Distribution of Swamp Site Associations by
biogeoclimatic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.4.2 Swamp Species Importance Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.5.1 Characteristics of water with different nutrient status . . . . . . . . . 149
5.6.1 Distribution of Estuarine Site Associations
by biogeoclimatic zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.6.2 Estuarine Species Importance Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.7.1 Distribution of Flood Site Associations by
biogeoclimatic zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.7.2 Flood Species Importance Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.8.1 Distribution of Transition Site Associations
by biogeoclimatic zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.8.2 Transition Species Importance Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.1 Distribution and habitat use by adult
pond-breeding amphibians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.2 Distribution and habitat use by dabbling ducks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.3 Distribution and habitat use by lake ducks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.4 Distribution and habitat use by cavity-nesting ducks . . . . . . . . . . 229
A3.1 List of Obligate Hydrophytes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
A3.2 List of Facultative Hydrophytes Wetland Affiliated . . . . . . . . . . 246
A3.3 List of Facultative Hydrophytes Upland Affiliated. . . . . . . . . . . 248
A4.1 Wetland and related ecosystem Site Associations
with corresponding BEC site series. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
A4.2 Wetland Site Associations corresponding to the
Cariboo wetland classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
A4.3 Wetland Site Associations corresponding with
Klinka et al. 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
A4.4 Wetland Site Associations corresponding with coastal
classifications in Washington and Alaska. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
A4.5 Wetland Site Associations corresponding with
classifications in Washington and Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
ix
5.0.2 A modified edatopic grid showing pH and
hydrodynamic index axes for Wet and Very Wet sites . . . . . . . . . 42
5.0.3 Environmental characteristics useful for
determining nutrient status in wetlands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.0.4 Distribution of Site Classes relative to intertidal
zone and salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.1.1 Position of bogs on the edatopic grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2.1 Position of fens on the edatopic grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3.1 Position of marshes on the edatopic grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.4.1 Position of swamps on the edatopic grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.6.1 Distribution of ecosystem classes of estuaries
by elevation and salinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.7.1 Position of flood ecosystems on the edatopic grid . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.8.1 Position of transition ecosystems on the edatopic grid . . . . . . 197
A1.1 ordination of numbered wetland and related
Site Associations including some shallow-water units . . . . . . . . . 240
A1.2 ordination of numbered wetland Site Associations only. . . 241
A2.1 Edatopic grid position of vegetation physiognomy. . . . . . . . . . . . 242
A2.2 Edatopic grid position of major bryophyte groups
and peat-accumulating sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
A2.3 Edatopic grid position of Classes from the British
Columbia Vegetation Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
x
Introduction 1
Chapter 1 Introduction 3
ecosystems and must be supplemented with practical knowledge, experi-
ence, and judgement.
The guide consists of the following major sections:
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the basic ecological features and envi-
ronments of wetlands and related ecosystems and a summary of the
classification systems underlying units in this guide.
Chapter 3 explains the taxonomic conventions, format, and coding used
throughout the guide and the process of site identification.
Chapter 4 gives several tools for identifying the Site Class (broad func-
tional groups of wetland ecosystems) including keys, tables of
characteristics, and brief descriptive summaries.
Chapter 5 constitutes the main body of the guide. This chapter provides
basic ecological information for the recognition of different wetland
ecosystem types that occur in British Columbia. In standardized fact
sheet format, information is provided for all wetland Site Classes and
Site Associations. The chapter is divided into eight sections, one for each
Site Class or Group described in this guide. A description of the major
ecological characteristics for each recognized Association is presented in
a one-page fact-sheet format outlining site, vegetation, and environmen-
tal characteristics. Short descriptions are included at the end of each
section for infrequently sampled or poorly known ecosystems.
Chapter 6 summarizes conservation and management issues for wet-
lands and related ecosystems. This information will allow resource
managers to make better-informed decisions on conservation and man-
agement of these ecosystems.
The appendices provide background information for the guide,
including details about the multivariate analysis used to create the
classification, a crosswalk to similar previously described units, a list of
hydrophytes, a list of wetland-affiliated wildlife species, a glossary, and
interpretive overlays of the wetland edatopic grid.
Wetland Ecosystems
Wetlands are:
areas where soils are water-saturated for a sufficient length of time
such that excess water and resulting low soil oxygen levels are princi-
pal determinants of vegetation and soil development. Wetlands will
have a relative abundance of hydrophytes in the vegetation commu-
nity and/or soils featuring hydric characters.
This wetland definition encompasses a wide range of ecosystems, from
semi-terrestrial fens, bogs, and swamps to semi-aquatic marshes and
shallow open water. Wetlands include a broad range of ecosystem types,
from those permanently flooded by shallow water and dominated by
aquatic organisms to forested sites with merely wet soils.
The water-saturated environment of wetlands supports a unique group
of plants called hydrophytes. These plants are adapted to grow in water-
logged soils. Excessive water and the low rate at which oxygen diffuses
under these conditions leads to a complex of critical conditions that re-
quire specialized adaptations (Daubenmire 1959). Adaptations, such as
leathery leaves (to reduce nutrient requirements and combat physiologi-
cal drought) or specialized internal air compartments (to transport
oxygen to the roots) are required for wetland plants. Obligate hy-
drophytes (such as great bulrush) are restricted to wetlands and
semi-aquatic sites. Facultative hydrophytes (such as Labrador tea and
many other members of the Heather family) occur commonly in wet-
lands but also appear on some upland sites.
Wetland soils are subhydric or hydric and have one or more of the fol-
lowing features that reflect anaerobic soil conditions:
1. Peaty organic horizons greater than 40 cm thick.
2. Non-sandy soils with blue-grey gleying within 30 cm of the surface.
3. Sandy soils with prominent mottles within 30 cm of the surface or
blue-grey matrix.
4. Hydrogen sulphide (rotten egg smell) in upper 30 cm.
Concepts
This guide applies a site unit classification model of a Wetland and Ri-
parian Ecosystem Classification system () (MacKenzie and Banner
2001). This system has its basis in the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classifi-
cation () (Pojar et al. 1987) and Canadian Wetland Classification
System () (Warner and Rubec 1997).
Ecosystem
Ecosystems are interacting complexes of living organisms and their physi-
cal/chemical environments. For purposes of this guide, ecosystems are
defined as portions of the physical landscape and the living systems that
are on and in it. They are identified and characterized by a plant commu-
nity and its associated environment. More specifically, ecosystems are
areas of relatively uniform vegetation, topography, soils, and hydrology.
Microtopographic features are an important environmental factor in
wetland ecosystems. Several distinct plant communities can occur on the
hummocks and in the hollows of a single site. In this guide, these fine-
scale variations are not treated as separate units but are considered to be
a normal (and predictable) state for the ecosystem.
Climax, succession, and site potential
integrates vegetation, climatic, site, and seral classifications into a
system of regional, local, and chronological units. The basic approach in
is to use mature or climax vegetation communities to define site
and climate classification units. Climax in ecology refers to a condition
of dynamic equilibrium, a steady state rather than a static endpoint. For
vegetation, this means that the species in the community replace them-
selves rather than being replaced by other species over time (the process
of succession).
Association
subzone/variant, or a Site Association
across several subzones/variants Class
(Pojar et al. 1987). The Site Association is a
collection of Site Series with similar plant Group
species composition. For example, the
Wb01 (Black spruce Lingonberry Peat-
moss) Site Association includes the Site Realm
Series BWBSdk1/10, BWBSdk2/07,
BWBSmw1/08, and BWBSmw2/08. . Site unit hierarchy
(from MacKenzie and Banner 2001).
1 The Site Group term was previously used in to define broad groupings of Site
Associations based on species similarity. This unit is now referred to as the Site
Alliance to reflect its basis in vegetation classification.
Estuarine
Intertidal Wedge
Marine
Soil types used in this guide are from the Canadian System of Soil Classi-
fication () (Agriculture Canada Expert Committee on Soil Survey
1987). There are nine Soil Orders in the , of which two are found
primarily in wetland environments: Gleysol Order and Organic Order.
Gleysols are defined by the presence of a gleyed soil horizon. Gleying
occurs under waterlogged, anaerobic conditions. A gleyed horizon is in-
dicated by a distinct dull blue-grey colour or prominent rust-coloured
blotches called mottles. Humic Gleysols have an organically enriched
surface horizon in addition to the above features. Rego Gleysols are very
young and have limited profile development.
The soils of the Organic Order include Fibrisols, Mesisols, Humisols,
and Folisols (upland organic soils); the first three are wetland soil Great
Groups. These soils have accumulated more than 60 cm of organic mate-
rials derived from hydrophytic plants. Most organic soils are saturated
with water for prolonged periods. They occur widely in poorly and very
poorly drained depressions and level areas in regions of cool or wet cli-
mates.
Classification at the Great Group level (Fibrisol, Mesisol, or Humisol) is
based primarily on the dominant horizon of the decomposition of the
organic material in the middle tier (between 60 and 160 cm below the
soil surface). Fibrisols are poorly decomposed, and peat constituents are
easily recognizable. Mesisols are partially decomposed and Humisols are
well decomposed. Typic organic soils have >160 cm or organic accumu-
lations while Terric organic soils have 60160 cm of organic matter over
mineral substrates.
Several other Orders are described in this guide for non-wetland Site
Associations.
Regosols are very young soils with little or no horizon development.
They are common on active fluvial sites where flood events deposit
sediment layers. On these sites, Regosols are cumulic with layers of sedi-
ments from different flood events. Brunisols are slightly older soils, with
some chemical weathering, and can be gleyed from short periods of sat-
uration.
REGIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Northern Boreal
Taiga Plains
Mountains
Boreal
Plains
Sub-Boreal
Interior
Coast Central
and Interior
Southern
Mountains
Interior
Southern Mountains
Interior
Georgia Depression
x D
Marshes
VA
de V
growing season. Exposure of the
ic Dy
VW
A
Fens
substrate in late season or during
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
dry years is common. The sub-
pH
ro l
N
S
strate is usually mineral, but may
Ak
yd
St
H
have a well-decomposed organic
veneer derived primarily from . Site Class distribution on the
marsh emergents. Nutrient avail- modified edatopic grid. Shallow-water wetlands do
not fit this conceptual model and are not indicated.
ability is high (eutrophic to The wetland edatopic grid is described in detail in
hyper-eutrophic) due to circum- Chapter 5.0.
neutral pH, water movement, and
aeration of the substrate.
Swamp Wetland Class (Ws)
A swamp is a forested, treed, or tall-shrub, mineral wetland dominated
by trees and broadleaf shrubs on sites with a flowing or fluctuating,
semipermanent, near-surface watertable. Tall-shrub swamps are dense
thickets, while forested swamps have large trees occurring on elevated
microsites and lower cover of tall deciduous shrubs. Both types of
swamps have abundant available nutrients from groundwater and often
have surface standing water. Swamps may be underlain with peat but
this is well decomposed, woody, and dark.
Shallow-water (Aquatic) Wetland Class (Wa)
Aquatic wetlands are shallow waters dominated by rooted, submerged
and floating aquatic plants. These communities are always associated
with permanent still or slow-moving waterbodies such as shallow
potholes or deeper ponds and lakes. Shallow-water sites are usually per-
manently flooded; rarely they may become exposed during extreme
drought years. Shallow-water communities most commonly occur where
standing water is less than 2 m deep in midsummer. Aquatic plants may
root in mineral soils or in well-humified sedimentary peat.
Saline meadow Transition Class (Gs)
Saline meadows are grass-, rush-, or halophyte-dominated sites that
occur on periodically saturated and occasionally inundated sites, where
Classification is a process of
distilling complex ecosystem
variability into simpler,
ecologically meaningful units.
Many apparently unique sites,
such as this visually distinctive
Chamisso's cotton-grass fen, may
actually be very similar to others
in overall species composition and
environment.
This chapter presents detailed Site Class and Association descriptions in
standardized format. The chapter has eight sections, one for each Class
or Group. Each section includes a four-page Class description followed
by one-page Site Association fact sheets. Associations for which there is
little current information or that are similar to more common Associa-
tions are given a single paragraph outlining the characteristics of such
units at the end of each Class section.
Site Association fact sheets (Figure 5.0.1) describe each unit as a range or
a summary of average conditions. Fact sheets seldom describe the precise
conditions of a given plot, but provide the central concept for the unit
and give insights into the typical conditions that can be expected within
a Site Association.
Name (1): Name of Site Association defined by diagnostic or leading
plant species. Common names are placed in the header and scientific
names below.
General Description (2): Brief description of distribution, landscape
position, hydrology, soils, and vegetation.
Characteristic Vegetation (3): Plant species commonly found in the Site
Association, grouped by cover layer. Species importance is coded by
font:
Dominant species appear as italicized, bold, and underlined
Abundant and very abundant species as italicized and bold
Common species as italics
Comments (4): Additional information on the Association including
successional relationships, associated ecosystems, and similar previously
described units.
Photograph (5): Photo of a typical example of the Site Association.
Wetland Edatopic Grid (6): The edatopic grid depicts the location of the
General Description 2
7 Lodgepole pine Bog rosemary Peat-moss bogs are
scattered throughout the wet regions of the Central and Sub-
Boreal Interior (ICHvk/wk and SBS vk/wk) at elevations below 1100 m.
They occur in closed basins, isolated zones in larger peatlands, and occa-
sionally around acidic peatland lakes.
Pinus contorta usually dominates in the sparse
and stunted canopy but Picea mariana, Tsuga
heterophylla, or Abies lasiocarpa can form a 5
significant component. Dwarf woody plants
such as Kalmia microphylla and Andromeda
polifolia are prominent. On some sites Carex
pauciflora and Eriophorum angustifolium may
also be prevalent.
Soils are Fibrisols and Mesisols typically com-
posed of deep Sphagnum peat but sometimes they occur on peat veneers
over dense, fine-textured glaciolacustrine deposits.
VM
Picea mariana, Pinus contorta
Herb layer (3 - 30 - 95) W
Andromeda polifolia, Carex pauciflora,
x D
VA
de V
phylla, Oxycoccus oxycoccos, Rubus
M
VW ic Dy
A
chamaemorus
In
na o
SA
dy M
ro l
N
yd
St
H
4 Comments
The Wb02 Site Association is one of several Bog Site Associations that occur in the interior
rainforest.The Wb02 likely reflects the true bog or climax condition of long-term peatland
succession in the cool and warm subzones of the interior rainforest of the Central and Sub-
Boreal Interior.There are hemlock-dominated bogs (Wb04) in colder and snowier subzones
and black sprucedominated bogs in areas with more boreal climates (such as frost pockets).
The Wb07 may be the successional precursor to the Wb02.
The Wb02 includes Site Series ICHmm/07, ICHvk2/07, SBSvk/08, and SBSwk3/05 but occurs
more widely in the wet SBS and ICH.
x D
VA
de V
edatopic grid is therefore limited
ic Dy
VW
In
to this range. The definitions for
na o
SA
dy M
m
pH
soil moisture categories used in
ro l
N
yd S
the guide are defined as:
Ak
St
H
Moist (): No water deficit
.. A modified edatopic grid
occurs. Current need for showing pH and hydrodynamic index axes for Wet
water does not exceed supply; and Very Wet sites.
temporary groundwater table
may be present. Unless otherwise limited, supports forest.
Very Moist (): Rooting-zone groundwater present during the
growing season (water supply exceeds demand). Groundwater table
> 30 cm below the surface. Unless otherwise limited, supports forest.
Wet (): Rooting-zone groundwater present during the growing
season (water supply exceeds demand). Groundwater table between
0 and 30 cm below the surface. Can support tall shrubs and trees.
Very Wet (): Groundwater table at or above the ground surface
during the growing season. Will not support tall shrubs or trees but
can support low shrubs.
Soil Nutrient Regime () is the essential soil nutrients available to
vascular plants over a period of several years (Pojar et al. 1987). Six
classes are recognized from Very Poor to Alkaline/Saline. Wetland and
wetland-related ecosystems can occur throughout the range. Some indi-
cators of in wetlands are presented in Figure 5.0.3.
pH (acidity/alkalinity) is a correlate measure of base cation availability.
This is primarily of importance for peatlands and less important for hy-
drologically dynamic systems. Five categories are recognized from Very
Acid to Alkaline. Generally, as acidity increases, available base cations
decrease, resulting in reduced site productivity.
Very Acid (): (<4.5 pH) sites are true bogs with high cover of
Sphagnum Group I or III mosses and few minerotrophic indicators.
.. A B C D E F
SNR Very Poor Poor Medium Rich Very Rich Hyper
Available excess alkali
nutrients very low low average plentiful abundant or salt accumulation
Water pH <5.0 4.5 6.0 5.0 6.5 6.0 7.4 6.5 8.0 8.0+
Environmental characteristics useful for determining nutrient status in wetlands.
vonPost of 13 36 47 7 10 8 10
surface tier
Ground - stagnant
water flow seasonal seepage
through site continuous seepage
C:N ratio High
Medium
Low
Surface tier Fibrimor Saprimoder
material Mesimor Marl
Mineral
Water tea colored; yellowish-deep brown and turbid blue-green and
colour green-brown and clear very clear
(alkaline)
green-brown and turbid
Colour pale
of surface
peat dark
Surface tier always saturated
saturation seasonal exposure of substrate
diurnal exposure of substrate
43
Moderately Acid (): (4.55.5 pH) sites still have high Sphagnum
cover but minerotrophic indicators also occur. Peatland sites are
considered bogs in this guide but would be poor fens or poor
swamps using a classic definition.
Slightly Acid (): (5.56.5 pH) sites are fens or swamps. Tomen-
thypnum, Warnstorfii, and Drepanocladus brown mosses are typical
for sites with a stagnant or sluggish hydrodynamic index.
Neutral (): (6.57.4 pH) sites are fens, swamps, or marshes. Species
are often a combination of species found on slightly acid and alkali
sites.
Alkaline (k): (>7.4 pH) sites are dominated by minerophilic
bryophytes such as Scorpidium or Campylium mosses on peatland
sites. Alkali-tolerant species occur in marshes.
The Hydrodynamic Index () has five categories that describe the
magnitude of vertical and lateral water movements in the soil on Wet
and Very Wet sites.
Stagnant (t): Stagnant to very gradually moving soil water. Vertical
fluctuations minimal. Permanent surface saturation but minimal or
no surface flooding. Basins or hollows with stable water regimes.
Abundant organic matter accumulation and high bryophyte cover.
Sluggish (l): Gradual groundwater movement through peat or
fine-textured mineral soils along a hydrological gradient. Minor
vertical watertable fluctuations. Semipermanent soil saturation with
some elevated microsites or brief periods of surface aeration. Hol-
lows, slopes, and water tracks in basins or lake flats not directly
influenced by the waterbody. Abundant peat accumulation and
bryophyte cover.
Mobile (o): Distinct flooding and drawdown or pronounced later-
al water movements. Peripheral areas of peatlands, sites adjacent to
open water tracks, small rivulets or ponds, small potholes with
relatively stable water regimes, protected lake embayments, or
backmarshes in estuaries. Can have deep but well-decomposed ac-
cumulations of peat. Patchy bryophyte cover.
Dynamic (y): Significant lateral flow and/or strong vertical wa-
tertable fluctuations through mineral soils. Potholes in arid climates
that experience significant drawdown, wave-exposed shores, flood-
plain back channels, and protected estuary sites. Little organic
accumulation, few bryophytes.
Wetland Marshes
Estuarine Meadows
Elevation above chart datum is a
corollary for duration of flooding
Tidal Zone
Estuarine Marshes
of tides in a particular area. The
definitions below are from Howes
et al. (1999).
Lower
Tidal Flats
The Upper Intertidal describes the
upper third of the elevation range
.. Distribution of Site Classes between the highest high tide and
relative to intertidal zone and salinity. zero tide for a particular area
TAXONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
Taxonomy for vascular plants follows the Illustrated Flora for British Co-
lumbia (Douglas et al. 1998a, b, 1999a, b, 2000, 2001a, b). Moss taxonomy
follows Anderson (1990) and Anderson et al. (1990). Hepatic scientific
names and authorities are based on Stotler and Crandall-Stotler (1977).
Lichen scientific names and authorities are consistent with Esslinger and
Egan (1995).
Species equivalents
In some cases, a genus or species name is used to represent more than
one species or genus. This has been done where taxa have similar ecolog-
ical requirements, are difficult to distinguish and are likely to be
confused by many field workers, or have a contentious taxonomy.
Betula nana includes B. pumila
Carex limosa includes C. magellanica
Equisetum arvense includes E. pratense
Equisetum fluviatile includes E. palustre
Picea X includes P. glauca, P. engelmannii, and all hybrids
Populus balsamifera includes P. balsamifera ssp. balsamifera, and P. bal-
samifera ssp. trichocarpa
Salix barclayi includes S. pseudomonticola
Schoenoplectus acutus includes S. tabernaemontani
1 Classic boreal black spruce bog, Alaska Highway, Boreal Plains (BWBSmw1) 2 A Shore sedge Peat-moss
floating bog, White River near Meziadin Junction (ICHvc) 3 Blanket mire complex, near Prince Rupert
(CWHvh2)
Definition
A bog is a nutrient-poor, Sphagnum-dominated peatland ecosystem in
which the rooting zone is isolated from mineral-enriched groundwater,
soils are acidic, and few minerotrophic plant species occur.
General Description
Vegetation
Table 5.1.2 lists the species that are common in Bog Site Associations
described in this guide. Bogs are characterized by an abundance of
Sphagnum mosses and evergreen woody vegetation (conifers and erica-
ceous shrubs) adapted to nutrient-poor site conditions. Sphagnum
mosses generally drive these systems because they trap base cations,
causing the organic soils to acidify and to retain moisture, thus slowing
the decomposition rate and promoting peat accumulation. Bogs com-
monly support stunted coniferous trees that, on true bogs, rarely reach
7 m in height but can reach 15 m on more productive sites. Sparse shrub
and herb layers are common. In wetter bogs, where the watertable is at
the surface, tree species do not survive and dwarf shrubs are prominent.
Interior bog vegetation is similar to that found throughout boreal re-
gions worldwide. However, bogs of the outer Coast have distinctive,
globally unusual vegetation. A hypermaritime climate (with moderate
annual temperatures, high precipitation, and high ambient humidity)
combined with mineral-poor bedrock promotes widespread bog forma-
tion on level and sloping terrain. This blanket mire complex is a
combination of open, shrubby, and woodland bog types.
Landscape Position and Distribution
Bogs occur primarily in closed basins, on the periphery of larger peat-
lands, or occasionally as raised domes in fens. They are common in
climatic regions with cool summer temperatures where evapotranspira-
tion rates are low and saturated conditions are maintained throughout
the growing season (Table 5.1.1). Extensive bogs occur in the outer
coastal lowlands, where precipitation is high and nutrient-poor parent
material is common, and in the Taiga Plains, where there is extensive
low-relief terrain on impermeable glaciolacustrine deposits. Topogenous
bogs are also common in subdued terrain of the sub-boreal and boreal
forests.
x D
VA
de V
While the groundwater table can
ic Dy
VW
In
be well below the soil surface, the
na o
SA
dy M
m
upper tier remains saturated
pH
ro l
N
S
throughout the growing season
Ak
yd
St
H
through the capillary action of
living and dead Sphagnum moss- .. Position of bogs on the
es. Bogs are never flooded. edatopic grid.
