(1918) The Mulatto in The United States: Including A Study of The Role of Mixed-Blood Races Throughout The World
(1918) The Mulatto in The United States: Including A Study of The Role of Mixed-Blood Races Throughout The World
(1918) The Mulatto in The United States: Including A Study of The Role of Mixed-Blood Races Throughout The World
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THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
A DISSERTATION
Submitted to the Faculty
of the Graduate School of Arts and Literature
in Candidacy for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Sociology
BY
EDWARD BYRON REUTER
BOSTON
RICHARD G. BADGER
THE GORHAM PRESS
1918
Copyright, 1918, by Richard G. Bad GER
E_ \%5
.6X
^4-F
ant
University
DtQ I iSif
/
6 Preface
XI. The Negro and the Mulatto in Business and Industry 293
General Index *
41S
THE MULATTO IN THE
UNITED STATES
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
THE all
mulatto, as the term
those members of the
is used in this study, includes
Negro race with a visible ad-
1
mixture of white blood. Thus used, the word is a general
term to include all Negroes of mixed ancestry regardless of
the degree of intermixture. It includes all persons who are
recognized, in the communities in which they live, as being
of mixed blood. It is in this sense that the word is most
widely used and best understood in this country. 2
x
The United States Census Office has not been consistent in its defini-
tion of the term. ". . . the fact that the definition of the term 'mulatto*
adopted at different censuses has not been entirely uniform may affect
the comparability of the figures in some degree." In 1870 and 1910,
however, the term was applied to all persons having any perceptible trace
of Negro blood, excepting, of course, Negroes of pure blood. In 1850
and 1860 the term seems not to have been defined. In the returns for
1890 the Negroes of mixed-blood were classified into mulattoes, quad-
roons and octoroons. U. S. Census Report 1910: Population, Vol. 1, p.
129.
a
"The offspring, ... of a negress by a white man, or of a white
woman by a negro; in a more general sense, a person of mixed Caucasian
and negro blood, or Indian and negro blood." Webster, International
Dictionary.
"Loosely used for any half-breed resembling a mulatto." Murray,
Dictionary.
11
.
6
each of which connotes a specific type of racial cross.
But for purposes of sociological study it is the mixed
group as a whole, not the degree of hybridization nor the
particular types of hybrid, that is of prime importance. So
fl
The mulatto, of course, differs in certain marked ways from other
types of intermixture. He is the product of the cross between pure races
and, like generation hybrids, shows an unvarying uniformity and
all first
dict with scientific certainty the characters that will appear in the first
generation hybrid.
In the second and subsequent generations the Caucasian and Negroid
characters combined in the mulatto, i.e., the first generation hybrid, seg-
regate in almost infinitely variable ways. Individuals appear with the
typical characters—skin color, hair color, hair length, eye color, body
pj^pj: and the like —redistributed in endless new combinations. Indi-
viduals appear with light skin and tufted hair, black skin and blue eyes,
with dark skin and lank hair, with fair skin and light but curly hair,
with the skin coloration and hair formation of the white man and the
body odor of the Negro; so with hundreds, perhaps thousands, of other
human characters. The uniformity of the first generation hybrid be-
comes an almost infinite variety as further generations appear.
But however wide tfie variations, however numerous the varieties, the
mixed race can never become, biologically, either Negro or white. Inter-
breeding or further crossing produces new hybrids. No amount of inter-
breeding or of crossing can ever produce a white man or a Negro from
a hybrid ancestry. The hybrid individual is a biologically unstable type
and he and his descendants remain hybrid and physically unstable to
the extermination of the group.
14 The Mulatto in the United States
7
The term "race" is to be understood in its popular rather than in its
17
Mayo-Smith says that "There has never been a state
whose population was not made up of heterogeneous ethnical
"Ratzel, History of Mankind, Vol. I, p. 395.
"Paul S. Reinsch, "The Negro Race and European Civilization,"
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 11, p. 145.
"William Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, pp. 109-10, 597 ff.
L
18 The Mulatto in the United States
18
The terms "lower," "backward," etc., do not assume anything and do
not prejudice anything biological or fundamental. They are purely
cultural designations. A
backward race is one backward in culture.