Soils are usually deep peat deposits with at least the upper layers poorly
decomposed and derived from Sphagnum moss.
Other Comments
The traditional definition of bog describes peatland ecosystems that are
ombrotrophic (i.e., isolated from groundwater). However, many peat-
land ecosystems in British Columbia with bog-like vegetation and
abundant Sphagnum experience some groundwater contact, especially in
microtopographic hollows. This guide includes these ecosystems (vari-
ously referred to as poor fens or poor swamps) in the bog wetland class
(see Bridgham et al. 1996).
Conservation Issues
Many typical bog species are not tolerant of flooding and are out-
competed by minerotrophic species when nutrient availability is even
merely moderate. Therefore, land uses that increase water inputs to these
sites can convert bogs to swamp or fen communities. Road construction
that diverts runoff into or blocks drainage from bogs is the most com-
mon anthropogenic disturbance in non-urban areas. Additions of
nitrogen-rich water (such as from sewage or cattle yard runoff) can
quickly degrade bog ecosystems by increasing peat decomposition and
facilitating invasion of marsh species such as cattail. Removal of water
from bogs will lead to an increase in tree growth and cover of upland
species and a loss of obligate hydrophytes, but, because of the moisture-
holding capacity of Sphagnum peat, many bog species can persist.
x = incidental; < 5% of wetlands xx = minor; 525% of wetlands xxx = major; >25% of wetlands
w = wet/very wet subzones only n = northern subzones only oc = outer coast (hypermaritime) only
s = southern subzones only
53
.. Bog Species Importance Table
General Description
Black spruce Creeping-snowberry Peat-moss bogs are un-
common in the dry and moist SBS and SBPS of the Central
and Sub-Boreal Interior at elevations between 500 and 1000 m. Typically,
they occur in closed basins or peripheral areas of larger peatlands where
there is little groundwater influence.
Picea mariana and Ledum groenlandicum are
always present and generally occupy raised
microsites. Dwarf woody plants are common
and few minerotrophic species are present.
Gaultheria hispidula is characteristic and is
often prominent. The hummock-forming
peat-mosses Sphagnum fuscum and S. capilli-
folium are dominant in the moss layer but a
diversity of other mosses also occurs. On sites
with high tree cover, feathermosses can replace Sphagnum as the domi-
nant component of the moss layer.
Soils are Mesisols and Fibrisols with a poorly decomposed, acidic,
Sphagnum surface tier. Deep sedge and wood peat frequently underlies
the surface tier and comprises the bulk of the peat profile.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
pH
Comments
ro l
N
yd
St
H
General Description
Lodgepole pine Bog rosemary Peat-moss bogs are
scattered throughout the wet regions of the Central and Sub-
Boreal Interior (ICHvk/wk and SBSvk/wk) at elevations below 1100 m.
They occur in closed basins, isolated zones in larger peatlands, and occa-
sionally around acidic peatland lakes.
Pinus contorta usually dominates in the sparse
and stunted canopy but Picea mariana, Tsuga
heterophylla, or Abies lasiocarpa can form a
significant component. Dwarf woody plants
such as Kalmia microphylla and Andromeda
polifolia are prominent. On some sites Carex
pauciflora and Eriophorum angustifolium may
also be prevalent.
Soils are Fibrisols and Mesisols typically com-
posed of deep Sphagnum peat but sometimes they occur on peat veneers
over dense, fine-textured glaciolacustrine deposits.
VM
Picea mariana, Pinus contorta
Herb layer (3 - 30 - 95) W
Andromeda polifolia, Carex pauciflora,
x D
VA
ic Dy
VW
In
chamaemorus
na o
SA
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd
St
H
Comments
The Wb02 Site Association is one of several Bog Site Associations that occur in the interior
rainforest.The Wb02 likely reflects the true bog or climax condition of long-term peatland
succession in the cool and warm subzones of the interior rainforest of the Central and Sub-
Boreal Interior.There are hemlock-dominated bogs (Wb04) in colder and snowier subzones
and black sprucedominated bogs in areas with more boreal climates (such as frost pockets).
The Wb07 may be the successional precursor to the Wb02.
The Wb02 includes Site Series ICHmm/07, ICHvk2/07, SBSvk/08, and SBSwk3/05 but occurs
more widely in the wet SBS and ICH.
General Description
Black spruce Lingonberry Peat-moss bogs are widespread
in the Taiga and Boreal Plains and uncommon in the North-
ern Boreal Mountains in topographic depressions with little
groundwater influence.
Stunted Picea mariana, usually less than 10 m tall, is always
present over an open herb layer and a continuous Sphag-
num blanket. Ledum groenlandicum, Rubus chamaemorus,
and Vaccinium vitis-idaea are the most abundant under-
storey species. Sites are hummocky, but because of luxuri-
ant Sphagnum growth, hollows are generally no wetter
than hummocks and support few minerotrophic indica-
tors. High tree cover on some sites shades out Sphagnum,
and feathermosses become dominant. Surface peat on ele-
vated hummocks or domes may dry out and become dom-
inated by Cladonia and Cladina lichens on some sites.
Many Wb03 sites are underlain with permafrost and have
a domed surface shape. Deep blankets of acidic Sphagnum
peat are typical and there is little or no surface water present. Soil types
are Fibrisols or Organic Cryosols.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
pH
ro l
N
Comments
Ak
yd
St
H
General Description
Western hemlock Cloudberry Peat-moss bogs are rare in
the cold, snowy subzones of the ICH of the Nass Basin, east of
the Coast Mountains at elevations below 750 m. These bogs occur in
small, closed basins with little or no groundwater influence.
Stunted Tsuga heterophylla is always prominent, but other
conifers often occur with low cover. Dwarf woody plant
species, especially Rubus chamaemorus and Kalmia micro-
phylla are the dominant component of the open herb
layer. Sphagnum growth is strong, elevating most of the
soil surface above the watertable; therefore, few
minerotrophic species occur.
Fibrisols or Mesisols of poorly decomposed Sphagnum
peat underlain by deep sedge or woody peat are typical.
Characteristic Vegetation
Tree layer (0 - 3 - 11)
Tsuga heterophylla
Shrub layer (6 - 25 - 60)
Ledum groenlandicum, Picea X, Wetland Edatopic Grid
Tsuga heterophylla
Soil Nutrient Regime
Herb layer (17 - 25 - 90)
A B C D E F
Cornus canadensis, Empetrum nigrum, Erio-
phorum angustifolium, Kalmia microphylla,
Soil Moisture Regime
VM
Oxycoccus oxycoccos, Rubus chamaemorus
Moss layer (90 - 90 - 100) W
Pleurozium schreberi, Sphagnum Group I,
x D
Cladina spp.
VA
de V
M
ic Dy
A
VW
In
Comments
na o
SA
dy M
m
pH
yd
St
H
General Description
The Black spruce Water sedge Peat-moss Bog/Poor Fen
Site Association is common throughout the Sub-Boreal and
Central Interior (ICH, SBPS, SBS) at elevations below 1300 m.
It is found in small closed basins and peripheral areas of larger peatlands
where there is a small amount of lateral and groundwater movement and
watertable depression.
Sites are strongly hummocky with trees and other com-
mon bog species rooting on elevated Sphagnum and
Tomentypnum nitens mounds, and minerotrophic indica-
tors such as Carex aquatilis, Equisetum spp., and Comarum
palustre rooting in the wetter swales. Betula nana is a com-
mon and often dominant low shrub in the Wb05. Stunted
Picea mariana is normally the predominant tree species
but a component of Pinus contorta occurs on some sites.
Soils are typically Mesisols of deep (to 4 m) sedge and
wood peat. A surface tier of poorly decomposed Sphagnum
moss occurs discontinuously, mainly under the raised
hummocks.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd
St
H
Comments
The Wb05 Site Association is transitional to the Wb01. It has hummock vegetation similar to
the Wb01 and Wf01- or Wf02-like vegetation in wetter swales.This suggests that the Wb05
represents the successional state intermediate between sedge fen and true bog. A simple
peatland successional sequence to the Wb01 is represented the following progression: Wm01
>> Wf01>> Wf02 >>Wb05>>Wb01.The Wb05 is far more abundant than the Wb01 in the
sub-boreal, suggesting that regional climatic conditions limit peatland succession. Wb05 com-
munties are often adjacent to the Wf02.
The Wb05 includes several Site Series from the ICH, SBPS, and SBS (see Appendix 4).
General Description
The Tamarack Water sedge Fen moss is a common Bog/
Poor Fen Site Association of the eastern BWBS. It occurs
adjacent to domed bogs along peatland streams, water tracks, or ground-
water inflow seeps.
Sites are hummocky, with tamarack and black spruce
growing on elevated sites and sedges rooting in the wet
hollows. The watertable remains high throughout the
growing season. Larix laricina, up to 15 m in height, domi-
nates the canopy, with Picea mariana also present on many
sites. A mixed low-shrub understorey dominated by Betula
nana can be well developed. Forbs, dwarf shrubs, and
smaller sedges root on the elevated hummocks under the
tamarack or black spruce trees.
Soils are Mesisols of deep sedge and woody peat. Unlike
black spruce bogs (Wb03) that occur in the same region,
the Wb06 is rarely underlain by permafrost.
VM
landicum, Picea mariana, Salix myrtillifolia,
S. pedicellaris W
Herb layer (20 - 52 - 90)
x D
VA
ic Dy
Vaccinium vitis-idaea
A
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd S
Tomentypnum nitens
Ak
St
H
Comments
The Wb06 occurs in a climatic region that favours the development of classic black spruce
bogs (Wb03).The Wb06 occurs only where some watertable flow is maintained. In subdued
terrain, this is mainly along sluggish peatland streams and in mountainous terrain at peatland
margins adjacent to slopes.
The Wb06 is transitional to fens and would be considered a fen under some definitions of wet-
land classes. However, there are many floristic similarities to true bogs, and the high cover of
Sphagnum suggests placement of this unit within the bog class as defined by this guide.
The Wb06 includes only Site Series BWBSdk2/08 but is also common throughout the Boreal
and Taiga Plains. A Tamarack Scrub birch Buckbean Site Series (BWBSmw2/10) has been de-
scribed for this region (Delong et al. 1990), but it is based on limited plots at a single location
and likely represents a recently flooded Wb06 site.
General Description
Lodgepole pine Water sedge Peat-moss bogs/poor fens are
uncommon in the interior rainforest climates at elevations to
1600 m. They most commonly occur in closed basins or in peripheral
areas of larger peatlands where there is some groundwater influence.
Pinus contorta, Picea X, and Abies lasiocarpa
are all common in the low canopy. Betula
nana and Ledum groenlandicum are generally
present and often abundant. Abundant Carex
aquatilis is characteristic but a diversity of
bog-affiliated species occurs on hummocks.
Sphagnum capillifolium and S. angustifolium
form a nearly continuous moss layer.
Soils are deep (to 4 m), fibric or mesic peat
blankets with a poorly decomposed, acidic, Sphagnum surface tier. Typic
Mesisols and Fibrisols are common soil types. Microtopography is often
strongly mounded with hummocks of Sphagnum fuscum and S. capilli-
folium.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
Oxycoccus oxycoccos
na o
SA
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd S
St
nitens
Comments
The Wb07 is the southern and wet-climate equivalent of the Wb05 that occurs widely in the
SBS and BWBS.The distrbution of Wb07 sites coincides with regions where Picea mariana does
not occur.
General Description
Spruce Soft-leaved sedge Peat-moss bogs/poor swamps are
uncommon throughout the Interior below 1700 m in palus-
trine depressions fed by slow-moving groundwater. These sites are often
strongly hummocky; trees and upland species occur on mounds. Stand-
ing water is often present between hummocks, but sites are not fully
flooded.
The coniferous canopy of spruce and black spruce is open.
The trees grow poorly because of saturated soils, though
there may be large individual stems on some sites. Carex
disperma and Equisetum spp. co-dominate on many sites.
The moss layer is diverse; peat-mosses, leafy mosses, and
feathermosses can all be prominent. On wetter sites, with
deep standing water in depressions, Equisetum fluviatile or
E. palustre can be abundant.
Soils are usually deep (14 m) Typic Mesisols or Humisols
derived from woody peat but are occasionally thin organic
veneers over limnic deposits or fine-textured lacustrine
materials.
de V
ic Dy
E. fluviatile
A
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd S
St
Comments
The Wb08 occupies sites intermediate between the Wb05 and the more productive Ws07.
These sites are transitional bogs to swamps, with bog communities occurring on elevated
mounds and more minerotrophic species occurring in wet swales.The closely related Wb09 has
a more northerly distribution, less standing water, and lower productivity.These ecosystems
often occur in peripheral areas of larger peatlands or wet depressions adjacent to shrub
swamps.
The Wb08 includes many Site Series from the SBS (see Appendix 4) but is now recognized as
being more widespread.
General Description
The Black spruce Common horsetail Peat-moss Bog/Poor
Swamp Site Association is uncommon in the Central Interior
and Northern Boreal Mountains (BWBS, SBS) in small palus-
trine basins and at the periphery of larger peatlands. This Site
Association is transitional to forested swamps but has, in contrast,
abundant bog-affiliated species, very poor tree growth, and more stagnant
hydrology.
Sites are often strongly hummocky, with
conifers and typical bog species occurring on
elevated sites and minerotrophic indicators in
hollows. Hummock species include stunted
Picea mariana, Ledum groenlandicum, and
Sphagnum spp. Equisetum arvense is always
present between hummocks.
Soils can be deep Sphagnum peat (to 3 m)
or shallow veneers over fine-textured mineral materials. Mesisols and
Gleysols are equally common. Standing water can persist between hum-
mocks, but elevated sites are never flooded.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd
St
H
Comments
The Wb09 is the northern equivalent of the
Wb08 and represents sites transitional be-
tween the Wb03 and Ws07.
The Wb09 includes Site Series BWBSdk1/09,
wk1/07, and wk2/07 also occurs elsewhere in
the BWBS and northern SBS.
General Description
Lodgepole pine Few-flowered sedge Peat-moss bogs/poor
fens are rare at montane elevations in the Sub-Boreal Interior
and Southern Interior Mountains. These ecosystems occur as
small stands in frost-prone basins or on gradual slopes.
Pinus contorta is always present as a sparse
canopy. Trees are small but well formed and are not root-
ed on elevated microsites. The shrub layer consists almost
entirely of stunted conifers, giving these sites an open,
park-like character. Carex pauciflora usually dominates the
herb layer but there is a diversity of other graminoids and
typical bog dwarf shrubs. The moss layer is most often a
continuous lawn of Sphagnum angustifolium with scattered
other species.
This Site Association usually has a smooth microtopogra-
phy and is saturated at the surface from seepage. Soil water
is moderately acid, suggesting that groundwater inputs are
poor in minerals. Soils are Typic Humisols and Mesisols
with a surface tier of poorly decomposed Sphagnum peat.
de V
ic Dy
Oxycoccus oxycoccos
A
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
S
Ak
yd
St
Comments
H
General Description
The Black spruce Buckbean Peat-moss Bog Site Associa-
tion is uncommon in the wet climates of the Sub-Boreal
Interior and the Nass Basin at elevations below 1200 m. These sites are
found in small infilled basins or on edges of larger peatlands where the
watertable is stagnant.
Picea mariana and/or Pinus contorta are always
present. Tree cover and growth are very sparse
and stunted (< 2 m) on wetter sites but cover
and growth increase with declining watertable.
A diverse assemblage of graminoids and
shrubs is typical, with Menyanthes trifoliata al-
ways prominent. Sites can be hummocky with
some standing water in depressions, or with a
dense, continuous Sphagnum lawn.
Soils are commonly deep moss- and sedge-derived peat. Typic Mesisols
and Fibrisols are the most common soil types but Terric subgroups or
Humisols derived from limnic materials also occur.
VM
Picea mariana, Pinus contorta
Herb layer (8 - 53 - 90) W
Carex aquatilis, C. limosa, Comarum
x D
de V
ic Dy
A
VW
Moss layer (20 - 95 - 100)
In
na o
SA
dy M
ro l
N
St
H
Comments
Wb11 develops from Wf07 or Wb13 ecosys-
tems where Menyanthes trifoliata is a prominent species. It is likely that M. trifoliata is a
persistent species that initially establishes during the early phases of basin-infilling and contin-
ues to grow apace of peat accumulation.
General Description
Scheuchzeria Peat-moss bogs are uncommon in the sub-
boreal and boreal forests at elevations below 1000 m. They
usually occur as small inclusions in larger peatlands on
floating mats with continually saturated peat and restricted water
movements.
Vegetation is characterized by species tolerant of perma-
nent saturation but intolerant of deep flooding. A low
shrub layer of Salix pedicellaris occurs on some sites but
dwarf shrubs such as Andromeda polifolia, Kalmia micro-
phylla, and Oxycoccus oxycoccos are more prevalent.
Scheuchzeria palustris is always prominent and Carex
limosa occurs on most sites. The moss layer is dominated
by Sphagnum Group I species.
Soils are mostly fibric Sphagnum peat and can be floating
mats. The watertable is at the surface but does not flood
more than several centimetres above the soils surface. The
water is very stagnant and low in dissolved oxygen.
de V
Scheuchzeria palustris.
M
ic Dy
A
VW
In
dy M
m
Sphagnum Group I
pH
ro l
N
yd S
Ak
St
Comments
H
General Description
Shore sedge Buckbean Peat-moss bogs are uncommon in
the interior rainforest and coastal transition regions at eleva-
tions below 1600 m. They occur as components of larger
acidic peatlands, occupying the central, wettest portions of the peatland:
either grounded, highly saturated peat blankets, or floating mats.
Species tolerant of acidic, continually saturated conditions
and concurrent lack of oxygen are prominent. The most
consistent of these is Carex limosa. Drosera anglica,
Menyanthes trifoliata, Kalmia microphylla, and other
species can be abundant, sparse, or absent on Wb13 sites.
Sphagnum angustifolium, S. magellanicum, or S. fuscum
often form a continuous lawn or there may be a mix of
species in hummock-hollow patterns.
Soils are deep (to > 5 m) sedge-derived Mesisols with a
surface tier of poorly decomposed Sphagnum peat. The
watertable is typically at or near the surface but there is
little standing water.
VM
angustifolium, Kalmia microphylla,
Menyanthes trifoliata,Trientalis europaea W
ssp. arctica
x D
de V
Sphagnum Group I
M
ic Dy
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
Comments
pH
ro l
N
yd S
St
H
General Description
Labrador tea Bog laurel Peat-moss bogs occur uncom-
monly in the drier subzones of the south Coast at low to
montane elevations. They are raised bogs in closed basins with
a high, stagnant watertable or adjacent to peatland lakes. Some locations
may be on floating mats.
The vegetation is low in stature and dominated by Ledum
groenlandicum with an abundance of Kalmia microphylla
and Oxycoccus oxycoccos. Myrica gale or dwarfed Pinus
contorta var. contorta can be prominent on some, usually
drier, sites. Herb cover is variable, low-lying areas can have
a high cover of Rhynchospora alba while raised sites can
have Rubus chamaemorus in abundance. Group I Sphag-
num spp. are most common (S. fuscum, S. capillifolium)
but coastal species also occur (S. papillosum), mostly in
wetter hollows.
Soils are Typic Fibrisols or Mesisols with surface tier of
poorly decomposed Sphagnum peat.
VM
Herb layer (10 - 30 - 50)
Drosera rotundifolia, Kalmia microphylla,
W
Oxycoccus oxycoccos, Rhynchospora alba
x D
de V
Sphagnum Group I
M
ic Dy
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
Comments
pH
ro l
N
yd S
St
H
General Description
Shore pine Black crowberry Tough peat-moss are raised
bogs that occur on level terrain or topographic depressions in
the Coast and Mountains at elevations below 100 m.
Bonsai Pinus contorta are scattered with
other low shrubs such as Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis, Myrica gale, and Juniperus com-
munis. Empetrum nigrum, Kalmia microphylla,
and Rubus chamaemorus are typical promi-
nent dwarf shrubs. Several Sphagnum species
occur in these bogs but the distinctive Sphag-
num austinii, which forms dense tough
mounds, is very common, especially in north-
ern sites.
Soils are commonly Mesisols of Sphagnum
peat, fibric at the surface and mesic or humic at depth. Sites are slightly
domed and raised above surrounding sites through the active growth of
Sphagnum. Peat depths range from 0.5 m to > 4 m.
VM
gale, Pinus contorta,Thuja plicata
Herb layer (13 - 35 - 50) W
Carex livida, C. pluriflora, Empetrum
x D
VA
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
Trichophorum cespitosum
pH
ro l
N
yd
St
Racomitrium lanuginosum,
H
Comments
The Wb51 represents actively growing bogs that show few signs of the stagnation in peat ac-
cumulation (such as high abundance of ground lichens and peat degradation pools) common
in other bogs of the outer Coast. Extensive areas of the Wb51 can be found in and around
Naikoon Provincial Park on the Queen Charlotte Islands where large tracts of domed bog have
developed over marine or glacial outwash sediments. Elsewhere, this community type occurs
as smaller areas in the blanket mire complex or in small topogenous bogs.
The Wb51 includes Site Series CWHvh2/31 and CWHwh1/11.
General Description
Common juniper Tufted clubrush Hoary rock-moss bogs
are a very common component of the blanket mire complex
of the outer Coast at elevations below 800 m.
Scattered, bonsai shore pine are always pres-
ent but the shrub layer is characterized more
by Juniperus communis and Myrica gale. Tri-
chophorum cespitosum is always dominant but
there is a diversity of dwarf shrubs and herbs.
On sites with deeper peat, Sphagnum spp. are
co-dominant with Racomitrium lanuginosum,
Cladina spp., and Siphula ceratites. On sites
with shallow peat, moss layer cover is lower,
Sphagnum is greatly reduced, and Siphula ceratites and Campylopus atro-
virens become more prominent.
Deposits of dark mesic peat to 1.5 m, underlain by bedrock, are typical,
but peat depth varies considerably. Some sites on the extreme outer
Coast have a complex of poorly drained mineral soils derived from
bedrock and discontinuous organic accumulations 550 cm deep.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd
St
Comments
The Wb52 probably represents over-mature bogs where Sphagnum mosses are limited and
peat is no longer accumulating.This is reflected in the prevalence of Racomitrium lanugi-
nosum and ground lichens, which would not normally be able to compete with Sphagnum.
Furthermore, on most sites there are circular to teardrop-shaped shallow pools that are created
by peat degradation.These pools are 14 m2 in area and 1050 cm deep, ringed by dams of
Sphagnum and Trichophorum cespitosum growing in strongly tenacious peat.
The Wb52 includes Site Series CWHvh2/32.
General Description
The Shore pine Yellow-cedar Tufted clubrush Site Associ-
ation is a very common component of the blanket mire
complex of the outer Coast. The Wb53 occurs on gently to steeply slop-
ing terrain on slightly shedding sites such as hillocks and slope breaks, or
simply along drainageways. There is rarely
standing water on these sites.
Stunted yellow-cedar and shore pine to 10 m
is characteristic and differentiates this associa-
tion from the Wb52. Trichophorum cespitosum
is prominent in the understorey but there is a
diversity of other herbs and dwarf shrubs. The
moss layer is moderately well developed with a
mix of upland species on elevated sites and
Sphagnum spp. in wetter hollows.
Soils are variable, ranging from deep fibric
sedge and wood peat deposits (> 2 m) to thin peat veneers over granitic
bedrock. Hummocky microtopography provides drier sites for tree es-
tablishment.
Wetland Edatopic Grid
Characteristic Vegetation
Soil Nutrient Regime
Tree layer (0 - 0 - 10) A B C D E F
Pinus contorta
Soil Moisture Regime
VM
Shrub layer (10 - 55 - 95)
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, Gaultheria
shallon, Ledum groenlandicum, Pinus con- W
torta,Thuja plicata
x D
VA
de V
ic Dy
A
yd
St
spitosum,Vaccinium uliginosum
H
Comments
The Wb53 has been refered to as bog woodland and is a major component of the blanket
mire complex of the outer Coast. It typically occurs with the related Wb52 on sloping terrain.
The Wb53 includes Site Series CWHvh2/12.
1 Sphagnum spp., peat moss 2 Ledum groenlandicum, Labrador tea 3 Oxycoccus oxycoccos, bog cranberry
1 A patterned fen near Williston Reservoir, northern Rocky Mountains (SBSmk2) 2 A basin fen near Babine Lake,
Sub-Boreal Interior (SBSmc2) 3 Sloping fens, Harold Price Plateau near Smithers (ESSFwv)
Definition
A fen is a nutrient-medium peatland ecosystem dominated by sedges and
brown mosses, where mineral-bearing groundwater is within the rooting
zone and minerotrophic plant species are common.
General Description
Vegetation
Table 5.2.2 lists species common to Fen Site Associations described in
this guide. Fens are characterized by high cover of sedges and bryophytes
of the brown moss group, such as Campylium, Drepanocladus, Scorpidi-
um, Tomentypnum, and Warnstorfia. These species reflect relatively
mineral-rich site conditions in fens compared to bogs. Some sites may
have high cover of minerotrophic nonhummock-forming Sphagnum
species (see Group II Sphagnum definition page 47). Low shrub or
graminoid physiognomy is typical: a high watertable precludes tall
shrubs and trees. Shrub species are typically deciduous, most commonly
willows and scrub birch. On very saturated sites some evergreen dwarf
shrubs such as bog cranberry and bog rosemary may be prominent. The
moss layer is usually well developed.
Landscape Position and Distribution
Fens develop where permanently saturated soil conditions are main-
tained. Common locations for fens are groundwater-fed basins, gradual
seepage slopes, and protected lake or pond margins where there is little
wave action or drawdown.
Fens are the most common wetland class in the province and occur in all
but the warmest and driest climates (Table 5.2.1). Regions with cool
summer temperatures are optimal for fen formation.
x D
VA
de V
of lateral flow, stability of the wa-
ic Dy
VW Fens
In
tertable, and availability of base
na o
SA
dy M
m
cations differentiate most fen
pH
ro l
N
S
ecosystems (Figure 5.2.1).
Ak
yd
St
H
Soils are of the Organic order,
most frequently Mesisols, derived .. Position of fens on the
edatopic grid.
from sedges and mosses. Soil nutri-
ent regime ranges from poor to rich.
Other Comments
In long-term peatland development, fens are classically represented as an
intermediate stage between marsh (with mineral rooting substrate) and
bog ecosystems (semi-terrestrial peatlands). The peat profile and vegeta-
tion of some peatland ecosystems in British Columbia do reflect this
model; the lowest tier of peat indicates marsh conditions, the middle tier
is sedge-dominated, and the upper tier is Sphagnum-derived. However,
many fens occur in climatic areas that are not conducive to bog develop-
ment and therefore may be long-lived. In addition, some fens have peat
profiles with consistent peat composition throughout, suggesting that
they have been stable ecosystems since peatland initiation and are not
undergoing long-term peatland succession.
Conservation Issues
Fens are the most common wetland class throughout most of British
Columbia. Site Associations dominated by water, beaked, or Sitka sedges
and narrow-leaved cotton-grass (Wf0103, 11, 12) are the most common
of the fen types in the province in part because these species tolerate a
wide range of hydrologic conditions. These large sedgedominated Site
Associations persist despite beaver flooding, beaver dam removal, hay-
ing, extreme flooding, sedimentation, or burning. However, fundamental
changes to the water regime such as permanent watertable elevation or
draining will convert communities to other types.
x = incidental; < 5% of wetlands xx = minor; 525% of wetlands xxx = major; >25% of wetlands
i = inland areas only s = southern subzones only
79
.. Fen Species Importance Table
General Description
The Water sedge Beaked sedge Fen Site Association is the
most common and widespread Fen Site Association in the
province. It occurs in all but the warmest and driest subzones
from low to subalpine elevations on sites that are annually
inundated by shallow, low-energy flood waters and that expe-
rience some late-season drawdown.
Wf01 fens are found in a wide vari-
ety of landscape positions but most
commonly palustrine basins.They
occupy wetter zones in larger peat-
land complexes but also form
extensive pure meadows.
Species diversity is low; Carex
aquatilis and Carex utriculata cover is often continuous, with scattered
forbs, aquatics, and mosses in the understorey. On sites that dry out at
the surface, Calamagrostis canadensis or C. stricta can become promi-
nent, species diversity increases, and sites become more meadow-like.
Peat depths range from 30 to > 300 cm. Common soil types include typic
and terric Fibrisols and Mesisols. This Site Association tolerates variable
hydrology.
Characteristic Vegetation Wetland Edatopic Grid
Tree layer (0 - 0 - 0) Soil Nutrient Regime
Shrub layer (0 - 0 - 10) A B C D E F
Herb layer (13 - 80 - 100)
Soil Moisture Regime
Comments
de V
M
ic Dy
A
dy M
yd
St
H
General Description
The Scrub birch Water sedge Fen Site Association is one of
the most common peatland Site Associations throughout the
Interior and is absent only from PP/BG and wet ESSF subzones. It is
frequently a major component of large peatlands where there is some
watertable fluctuation and the surface becomes aerated by mid-season.
These sites are often hummocked, with shrubs rooting on elevated
microsites.
Betula nana and Carex aquatilis are the charac-
teristic species but Salix pedicellaris and Carex
utriculata dominate on wetter sites. The moss
layer is variable and can be diverse, absent, or
dominated by Tomentypnum nitens, Sphag-
num, or Drepanocladus. Some drier sites will
have scattered, stunted trees (spruce or black
spruce most commonly).
Common soil types are terric and typic Mesisols and Fibrisols. Peat
depths are frequently between 1 and 2 m but deep sedge-derived peat to
4 m occurs; this Site Association can occassionally occur on thin organic
veneers.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
na o
Tomentypnum nitens
SA
dy M
m
pH
ro l
N
Comments
Ak
yd
St
H
General Description
Water sedge Peat-moss fens occur mainly at elevations
above 1100 m in the Interior (ESSF zone), where they are the
counterpart to the Wf02 of lower elevations. These comm-
unities appear to be relatively
common but have not been exten-
sively sampled. Small pocket depressions or
gradual seepage slopes where there is no flood-
ing are typical locations.
Carex aquatilis is the dominant species,
though there can be significant occurrence of
subalpine forbs such as Caltha leptosepala,
Sanguisorba canadensis, or Senecio triangularis
on some sites. Peat-mosses are usually domi-
nant in the Wf03, though there may be a diversity of other mosses such
as Aulacomnium palustre, Tomentypnum nitens, and others.
Mesisols derived from sedge peat up to 2 m (rarely to 4 m) in depth are
common.
VM
Senecio triangularis
Moss layer (30 - 85 - 100) W
Aulacomnium palustre, Sphagnum Group I,
x D
Tomentypnum nitens
VA
de V
M
ic Dy
A
VW
In
Comments
na o
SA
dy M
m
pH
yd S
St
H
General Description
Barclays willow Water sedge Glow moss fen/swamps are
common at subalpine elevations of the Sub-Boreal Interior,
Southern Interior Mountains, and Northern Boreal Moun-
tains. They occur on subalpine
seepage slopes, along glacier-fed
creeks, and in frost-prone basins.
Salix barclayi dominates the shrub
layer with a scattering of other low shrub
species. Carex aquatilis dominates the herb
layer but is often accompanied by scattered
high-elevation species such as Caltha lep-
tosepala, Eriophorum angustifolium, and
Leptarrhena pyrolifolia. The moss layer can
be absent or moderately well developed.
Continuous (often copious) groundwater or snowmelt seepage is typical,
and soils are cold. Peat is often shallow because of low biomass produc-
tion but occasionally deep sedge peat deposits are encountered.
Common soil types include terric Mesisols, Humisols, and Fibrisols
VM
Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex aquatilis,
C. sitchensis
W
Moss layer (0 - 15 - 95)
x D
de V
Philonotis fontana
M
ic Dy
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
Comments
pH
ro l
N
yd
St
H
General Description
Slender sedge Common hook-moss fens are common
throughout the Interior at elevations below 1400 m. These
fens occur on peat flats surrounding small lakes and ponds or
in infilled palustrine basins. Pro-
longed shallow surface flooding and
continual surface peat saturation are typical.
Carex lasiocarpa and Drepanocladus aduncus
are constant dominants. Other large water
sedges, such as C. aquatilis and C. utriculata,
are also common. There can be a very sparse
shrub cover of Salix pedicellaris, S. candida, or
Betula nana. The moss layer is usually well
developed but is occasionally absent. Hook-
mosses usually dominate with occasional inclusions of other brown
mosses.
Deep peat deposits are common but some sites may occur on thin or-
ganic veneers. Mesisols are the most common soil type but Humisols
and Fibrisols also occur.
VM
Moss layer (0 - 55 - 100)
Drepanocladus aduncus W
x D
VA
Comments
de V
M
ic Dy
A
dy M
yd S
St
H
General Description
Slender sedge Buckbean fens are uncommon in the Central
and Sub-Boreal Interior at elevations below 1300 m. They
occur on floating mats adjacent to small lakes and peatland
ponds, or in flarks of patterned fens where there is permanent
surface saturation and shallow
inundation.
Sites are often slightly hummocked,
with Menyanthes trifoliata occurring
in the wet depressions and Carex lasiocarpa
and Drepanocladus spp. and other mosses oc-
curring on mounds. A sparse shrub layer can
occur and the moss layer is always well devel-
oped. Hook-mosses are the most common
component of the moss layer but Sphagnum
spp. or Campylium stellatum may dominate on some sites.
Sites have sedge peat to 2.5 m, often with a subsurface water lens or su-
persaturated horizon. Fibrisols and Mesisols are typical soil types.
VM
Moss layer (30 - 55 - 100)
Drepanocladus aduncus,Warnstorfia spp. W
x D
VA
Comments
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Wf06 site conditions are intermediate be-
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General Description
Scrub birch Buckbean Shore sedge fens occur throughout
the Central and Sub-Boreal Interior at middle elevations
below 1400 m, in palustrine basins or patterned fens with per-
manently high watertables. Most sites are prominently
hummocked or ribbed with elevated sites and permanent
shallow-water hollows.
An open cover of Betula nana or Salix pedicel-
laris rooted on elevated microsites is distinctive. Low
sedges such as Carex chordorrhiza and C. limosa are promi-
nent throughout most sites, while Comarum palustre and
Menyanthes trifoliata occupy inundated depressions. The
composition of the well-developed bryophyte layer is vari-
able. Mixed-species Sphagnum cover is common on some
sites (not necessarily the most acidic), brown mosses are
common on others, while true calciphiles such as Scorpidi-
um scorpioides occur only on the most basic sites.
Mesisols and Fibrisols derived from sedge/moss peat are
typical. Peat is often >1 m in depth but, less commonly,
sites occur on peat veneers.
VM
Carex aquatilis, C. chordorrhiza, C. limosa,
Comarum palustre, Menyanthes trifoliata
W
Moss layer (20 - 95 - 100)
x D
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Tomentypnum nitens
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Comments
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General Description
The Shore sedge Buckbean Hook-moss is an uncommon,
rich Fen Site Association that occurs mainly at higher eleva-
tions throughout the Interior (7001800 m) in colder
subzones. These fens occur on pond-side floating mats or in
flarks of patterned fens where there is prolonged shallow
flooding to no more than several
centimetres.
Carex limosa rooted in shallow
water is the constant dominant on these sites.
Menyanthes trifoliata occurs on most sites but
can be very sparse or absent on some. A
diversity of species tolerant of permanent sat-
uration such as Carex chordorrhiza, Equisetum
fluviatile, and Andromeda polifolia commonly
occur with low cover.
Peat deposits are shallow (0.5 m) to very deep (> 6 m), fibric or mesic,
and derived from fine sedges and brown mosses. Fibrisols are the most
common soil type.
VM
Moss layer (1 - 85 - 100)
Drepanocladus spp.
W
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Comments
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General Description
The Few-flowered spike-rush Hook-moss Fen Site Associa-
tion occurs on small sloping peatlands at high elevations
(mostly above 1200 m) throughout the Sub-Boreal, Central, and South-
ern Interior. It is rare throughout most of its range, occurring only in
slope positions with continual slow surface seepage.
Plant diversity is low; Eleocharis quinqueflora is
the site dominant, with lesser amounts of
Carex limosa, Eriophorum angustifolium, and
other forbs occasionally occurring. Hook-
mosses such as Homatocaulis vernicosus,
Scorpidium revolvens, and Drepanocladus
aduncus usually comprise the moss layer but
other brown mosses such as Meesia triquetra
and Tomentypnum nitens can occur in high
abundance.
Peat forms as a characteristically dense and tenacious mesic peat. Peat
depths are frequently shallow but can be up to 2 m. Terric Mesisols and
Humisols are common soil types.
VM
Eriophorum angustifolium
Moss layer (1 - 50 - 95)
W
Drepanocladus spp.,Tomentypnum nitens
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General Description
The Hudson Bay clubrush Red hook-moss Site Association
is rare and seems to occur only in the moist subzones of the
SBS. It is floristically related to the Wf11 but occurs where the
watertable is more stagnant and at
or slightly above the peat surface for
much of the growing season. Com-
mon locations are around small
peatland lakes and ponds, and in
flarks.
Trichophorum alpinum dominates but there is
usually a diverse array of other species typical
of base-rich and saturated peatland habitats
such as Carex chordorrhiza, C. lasiocarpa, C.
limosa, Menyanthes trifoliata, and Triglochin maritima.
The moss flora is dominated by brown mosses and strong calciphiles:
Campylium stellatum, Scorpidium revolvens, and S. scorpioides.
Many sites are underlain by calcareous marl, and peat water is usually
neutral to alkaline. Peat decomposition is apparently retarded under
these conditions because the entire peat profile often has few signs of de-
composition. Typic Fibrisols are common. Peat is usually deep (> 3 m).
VM
C. chordorrhiza, C. lasiocarpa, C. limosa,
Drosera anglica, Menyanthes trifoliata,
W
Oxycoccus oxycoccos,Triantha glutinosa,
Trichophorum alpinum,Triglochin mariti-
x D
VA
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Moss layer (25 - 95 - 100)
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Comments
Wf10 sites are usually small inclusions in larger complexes of rich fen peatland but are conspic-
uous when Trichophorum alpinum is in flower. Most site conditions are similar to the Wf08
but the Wf10 occurs where soil water is alkaline and (apparently) occurs over a much more
restricted climatic range.
General Description
The Tufted clubrush Star moss Fen Site Association is
scattered throughout the Interior at middle to subalpine ele-
vations, most commonly in regions underlain with base-rich
parent materials. These fens occur on level and gently sloping,
groundwater-fed peatlands that are
permanently saturated but rarely inundated.
Sites have smooth, ribbed, or slightly hum-
mocked topography and any depressions are
water-filled.
Trichophorum cespitosum and Campylium
stellatum are constant dominants and occur
mainly on drier microsites. Menyanthes
trifoliata and calcium-encrusted Scorpidium
scorpioides and Scorpidium revolvens are com-
monly found in very shallow pools.
Most sites have a distinct dense and tenacious turfy peat. Deep peat is
typical (to 5 m) but occasionally thin peat veneers occur. Fibrisols and
Mesisols are typical soil types.
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General Description
The Narrow-leaved cotton-grass Marsh-marigold Site Asso-
ciation is common at subalpine elevations (above 1200 m)
throughout the Sub-Boreal and Central Interior. It occurs on gently
sloping peatlands where there is continual seepage from snowmelt and
groundwater.
Eriophorum angustifolium occurs on most sites
with high cover. Sites with abundant surface
seepage will also have a high cover of Caltha
leptosepala and/or Leptarrhena pyrolifolia.
Other graminoids such as C. anthoxanthea,
C.aquatilis, or C.nigricans may also occur with
high cover on some sites. The moss layer is
usually well developed but compositionally
variable.
Soils are usually deep, mushy sedge peat. Typic Mesisols and Fibrisols
are the most common soil types.
VM
folium
Moss layer (0 - 75 - 95) W
Aulacomnium palustre
x D
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General Description
Narrow-leaved cotton-grass Shore sedge fens occur at higher
elevations (12001800 m) of the ESSF zone in depressions or
gradual seepage slopes where standing water persists for most
of the short growing season. The Wf13 appears to be relatively
common (at least locally) but has
not been extensively sampled.
A community dominated by Eriophorum
angustifolium with Carex limosa is typical but
some sites may have poor sedge (Carex magel-
lanica) instead of C. limosa. Grasses such as
Calamagrostis canadensis and Vahlodea atro-
purpurea and the forb Caltha leptosepala are
commonly abundant. The moss layer is well
developed and is often diverse, with no one
species dominating.
Soils are deep peat deposits of fibric or mesic cotton-grass remains.
Typic Mesisols and Fibrisols are common soil types.
VM
C. limosa, Eriophorum angustifolium
Moss layer (0 - 40 - 99)
W
Aulacomnium palustre, Philonotis fontana,
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Sphagnum Group I
VA
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General Description
The Narrow-leaved cotton-grass Peat-moss Fen/Bog Site
Association describes a wide range of ecosystems of montane
and subalpine areas of the Coast where there is some surface
seepage. Many sites are sloping but the Wf 50 also occurs on
level sites with a permanent, high
watertable.
As with many sloping peatlands,
sites are microtopographically het-
erogeneous and therefore a mosaic of
vegetation is common. Eriophorum angustifoli-
um is always prominent but other species can
be very abundant on some sites or in specific
locations within the peatland. Tree and shrub
species, if they occur, are on raised sites.
Groundwater seepage pools or surface
drainage channels are common.
Peat deposits are generally < 2 m deep. Mesic sedge peat throughout the
profile is common. Terric and Typic Mesisols are common soil types.
VM
crista-galli, Kalmia microphylla,
Trichophorum cespitosum W
Moss layer (20 - 75 - 99)
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Sphagnum Group I
VA
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General Description
Sitka sedge Peat-moss fens occur at low elevations along the
Coast, in wet drainage channels or hollows in sloping peat-
lands where there is gradually flowing surface water. These
sites are uncommon and often of
small areal extent relative to other
ecosystems of the Coast.
Carex sitchensis grows in dense
swards with Sphagnum species in
carpets or floating in shallow water.
A diversity of other species occurs with low
cover on most sites.
Peat accumulations in the Wf 51 range from
thin veneers to deep blankets of poorly to
well-decomposed peat. Organic layers are often intermixed with mineral
materials. Fibrisols are the most common soil type but Mesisols and Hu-
misols also occur.
VM
Moss layer (0 - 40 - 100)
Sphagnum spp.
W
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VA
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General Description
Sweet gale Sitka sedge fens are uncommon at low elevations
in the Georgia Depression and Coast and Mountains in a wide
variety of landscape positions. Sites can be shallowly flooded
in the early season but will drop just
below the surface for most of the
growing season.
Myrica gale and Spiraea douglasii
form a closed and sometimes dense
thicket mostly < 1.5 m in height. Carex sitchen-
sis dominates the herb layer but there is a
scattering of other species on most sites. Be-
cause of flooding, the bryophyte layer is
generally sparse but on some sites cover of
Sphagnum or other moss species may be high.
Peat deposits are mostly shallow, moderately to well decomposed sedge
and wood peat. Terric Humisols and Mesisols are common soil types.
VM
Carex sitchensis
Moss layer (0 - 14 - 60) W
Sphagnum spp.
x D
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General Description
Slender sedge White beak-rush fens occur in the Georgia
Depression at elevations below 600 m. The Wf 53 requires
permanently saturated soils and is tolerant of prolonged shal-
low inundation. Lake margins are the most common location
but some isolated basins may also
have suitable conditions.
Carex lasiocarpa is always abundant and
dominant. Rhynchospora alba and scattered
low-growing Myrica gale occur on most sites.
However, wetter sites often lack these species
and have aquatic species such as Nuphar lutea,
Brasenia schreberi, or Menyanthes trifoliata in-
stead. Schoenoplectus acutus grows in more
alkaline examples of the Wf 53.
Soils are shallow mesic or humic peat of sedge
or limnic origin. Terric Mesisols and Humisols are common soil types.
VM
Carex lasiocarpa, Rhynchospora alba
Moss layer (0 - 2 - 8) W
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1 A pothole marsh dominated by the rare grass Scolochloa festucacea, the Wineglass Ranch near Riske Creek
(IDFdk4) 2 A coastal Beaked sedge marsh on Minerva Lake near Prince Rupert (CWHvh2) 3 Cattail thicket,
Nicola Lake (BGxw1)
Definition
A marsh is a permanently to seasonally flooded non-tidal mineral wetland
dominated by emergent grass-like vegetation.
General Description
Vegetation
Table 5.3.2 lists species common in the Marsh Site Associations described
in this guide. Marshes are floristically simple plant communities with
low species diversity and strong dominance by one or two species. The
high nutrient availability in marshes favours aggressive species that
spread vegetatively. This results in communities with one or two domi-
nant species that effectively limit establishment and spread of other
species. Dominance can result from optimal environmental conditions
for mature plants, favourable conditions for initial establishment of one
species over another, or simply chance initial establishment of one
species. Marshes have > 10% cover of emergent grasses, rushes, sedges,
or (occasionally) forbs or horsetails. The tree, shrub, and bryophyte lay-
ers in marshes are usually absent or very sparse (< 10%). Aquatic plants
are common, especially in marshes that retain standing water for most
or all of the year.
Landscape Position and Distribution
Marshes are favoured by dynamic hydrological regimes, high nutrient
status, and warm growing-season climates. In cool, wet climates, marsh-
es are restricted to wave-washed lakeshores, stream floodplains, and
back-levees where waterflow prevents peat accumulation and keeps nu-
trient availability high. In these climates, peatlands occupy most small
basins. In warm and dry climates, however, marshes are the most com-
mon wetland class and occur in most hydrogeomorphic types including
small potholes and depressions. In these areas, high evapotranspiration
rates result in watertable fluctuations that expose the soil surface in late
season and promote decomposition of organic materials. Large variation
in pothole water levels between years is common in semi-arid climates.