"Race as such has nothing to do with the possession of civilization."
Yet, "It would be silly to deny that in our time the highest civilization
has been in the hands of the Caucasian, or white race." Ratzel, History
see what are the reactions they have made to the different
social and racial environments what accommodation they
;
MIXED-BLOOD RACES
In Primitive Times
A MONG primitive peoples, a mixed-blood race as a
21
22 The Mulatto in the United States
the state, simply did not exist. All was disorder and
it
9
of wide racial diversity in these ancient times." He adds:
In Spain
•Ibid., p. 48.
7 ".
The contrast between the culture represented by the modern
. .
white and that of primitive man is far more fundamental than that
between the ancients and the peoples with whom they came in contact.
. .
." Franz Boaz, The Mind of Primitive Man, p. 12.
8
Colonization, p. 59.
*Ibid., pp. 59-60.
24 The Mulatto in the United States
10
Appleton's Encyclopedia: Spain.
11
New International Encyclopaedia: Spain.
12
Harry H. Johnston, "The World-Position of the Negro and
Sir
Negroid," Inter-Racial Problems, p. 330. The Moors of course are mem-
bers of the white race though much mixed. They have "more Arab
than Berber blood." Encyclopaedia Britannica: Moors.
18
Neio International Encyclopaedia: Spain.
S. P. Scott, History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, Vol.
14
3, p. 197.
18
Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 197.
16 ".
The harems of the Moslems were filled with Christian maidens
. .
17
were discouraged although no stigma attached to either
party of such union. It was, however, this attitude on the
clopaedia: Spain. See, also, Scott, History of the Moorish Empire, Vol.
3, p. 224.
20
Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 304.
81
Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 245.
22
Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 226.
28
Ibid., Vol. 3, p. 260.
26 The Mulatto in the United States
The Etirasians
into domestic service and in Bombay all the best cooks and waiters an
of Portuguese extraction. Nor will you find, in the whole of India, anj
better servants than these, ." Herbert Compton, Indian Life in Tom
. .
age with the native women was the usual and manly thing. 30
The new body of half-breeds number in all somewhat over
one hundred thousand and are confined almost exclusively
to the large port cities where the foreign trade of India is
required.
The native woman is inordinately proud of her half-caste
offspring. In infancy he is pampered
nursed, and in youth
by his native servants upon whom he is dependent. "As a
consequence, all the stronger traits of manhood are feebly
80
Recently the anti-nauteh movement has resulted in forcing this rela-
tionship into the dark. "Concubinage, which was esteemed as rather a
manly fashion twenty years ago, has largely disappeared among the more
enlightened classes; and even among the less enlightened it is regarded
as a thing rather to be ashamed than to be proud of." "The Indian
Social Reformer." Quoted by J. P. Jones, 'Conditions in India," Jour-
nal of Race Development, Vol. 2, p. 201.
"Madras 26,000; Bengal 20,000; Burma, Bombay and the United
Provinces 8,000 to 11,000; total 100,451. This is an increase of 15 per
cent since 1901. The increase seems partly due to "the growing ten-
dency amongst certain classes of Indian Christians to pass themselves
off as Anglo-Indians." Census of India 1911, Vol. 1, Part 1, p. 140.
"Mary Helen Lee, The Eurasian: A Social Problem, p. 13. See, also,
Ellsworth Huntington, "Geographical Environment and Japanese Char-
acter,"Journal of Race Development, Vol. 2, pp. 158-59.
" Compton, Indian Life, p. 208.
"Lee, The Eurasian, pp. 11, 13.
30 The Mulatto in the United States
37
and untruthful. Pie is lacking in independence and is for-
ever begging for special favors. Yet supersensitiveness is
a characteristic of the whole Eurasian community. They
recklessly "resign from any and every post when, for some
reason or without reason, their feelings are hurt." 38 The
girls, in some cases at least, are sold into prostitution. 39 The
"Lee, The Eurasian, pp. 12, 17. See, also, Ethel Hunter, The Y.W.C.A
in India, Burma and Ceylon, 1911.