The Site Associations and their extent often varies considerably in re-
sponse to these hydrological changes.
x D
Marshes
VA
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drawdown and substrate expo-
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In
sure by mid to late summer. Soils
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are usually mineral, but they can
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also have a well-decomposed or-
Ak
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ganic surface tier of humic or
limnic peat. Nutrient availability .. Position of marshes on the
edatopic grid.
is high due to circum-neutral pH,
abundant waterflow, and periodic
exposure and aeration of the substrate.
Conservation Issues
Marshes are critically important wetland ecosystems. They are the most
heavily used wetland type for most wetland-using wildlife species
because they support a large standing crop of palatable vegetation,
plankton, and aquatic invertebratesorganisms that form a food base
for larger animals. Marshes are the favoured wetland class for most wa-
terfowl, amphibians, and semi-aquatic mammals because they provide
good cover, open water, and a food source for young animals. They are
the most common wetland type in the dry and warm climates where
wetlands in general are uncommon and this is where many of British
Columbias rare wetland-dependent vertebrates occur (e.g., Great Basin
Spadefoot, Tiger Salamander).
Marshes are early-seral ecosystems in wetland succession. Marshes are
the easiest wetland class to create artificially because they will form natu-
rally in recently created wetland environments (e.g., roadside ditches,
sewage lagoons). Most marshes are tolerant of hydrological modifications
that are not outside the natural, broad range for the Site Association.
Maintaining wetland habitats by stabilizing watertables is a common
practice in the prairie pothole region of Canada, where many wetlands
dry up during drought years. However, throughout most of British Co-
lumbia, this method is inappropriate and will reduce the productivity of
existing marshes. Most marshes will recover from even severe mechani-
cal or grazing disturbance if hydrological regime is maintained.
x = incidental; < 5% of wetlands xx = minor; 525% of wetlands xxx = major; >25% of wetlands
s = southern subzones only
105
.. Marsh Species Importance Table
General Description
Beaked sedge Water sedge marshes constitute the most
common and widespread Marsh Site Association in the
province. The Wm01 occurs in all subzones from low to sub-
alpine elevations on sites that are inundated by shallow,
low-energy floodwaters and that experience
some late-season drawdown. These marshes are
found in a wide variety of landscape positions
including flooded beaver ponds, lake margins,
floodplains, and palustrine basins.
Species diversity is low and plant cover is
strongly dominated by Carex utriculata and C. aquatilis
with scattered forbs, aquatics, and mosses. On sites experi-
encing significant surface drying, species diversity increases
and sites become more meadow-like. Species such as Cala-
magrostis canadensis, Geum macrophyllum, or Deschampsia
cespitosa can become prominent.
The Wm01 occurs over a wide range of site conditions on
mineral substrates with thin peat veneers. Common soil
types include Gleysols and Terric Humisols.
VM
Moss layer (0 - 5 - 100)
W
Comments
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munities, but, because these units are
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General Description
The Swamp horsetail Beaked sedge Marsh Site Association is
uncommon at lower elevations throughout the Interior. Com-
mon locations are in back-levee depressions along sediment-
laden, low-gradient streams, protected bays of large lakes, or
hydrologically modified (flooded) fens. The Wm02 also oc-
curs along the Coast in tidal reaches of large rivers above
saltwater influence.
Plant diversity is low. Sites are dom-
inated by Equisetum fluviatile with Carex
utriculata sometimes co-dominating; often
there are scattered aquatics such as Potamoge-
ton and Myriophyllum spp. The Wm02 is
similar to the Wm01 but is distinguished by its
higher hydrodynamic index and by the domi-
nance of E. fluviatile.
Soils are derived from silty or fine-sandy fluvi-
um, deep limnic deposits at open margins of lakes, or recently flooded
peat. Rego Gleysols and Terric Humisols are common soil types.
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in water depth and high rates of sedimenta-
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in reservoirs.
On fluvial sites, the Wm02 is usually adjacent
to tall-willow swamps or low bench commu-
nities. In lake systems, Wm02 commonly
adjoins open water and other marsh commu-
nities.
Carex atherodes
General Description
The Awned sedge Marsh Site Association is uncommon and
restricted to dry climates of the Central Interior at low to mid-
dle elevations. These marshes are generally small and occur most
commonly in small potholes surrounded by
forest, where water levels are shallow and rela-
tively constant.
Sites are always dominated by Carex atherodes,
but infrequently other species, such as
Drepanocladus aduncus, Myriophyllum verticil-
latum, Alopecurus aequalis, or Carex utriculata,
occur in abundance.
Standing water is slightly alkaline; rooting sub-
strates are fine-textured mineral or shallow
sedge-derived peat. Common soil types are
Humisols and Humic Gleysols.
VM
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 95)
Drepanocladus aduncus W
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This unit is similar to the Wm01 but is much
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Eleocharis palustris
General Description
Common spike-rush marshes are widely distributed through-
out the Interior at elevations below 1300 m. They occur along
lakeshores, and as a zone in larger potholes, oxbows, and
slow-moving rivers, where there is some weak
waterflow or wave action. Sites are shallowly
flooded in the early season in all locations; the
watertable often drops to the surface in palus-
trine locations but is permanent in lacustrine or
fluvial systems. Wm04 sites also occur in fresh-
water and brackish tidal reaches of large coastal
rivers and estuaries.
Plant diversity is low; Eleocharis palustris is often the only
emergent species with significant cover. In interior sites,
submerged and floating aquatics can be common; in estu-
arine sites Carex lyngbyei is often present.
Soils are typically sandy or gravelly with or without a thin
organic veneer.
Eleocharis palustris, VM
Potamogeton richardsonii
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 10) W
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Eleocharis palustris occurs commonly in a
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Typha latifolia
General Description
Cattail marshes are common throughout the Coast and Interi-
or at low elevations in subzones with warm summers. They
occur most commonly in protected lake embayments and
potholes or even roadside ditches, where the surface substrate
remains saturated for most of the growing season.
Typha latifolia dominates, often with few other
rooted plants present, especially where nutrient
levels are high and T. latifolia growth profuse.
Occasionally there is significant cover of Carex
utriculata, Schoenoplectus acutus, or Lemna spp.
These sites often have organic veneers of well-decomposed,
odiferous muck. Soil types can be Humisols or Humic
Gleysols. Water depths may be up to 1 m in the spring but
recede in late summer, sometimes to the surface.
Typha latifolia VM
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 90)
W
Comments
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Schoenoplectus acutus
General Description
Great bulrush marshes occur widely in subzones with warm
and dry summers. Wave-exposed lake embayments with
significant water movements, and grassland potholes with
occasional substrate exposure (conditions that provide
abundant aeration and limit organic accu-
mulations), are the most common locations
for this Site Association.
Plant diversity is low; typically, Schoenoplec-
tus acutus is the only species with significant
cover. Bulrush marshes are usually adjacent
to open water in wetland mosaics and can sometimes
be found in complex with the Wm05.
Floodwaters to 1.5 m depth in the spring are typical,
with significant growing-season drawdown occurring
in potholes. Great bulrush is tolerant of alkali soils
and often dominates in brackish potholes. Soils are
mostly Gleysols and Humic Gleysols, though Terric
Humisols occasionally occur.
VM
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 60)
W
Comments
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S. tabernaemontani (soft-stemmed bulrush).
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Juncus balticus
General Description
Baltic rush saline meadows/marshes are common in the
Chilcotin Plateau and uncommon in the dry climates of the
Southern Interior and Southern Interior Mountains. The Wm07 occurs
in alkaline or saline potholes, primarily closed basins, where there is
early-season inundation followed by gradual
watertable drop to below the surface.
Juncus balticus is always dominant on Wm07
sites. Other saline-tolerant species such as
Carex praegracilis, Potentilla anserina, and
Puccinellia nuttalliana may occur, especially
on drier sites.
Soils are fine textured, and poorly to imper-
fectly drained, with up to 10 cm of surface
organic accumulation. The upper horizons remain wet throughout most
of the growing season. When these sites dry out, a salt or alkali crust is
often evident.
VM
Potentilla anserina
Moss layer (0 - 5 - 20) W
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The Wm07, along with other communities of
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General Description
Sitka sedge Hemlock-parsley marshes are common in the
Georgia Depression and Coast and Mountains at low eleva-
tions in basins, and along slow-moving streams, ponds, and
lakeshores.
A monoculture of Carex sitchensis
occurs on many sites, but occasion-
ally other species are also promi-
nent. Sites with flowing floodwaters
often have abundant Oenanthe sar-
mentosa or Glyceria elata. Drier sites
have a mix of forbs such as Veronica scutellata,
Hypericum anagalloides, and Galium trifidum.
The Wm50 tolerates variable hydrology and
disturbance and occurs on mineral substrates
or shallow (occasionally deep) peat veneers.
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The Wm50 is the coastal equivalent of the
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Dulichium arundinaceum
General Description
Three-way sedge marshes/fens are uncommon and often of
limited extent on the south Coast and rare in wet regions of
the Southern Interior Mountains at elevations below 600 m.
The Wm51 occurs along the protected margins of shallow
lakes or sluggish streams on mucky substrates.
Dulichium arundinaceum is always
dominant. There is often a minor
component of emergent sedges or
rushes. Other species that grow well on flood-
ed, degrading peaty soils, such as Nuphar
lutea, Menyanthes trifoliata, and Comarum
palustre occur on some sites.
The Wm51 prefers permanently flooded con-
ditions on degrading peat or soft muck (mix
of fine mineral material and organics).
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The Wm51 often occurs at the interface be-
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1 Red alder - Skunk cabbage swamp, Vancouver Island (CWHxm1) 2 A Spruce Horsetail swamp at Mount
Savona near Kamloops (MSxk) 3 MacCallas willow Beaked sedge swamp near Uncha Lake, Sub-Boreal
Interior (SBSdk)
Definition
A swamp is a nutrient-rich wetland ecosystem where significant ground-
water inflow, periodic surface aeration, and/or elevated microsites allows
growth of large trees or tall shrubs under subhydric conditions.
General Description
Vegetation
Table 5.4.2 lists common species of Swamp Site Associations described
in this guide. Swamps are characterized by a high cover of tall shrubs
and/or trees plus a well-developed herb layer. Richer swamps have a
herb layer with a high component of ferns and forbs. Nutrient-medium
sites have a sedge-dominated understorey.
There are two distinct groups of swamps: one characterized by a tall-
shrub physiognomy and the other forested. The former are often
floristically related to fen ecosystems but distinguished by vigorous
shrub growth. The moss layer is typically poorly developed because
shade and abundant litterfall limit bryophyte establishment and growth.
Forested swamps are transitional to uplands and often have a mix of ter-
restrial and wetland microhabitats. Elevated microsites under conifers
are favourable for terrestrial species, and depressions support hydrophytes.
Landscape Position and Distribution
Swamps occur where there is an abundant flow of near-surface ground-
water, and on slope breaks, peatland margins, inactive floodplain
back-channels, back-levee depressions, lake margins, and gullies.
Swamps are common throughout the province, but usually not extensive
in most landscapes (Table 5.4.1). Most frequently, they occur as small
components of larger wetland systems.
Hydrology and Soils
Swamps occur on sites with pronounced microtopography. Trees and
shrubs root on microsites elevated above a high semipermanent wa-
tertable or where there is pronounced lateral groundwater flow and
surface aeration in otherwise saturated soils (Figure 5.4.1).
x D
VA
de V
either peatlands that have under-
ic Dy
VW
In
gone hydrological change or are
na o
SA
dy M
m
sites fed by well-aerated water
pH
ro l
N
yd S
that provides enough oxygen for
Ak
St
H
growth of larger plants. Swamps
have abundant available nutrients .. Position of swamps on the
supplied by groundwater flow. edatopic grid.
Other Comments
Most of the forested Swamp Site Associations presented in this section
are transitional to upland ecosystems and have been previously de-
scribed in field guides (e.g., Banner et al. 1993). The plant
communities on these sites do not have an abundance of obligate hy-
drophytes and do not clearly distinguish sites that are on wetland soils
from those on merely very moist upland soils at this ecotone. Therefore,
such Site Associations include some productive upland sites and also
non-productive sites. Poor swamps, those sites with trees, stagnant hy-
drology, relatively few miner0trophic indicators, and abundant
bog-affiliated species, are included in the Bog Class.
Conservation Issues
Swamps are important habitats for wildlife. They have more vertical
structure than other wetland classes and therefore support a more di-
verse avifauna. Species that use seral stands for nesting and feeding also
use shrub swamps. Forested swamps have a characteristically open or
patchy canopy that appears to be favoured by many bird and bat species.
Several important bear foods, such as Lysichiton americanus and Equise-
tum arvense, are common in swamps. Willow and other shrubs are
important browse for ungulates.
Livestock and wildlife use swamps for browse, shade, and cover, espe-
cially where they occur adjacent to open grassland or sources of drinking
water. Excessive grazing will affect these sites, and rest rotation methods
are recommended. In many areas where shrub swamps are cleared for
Spiraea douglasii,
hardhack or pink spirea
x = incidental; < 5% of wetlands xx = minor; 525% of wetlands xxx = major; >25% of wetlands
w = wet subzones only x = very dry subzones only
125
.. Swamp Species Importance Table
General Description
Mountain alder Skunk cabbage Lady fern swamps are
common in wet regions of the Sub-Boreal Interior and South-
ern Interior Mountains, particularly in areas underlain by
glaciolacustrine deposits. The Ws01 frequently occurs in wet
gullies or along small creeks where there is con-
tinuous seepage near the surface and poor drainage. It also
occurs in the lagg of peatlands, where seepage from up-
slope enriches peat deposits.
Alnus incana dominates these sites, which have a lush and
diverse understorey where Athyrium filix-femina and
Lysichiton americanus are prominent. Scattered spruce is
common. The moss layer is often sparse because of shad-
ing and high rates of litterfall.
Soils are usually poorly drained, fine-textured mineral
deposits with a veneer of well-humified woody peat.
Occasionally this unit will occur on deeper peat deposits.
VM
Spiraea douglasii
Herb layer (35 - 68 - 95) W
Athyrium filix-femina, Calamagrostis
x D
VA
Lysichiton americanus
ic Dy
A
VW
In
dy M
m
Mnium spp.
pH
ro l
N
yd S
Ak
St
Comments
H
General Description
The Mountain alder Pink spirea Sitka sedge Swamp Site
Association is common in wet climates of the Sub-Boreal In-
terior, Southern Interior Mountains, and interior transition
areas of the Coast and Mountains. The Ws02 occurs on
beaver-flooded flats of small creeks, peripheral zones of wet-
lands, and lakeshores, where there is
early season flooding, continuous
seepage near the surface, and poor
drainage.
Alnus incana forms an open to sparse canopy.
Spiraea douglasii can be scattered or promi-
nent. Carex aquatilis or C. sitchensis is usually
the dominant species of the herb layer, but
Scirpus microcarpus dominates on some sites.
Significant cover of Calamagrostis canadensis is
common.
Soils are derived from fluvial or lacustrine material and often have a
veneer or blanket of sedge peat. Organic horizons have silty or sandy
lenses throughout, indicating periodic significant flood events.
de V
ic Dy
Mnium spp.
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
pH
Comments
ro l
N
S
Ak
General Description
Bebbs willow Bluejoint swamps are uncommon but wide-
spread throughout the drier climates of the Interior at
elevations below 1200 m. They occur on lake flats, pond mar-
gins, fluvial terraces, seasonal creeks, and palustrine basins
where early-season shallow standing water
draws down to very moist conditions by late
growing season.
Salix bebbiana forms an open canopy, often with
a significant component of Alnus incana. Scat-
tered spruce trees can occur. Various other
shrub species are common in the understorey. Calama-
grostis canadensis is a constant dominant but usually
occurs only on raised microsites. Equisetum arvense and
other horsetails can also be prominent. A diversity of other
forbs with low cover is typical. Sites often have distinct
mounds created by fallen trees, interspersed with sparsely
vegetated pools of water; however, some stands are drier
and have a more continuous herbaceous understorey.
Soils are fine-textured Gleysols, often with veneers of woody peat.
VM
Herb layer (6 - 56 - 90)
Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex utriculata, W
Equisetum arvense
x D
VA
ic Dy
Mnium spp.
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
Comments
pH
ro l
N
yd
St
H
General Description
Drummonds willow Beaked sedge swamps/fens are com-
mon in the Central and Sub-Boreal Interior in back-levee
depressions of low-gradient creeks or channel margins in
peatland streams. Ws04 sites can be
deeply flooded during the spring
freshet and after drawdown maintain a high
watertable due to fine-textured soils or low-
lying position relative to the watertable.
Salix drummondiana dominates these sites,
with other shrubs such as Lonicera involucrata
and Spiraea douglasii common in the low-
shrub layer. The herb layer is moderately well
developed and predominantly Carex aquatilis
and C. utriculata.
Sedge peat veneers or blankets over fine- to medium-textured fluvial
or lacustrine materials are typical. Flooding can result in buried organic
layers, peat and mineral mixing, or reduced surface organic accumula-
tion.
VM
Herb layer (2 - 53 - 90)
Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex W
aquatilis/sitchensis, C. utriculata
x D
VA
de V
ic Dy
Mnium spp.
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
Comments
pH
ro l
N
yd
St
H
General Description
MacCallas willow Beaked sedge swamps/fens occur in scat-
tered locations in drier climates of the Central and Sub-Boreal
Interior in basins, hollows, and streamside areas that are shal-
lowly flooded in the early season by slowly flowing waters.
Sites often have complex microtopography with
tall willows rooting on elevated hummocks, and with de-
pressions with standing water.
Tall Salix maccalliana dominates these sites but a diversity
of other shrubs is common. Carex utriculata or C. aquatilis
are usually dominant in the understorey but because of the
pronounced microtopography a diversity of species often
occurs. The moss layer is often moderately developed.
Soils are variable, ranging from deep mesic peat to thin
layers of humic muck. Peat accumulations from 20 to
400 cm with well-humified surface tiers are typical.
de V
ic Dy
Mnium spp.
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
pH
Comments
ro l
N
yd S
St
H
General Description
Sitka willow Sitka sedge swamps are uncommon at low
elevations in the Coast and Mountains, Nass Basin, and wet
subzones of the Southern Interior Mountains and Sub-Boreal
Interior. These sites are usually associated with fluvial systems
or linked basins and experience
prolonged saturation and brief early-season
flooding.
Salix sitchensis dominates Ws06 sites. The herb
layer is primarily Carex sitchensis and
Equisetum arvense. Other large sedges and
forbs are also common. On some sites, partic-
ularly those under shade, Scirpus microcarpus
replaces C. sitchensis as the site dominant.
The moss layer is poorly developed.
Gleysols derived from fluvial materials are the
most common soil type. On some sites, sedge peat is layered in fluvial
deposits.
VM
Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex sitchensis,
C. utriculata, Equisetum arvense, W
Scirpus microcarpus
x D
VA
ic Dy
Mnium spp.
A
VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
m
Comments
pH
ro l
N
yd
St
H
General Description
The Spruce Common horsetail Leafy moss Swamp Site As-
sociation is common in the Northen Boreal Mountains and Cen-
tral and Sub-Boreal Interior from low to subalpine elevations.
It occurs on lower and toe slopes and margins of wetlands,
where there is significant flow of mineral-rich
groundwater.
These can be moderately productive sites with
spruce to 25 m tall rooting on elevated mounds.
The shrub layer may be well developed or sparse with
Lonicera involucrata the most prominent species. Equise-
tum arvense is always abundant but a diversity of other
upland and wetland species is common. The moss layer
can be diverse, with leafy mosses (Mnium spp.) and Aula-
comnium palustre usually prominent in depressions and
Pleurozium schreberi and other feathermosses on raised
mounds.
Soils most often have a thin, dark, well-humified, woody
peat veneer over fine-textured mineral soils but occasionally deeper peat
deposits are encountered.
Characteristic Vegetation Wetland Edatopic Grid
Tree layer (10 - 25 - 50)
Picea X Soil Nutrient Regime
Shrub layer (25 - 30 - 70) A B C D E F
Alnus incana, Lonicera
Soil Moisture Regime
VM
involucrata, Picea X
Herb layer (6 - 70 - 90)
W
Equisetum arvense
Moss layer (5 - 70 - 99)
x D
VA
de V
ic Dy
A
VW
splendens, Mnium spp., Pleurozium
In
na o
SA
dy M
schreberi
m
pH
ro l
N
Comments
Ak
yd
St
H
General Description
Subalpine fir Sitka valerian Common horsetail swamps are
common at elevations above 1100 m throughout the Interior.
The Ws08 occurs on lower and toe slopes and margins of wet-
lands, where there is significant flow of mineral-rich
groundwater.
The canopy is open and patchy with groups of
interior spruce and subalpine fir separated by
forb-rich openings. The shrub layer may be
well developed or sparse. The herb layer is
generally well developed; an abundance of
Equisetum arvense and subalpine forbs is
typical. Leafy mosses (Mnium spp.) and Aula-
comnium palustre are usually prominent in
depressions and Barbilophozia and feather-
moss species are prominent on raised mounds.
Gleysolic soils have a thin, dark, well-humified, woody peat veneer over
fine-textured mineral soil, but occasionally deeper peat deposits are en-
countered.
VM
membranaceum
Herb layer (25 - 70 - 99)
W
Equisetum arvense, Rubus pedatus,
x D
de V
ic Dy
A
VW
Moss layer (5 - 70 - 90)
In
na o
SA
dy M
ro l
N
yd
St
H
Comments
Subalpine fir Horsetail units have been described for many ESSF subzones in regional field
guides (see Appendix 4). Many subzones have two Subalpine fir Horsetail site series described;
one for poor sites and one for rich sites. Rich sites have abundant ferns, only occur at lower ele-
vations of the ESSF, and more closely resemble Spruce Horsetail sites.The Ws08 does not
include these sites.
The Ws08 is the high-elevation equivalent of the Ws07.Tree growth is disproportionately slow
at higher elevations because of cold conditions in wet soils and persistent snowpack.With in-
creasing elevation, open patches with abundant subalpine forbs become larger and trees
become more restricted to elevated sites.
General Description
Black spruce Skunk cabbage Peat-moss poor swamps/bogs
are uncommon in the rainforest climate areas of the Central
Interior (wet SBS and northern ICH), in palustrine basins and
back-levee depressions with high watertables. These sites are
strongly mounded, with conifers on elevated microsites and
standing water in between.
Canopy composition is diverse with Picea mariana, Abies
lasiocarpa, Pinus contorta, and Tsuga heterophylla often all
present. Pronounced microtopography can result in diverse,
well-developed shrub, herb, and moss layers. Lysichiton
americanus is always present in damp hollows and Sphag-
num species dominate the moss layer.
Organic veneers of dark woody humic or mesic peat over
fine-textured lacustrine material are typical. However, peat
depths vary from 20 to 150 cm on different sites. Soils are
Terric Humisols/Mesisols or Humic Gleysols with peaty
veneers.
VM
groenlandicum, Picea mariana, Spiraea dou-
glasii,Vaccinium ovalifolium W
Herb layer (6 - 56 - 90)
x D
VA
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd
St
Sphagnum Group II
Comments
Ws09 swamps occur in regions where Ws10 and Ws11 swamps also occur; however, this unit
occurs on wetter sites and usually in locations with cold-air ponding.These sites are transition-
al to bogs but have some rich site indicators and have swamp-like soils and tree growth
potential.The Wb08 is the equivalent Site Association of drier climates.
The Ws09 has not been previously described in regional BEC field guides, where it is lumped
with the richer and more productive skunk cabbage forests of the ICH (Ws10) or SBS (Ws11).
General Description
Western redcedar Spruce Skunk cabbage swamps are un-
common in ICH zones of the Central Interior and Southern
Interior Mountains. They occur on toe slopes, peatland mar-
gins, and low-lying areas in floodplains.
Canopy composition is typically a
mix of Picea X, Thuja plicata, and
Tsuga heterophylla, with Abies lasio-
carpa occurring in cold-air ponding
sites. Pronounced microtopography can result
in diverse, well-developed shrub, herb, and
moss layers. Lysichiton americanus is always
present in damp hollows, and rich-site indica-
tors such as Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Athyrium
filix-femina, and Equisetum arvense are abun-
dant. Leafy mosses are prominent in a diverse moss layer.
Organic veneers of dark woody humic or mesic peat over fine-textured
lacustrine material are typical. However, peat depths are variable, rang-
ing from 10 to 200 cm. Soils are Gleysols/Humic Gleysols with peaty
humus forms or Terric Humisols/Mesisols.
VM
Oplopanax horridus, Thuja plicata, Tsuga
heterophylla, Vaccinium ovalifolium W
Herb layer (6 - 59 - 90)
x D
VA
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
lanceolatus,Tiarella trifoliata
pH
ro l
N
yd
St
Comments
The Ws10 is the most common forested skunk cabbage Site Association in the Interior. Soils
indicate a wetland environment but plant community composition does not clearly reflect this
because pronounced microtopography allows upland species to occur. Most species in Ws10
sites are facultative wetland indicators.
The Ws10 describes rich, wet skunk cabbage forests of the ICH; similar forests in the SBS are
described by the Ws11.The Ws09 is similar but has more stagnant hydrology, greater peat
development, and few rich-site indicators.
The Ws10 includes several BEC Sites Series (see Appendix 4).
General Description
Spruce Subalpine fir Skunk cabbage swamps are uncom-
mon in the wet SBS subzones of the Sub-Boreal Interior on
toe slopes, peatland margins, and low-lying areas in floodplains.
Canopy composition is typically a mix of Picea X and Abies
lasiocarpa. Pronounced microto-
pography can result in diverse,
well-developed shrub, herb, and
moss layers. Lysichiton americanus
is always present in damp hollows, and rich-
site indicators such as Gymnocarpium
dryopteris, Athyrium filix-femina, and Equise-
tum arvense are abundant.
Organic veneers of dark woody humic or
mesic peat over fine-textured lacustrine mat-
erial are typical. However, peat depths are variable from 5 to 80 cm on
different sites. Soils are Gleysols/Humic Gleysols with peaty humus
forms or Terric Humisols.
VM
involucrata, Oplopanax horridus, Picea X,
Spiraea douglasii,Vaccinium ovalifolium W
Herb layer (40 - 59 - 95)
x D
VA
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
Tiarella trifoliata
Ak
yd
Comments
The Ws11 is similar to the Ws10 but occurs in climatic areas where redcedar and hemlock are
not present. Soils indicate a wetland environment but plant community composition does not
clearly reflect this because pronounced microtopography allows upland species to occur. Most
species in Ws11 sites are facultative wetland indicators.
The Ws11 describes rich, wet, skunk cabbage forests of the SBS; similar forests in the ICH are
described by the Ws10.The Ws09 is similar but has more stagnant hydrology, greater peat
development, and few rich-site indicators.
The Ws11 includes Site Series SBSvk/10.
General Description
Pink spirea Sitka sedge swamps are common at low eleva-
tions of the Georgia Depression in basins, gullies, and margins
of waterbodies and peatlands. These sites experience pro-
longed saturation and brief early-season flooding.
Species diversity is low in this Site Association.
Spiraea douglasii always dominates Ws50 sites; few other
shrub species occur. The sedge-dominated understorey is
sparse or well developed. Few species other than Carex
sitchensis are common. The moss layer is often minimal
but Aulacomnium palustre or Sphagnum spp. occur with
high abundance on some sites.
Humisols and Gleysols are the most common soil types.
Characteristic Vegetation
Tree layer (0 - 0 - 2)
Shrub layer (15 - 70 - 99)
Spiraea douglasii
Herb layer (2 - 35 - 85)
Carex sitchensis
Moss layer (0 - 34 - 90)
Aulacomnium palustre, Sphagnum Group I
VM
Wm50 marshes. S. douglasii increases with
disturbance and many spirea thickets actual- W
ly represent disturbance communities that
x D
VA
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
pH
yd
St
H
General Description
Sitka willow Pacific willow Skunk cabbage swamps occur
sporadically at low elevations throughout the Coast and Moun-
tains, Georgia Depression, and coastal transition areas of the
Interior at peatland margins and in floodplain depressions.
Salix sitchensis and S. lucida often co-dominate a
closed canopy of tall shrubs and low trees. The understorey
is lush and dominated by Lysichiton americanus and
Athyrium filix-femina. Wetter microsites have Scirpus
microcarpus, Oenanthe sarmentosa, and Equisetum spp.
The moss layer is typically sparse.
Soils are mostly Gleysols with dark peat veneers. In palus-
trine locations, deeper humic organic deposits are
common.
de V
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd S
Mnium spp.
Ak
St
H
Comments
Ws51 swamps often occur between flood-
plain forests and marshes or shallow-water
habitats in flood-scar depressions of larger
rivers.
Sites are flooded and saturated longer than in
the related Ws52
General Description
Red alder Skunk cabbage swamps are uncommon in the
Georgia Depression and the Coast Mountains at low eleva-
tions in small creek draws, floodplain depressions, and
peatland margins.
Alnus rubra dominates the canopy. Tall Salix
lucida, S. sitchensis, and Thuja plicata are common but of
low cover. Rubus spectabilis is usually abundant, and some
sites also have abundant Ribes bracteosum or Cornus
stolonifera. Lysichiton americanus and Athyrium filix-
femina are prominent in the herb layer; however, some
sites have a dominance of Carex obnupta. The moss layer
is usually poorly developed because of high litterfall and
shading.
Humisols or Gleysols with peaty humus forms are most
common.
VM
Alnus rubra, Cornus stolonifera, Ribes
bracteosum, Rubus spectabilis, Salix lucida,
W
S. sitchensis, Sambucus racemosa
Herb Layer (30 - 74 - 99)
x D
VA
de V
ic Dy
A
VW
Lysichiton americanus, Maianthemum
In
na o
SA
dy M
ro l
N
munitum
S
yd
St
H
Comments
Alnus rubra is a seral species in coastal environments and is also tolerant of lengthy flooding.
Cleared Ws53 and Ws54 forests often regenerate to red alder. In these cases, red alder skunk
cabbage forests represent a community successional to conifer forest. Ws52 sites have high
watertables and lack elevated microsites that would allow them to succeed to conifer-forested
skunk cabbage swamps.
General Description
Western redcedar Sword fern Skunk cabbage swamps are
uncommon in the Georgia Depression. They occur in receiv-
ing sites in topographic depressions, toe slopes, and peatland
margins in areas where wet conditions are maintained in hol-
lows, but better-drained sites exist on raised mounds.
Thuja plicata dominates the open canopy with
Tsuga heterophylla, Acer macrophyllum, and
Picea sitchensis. Alnus rubra is also common
in natural openings and where clearing has
occurred. The shrub layer is moderately devel-
oped: Oemleria cerasiformis, Rubus spectabilis,
and Sambus racemosa are the most common
species. Lysichiton americanus is very promi-
nent in the herb layer along with other
rich-site indicators.
Gleysol and Humisols are common soil types. Most sites have at least a
veneer of dark, woody peat.
VM
Oemleria cerasiformis, Rhamnus purshiana,
Rubus spectabilis, Sambucus racemosa W
Herb layer (5 - 61 - 95)
x D
VA
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
Tiarella trifoliata
Ak
yd
St
Eurhynchium praelongum,Leucolepis
acanthoneuron, Mnium spp.
Comments
The Ws53 supports moderately productive forest. Soils indicate a wetland environment but
plant community composition does not clearly reflect this because pronounced microtopo-
graphy allows upland species to occur. Most species in Ws53 sites are facultative wetland
indicators.
The Ws53 describes rich, wet skunk cabbage forests of the CDF and very dry CWH; similar site
conditions in the rest of the CWH are described by the Ws54.
The Ws53 includes site series CDFmm/11 and CWHxm/12.
General Description
Western redcedar Western hemlock Skunk cabbage
swamps are common in the Coast and Mountains at low
elevations. They occur in low-lying areas on floodplains and
receiving sites at toe slopes and wetland margins. These sites
are strongly mounded, with conifers on elevated microsites.
The canopy is open and consists
primarily of Thuja plicata and Tsuga
heterophylla. Shrubs root mainly on
mounds: Gaultheria shallon, Rubus spectabilis,
and Vaccinium species are prominent. Lysichi-
ton americanus is always present in damp
hollows, accompanied by a diversity of rich-
site indicators.
Organic veneers of dark, woody humic or
mesic peat over fine-textured lacustrine material are typical. However,
peat depths are variable, ranging from 0 to 130 cm. Terric Humisols/
Mesisols or Humic Gleysols with peaty humus forms are the most com-
mon soil types, but gleyed Podzols also occur.
Characteristic Vegetation Wetland Edatopic Grid
Tree layer (0 - 51 - 100) Abies amabilis, Soil Nutrient Regime
Picea sitchensis, Thuja plicata, Tsuga A B C D E F
heterophylla
Soil Moisture Regime
de V
V. ovalifolium, V. parvifolium
M
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
yd
St
Comments
The Ws54 supports poor to moderately productive forest. Soils indicate a wetland environment
but plant community composition does not clearly reflect this because pronounced microtopo-
graphy allows upland species to occur.Most species in Ws54 sites are facultative wetland indica-
tors.On degrading floodplain sites,forests are dominated by Sitka spruce (see additional units).
The Ws54 describes rich, wet skunk cabbage forests of the CWH; similar forests in the CDF and
very dry CWH are described by the Ws53. At higher elevations in the MH, forested skunk cab-
bage ecosystems are described by the Ws55.
The Ws54 includes numerous BEC Site Series (see Appendix 4).
General Description
Yellow-cedar Mountain hemlock Skunk cabbage swamps
are common at high elevations in the Coast and Mountains.
They occur on toe slopes or depressions with permanent seep-
age and impeded drainage.
The diverse canopy is open and consists of (in
descending order of abundance) Chamaecyparis nootkaten-
sis, Tsuga mertensiana, T. heterophylla, and Abies amabilis.
The shrub layer is commonly dense with a mix of tree
species, Vaccinium spp., Menziesia ferruginea, and Elliottia
pyroliflorus. Lysichiton americanus is always present in
damp hollows, often with abundant Fauria crista-galli.
Other herbs common on wet sites frequently occur. The
moss layer is a well developed mix of upland and wetland
species.
Organic veneers of dark, woody humic or mesic peat are
typical. However, peat depths are variable, ranging from
10 to 60 cm. Common soil types include Terric Humisols/
Mesisols or Gleysols with peaty humus forms.
VM
A. amabilis, C. nootkatensis, Elliottia pyro-
liflorus, Menziesia ferruginea, Rubus W
spectabilis, T. heterophylla, Vaccinium
x D
VA
alaskaense, V. ovalifolium
de V
M
ic Dy
VW
In
dy M
m
ro l
N
Veratrum viride
Ak
yd
St
Comments
The Ws55 supports only poor-productivity forest.Soils indicate a wetland environment but plant
community composition does not clearly reflect this because pronounced microtopography
allows upland species to occur.Most species in Ws55 sites are facultative wetland indicators.
The Ws55 describes wet skunk cabbage forests of the MH; similar forests at lower elevations in
the CWH are described by the Ws54.
The Ws55 includes BEC Site Series MHmm1/09, MHmm2/09, MHwh1/09, and MHwh2/09.
Willow Sedge
Salix spp. Carex spp.
Several of the most common Willow Sedge ecosystems in British Co-
lumbia are given full descriptions in this chapter. However, communities
dominated by other willow species have been observed in various locali-
ties. Some other types observed include those dominated by Salix lucida,
S. prolixa, S. glauca, S. planifolia, S. bebbiana, or S. commutata.
The reasons for dominance by these other willow species may be the
result of several factors:
climatic influences (e.g., S. commutata at high elevations, S. planifolia
and S. glauca in cold climates);
special site conditions (e.g., S. lucida and S. prolixa where there is
abundant lateral groundwater flow);
willow persistence after hydrological changes (e.g., S. bebbiana); or
stochastic willow establishment.
Additional sampling may formalize these communities as distinct Site
Associations.
Sitka spruce Skunk cabbage
Picea sitchensis Lysichiton americanus
Sitka spruce Skunk cabbage forests are common in the northern CWH
near the edge of the range of western redcedar and uncommon else-
where along the Coast. They occur on inactive floodplains where
drainage is poor and the watertable remains high because of imperme-
able horizons within the soil profile. However, significant subirrigation
and mounded microtophography allow high growth rates of Sitka spruce.
The plant community is similar in composition to the Ws54 except that
the canopy has little western redcedar and the trees are much larger.
Red alder may also occur in the canopy openings. Lysichiton americanus,
Rubus spectabilis, Vaccinium spp., Oplopanax horridus, and Athyrium
filix-femina are the most common understorey species. In contrast to
Ws54 stands, these sites have low cover of Gaultheria shallon, Menziesia
ferruginea, and Blechnum spicant.
Sitka spruce Skunk cabbage stands are more productive than the Ws54
swamps that occur more commonly along the Coast. They initiate on
active floodplains (high-bench sites) that subsequently become less ac-
tive and wetter from the formation of restricting layers (duric, placic,
ortstein, or clay horizons). Harvesting of Sitka spruce Skunk cabbage
will lead to the site becoming wetter still and sites will likely regenerate
as Ws54 in southern areas.
1 Equisetum arvense, common horsetail 2 Fauria crista-galli, deer-cabbage 3 Mnium sp., leafy moss
1 Water shield mixed with yellow pond-lily in a flooded bog near Parksville, Vancouver Island (CWHxm)
2 A yellow pond-lily community in a lake bay near Meziadin Junction (ICHvc) 3 An alkali pond with Stuckenia
pectinata at Lac du Bois grasslands near Kamloops (IDFxh2a)
Definition
Shallow-waters are aquatic wetlands permanently flooded by still or slow-
moving water and dominated by rooted submerged and floating-leaved
aquatic plants.
General Description
Vegetation
Shallow-waters are dominated by rooted floating-leaved and submerged
aquatic plant species and have less than 10% emergent cover. Like
marshes, shallow-waters are often simple communities dominated by
one to several species.
Aquatic environments require adaptations in plants. Anaerobic sedi-
ments, light limitations, low carbon dioxide availability, and water
currents require specialized structures and metabolic processes.
However, in general, these habitats have benign site conditions and are
relatively uniform over large climatic regions. Many aquatic plant species
in British Columbia occur widely throughout North America.
Aquatics typically lack rigid structural components because these are
unnecessary for support. Ribbon-like or highly dissected leaves are com-
mon in submerged aquatics because they facilitate light penetration and
diffusion of dissolved gases. In addition, this leaf arrangement offers
little resistance to potentially damaging water movements. Thin leaf cu-
ticles facilitate uptake of dissolved gases but this also make species very
susceptible to desiccation. Floating-leaved aquatics often have spongy
tissue with well-developed air-filled chambers. These aerhynchema
help transport gases between roots and leaves. Leaves are almost always
ovoid and entire to facilitate floating. Pressurized ventilation, a process
that moves air from young leaves to roots and back to the atmosphere
through older leaves, occurs in many floating-leaved species.
Rooted aquatics acquire most of their nutrients from sediments.
However, rootless species such as Utricularia spp. and Ceratophyllum spp.
absorb nutrients directly from the water.
Carbon dioxide diffuses slowly in water and can be limiting for submerged
aquatics. Particularly in non-acidic waters, carbon dioxide is converted
to bicarbonate. Some species, such as Chara spp., Schoenoplectus subter-
minalis, Elodea canadensis, and Potamogeton spp., are capable of using
.. Characteristics of water with different nutrient status (Ellenberg 1986 in Klinka unpublished)
Attribute
N and mineral
Nutrient Status Water colour Clarity pH availability
Dystrophic Yellowish Very turbid <4.5 Very low
deep brown
Oligotrophic Greenish Clear 4.57 Low
Ca-poor brownish
Oligotrophic Blue Very clear >7 Medium
Ca-rich greenish
Eutrophic Greenish Turbid >7 HighVery
brownish high
1 Khutzeymateen Estuary, northern Coast and Mountains (CWHvm1) 2 Complex of Lyngbyes sedge and
Arctic rush communities on the Bella Coola estuary (CWHms2) 3 Gilttoyees Estuary, near Kitimat, Coast and
Mountains (CWHvh2)
Definition
An estuarine ecosystem is an intertidal community, occurring at the conflu-
ence of a freshwater source and the marine environment, and is regularly
flooded by brackish tidal waters.
General Description
Vegetation
Table 5.6.2 lists species common in Estuarine Site Associations described
in this guide. Estuarine Site Associations are characterized by an abun-
dance of species tolerant of repeated (diurnal) flooding and brackish
water. Species at the marine edge have specialized morphology to toler-
ate the desiccating effect of salt water. Succulents and other halophytes
with salt-excreting organs are common. Species at the freshwater inter-
face are more typical of wetland habitats but still must be tolerant of at
least occasional brackish conditions. In addition, species occurring close
to the river course must be tolerant of high sedimentation rates.
Low-elevation coastal climates are more equable than interior and high-
elevation climates, yet climate still plays a role in estuarine development.
Estuaries of the Georgia Depression have California species missing
from estuaries of the Coast and Mountains ecoregion.
Landscape Position and Distribution
Estuaries form at the confluence of streams and rivers with the open
ocean. The degree of estuarine development depends largely on the size
of the river and its sediment load. Larger systems with high sediment
loads tend to have extensive estuarine habitat development and diversity.
Smaller streams can have substantial estuaries if they are glacier-fed but
those systems fed by lakes or peatlands generally have very limited estu-
arine ecosystem development.
Hydrology and Soils
Tidal flooding is a characteristic feature of estuarine ecosystems. The
lowest vegetated communities (marshes) are flooded and exposed twice
daily with each tide. Flood duration is usually several hours per tide
cycle. Higher communities are less regularly flooded and flood duration
is generally more brief when it does occur (meadows).
Soil development is very limited in most estuarine marsh communities.
Continual erosion and sedimentation keep soils juvenile. Cumulic
Upper
Wetland Marshes
Estuarine Meadows
tween annual spring flood
deposits is a common soil feature.
Tidal Zone
Meadows can have some soil de-
Middle
velopment and shallow peat has Estuarine Marshes
Lower
Tidal Flats
characteristics to wetland ecosys-
tems with the additional
influences of diurnal fluctuations
.. Distribution of ecosystem
in watertable and variable salinity classes of estuaries by
(Figure 5.6.1). The gradient of elevation and salinity.
most importance is the degree of
tidal flooding, which is closely related to height above the mean tide
level. Ecosystems that occur at the lowest level are flooded with every
tide (except neap tides) while the highest may experience only occasional
flooding during the highest high tides.
The degree of fresh water influence affects species distribution within an
estuary independent of other factors. Particularly where high volumes of
freshwater flow into estuarine environments, communities change along
a gradient from where freshwater influences predominate (usually with-
in the tidal reaches of the river) to where freshwater inputs are minimal.
Conservation Issues
Estuaries provide critical habitat for many wildlife species but comprise
much less than 1% of the coastal landscape. These ecosystems have very
high values for waterfowl and shorebirds, which use estuaries to main-
tain fat stores during migration to the nesting grounds. In addition,
estuarine ecosystems are critical for coastal bear populations, providing
early-season and mid-season forage, and cover while fishing during the
salmon run.
Estuaries are critically important fish habitat. Freshwater inputs of
nutrients and organic debris into the marine environment fuel highly
productive ecosystems. Many saltwater, freshwater, and anadromous fish
will selectively use estuaries during some portion of their lifecycle, par-
ticularly for juvenile rearing.
Deschampsia cespitosa,
tufted hairgrass
x = incidental; < 5% of estuarine xx = minor; 525% of estuarine xxx = major; >25% of estuarine
s = southern subzones only q = Queen Charlotte Islands
159
.. Estuarine Species Importance Table
Ruppia maritima
General Description
The Widgeon-grass Site Association is common throughout
coastal British Columbia. It occurs in brackish, mud-bottomed
pools, lagoons, backwater sloughs, drainage channels, and
mudflats that dissect lower portions of estuarine marshes. Tidal
inundation is usually prolonged; locations in pools may be
permanently flooded. Sites are often small in extent but
occasionally can also occur over large areas of tidal flats
where sedimentation rates are low.
This species-poor community usually consists of pure
stands of Ruppia maritima; however, a scattering of other
species is possible.
Soils are silty Rego-Gleysols. Flooding can be permanent
or prolonged during each tidal cycle. Ruppia maritima
prefers water depths of approximately 0.5 m but occurs
to depths of 4 m.
Comments
Extensive widgeon-grass communities are
found on tidal flats with muddy substrates
(protected bays with low wave power or cur-
Lower
General Description
Glasswort Sea-milkwort stands are found in the Georgia De-
pression and outer coastal areas on sandy or pebbly deposits
at the lowest edge of intertidal vegetation. These sites experience daily and
prolonged flooding by strongly brackish water.
Species diversity is low; typically only Salicor-
nia virginica and Glaux maritima are found in
abundance. Small patches of Distichlis spicata
or Ruppia maritima may occur. Plant cover
can be continuous or open.
Soils are often fine textured but with a pebbly
or gravelly layer that provides better drainage.
Comments
The Em02 is tolerant of eusaline conditions and
may be found outside of estuary influence in
protected embayments with low wave power. It
Lower
General Description
Seashore saltgrass sites are found mainly in estuaries of the
Georgia Depression but also on southwest Vancouver Island.
They occur at the lower limit of estuary vegetation on fine-
textured, poorly drained sediments that are flooded for prolonged
periods by weakly to strongly brackish water.
Species diversity is low. Seashore saltgrass is
dominant but there can be significant cover of
other low marsh species such as Glaux mariti-
ma or Salicornia virginica. Widgeon-grass
pools and a scattering of other species some-
times occur.
Soils are fine textured and poorly drained.
Comments
The Em03 is closely related to the Em02 and
these two communities are often found in com-
plex. Hydrology of these two Site Associations is
Lower
General Description
The Seaside plantain Dwarf alkaligrass Site Association
occurs mainly in the estuaries of the northern Coast and
Mountains and protected shores on pebbly or gravelly flats in the middle
and upper intertidal. These sites are protected from wave action and
often have little freshwater influence. Tidal flooding and exposure occur
with most tides. Suitable habitats occur in
protected embayments where there is no accu-
mulation of fine-textured sediment; however,
such sites appear to be infrequent.
Species diversity is low. Em04 sites are often
small in extent and consist of a scattered cover
of Plantago maritima, Puccinellia pumila,
Glaux maritima, and the seaweed, Fucus spp.