88
"Industrially a Christian native is preferred to an Eurasian, for ht
tion, and as a result delivered a reply of the most searching kind anc
urged the people of the community to carve out something worthy them
selves, instead of being continually memoralizing for special favors
and refused to aid in the special class regulations. The delegates retired
'thanking His Excellency for his sarcastic remarks.' " J. Smith, Te\
Years in Burma, p. 117.
89
See J. S. Dennis, Christian Missions and Social Progress, Vol. 2
p. 273.
«°Reclus, Asia, Vol. 3, pp. 389-90.
41
Quoted by Lee, The Eurasian, p. 10.
" "Especially if very dark the Eurasian is overmuch pained that he ha
not a white skin." Ibid., p. 13.
The Eskimos
In Greenland, the half-breed Eskimos date their origin
from the establishment of the Danish missionary settlements
an the West Coast in 1721. The European interest always
has been trade and missions. The number of Scandinavians
has at no time been large, composed al-and the colony is
44 u
. . . Some in certain towns
special enquiries made
showed . . .
In Spanish America
54
a general tendency toward the white type. They are not
muscular, and have little power to resist disease.
15,000,000 total
3,500,000 Negroes
6,000,000 mixed
1,300,000 Indians
900,000 Portuguese
520,000 Germans
1,800,000 Italians
88 ".
if these half-breeds are not able to compete in other quali-
. .
ties with the stronger races of the Aryan stock, ... it is none the less
certain that we cannot place the metis at the level of the really inferior
races. They are physically and intellectually well above the level of the
blacks, who were an ethnical element in their production." Ibid., p.
381.
5T
"In Brazil ... his [the Indian's] successor is a decidedly inferior
being. .
.".Martin, Through Five Republics, p. 1.
68
Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 380.
89
Ibid., p. 380. Compare the Chileans. E. A. Ross, South of Panama,
61
Bryce, South America, pp. 479-80.
62
Ibid., pp. 404-05.
63
Ibid., p. 565.
w Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 381-82.
85
Not so many as is sometimes asserted. "Bahia has a population . . .
1-15-1916.
88
It seems to be the observation of this fact that has led certain super-
ficial observers to announce an entire absence of color prejudice in
Brazil. See The Chicago Defender, 12-11-1915, 1-22-1916.
87
Bryce, South America, p. 565.
I
Mixed-Blood Races
in the social rank came the Negroes, and last of all, the
natives.
Between these main groups were many other mixtures
approximating one or the other of the main groups, or form-
ing separate groups apart. The mestizos multiplied with
such rapidity that they came to form and still form a very
considerable portion of the population of Spanish America.
The association of these various ethnic groups was marked
84
by hatred, bitterness and strife. The Spanish officials held
the return of the first Columbian expedition from America. It was the
red man's one contribution to civilization. See Iwan Bloch, The Sexual
Life of Our Time, M. Eden Paul's Translation, pp. 351-56.
83
Keller, Colonization, p. 295.
88
Perhaps seven or even more. See H. C. Morris, The History of
Colonization, Vol. pp. 252-53.
1,
84
"The different shades were classified with minute attention, not only
by the force of custom but also by the law. When there was only a sixth
of negro or Indian blood in the veins of a colonist, the law granted him
the title of white: que se tenga por bianco. Each caste was full of
envy for those above and of contempt for those below." Leroy-Beau-
lieu, i, II; cf. Roscher, The Spanish Colonial System, pp. 149-50. Keller,
Colonization, p. 220, f. n.
lviwucu-Diuuu xiuces ~x l
and in the southern part of Brazil which is also free from the
colored races. The Negroes and their various intermixtures
with the white and Indian races are chiefly in northern and
eastern Brazil, though there are a goodly number in Guinea
and some in Venezuela. 8!> In insignificant numbers, they are
found in the cities of the other South American countries.
The population of Paraguay is nearly all Indian: the white
and mixed elements are so small as to be negligible. Colom-
bia is approximately fifty per cent so-called white. The
inter-racial situation in which there is intermarriage between the races
approximately ten per cent white. 91 Peru has ten per cent
or less of white and near-white, thirty-five per cent mixed,
and fifty-five per cent Indian. 92 Bolivia has a somewhat
larger percentage of pure Indian stock. 93 Chile has a small
white aristocracy and a very few Indians the population
;
86
Martin, Through Five Republics, p. 237. N. O. Winter, Guatemala
and Her People of To-day, p. 109.