The substrate is typically sandy/gravelly and
gleyed.
Comments
This community is the northern equivalent of
the Em02. It occurs below Em05 or even Ed01
sites where the shore zone is steep. Descriptions
Lower
Carex lyngbyei
Comments
Along the riverine areas of the estuary, the
Em05 is often the lowest vegetated zone. Ed02
meadows are often directly above Em05 sites
Lower
General Description
The Lyngbyes sedge Douglas water-hemlock Site Associa-
tion occurs in fjord-type estuaries of larger rivers on the
northern Coast and Mountains, where large freshwater inputs reduce
salinity in the intertidal zone year-round. On the north Coast, the Em06
has been observed along tidal reaches of the
Skeena and Nass rivers. It occurs where there
are strong fluctuations of weakly brackish
water, active sedimentation, and diurnal
flooding and exposureusually in lateral bays
along the river.
Species diversity is high relative to the similar
Em05 that is common in smaller estuaries.
Carex lyngbyei is dominant. Many species in-
tolerant of high salinity, especially members of
the celery family (Apiaceae) are prominent. Angelica lucida, Cicuta dou-
glasii, Aster subspicatus, and Deschampsia cespitosa are common
associates.
Soils are always silty or fine-sandy Gleysols or Humic Gleysols that expe-
rience continual erosion and deposition. Buried layers of sedge shoots
and roots are common in the profile.
Comments
Lower
General Description
The Tufted hairgrass Meadow barley Site Association occurs
throughout the Coast in the upper intertidal zone on fan estu-
aries, on creekside areas within moderate-sized estuaries, and as narrow
fringes on steep coastal shores with abundant groundwater seepage.
These sites experience daily but generally brief flooding by brackish water.
The Ed01 is characterized by relatively low
species diversity and a dominance of De-
schampsia cespitosa ssp. beringensis. Hordeum
brachyantherum occurs commonly and occa-
sionally other grasses, such as Festuca rubra or
Agrostis exarata. Potentilla egedii and Carex
lyngbyei are often present with low cover. In
southern disturbed sites, introduced grasses
such as Agrostis stolonifera can be dominant.
The soils are usually sandy or loamy-textured Gleysols and Regosols with
little or no humus form development.
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 0)
Middle
Comments
The Ed01 often occurs above the Em05 and
below forest or Beach dunegrass Beach lo-
Lower
General Description
The Tufted hairgrass Douglas aster Site Association is one
of the most floristically diverse and widespread ecosystems in
medium to large estuaries in the north and central Coast and Moun-
tains. The Ed02 occurs in the high marsh zone between the backshore
shrub communities and the low marsh, usually in broad and extensive
flats. These sites are limited to zones within
the estuary where weakly brackish conditions
predominate and inundation is irregular.
Deschampsia cespitosa and Aster subspicatus
are dominant and diagnostic species, but
many other species are often prominent.
Soils are mostly Humic Gleysols with silty and
sandy textures, but Terric Mesisols have also
been encountered.
itima
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 0)
Comments
Lower
General Description
The Arctic rush Alaska plantain Site Association occurs in
estuaries of the Georgia Depression and southern Coast and
Mountains, where there is a well-developed freshwater lens that reduces
the salinity of tidal waters. The Ed03 occurs in the high intertidal zone
with brief diurnal tidal inundationlocations that would support Ed01
or Ed02 in more saline environments. Loca-
tions can be protected estuaries where fresh
water is retained, brackish tidal reaches on
larger rivers, estuaries near larger river sys-
tems, and localized depressions within
estuarine meadows.
Juncus arcticus is the site dominant with Plan-
tago macrocarpa, Potentilla egedii, and Aster
subspicatus common in the herb layer. The
herb layer is well developed and displays moderate species diversity of
both graminoids and forbs.
Silty-textured Gleysols with a humic enriched surface horizon are typ-
ical. Minerally enriched Fibrisols also occur.
Comments
The Ed03 typically occurs above Ed01 or
Em05 sites and at the upper edge of estuarine
Lower
1 Sandbar willow on wave-washed shore of Nicola Lake (BGxw1) 2 Sitka willow Red-osier dogwood
Common horsetail low bench on a levee of the Hominka River, east of Prince George (SBSwk1) 3 Low and
middle bench communities on the Skeena River floodplain, northern Coast and Mountains (CWHvm1)
Definition
A flood ecosystem is a non-wetland ecosystem that occurs on
regularly flooded riparian sites with well-drained soils. Sites can
be tall shrub (low bench), deciduous forest (middle bench), or
coniferous forest (high bench) .
General Description
Vegetation
Table 5.7.2 lists common species of the Low and Middle Bench Site
Associations described in this guide. High bench plant community com-
position is similar to upland seepage sites. High bench associations are
not described here because they are thoroughly described in regional
field guides. Low bench ecosystems have a tall shrub structure dom-
inated by willow, alders, and other species tolerant of extended flooding
and erosion. Middle benches have similar shrub species but also have a
canopy of deciduous trees. The herb layer is dominated by rhizomatous
species that can resprout after floods. Even though fresh mineral sub-
strates are frequently exposed, annuals are uncommon on many sites
because high shrub cover shades the ground surface. Herb cover is vari-
able because scouring floods and sedimentation temporarily remove
above-ground herb growth. These factors also limit bryophyte cover.
Landscape Position and Distribution
Flood ecosystems occur on the floodplains of rivers or wave-washed
lakeshores, where there is deposition of fluvial or lacustrine materials.
They usually abut the channel on sites elevated above the mid-season
watertable. Lateral bars, midstream bars, point bars, and levees are com-
mon site locations for low benches; middle benches often occur on
islands, level floodplain benches, and older inner-bend accretion areas.
Flood ecosystems occur throughout the province in all zones. However,
they are infrequent at higher elevations where there are fewer topograph-
ic positions for floodplain development (Table 5.7.1).
Hydrology and Soils
Flood ecosystems are indundated during the spring freshet in the early
part of the growing season. Low benches experience longer (2040 days)
and more powerful flooding than middle benches (< 25 days). Sites can
be deeply flooded by stream waters for the first weeks of the growing sea-
son but are situated well above normal summer flows. In coastal regions,
x D
tion grows under aerated soil
VA
de V
M
ic Dy
conditions, with continual subirri- VW
In
na o
SA
gation for most of the growing
dy M
m
pH
ro l
N
season (Figure 5.7.1). Common
yd S
Ak
St
soil types are Cumulic Regosols of
H
stratified silts, sands, and gravels.
Typically there is no, or very weak, .. Position of flood ecosystems
on the edatopic grid.
humus development in low and
middle bench ecosystems.
Other Comments
Flood ecosystems are maintained by a combination of annual flooding,
erosion, and deposition. However, most floodplains are geomorphically
dynamic; continous sediment deposition, bank erosion, and channel
movements modify the site conditions on the floodplain regularly.
Middle bench ecosystems will succeed low benches as sites accumulate
sediments and become raised above the stream. Continued isolation of
middle or low bench ecosystems from the regular flooding (through
sediment accumulation or stream channel changes) effectively converts
them into seral ecosystems that progress towards high bench or upland
ecosystems.
Conservation Issues
Low and Middle Bench Site Associations occur in the geomorphol-
ogically dynamic portion of the floodplain and are maintained by a
combination of prolonged flooding and site erosion/sedimentation. The
areal extent of flood ecosystems remains constant in a stream reach over
time, given no fundamental change in water regime or sediment load,
but their location in the floodplain changes in response to stream chan-
nel changes. Water control structures reduce the extent of floodplain
communities by reducing sediment load and moderating flood levels.
Plant species that occur on the active floodplain are tolerant of mech-
anical disturbance and will recover from most surface disturbances.
Interannual variation in flood intensity and duration is large and most
plants will tolerate all but prolonged surface flooding.
x = incidental; < 5% of flood sites xx = minor; 525% of flood sites xxx = major; >25% of flood sites
w = wet/very wet subzones only h = warm/hot subzones only xoc = not on outer coast (hypermaritime)
177
.. Flood Species Importance Table
General Description
Mountain alder Common horsetail low benches are com-
mon throughout the Interior at elevations below 1500 m. They
occur on gravel or sand bars adjacent to relatively high-gradient
creeks and streams that can have a flashy flood regime. Flood events
are short during annual spring flooding and occur occasionally during
summer storms.
Alnus incana is the dominant shrub and forms a continu-
ous canopy on most sites. The understorey can be well
developed or sparse depending on recent flood history, but
Equisetum arvense usually persists. The moss layer is often
very sparse or absent because of high litterfall and recur-
ring sediment deposition.
Soils are coarse-textured, often gravelly, Cumulic Regosols
and Rego Gleysols.
M
Athyrium filix-femina, Equisetum arvense,
Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Heracleum VM
maximum
Moss layer (0 - 1 - 40)
W
Brachythecium spp., Mnium spp.
VW
Comments
In wetter subzones, Alnus incana stands that
occur on fine-textured soils usually have an
abundance of Athyrium filix-femina or Mat-
teuccia struthiopteris and are described by
the Fl02. Alder sites are replaced by willow-
dominated Site Associations, such as the Fl05, on
lower-gradient streams where fine-textured soils
and longer flooding create conditions more
favourable to willows.
General Description
Mountain alder Red-osier dogwood Lady fern sites are
common at low elevations in the wet climates of the Sub-
Boreal Interior, Southern Interior Mountains, and Nass Basin, along
streams and in creek gullies. Low-gradient floodplains with loamy or
fine-textured soils and moderate duration of flooding are characteristic
of this Site Association.
Alnus incana always dominates the canopy but a diversity
of shrubs is common. Cornus stolonifera and Lonicera
involucrata are frequently abundant. The understorey is
diverse and lush, with a marked abundance of large ferns.
In the eastern SBS and in some locations in the Skeena-
Nass area, Matteuccia struthiopteris is the dominant fern;
elsewhere Athyrium filix-femina predominates. The moss
layer is usually very sparse.
Soils are Humic Gleysols or Cumulic Regosols.
M
Herb layer (20 - 75 - 100)
Athyrium filix-femina, Equisetum arvense, VM
Heracleum maximum, Matteuccia
struthiopteris, Urtica dioica
W
Moss layer (0 - 4 - 20)
Brachythecium spp., Mnium spp. VW
Comments
Similar but wetter sites with a perched wa-
tertable have an abundance of Lysichiton
americanus and are described by the Ws01.
Higher-gradient sites with gravelly or sandy
soils are occupied by the Fl01.The Fl02 is often
found in association with Fm02 or Fm03 mid-
dle bench communities.
General Description
The Pacific willow Red-osier dogwood Horsetail Low
Bench Site Association is uncommon and widely scattered
throughout the Interior and Coast. It has been observed along
large, low-gradient rivers with prolonged spring flooding, in locations
protected from erosive currents.
Salix lucida ssp. lasiandra on these sites can
grow to impressive statures and form a closed
canopy up to 15 m tall. A sparse to dense cover
of Cornus stolonifera, Alnus incana, or Salix
prolixa can be present. The understorey is
often relatively sparse but horsetails can be
abundant.
Soils are mostly Regosols derived from depos-
ition of fluvial fine sands and silts. There is
little surface organic accumulation.
M
S. lucida, S. prolixa
Herb layer (2 - 17 - 25) VM
Equisetum arvense
Moss layer (0 - 10 - 40)
W
Mnium spp., Brachythecium spp.
VW
Comments
Pacific willow stands are often small in area
and dissected by oxbows and drainage chan-
nels.They generally occur adjacent to black
cottonwood floodplain ecosystems. More
active low bench sites on similar large river
systems may be occupied by the Fl06.
General Description
Sitka willow Red-osier dogwood Horsetail stands are com-
mon at low elevations in the wet climates of the Sub-Boreal
Interior and Southern Interior Mountains, and in coast tran-
sition areas of the Coast and Mountains. They occur primarily on levees
or bars in the active floodplains of sluggish, low-gradient streams.
Salix sitchensis is consistently the dominant shrub, though
some sites have appreciable cover of Alnus incana, Salix
drummondiana, or Salix lucida. Equisetum arvense or
E. pratense are found on most sites; but where recent
floods have deposited new material, the herb layer can
be very sparse.
Soils are generally fine-sandy, well drained, Cumulic
Regosols or Gleysols that remain saturated at depth for
much of the growing season.
Characteristic Vegetation
Tree layer (0 - 0 - 5)
Shrub layer (50 - 95 - 99)
Cornus stolonifera, Lonicera involucrata,
Salix drummondiana, S. sitchensis
Herb layer (1 - 30 - 90)
Equisetum arvense
Moss layer (0 - 5 - 20)
M
ally occupied by the Fl05. On the outer Coast,
the Fl50 replaces the Fl04. Adjacent middle VM
bench communities are Fm50 in coastal areas
and Fm02 or Fm03 in interior climates.
W
VW
General Description
The Drummonds willow Bluejoint Low Bench Site Associa-
tion is common at lower elevations throughout the Central
Interior, Sub-Boreal Interior, and Northern Boreal Mountains, along
small, low-gradient streams. Drummonds willow sites can be deeply
flooded during the spring freshet but are much elevated above the mid-
season watertable.
Salix drummondiana forms a continuous
canopy, with other shrubs such as Lonicera
involucrata occurring in the understorey. In
wetter climates, Spiraea douglasii may co-
dominate on some sites. The herb layer has a
high cover of Calamagrostis canadensis but is
otherwise variably developed, often with open
patches of recently deposited fluvial materials.
Soils are nearly always silty to fine-sandy tex-
tured Cumulic Regosols.
M
Herb layer (4 - 40 - 90)
Calamagrostis canadensis VM
Moss layer (0 - 1 - 40)
W
Comments
VW
This is the most common Low Bench Site Asso-
ciation on small, low-gradient streams in the
sub-boreal forests (SBPS, SBS). It also occurs in
the ICH, but in these wetter climates the Fl04 is
more common. It also occurs in the BWBS and
IDF.
Low-lying sites adjacent to the Fl05 are com-
monly occupied by Ws04 or Wm02. Sites with
more powerful flooding, as indicated by
coarse sandy and gravelly soils, are often
Alnus incanadominated.
Salix exigua
General Description
The Sandbar willow Site Association is locally common at low
elevations in the Interior along very large river systems. It oc-
curs on sandy lateral bars that receive prolonged spring flooding by
powerful currents. In the hot dry subzones of the Southern Interior,
sandbar willow sites also occur around large lakes on wave-washed shores.
Plant diversity is low. Salix exigua is the site dominant,
with a scattering of other species such as Populus bal-
samifera or Alnus incana appearing with increasing
elevation above the stream. Equisetum hyemale is com-
mon in the generally very sparse understorey.
Especially in warmer climates, annual weeds can seed-
in on the exposed mineral soil of these sites. Typically
there is no moss layer.
Soils are always sandy Cumulic Regosols.
Characteristic Vegetation
Tree layer (0 - 0 - 0)
Shrub layer (15 - 50 - 80)
Populus balsamifera, Salix exigua
Herb layer (1 - 5 - 20)
Equisetum hyemale
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 0)
M
course, Populus balsamifera becomes more
competitive and eventually replaces S. exigua. VM
Conditions do not appear suitable for S.
exigua on smaller river systems. Sufficiently
W
large rivers (such as the Fraser,Thompson,
Liard, and Stikine) are uncommon in the Inte- VW
rior, limiting the distribution of the Fl06.
General Description
Water birch Rose ecosystems occur in warm and dry cli-
mates of the Southern Interior at low elevations. They occur
in the riparian zone of ponds, lakes, and creeks often as a nar-
row band where flooding is minimal but the watertable
remains within the rooting zone for much of the year.
Betula occidentalis is consistently a dominant compo-
nent of the shrub layer, but a variety of other shrub
species including Cornus stolonifera, Rosa spp., Salix
bebbiana, and Symphoricarpos albus usually occur. The
herb layer is often well developed but variable in com-
position.
Soils are fine-textured morainal, lacustrine, or fluvial
deposits, often with an organically enriched surface
horizon. Gleyed Brunisols and Gleysols are common
soil types.
M
Rosa nutkana, R. woodsii, Salix bebbiana,
Symphoricarpos albus VM
Herb layer (3 - 35 - 70)
Aster spp., Poa pratensis, Maianthemum
W
stellatum
Moss layer (0 - 1 - 10) VW
Comments
Fl07 is different from most Low Bench Site
Associations described in this guide; it does
occur in classic low bench locations (along
watercourses where there is flooding and sedi-
mentation), but also frequently establishes as a
fringe habitat around lakes and ponds, where
flooding is minimal but the watertable is main-
tained at depth.
General Description
The Cottonwood Snowberry Rose Site Association is un-
common in the dry, warm climates of the Southern Interior
and Southern Interior Mountains, where it occurs adjacent to
streams, rivers, and lakes on sandy-gravelly flats that are part
of the active floodplain. Flood events are short
during the spring freshet and may not occur
every year.
Populus balsamifera forms an open canopy
with a dense to open understorey. A diversity
of shrubs is common, with Cornus stolonifera,
Symphoricarpos albus, and Rosa species being
prominent. The herb layer is variable both in
composition and total cover. Most sites have
Maianthemum stellatum, Equisetum hyemale,
Aster conspicuus, and/or Elymus glauca. Poa pratensis is common on
grazed sites. The moss layer is usually absent.
Soils are commonly coarse-textured at depth with a loamy or sandy sur-
face horizon. Cumulic Regosols or gleyed Brunisols are typical soil types.
M
stolonifera, Populus balsamifera, Prunus
virginiana, Rosa nutkana, R. woodsii, VM
Symphoriocarpus albus
Herb layer (1 - 30 - 85)
W
Elymus glauca, Maianthemum stellatum,
Poa pratensis VW
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 15)
Comments
These stands reflect a different environment
than the Fm02, which also occurs in dry climates.The Fm01 has a drier summer water regime
because of warm, dry summer climates, shorter, less regular flood period, and coarser, more
well-drained soils.
Grazing is common in many Fm01 stands in British Columbia and few undisturbed sites occur.
The natural herb layer may consist of species such as Maianthemum stellatum, Equisetum
hyemale, Aster conspicuus, and Elymus glauca, with Poa pratense increasing on grazed sites.
The Fm01 includes several existing BEC Site Series (see Appendix 4).
General Description
The Cottonwood Spruce Red-osier dogwood Site Associa-
tion is the most common middle bench community of low
elevations thoughout the Interior on suitable sites. It occurs
on sandy or gravelly fluvial materials adjacent to streams and rivers with
short flood durations followed by continual subirrigation.
Populus balsamifera forms an open canopy with
scattered interior spruce. Cornus stolonifera and
Alnus incana are dominant in the shrub layer, but
frequently with some cover of Viburnum edule, Rosa
acicularis, and Lonicera involucrata. Along smaller
river systems, C. stolonifera is often sparse and
A. incana dominates. The herb layer can be well-
developed or sparse depending on recent flood
history, but Equisetum arvense usually persists.
The moss layer is always poorly developed.
Soils are Cumulic Regosols or Gleyed Brunisols.
M
involucrata, Picea X, Populus balsamifera,
Rosa acicularis,Viburnum edule VM
Herb layer (1 - 30 - 75)
Equisetum arvense
W
Moss layer (0 - 2 - 50)
VW
Contents
The Fm02 describes middle bench communi-
ties from a wide range of climatic zones.The
overwhelming influence of flood effects limits
the species composition to those that can tolerate
flooding.
The Fm01 includes several existing BEC Site Series
(see Appendix 4).
General Description
The Cottonwood Subalpine fir Devils club Site Associa-
tion is uncommon in the cold interior rainforest climates of
the Nass Basin and Sub-Boreal Interior. It occurs on sandy or
gravelly flats adjacent to streams and rivers with relatively prolonged
flood durations. Annual spring flood events are short dur-
ing the freshet but there is prolonged subirrigation.
Cottonwood forms an open canopy with scattered sub-
alpine fir and interior spruce. Oplopanax horridus is
consistently abundant in the understorey. Cornus
stolonifera, Sambucus racemosa, and Alnus incana frequent-
ly occur. The herb layer is often moderately developed with
abundant Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Equisetum arvense,
Athyrium filix-femina, and other forbs.
Soils are sandy or gravelly Cumulic Regosols or Gleysols.
M
Abies lasiocarpa, Alnus viridis, A. incana,
Cornus stolonifera, Oplopanax horridus, VM
Picea X, Sambucus racemosa,Viburnum edule
Herb layer (5 - 45 - 95)
W
Actaea rubra, Athyrium filix-femina,
Dryopteris expansa, Equisetum arvense, VW
Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Osmorhiza
berteroi, Pyrola asarifolia, Rubus parviflorus,
Streptopus amplexifolius
Moss layer (0 - 1 - 60)
Rhytidiadelphus loreus
Comments
The related Fm02 occurs on sites with more pro-
longed soil saturation and in regions with warmer
summer climates.
General Description
The Sitka willow False lily-of-the-valley Site Association is
uncommon in the Coast and Mountains, where it is restricted
to floodplains of maritime climates. It is generally found at the
transition between the freshwater conditions of the fluvial sys-
tem and the uppermost reaches of brackish
influence in estuaries. Sitka willow sites can experience
brief or temporary annual floods during the spring
freshet but are much elevated above the mid-season
watertable.
The shrub layer is dominated by Salix sitchensis, often
with little development of other shrub species. The
herb layer is moderately well developed and supports
Maianthemum dilatatum and Calamagrostis canadensis.
Other graminoid species and forbs such as Agrostis
exarata, Aster subspicatus, and Sanguisorba canadensis
are common. The moss layer is often poorly devel-
oped.
Soils are nearly always loamy to sandy-textured
Gleysols or Regosols.
M
Agrostis exarata, Angelica genuflexa, Aster
subspicatus, Calamagrostis canadensis, VM
Heracleum maximum, Maianthemum
dilatatum, Sanguisorba canadensis
W
Moss layer (5 - 15 - 35)
Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus VW
Contents
In outer coastal areas, the Fl50 replaces the
Fl04 of more inland climates. Fl51 can be
found in similar but slightly drier and better-
drained sites.Tidal effects on soil moisture
regime probably favour willows, which are
more tolerant of prolonged flooding of the
rooting zone.
General Description
Red alder Salmonberry Horsetail low benches are wide-
spread in the Coast and Mountains. They occur adjacent to
river courses where flood duration is lengthy and sedimentation is
abundant.
Alnus rubra forms a closed tall shrub or low tree canopy.
Cornus stolonifera, Ribes bracteostum, and Rubus spectabilis
are prominent in the understorey. The herb layer can be
sparse or well-developed depending on recent flood histo-
ry. Equisetum arvense always persists but other species
commonly occur. The moss layer is often very sparse.
Soils are typically sandy Cumulic Regosols.
Characteristic Vegetation
Tree layer (0 - 9 - 50)
Alnus rubra
Shrub layer (15 - 70 - 95)
Alnus rubra, Cornus stolonifera, Ribes bracteosum,
Rubus parviflorus, R. spectabilis, Sambucus
racemosa
Herb layer (2 - 17 - 50)
Circaea alpina, Elymus glauca, Equisetum arvense,
Stachys mexicana
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 10)
M
tablish on sites with more lengthy flooding
than Fm50 but also on similar sites where VM
stand-initiating floods occur in autumn (a
common occurrence in coastal watersheds).
W
A. rubra drops seed in fall and will establish
quickly on exposed mineral soils. Populus bal- VW
samifera drops seed in spring and its seedling
will not establish where a thick cover of red
alder already exists.
The Fl51 includes several existing BEC Site
Series (see Appendix 4).
General Description
The Cottonwood Red alder Salmonberry Site Association
is common along rivers in the Coast and Mountains. River
benches that are flooded annually for moderately long periods are typical.
Populus balsamifera dominates the canopy but a subcanopy of Alnus
rubra and scattered conifers is typical. The shrub layer is well-developed,
often with Rubus spectabilis and Cornus
stolonifera both being prominent. The herb
layer can be sparse or well-developed, depend-
ing on recent flood history and cover of the
canopy. Equisetum spp. and Maianthemum
dilitatam are the major constituents. The moss
layer is generally poorly developed.
Soils are sandy Cumulic Regosols.
M
Alnus rubra, Cornus stolonifera, Lonicera
involucrata, Oplopanax horridus, Picea VM
sitchensis, Rubus spectabilis, Sambucus
racemosa
W
Herb layer (3 - 45- 95)
Equisetum arvense, Maianthemum VW
dilatatum
Moss layer (0 - 1 - 30)
Comments
The typical floodplain successional sequence in the inner Coast and Mountains is Fl06 >>
Fm50 >> Sitka spruce Salmonberry forests.These communities often occur adjacent to each
other, indicating the accumulation of fluvial sediments, which progressively raises benches
higher above normal waterflow.
Fm50 sites with silty or clayey layers within the soil profile are common.These sites often have
some species more indicative of wetter sites such as Oenanthe sarmentosa, Carex utriculata,
or Scirpus microcarpus.
The Fm50 includes several existing BEC Site Series (see Appendix 4).
Betula occidentialis also occur. Dense shrub layers often limit herbaceous
growth. Prolonged flooding occurs on many sites. Soils are typically fine-
textured and poorly drained.
Trembling aspen Red-osier dogwood
Populus tremuloides Cornus stolonifera
Trembling aspen Red-osier dogwood forests occur in drier climatic
areas throughout the Interior where sites have seepage or subirrigation
but limited flooding. They occur in riparian locations as well as upland
habitats. Suitable riparian areas include lake edges and terraces of
streams. Trembling aspen forms an open to closed canopy. Cornus
stolonifera, Symphoricarpos albus, and Rosa acicularis form a well-
developed and sometimes very dense shrub layer. Herb and moss layer
composition and development is variable but Equisetum arvense is often
prominent.
1 Saline meadow zonation at the Meadow Lake marshes, 100 Mile House (IDFdk3) 2 A lush high-elevation
Barclays willow Arrow-leaved groundsel shrub-carr, Causqua Creek (ESSFwv) 3 Dried lake bed with
abundant Salicornia rubra, Stinky Slough near Cranbrook (IDFdm2)
x D
VA
season; thereafter, the watertable
de V
M
ic Dy
falls well below the surface VW
In
na o
SA
dy M
(Figure 5.8.1). Evaporation of
m
pH
ro l
N
S
standing water accumulates salts.
Ak
yd
St
H
Soils are usually loamy or fine-
textured Gleyed Brunisols, .. Position of transition classes
Humic Gleysols, or Solenetzics. on the edatopic grid.
Humus is thin.
Shrub-carrs
Shrub-carrs are low shrub ecosystems that occur on moist min-
eral soils in areas prone to growing-season frosts, which would
support forested ecosystems under normal circumstances.
Vegetation
Shrub-carrs are always low shrub cover types and usually have highly di-
verse herb and moss layers. Few obligate hydrophytes occur. Shrubs that
are tolerant of growing-season frosts and few growing degree days domi-
nate.
Landscape Position and Distribution
Shrub-carrs occur in frost-prone depressions or cold-air drainage valleys
where frost and cold, moist soils preclude establishment of trees. Such
sites are often at the edge of wetlands but shrub-carrs can also occupy
entire basins.
Shrub-carrs are most common in the cold and dry climates of the
Chilcotin Plateau, the western Fraser Plateau, and the Northern Boreal
Mountains.
Hydrology and Soils
Sites have at most very moist soils and are never flooded. They are fed by
groundwater or lateral subirrigation from adjacent wetlands. Soils are
imperfectly drained and cold. Distinctly hummocky microtopography is
common.
1
2
x = incidental; < 5% of wetlands xx = minor; 525% of wetlands xxx = major; >25% of wetlands
199
.. Transition Species Importance Table
Species Gs01 Gs02 Gs03 Gs04
Shrubs Salix brachycarpa
Betula nana
Salix glauca x
Salix barclayi
Herbs Distichlis spicata var. stricta xyzzzz xy x
Spartina gracilis xyzz xy
Suaeda calceoliformis xyz x
Aster ericoides ssp. pansus xyz xy x
Poa secunda xy x x
Hordeum jubatum xyzz xyzzz xy
Puccinellia nuttalliana xyz xyzzzz
Carex praegracilis xy xyz xyzzzz
Elymus trachycaulus x x xy x
Poa pratensis x x xyz xy
Aster ericoides x xy
Potentilla anserina x x xy
Juncus balticus xy xy xyzz xy
Deschampsia cespitosa xy xyzzzz
Potentilla gracilis xy x
Taraxacum officinale x xy xy
Carex utriculata xyz
Achillea millefolium x xy
Muhlenbergia richardsonis x
Kobresia myosuroides
Koeleria macrantha x
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi x
Antennaria pulcherrima
Maianthemum stellatum x x
Aster ciliolatus x
Calamagrostis canadensis x xy xy
Thalictrum occidentale x x
Fragaria virginiana x x
Senecio triangularis
Valeriana sitchensis
Epilobium angustifolium
Erigeron peregrinus x
Sanguisorba canadensis
Trollius albiflorus
Equistem arvense
Mosses Bryum pseudotriquetrum xy
Drepanocladus spp. xy xy
Aulacomnium palustre x
Brachythecium spp. x xy
Mnium spp. x x
General Description
The Alkali saltgrass Saline Meadow Site Association is uncom-
mon in the BG, PP, and dry IDF of the Central Interior and
Southern Interior at elevations below 1000 m. Gs01 meadows
occur in the seasonally flooded riparian zone of small potholes
and shallow lakes where evaporation accumulates salts. Brief
flooding in the early season is followed by pro-
nounced surface drying, occasionally leaving a
distinct salt crust.
Only salt-tolerant plants are found on these
sites; no shrubs or mosses occur. Distichlis
spicata var. stricta is always prominent but
some sites have high cover of Spartina gracilis,
Amphiscirpus nevadensis, or Poa secunda ssp.
juncifolia.
Soils are fine textured, saline or saline-alkali,
imperfectly drained materials with minimal
organic accumulation. Solonetzes and Gleysols are common soil groups.
M
pansus, Distichlis spicata var. stricta,
Hordeum jubatum, Puccinellia nuttalliana, VM
Salicornia rubra, Spartina gracilis, Suaeda
calceoliformis
W
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 0)
VW
Comments
Sites occur that have a high abundance of
Spartina gracilis, Amphiscirpus nevadensis,
or Poa secunda ssp. juncifolia.These sites are
currently considered variations of the Gs01;
further sampling might support separation of these ecosystems into new Site Associations.
Gs01often occurs adjacent to shallow open-water sites and in complex with Gs02 sites. Sites
that are highly saline are often dominated by Sueda calceoliformis or Salicornia rubra.
Hordeum jubatum is a naturally occurring species on Gs01 sites but becomes more prominent
with grazing or mineral soil exposure.
This Site Association was previously described as part of a Saltgrass Alkaligrass Wet Meadow
Site Association by Steen and Roberts (1988).
General Description
Nuttalls alkaligrass Foxtail barley saline meadows are
uncommon in the dry IDF, MS, and SBPS subzones of the
Central Interior and Southern Interior at elevations between
800 and 1200 m. Gs02 meadows occur in the seasonally flood-
ed riparian zone of small alkali potholes and shallow lakes
where evaporation accumulates salts. Brief flooding in
the spring gives way to merely moist conditions during
the summer.
High overall graminoid cover is common; Puccinellia
nuttalliana is a constant dominant. Hordeum jubatum
occurs naturally with low cover on most sites but in-
creases and may become dominant with soil
disturbance. Shrubs are absent and the moss layer
is poorly developed.
Soils are often fine textured, alkali, or saline-alkali
Gleysols or Solonetzs on poorly to imperfectly drained
materials. Sites often have dark surface horizons.
M
Puccinellia nuttalliana
Moss layer (0 - 0 - 10) VM
Comments W
Gs02 can occur alone in basins or adjacent to
other saline meadows or marshes such as the VW
Wm07 or Wm06. It occurs at generally higher
elevations than the Gs01. In the IDF of the
Chilcotin Plateau, where both Gs01 and Gs02
are relatively common, the Gs02 occurs on
more alkali sites.
The Gs02 was previously described as part of
a Saltgrass Alkaligrass Wet Meadow Site As-
sociation by Steen and Roberts (1988).
Carex praegracilis
General Description
Field sedge meadows are common throughout the Chilcotin
Plateau region of the Central Interior and uncommon in the
Southern Interior at elevations below 1250 m. Gs03 sites form
extensive stands in seasonally flooded, moderately alkaline de-
pressions; or peripheral communities in the drawdown zone
around permanent ponds and Wm06 or
Wm07 marshes. The Gs03 occurs where there
is brief early-season inundation followed by a
dropping of the watertable below the surface.
The upper horizons often dry out by the early
growing season.
Carex praegracilis is the constant dominant on
these sites. Juncus balticus occurs on wetter ex-
amples but never dominates (see Wm07). On
grazed sites Poa pratensis becomes prominent but will occur even on
undisturbed sites. These sites usually have no shrub and little moss layer
development.
Soils are fine textured slightly alkaline Gleysols or gleyed Brunisols devel-
oped in poorly to imperfectly drained lacustrine materials, with up to 10
cm of surface organic accumulation.
M
Poa pratensis
Moss layer (0 - 10 - 20) VM
Comments W
Gs04 commonly occurs adjacent to the closely
VW
related Wm07, which occupies wetter loca-
tions. Interannual variation in water depth is
typical where these Site Associations occur,
and the extent of Gs03 may increase during
drier years.The Gs03 occurs on less saline sites
than the Gs02.
The Gs03 was previously described as part of a Baltic rush Field sedge Wet Meadow Site Asso-
ciation by Steen and Roberts (1988).
General Description
Tufted hairgrass meadows are uncommon in the cold, dry
subzones of the Central Interior (SBPS and MS). They form
extensive communities in frost-prone basins fed by seepage
from the surrounding upland. These sites are usually saturat-
ed to the surface in the early part of the growing season.
Deschampsia cespitosa ssp. cespitosa can form
nearly pure stands and gives the site a tussocky
appearance. Shrub and moss layers are poorly
developed. In wetter microsites Carex utricula-
ta can be prominent.
Soils are often fine textured, imperfectly
drained, and weakly alkaline Brunisols or
humic Gleysols with up to 15 cm of surface
organic accumulation.
M
Moss layer (0 - 20 - 90)
VM
Comments
W
Gs04 can occupy entire shallow depressions
but more commonly it occurs in the moist ri-
VW
parian area around Wm01 marshes or small
ponds. In some areas, it may also be in com-
plex with dry meadows dominated by
Danthonia intermedia or Festuca altaica.
Deschampsia cespitosa is widely distributed
in the province and is a common dominant in
alpine and coastal estuarine ecosystems.
The Gs04 is described by Steen and Roberts
(1988).
General Description
The Scrub birch Kinnikinnick Shrub-carr Site Association is
common in the colder, drier subzones of the Central Interior.
These shrub-carrs form small communities in frost-prone
basins with moist, cold substrates and often surround larger wetlands.
In drier climates, these sites are rarely, if ever, inundated, but subsurface
saturation is typical in the early season. Sites
are distinctly mounded with shrubs on rela-
tively dry organic-rich mounds.
The Sc01 has very high species diversity. Betu-
la nana dominates the shrub layer with high
cover of Salix brachycarpa and S. glauca.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi and Muhlenbergia
richardsonis are common dominants of the
very diverse herb layer. The moss layer is
poorly developed and variable.
Soils are often fine textured, poorly to imperfectly drained materials with
thin surface organic accumulation. Gleysols and gleyed Brunisols are
common soil types.
M
Achillea millefolium, Antennaria pulcherrima,
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Carex praegracilis, VM
Fragaria virginiana, Juncus balticus, Muhlen-
bergia richardsonis
W
Moss layer (0 - 15 - 40)
VW
Comments
Sc01 occurs alone in shallow depressions or
around the periphery of Wf01, Wm01, or Gs03
ecosystems.Though the Sc01 and Sc02 occupy
similar frost-prone sites, the Sc01 occurs on drier site conditions.
Betula nanadominated ecosystems are widespread in the Boreal, especially at higher eleva-
tions in the SWB. However, few plots in these communities have been established; it is possible
that the Sc01 also occurs in the Northern Boreal Mountains. Other scrub birchdominated
Shrub-carr Site Associations certainly occur but remain undescribed.
The Sc01 is described by Steen and Roberts (1988).
General Description
Grey-leaved willow Glow moss shrub-carrs are uncommon
in the colder, drier subzones of the Interior from the Southern
Interior to the Northern Boreal Mountains. They form small communi-
ties in frost-prone basins and hollows with moist, cold substrates fed by
seepage from upslope sites. These sites are
often wetter than the Sc01. Standing water is
not present between mounds, and subsurface
saturation may be common early in the grow-
ing season.
Salix glauca grows on elevated mounds and
dominates the shrub layer. The herb layer is
diverse with large numbers of species all hav-
ing sparse cover. The moss layer is often well
developed.
Soils are often fine textured, poorly to imperfectly drained materials with
up to 15 cm of surface organic accumulation.
M
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Aster ciliolatus, Cala-
magrostis stricta, C. utriculata, Deschampsia VM
cespitosa, Epilobium angustifolium, Fragaria
virginiana, Thalictrum occidentale, Valeri-
W
ana dioca
Moss layer (10 - 50 - 99) VW
Aulacomnium palustre, Bryum pseudotri-
quetrum
Comments
Though the Sc02 and Sc01 occupy similar frost-prone sites, the Sc02 occurs on moister site
conditions and at higher elevations. Salix glaucadominated ecosystems are widespread in
the Boreal, especially at higher elevations in the SWB. However, few plots in these communities
have been established; it is likely that additional Grey-leaved willow Site Associations occur.
Sc02 is locally common at montane to low subalpine elevations (10701615 m) in the BWBS,
MS, SBPS, and SWB zones.
The Sc02 is described by Roberts (1984).
General Description
The Barclays willow Arrow-leaved groundsel Shrub-
carr/Swamp Site Association is common in the subalpine
climates of the Interior from the Southern Interior to the
Northern Boreal Mountains. These shrub-carrs form exten-
sive communities on subalpine seepage slopes, gullies,
abandoned stream flats, and lake
margins with cold, moist to very
moist (wet) soils. Standing water is
typically not present, but subirriga-
tion is common.
Salix barclayi is always present but can be
shorter in stature than surrounding forb
species. The herb layer is diverse, well devel-
oped, and dominated by subalpine forbs such
as Senecio triangularis and Valeriana sitchensis.
Soils are commonly fine to medium textured, poorly to imperfectly
drained mineral materials with well-humified surface organic horizons.
Gleysols and gleyed Brunisols are most common but occasionally these
sites occur on shallow peat.
M
Calamagrostis canadensis, Equisetum ar-
vense, Senecio triangularis, Valeriana VM
sitchensis
Moss layer (10 - 55 - 99)
W
Aulacomnium palustre, Brachythecium spp.,
Mnium spp. VW
Comments
Sc03 is very widespread in British Columbia
and can occupy substantial area in plateaus
of upper montane and subalpine forest lands. It occurs alone in extensive flats or associated
with forb meadows and high-elevation fens.The Wf04 has a similar structure and occurs over
the same geographic range but develops under wetter conditions.
LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT
Wetlands (mainly fens and marshes) and related ecosystems are impor-
tant grazing lands throughout much of British Columbia. They are
productive ecosystems often with a diversity and abundance of palatable
species that maintain their forage quality later in the season than adja-
cent uplands. In addition, livestock favour riparian habitats because of
their association with drinking water, cool microclimates, and shade.
However, these characteristics can lead to habitat overuse and degrada-
tion by livestock without proper management.
Some effects of improper livestock management systems in riparian
areas include:
damage, reduction, or elimination of vegetation by browsing, grazing,
or trampling;
changes in plant communities through selective browsing and grazing;
soil compaction and disturbance, which increases erosion and de-
creases water availability to plants;
changes in fluvial process and aquatic ecosystems, through bank
shearing, reduction of vegetative cover, and subsequent changes to
stream channel characteristics;
decrease in water quality though increased water temperatures,
nutrients, suspended sediments, and bacterial counts; and
reduced wildlife habitat quality from impacts to vegetation structure,
species composition, and water quality.
Cattle will heavily use riparian areas around wetlands but use marshes mainly to access drinking water.
219
terns, environmental pollution, or infectious disease. While most of
these are beyond the scale of management by field workers, the latter
should be carefully considered by individuals who are visiting several
wetlands.
In North America, mortalities caused by amphibian iridoviruses or
Ranaviruses have been documented for species that occur in British
Columbia, including Leopard Frog, Red-legged Frog, and Tiger Sala-
mander. These viruses can persist under adverse conditions (such as
dried mud on boots) for several months to several years. Field workers
should, at minimum, rinse outerwear and equipment. Transport of
adults or juveniles from one locality to another should also be avoided.
Pond-breeding Amphibians
The Rough-skinned Newt is the only newt species in British Columbia.
It occurs throughout the Coast. Adults forage for slugs and worms in
open seral and mixed forests near permanent water. Adults also feed on
tadpoles and aquatic invertebrates. Shallow water in swamps, fens, and
bogs is used for breeding. Larvae are carnivorous.
Four species of mole salamander occur in British Columbia: Long-toed
Salamander, Northwestern Salamander, Tiger Salamander, and Pacific
Giant Salamander. Adult mole salamanders spend much of their adult
life underground in rodent burrows or under rocks. Juveniles are always
aquatic and some are neotenous.
Long-toed Salamander are widespread on the Coast and in the Interior
mostly south of 56 degrees north latitude. Adults prefer forested edge
habitats near water and breed in still waters with abundant aquatic vege-
tation.
Northwestern Salamander occur along the Coast and are frequently
neotenous. Larvae, if they develop into terrestrial adults, often take more
than a single year to metamorphose. Breeding occurs in fishless, perma-
nent, shallow ponds.
Tiger Salamander are widespread in North America but occur only in
the warmest, driest areas of the southern Interior (south Okanagan) in
British Columbia. Adults live mainly underground in grassland habitats.
Breeding is primarily in alkali ponds and shallow lakes. Larvae transform
in 34 months and live primarily in warm areas of ponds with abundant
algae.
Great Blue Herons are commonly seen in marshes and estuaries but nest colonially in upland forests.
227
success than permanent wetlands; possibly because prey quality is better
than in permanent water. Optimum conditions for dabbling duck
populations occur during years when large numbers of seasonal ponds
contain water. However, permanent wetlands are needed to maintain
adult populations during periods of drought and as moulting areas
(Mauser et al. 1994).
Lake ducks are associated primarily with lake habitats as they require
sufficient open water to gain flight. Lake duck species in British
Columbia include Redhead, Ring-necked Duck, Canvasback, Greater
Scaup, Lesser Scaup, and Ruddy Duck. These ducks nest mostly in
emergent vegetation of lacustrine marshes. Two sea ducks, Surf and
White-winged Scoter, also nest in wetland habitats. Distribution and
breeding habitat requirements for these species are outlined in Table 6.3.
There are several species of cavity-nesting duck in British Columbia:
Bufflehead, Common Merganser, Hooded Merganser, Common Gold-
eneye, Barrows Goldeneye, and Wood Duck. For these species, riparian
management around good-quality wetland and lake habitat is essential.
Cavity-nesting ducks use Pileated Woodpecker cavities or other hollows
created by decay. Bufflehead are small enough to use excavations formed
by smaller woodpecker species. Distribution and breeding habitat re-
quirements for cavity-nesting ducks are outlined in Table 6.4.
Shorebirds
Most shorebirds use British Columbias wetlands primarily during mi-
gration and wintering (Coast). They opportunistically use mudflats
229
230
. Distribution and habitat use by cavity-nesting ducks (from RIC 1999)
There are a few passerines that frequently use bog habitats, particularly
in the Boreal and Taiga Plains where these habitats are extensive. These
include Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Hermit Thrush, Palm Warbler, and
Blackpoll Warbler.
Ruffed Grouse use shrubby riparian areas, particularly in the winter
time. Willow Ptarmigan extensively use subalpine fens and shrub-carrs
for forage.
Raptors and Owls will use wetland habitats where abundant prey exists.
Northern Harrier nest on the ground, often in the emergent cover of
marshes. Bald Eagle and Osprey will nest in larger riparian cottonwood.
Western Screech Owl frequently use floodplain forests. Great Gray Owl
are often associated with bog habitats.
Woodpecker species are not generally considered wetland users. However,
forested wetlands and riparian forests are more likely to escape wildfire
and become old forests. These old forests have large stems and abundant
snags that are optimal for creation of nest cavities. The blue-listed Lewis
Woodpecker nest in floodplain cottonwood adjacent to grasslands.
Woodpecker excavations in riparian areas are critically important for
cavity-nesting ducks.
Wetland Mammal Habitat Requirements
There are several mammal species that are semi-aquatic and associated
primarily with open water. These include three rodents (Beaver, Muskrat,
Mountain Beaver) and two mustelids (Mink and River Otter). Beaver
Appendix 1 239
Dry Class
Bog
Ws53 Em03 Fen
Fl51 Marsh
Swamp, shrub
Swamp, forest
Fm03
Fm50 Shallow-waters
Estuarine
Ws51 Low Bench
Fl02
Ws54Ws11 Middle Bench
Fl50 Fm01
Fl01 Fm02 Meadow
Ws55 Fl06
Ws10 Fl03 Shrub-carr
Fl04
Ws01
Ws08 Wm50 Em07
Ws09 Ws07
Ws06Ws03 Fl07
Wb53 Ed02
Wb03 Wf52 Ws02 Fl05 Ed01
Wb04 Wb52 Wb09
Ws50 Em06 Em04
Wb07
Wb51 Wb01
Wf51 Wb08 Sc03 Gs03
Wb05 Em05
Wb02 Wb11 Wf50
Wb50 Wb06 Wf03 Wf04 Ws04 Schoame
Wb10 Wf02
Wf12 Ws05
Wb13 Wf13 Wf53 GS04 Gs01
Wf07 Sc02
Wf11 Sc01
Wb12 Wm07 Dynamic Bolbmar
Wm05
Wm51 Wf09Wf08 Wf01Wm01
Wf05
Wm03
Wf10 Wf06 Wm06 Gs02
Wm02
Nuphlut Em01 Hydrodynamic
Trigmar Wm04 index
Stagnant Brassch
Wet Potamog
. NMS ordination of numbered wetland and related Site Associations including some
shallow-water units.
Ws54
Ws11
Ws55 Ws01 Wm50
Ws10
Ws06
Ws07 Ws50 Ws03
Ws09 Wf52
Ws02
Ws08
Wb53
Wb04 Wb03 Wf50 Wm07
Wb09 Wb07 Wf04
Wb52 Wb08Wf03 Ws04
Wf51 Wb05
Wb50 Wb01
Wb51
Wb02 Wb11 Wf53
Wf02 Wm05
Wb06
Wb10 Wm51 Ws05 Dynamic
Wf01Wm01
Acid Wb13 Wf12 Wf13
Wm03
Wf07
Wb12 dex
Wf11
ic in
Wf09
Wf05
ynam
rod
Hyd
Wm02
pH Wf08
Wm06 Wm04
Wf06
Stagnant
Wf10
Wet Neutral
Poor Rich
Appendix 1 241
APPENDIX 2 Overlays of the Wetland Edatopic Grid
The following overlays on the wetland edatopic grid indicate the ecolog-
ical space of various vegetation characteristics.
Woody plants are limited by excessive moisture or prolonged flooding.
Figure 2.1 indicates the approximate areas of the grid where physiog-
nomic types are likely to occur. Forest occurs on very moist sites or wet
sites where there are sufficient elevated microsites to support good tree
growth. Trees and shrubs <10 m in height can occur on wet sites but
wetter sites will not support tall shrub communities. Some very wet sites
will support low shrubs where sufficient microtopography exists.
M
Soil Moisture Regime
W
May support tall shrub
x D
VA
May support
de V
low shrub
M
ic Dy
VW
A
In
Herb or Bryoid
na o
SA
dy M
m
pH
ro l
N
S
Ak
yd
St
H
Sphagnum Aulacomium
W Group I & III Mnium spp.
Aulocomium
x D
Few mosses
VA
de V
Brown mosses
M
T. nitens, S. Group II
ic Dy
VW
A
Drepanocladus
In
S. warnstorfii
na o
SA
dy M
Campylium
m
Scorpidium
pH
ro l
N
S
Peat-accumulating
Ak
yd
St
sites
H
. Edatopic grid position of major bryophyte groups and peat-accumulating sites.
vegetation classes that cover the range of wetlands and related ecosys-
tems are presented in Figure 2.3. Meidinger et al. (2001) provide full
descriptions of the following wetland and related vegetation classes.
Class Oxycoccus oxycoccos Sphagnum
Communities of interior and coastal bogs and poor fens with stagnant,
acidic, base-poor, organic soils. Characterized by the prevalence of
Sphagnum species in the bryophyte layer and of other species tolerant of
saturated, highly acidic soils. Site conditions are wet or very wet and nu-
trient-poor to very poor. Orders of this Class reflect climatic variation.
Class Populus balsamifera Alnus
Forests throughout province dominated by, or with a significant compo-
nent of, Populus balsamifera, or (for floodplains) associated with Populus
balsamifera forests.
Class Carex Drepanocladus
Communities of interior fens with high, stable watertables and high
base-cation availability. Variously dominated by Cyperids such as Carex
lasiocarpa, C. limosa, Eleocharis quinqueflora, Trichophorum cespitosum,
or T. alpinum and with brown mosses such as Drepanocladus species,
Campylium stellatum, Scorpidium scorpioides, or Tomentypnum nitens.
Class Magnocarex
Communities of interior peatlands and flooded mineral substrates
dominated by large sedges, especially Carex aquatilis, C. sitchensis, or
C. utriculata, but also other large cyperids such as C. atherodes,
Appendix 2 243
Soil Nutrient Regime
A B C D E F
Class
M Hordeum
jubatum
Coniferous Class or
W Class Oxycoccus
oxycoccus Class Typha
Sphagnum Class Schoenopectus
x D
VA
Magnocarex Eleocharis
de V
M
ic Dy
VW
A
In
Class
na o
SA
dy M
Carex limosa
m
Drepanocladus
pH
ro l
N
S
Ak
yd
St
H
. Edatopic grid position of Classes from the British Columbia Vegetation Classification
(Meidinger et al. 2001).
The following tables includes all plant species used in this guide and
their value as indicators of wetland environments.
The water-saturated environment of wetlands supports a unique group
of plants called hydrophytes. These plants are adapted to grow in water-
logged soils. Species are designated as one of three indicator types.
Obligate Hydrophytes Species that occur only under wetland condi-
tions (Table 3.1).
Facultative wetland affiliated Species that grow primarily under
wetland conditions but also, less commonly, in uplands (Table 3.2).
Facultative upland affiliated Species that occur in wetlands but are
widespread in uplands (Table 3.3).
Appendix 3 245
. Continued
Aquatics
Brasenia schreberi Nuphar lutea Sparganium emersum
Calla palustris Potamogeton natans Sparganium eurycarpum
Ceratophyllum demersum Potamogeton richardsonii Spirodela polyrhiza
Chara spp. Ranunculus aquatilis Subularia aquatica
Elodea canadensis Ricciocarpos natans Utricularia intermedia
Hippuris vulgaris Ruppia maritima Utricularia macrorhiza
Lemna minor Schoenoplectus subterm- Vallisneria americana
Lemna trisulca inalis Zostera marina
Myriophyllum verticillatum Sparganium angustifolium
Trees
Larix laricina
Pinus contorta var.
contorta
Shrubs
Alnus incana Salix barrattiana
Betula occidentalis Salix lucida
Ledum groenlandicum Salix maccalliana
Myrica gale Spiraea douglasii
Appendix 3 247
. List of Facultative Hydrophytes Upland Affiliated
Trees
Abies amabilis Physocarpus capitatus Picea sitchensis
Abies lasiocarpa Picea engelmannii Pinus contorta var. latifolia
Alnus rubra Picea engelmannii x glauca Thuja plicata
Betula papyrifera Picea glauca Tsuga heterophylla
Malus fusca Picea mariana Tsuga mertensiana
Shrubs
Betula nana Ribes bracteosum Salix drummondiana
Cornus stolonifera Ribes lacustre Salix glauca
Crataegus douglasii Rosa acicularis Salix pseudomonticola
Elliottia pyroliflorus Rubus spectabilis Sambucus racemosa
Juniperus communis Salix alaxensis Vaccinium alaskaense
Ledum glandulosum Salix barclayi Vaccinium ovalifolium
Lonicera involucrata Salix bebbiana Vaccinium uliginosum
Menziesia ferruginea Salix brachycarpa Viburnum edule
Pentaphylloides floribunda Salix commutata
. Wetland and related ecosystem Site Associations with corresponding BEC site series
Appendix 4 249
. Wetland Site Associations corresponding to the Cariboo wetland classification
Cariboo IDF (Steen and Roberts 1988) Cariboo SBPS (Roberts 1984)
Appendix 4 251
. Wetland Site Associations corresponding with coastal classifications in Washington and Alaska
* Community type
* Community type
** Habitat type
Appendix 4 253
APPENDIX 5 Scientific names with common names of species used in this guide
Appendix 5 255
Dulichium arundinaceum three-way sedge
Eleocharis palustris common spike-rush
Eleocharis quinqueflora few-flowered spike-rush
Elliottia pyroliflorus copperbush
Elodea canadensis Canadian waterweed
Elymus glaucus blue wildrye
Elymus trachycaulus slender wheatgrass
Empetrum nigrum crowberry
Epilobium angustifolium fireweed
Equisetum sp. horsetail
Equisetum arvense common horsetail
Equisetum fluviatile swamp horsetail
Equisetum hyemale scouring-rush
Equisetum pratense meadow horsetail
Equisetum telmateia giant horsetail
Erigeron peregrinus subalpine daisy
Eriophorum angustifolium narrow-leaved cotton-grass
Eriophorum chamissonis Chamissos cotton-grass
Fauria crista-galli deer-cabbage
Festuca rubra red fescue
Fragaria virginiana wild strawberry
Fritillaria camschatcensis northern rice-root
Fucus sp. brown seaweed
Galium trifidum small bedstraw
Gaultheria hispidula creeping-snowberry
Gaultheria shallon salal
Geum macrophyllum large-leaved avens
Glaux maritima sea-milkwort
Glyceria borealis northern mannagrass
Glyceria elata tall mannagrass
Gymnocarpium dryopteris oak fern
Heracleum maximum cow-parsnip
Homatocaulis vernicosus stick hook-moss
Hordeum brachyantherum meadow barley
Hordeum jubatum foxtail barley
Hylocomium splendens step moss
Hypericum anagalloides bog St. Johns-wort
Iris pseudacorus yellow iris
Isoetes echinospora bristle-like quillwort
Juncus arcticus arctic rush
Juncus balticus Baltic rush
Juniperus communis common juniper
Kalmia microphylla western bog-laurel
Eurhynchium praelongum slender beaked-moss
Kobresia myosuroides Bellards kobresia
Koeleria macrantha junegrass
Appendix 5 257
Platanthera dilatata fragrant white rein orchid
Pleurozium schreberi red-stemmed feathermoss
Poa pratensis Kentucky bluegrass
Poa secunda ssp. juncifolia Nevada bluegrass
Poa secunda Sandbergs bluegrass
Poa trivialis rough bluegrass
Polygonum amphibium water smartweed
Polystichum munitum sword fern
Populus balsamifera balsam poplar
Populus balsamifera ssp. black cottonwood
trichocarpa
Populus tremuloides trembling aspen
Potamogeton sp. pondweed
Potamogeton amplifolius large-leaved pondweed
Potamogeton foliosus closed-leaved pondweed
Potamogeton gramineus grass-leaved pondweed
Potamogeton natans floating-leaved pondweed
Potamogeton praelongus long-stalked pondweed
Potamogeton pusillus small pondweed
Potamogeton richardsonii Richardsons pondweed
Potamogeton robbinsii Robbins pondweed
Potentilla anserina common silverweed
Potentilla egedii coast silverweed
Potentilla gracilis graceful cinquefoil
Pteridium aquilinum bracken fern
Ptilium crista-castrensis ostrich-plume feather-moss
Puccinellia nuttalliana Nuttalls alkaligrass
Puccinellia pumila dwarf alkaligrass
Pyrola asarifolia pink wintergreen
Racomitrium lanuginosum hoary rock-moss
Ranunculus aquatilis white water-buttercup
Ranunculus flammula lesser spearwort
Ranunculus orthorhynchus straight-beaked buttercup
Rhynchospora alba white beak-rush
Rhytidiadelphus loreus lanky moss
Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus bent-leaf moss
Ribes bracteosum stink currant
Rosa acicularis prickly rose
Rosa nutkana Nootka rose
Rosa sp. rose
Rosa woodsii prairie rose
Rubus chamaemorus cloudberry
Rubus parviflorus thimbleberry
Rubus spectabilis salmonberry
Ruppia maritima widgeon-grass
Salicornia virginica American glasswort
Appendix 5 259
Sphagnum Group III peat-mosses, Group III
Sphagnum Group IV peat-mosses, Group IV
Spiraea douglasii pink spirea
Stachys mexicana Mexican hedge-nettle
Streptopus amplexifolius clasping twistedstalk
Streptopus lanceolatus rosy twistedstalk
Stuckenia pectinata fennel-leaved pondweed
Suaeda calceoliformis seablite
Subularia aquatica awlwort
Symphoricarpos albus common snowberry
Taraxacum officinale common dandelion
Thalictrum occidentale western meadowrue
Thuja plicata western redcedar
Tiarella trifoliata foamflower
Triantha glutinosa sticky false-asphodel
Tomentypnum sp. fen moss
Tomentypnum nitens golden fuzzy fen moss
Triantha glutinosa sticky false-asphodel
Trichophorum alpinum Hudson bay clubrush
Trichophorum cespitosum tufted clubrush
Trifolium wormskioldii springbank clover
Triglochin maritima seaside arrow-grass
Trollius albiflorus globeflower
Tsuga heterophylla western hemlock
Tsuga mertensiana mountain hemlock
Typha latifolia common cattail
Urtica dioica stinging nettle
Utricularia gibba humped bladderwort
Utricularia intermedia flat-leaved bladderwort
Utricularia macrorhiza greater bladderwort
Utricularia sp. bladderwort
Vaccinium sp. blueberry
Vaccinium alaskaense/ Alaska/oval-leaved blueberry
ovalifolium
Vaccinium uliginosum bog blueberry
Vaccinium vitis-idaea lingonberry
Vahlodea atropurpurea mountain hairgrass
Valeriana sitchensis Sitka valerian
Veratrum viride Indian hellebore
Veronica scutellata marsh speedwell
Viburnum edule highbush-cranberry
Viola palustris marsh violet
Warnstorfia sp. hook-mosses
Zostera marina common eel-grass
The following list includes wildlife species that commonly live in or use
wetlands and related ecosystems.
Amphibians
Mole Salamanders Ambysomatidae
Northwestern Salamander Ambystoma gracile
Long-toed Salamander Ambystoma macrodactylum
Tiger Salamander Ambystoma tigrinum
Giant Salamanders Dicamptodontidae
Pacific Giant Salamander Dicamptodon tenebrosus
Lungless Salamanders Plethodontidae
Wandering Salamander Aneides vagrans
Ensatina Ensatina eschscholtzii
Coeur dAlene Salamander Plethodon idahoensis
Western Red-backed Salamander Plethodon vehiculum
Newts Salamandridae
Rough-skinned Newt Taricha granulosa
Tailed Frogs Ascaphidae
Coastal Tailed Frog Ascaphus truei
Rocky Mountain Tailed Frog Ascaphus montanus
Spadefoots Pelobatidae
Great Basin Spadefoot Spea intermontana
True Toads Bufonidae
Western Toad Bufo boreas
Treefrogs Hylidae
Pacific Treefrog Hyla regilla
Boreal Chorus Frog Pseudacris maculata
True Frogs Ranidae
Red-legged Frog Rana aurora
Bullfrog Rana catesbeiana
Green Frog Rana clamitans
Columbia Spotted Frog Rana luteiventris
Northern Leopard Frog Rana pipiens
Oregon Spotted Frog Rana pretiosa
Wood Frog Rana sylvatica
Appendix 5 261
Reptiles
Western Pond Turtle Clemmys marmorata
Painted Turtle Chrysemys picta
Rattlesnake Crotalus viridis
Gopher Snake Pituophis melanoleucus
Common Garter Snake Thamnophis sirtalis
Western Terrestrial Garter Snake Thamnophis elegans
Birds
Loons Gaviidae
Red-throated Loon Gavia stellata
Pacific Loon Gavia pacifica
Common Loon Gavia immer
Grebes Podicipedidae
Pied-billed Grebe Podilymbus podiceps
Horned Grebe Podiceps auritus
Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena
Eared Grebe Podiceps nigricollis
Western Grebe Aechmophorus occidentalis
Clarks Grebe Aechmophorus clarkii
Pelicans Pelecanidae
American White Pelican Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
Bitterns and Herons Ardeiadae
American Bittern Botaurus lentiginosus
Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias
Great Egret Casmerodius albus
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis
Green Heron Butorides striatus
Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax
Swans, Geese, and Ducks Anatidae
Tundra Swan Cygnus columbianus
Trumpeter Swan Cygnus buccinator
Mute Swan Cygnus olor
Greater White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons
Snow Goose Chen caerulescens
Brant Branta bernicla
Canada Goose Branta canadensis
Wood Duck Aix sponsa
Green-winged Teal Anas crecca
Appendix 6 263
Plovers Charadriidae
Semipalmated Plover Charadrius semipalmatus
Killdeer Charadrius vociferus
Lesser Golden-Plover Pluvialis dominica
Stilts and Avocets Recurvirostridae
American Avocet Recurvirostra americana
Sandpipers Scolopacidae
Greater Yellowlegs Tringa melanoleuca
Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes
Solitary Sandpiper Tringa solitaria
Willet Catoptrophorus semipalmatus
Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularia
Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda
Hudsonian Godwit Limosa haemastica
Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla
Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri
Least Sandpiper Calidris minutilla
Bairds Sandpiper Calidris bairdii
Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos
Dunlin Calidris alpina
Sanderling Calidris alba
Stilt Sandpiper Calidris himantopus
Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis
Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus
Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus
Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago
Wilsons Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor
Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus
Gulls and Terns Laridae
Bonapartes Gull Larus philadelphia
Mew Gull Larus canus
Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis
California Gull Larus californicus
Herring Gull Larus argentatus
Franklins Gull Larus pipixcan
Forsters Tern Sterna forsteri
Black Tern Chlidonias niger
Caspian Tern Sterna caspia
Common Tern Sterna hirundo
Appendix 6 265
Warblers Sylviidae
American Redstart Setophaga ruticilla
Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus
Northern Waterthrush Seiurus noveboracensis
Common Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas
Yellow-rumped Warbler Dendroica coronata
Yellow Warbler Dendroica petechia
Palm Warbler Dendroica palmarum
MacGillivrays Warbler Oporornis tolmiei
Wilsons Warbler Wilsonia pusilla
Yellow-breasted Chat Icteria virens
Sparrows and Blackbirds Fringillinae
American Tree Sparrow Spizella arborea
Chipping Sparrow Spizella passerina
Savannah Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis
Fox Sparrow Passerella iliaca
Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia
Lincolns Sparrow Melospiza lincolnii
Sharp-tailed Sparrow Ammodramus caudacutus
Swamp Sparrow Melospiza georgiana
Yellow-headed Blackbird Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus
Red-winged Blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus
Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Rusty Blackbird Euphagus carolinus
Brewers Blackbird Euphagus cyanocephalus
Mammals
Shrews Soricidae
Black-backed Shrew Sorex arcticus
Pacific Water Shrew Sorex bendirii
Pygmy Shrew Sorex hoyi
Dusky Shrew Sorex monticolus
Water Shrew Sorex palustris
Bats Chiroptera
Big Brown Bat Eptesicus fuscus
Spotted Bat Euderma maculatum
Silver-haired Bat Lasionycteris noctivagans
Western Red Bat Lasiurus blossevillii ssp. frantzi
Hoary Bat Lasiurus cinereus
Appendix 6 267
Bears Ursidae
Black Bear Ursus americanus
Grizzly Bear Ursus arctos
Deer Cervidae
Moose Alces alces
Elk Cervus elaphus
Mule Deer Odocoileus hemionus
Caribou Rangifer tarandus
Appendix 6 269
Coarse water sedges Large, broad-leaved sedge species including Carex
aquatilis, C. atherodes, C. exsiccata, C. sitchensis, and C. utriculata.
Common Occurs frequently, and representative ecosystems are readily
found, but it is not a predominant association of the region (Steen
and Roberts 1988).
Common species Species that can occur in a Site Association, but do not
define the community. They usually have a presence >30% and a
cover >1%.
Constant species Species that occur in a classification unit with relatively
high frequency but low mean cover that may help to define the
community. They are defined as having presence of >66% and
cover <10%.
Diagnostic species A species that occurs primarily within a single classifi-
cation unit.
Diatomaceous earth Composed mainly of the siliceous shells of diatoms.
It is frequently more nearly mineral than organic in composition.
Disclimax A self-perpetuating community that strongly differs in species
composition from the edaphic or climatic climax expected for the
site; normal succession has been arrested by an external physical
or anthropogenic factor. Results from changes to physical charac-
teristics of the site, associated with disturbances such as fire,
intensive grazing, or avalanche (Province of British Columbia
1998).
Dominant species The strucurally most dominant species within a site or
the species that contributes greatest vegetation cover to the com-
munity.
Drawdown Decrease in water level of lakes or steams, exposing substrate
that is normally submerged.
Dwarf shrubs Plants with woody stems that are generally less than 15 cm
tall at maturity. Andromeda polifolia, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Em-
petrum nigrum, Gaultheria hispidula, Kalmia microphylla, Linnaea
borealis, Oxycoccus oxycoccos, Rubus chamaemorus, Rubus pedatus,
Vaccinium caespitosum, and Vaccinium vitis-idaea are the most
common wetland dwarf shrub species.
Forested Sites with >10% canopy cover of tree species >10 m tall (see
also Treed).
Frequent flooding Flood return interval of 25 years.
Appendix 7 271
Gleyed A soil condition resulting from prolonged soil saturation,
which is manifested by the presence of bluish or greenish colours
throughout the soil mass or in mottles (usually orange spots or
streaks).
Graminoid Plants with a grass-like growth form including rushes (Jun-
caceae), grasses (Poaceae), and sedges (Cyperaceae).
Groundwater Water passing through or standing in soil and underlying
strata. Free to move by gravity ( 1988).
Herb Non-woody vascular plants. Includes forbs and graminoids.
Appendix 7 273
Mire British term embracing all kinds of peatlands and peatland vegeta-
tion (modified from 1988).
Moderately acidic Having a soil pH value of 4.55.5.
Moist No water deficit occurs. Current need for water does not exceed
supply; temporary groundwater table may be present (Pojar et al.
1987).
Montane A high-elevation region occurring below the subalpine.
Neutral pH Having a soil pH value between 6.5 and 7.4. Available base
cation concentration is high enough to buffer acidic conditions.
Occasional flooding Flood interval greater than 5 years.
Saline The presence of soluble salts in the soil parent material at concen-
trations that affect plant growth.
Sandy Textural classes are loamy sand and sand (Steen and Roberts
1988).
Saturated A soil condition in which all voids (pore spaces) between soil
particles are filled with water.
Sedimentary peat (coprogenous earth) Peat formed beneath a body
of standing water composed of aquatic plant debris modified by
aquatic animals. Material is loosely consolidated, slightly sticky,
dark brown to black, and usually well decomposed (humic). Syn-
onyms: aquatic peat, loonshit, allochthonous peat, detrital peat,
gyttja ( 1988).
Seepage Groundwater discharge having less flow than a spring.
Appendix 7 275
Subassociation Subunits of an association that are floristically very
similar but distinguished by the predominance of one to several
differentiating species.
Subhydric Soil moisture regime where water is removed slowly enough
to keep watertable at or near the surface for most of the year; per-
manent seepage 030 cm below surface.
Subhygric Water removed slowly enough to keep soil wet for a signifi-
cant part of the growing season; some temporary seepage and
possibly mottling below 20 cm.
Submergents Plants that normally lie entirely beneath water. Some
species have flowering parts that break the water surface.
Succession Replacement of one community by another; often progresses
to a stable terminal community called the climax.
Treed Sites with >10% canopy cover of tree species >2 m and <10 m tall
(see also Forested).
Tussock A thick tuft of sedge or other vegetation forming a small mound
of solid ground in a wetland ( 1988).
Uncommon Occurs infrequently in a region (Steen and Roberts 1988).
Very acidic Having a soil pH value less than 4.5. Low concentration of
available base cations.
Very moist Rooting-zone groundwater present during the growing sea-
son (water supply exceeds demand). Groundwater table >30 cm
deep (Pojar et al 1987).
Very wet Groundwater table at or above the ground surface throughout
most of the growing season.
von Post A qualitative scale of peat decomposition.
Watertable The upper surface of the zone of saturation within the soil
profile.
Wet Rooting-zone groundwater present during the growing season
(water supply exceeds demand). Groundwater table >0 cm but
< 30 cm below soil surface (Pojar et al 1987).
Appendix 7 277
LITERATURE CITED
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