89
Bryce is disposed to materially modify these proportions. He gives
Total 15,000,000
Indian 8,000,000
Mixed 6,000,000
Spaniards 1,000,000
South America, p. 459.
%% 1 he Mulatto %n the United states
15,160,369 total
15,043,842 Mexican birth
116,527 foreign birth of whom 29,541 were Spanish
*7
Bryce, South America, p. 565.
M Ibid., p. 460.
" Bolivia, for example. "Politics is left to the few whites and Mes-
tizos in four or five towns. Politically the Bolivian nation shrinks from
two million to some thousands." Ibid., p. 529. See, also, Ross, South
few white women of each republic, since all the rest may, for the pur-
Mixed-Blood Races 45
loa
". the distinctions which undoubtedly exist, and are often sup-
. .
posed to be of race, are in fact only between Indians who are Catholic
and speak Spanish and Indians, who are grouped by the other Indians,
'as savages' ." Sir Charles W. Dilke, "Forced and Indentured Labor
. .
lower grades of the mestizo come the artisan and the ser-
vant classes. 111
But the ethnological distinctions seldom are clearly drawn.
A certain per cent of the white race have preserved their
racial integrity intact 112 and these everywhere form the so-
cial and intellectual aristocracy. But the bulk of the so-
called whites are tinged with a greater or less amount of
Indian blood. 113 The upper class mestizos, in manners and
customs and habits of life, often compare not unfavorably
with their white neighbors. They are, to the extent of their
ability, Spaniards. In education, they are Spanish; in re-
ligion, they are Christians ; and in their ideas and habits of
thinking, they are faithful imitations of the white aris-
tocracy. 114
Between the white man and the educated mestizo there is
America between the white, the Indian, and the Savage. The so-called
whites are largely Indian, the Indians are largely negro, and the savages
are partly Indian, partly negro and partly an amalgam of races older
in the country than the principal Indian tribes." Dilke, Nationalities
and Subject Races, p. 103.
114
Bryce, South America, p. 433. Ross, South of Panama, p. 168.
us
«E ver y one wishes to be reckoned as a white man. . . ." Bryce,
South America, p. 460. See, also, pp. 478-79, 473-74, 232, 472-73.
48 The Mulatto in the United States
i
and the Indian and the lower-class
whites, on the one hand,
'mestizo, on the other, there is no intermarriage; but this
ifact seems to be due more to social than to racial causes. It
lis class separation rather than a racial antipathy. 121 Says
122
Bryce:
128
Johnston, The Negro in the New World, pp. 333-34.
124
Ibid., p. 332. The Negroes are "entirely 'unmoral' in their sexual
relations" and have no repugnance toward intermixture with any of the
other races. Ibid., p. 334.
va «A n Indian kuli would ordinarily prefer to live unmarried sooner
than cohabit with a negress: they are not perhaps so squeamish about
marriage with mulattoes." Ibid., p. 334. See, also, p. 332. They inter-
marry with the Amerindians.
128
Ibid,, p. 332. Bryce, South America, pp. 473 f. n., 566-67,
Mixed-Blood Races 51
In the Philippines
bacy than intermarry with the negro or mulatto." Johnston, The Negro
in the New World, p. 337.
128
Keller, Colonization, p. 350.
I
52 The Mulatto in the United States
races follows for the most part the lines of race and color.
Color prejudice and class hatred are everywhere a factor
in the situation. At one extreme of the social scale are the
foreign white and the white Creoles. Below them in the social
120
In 1820 there was one white to 1,600 natives. The whites were
mostly in Manila. In 1864 there was a total of 4,050 Spaniards in the
Islands. Of these 3,280 were government officials, 500 were clergy, 200
were landed proprietors and 70 were merchants.
Mixed-Blood Races 53
ers with whom they are brought into contact and to whom
U0 "Rizal, the —
most famous man and one might say the only famous
nan —produced by the islands was the direct descendant of a Chinese
rader, and his mother was of Filipino-Chinese-Spanish descent with a
ittle Japanese blood." Carl Crow, "What About the Filipinos?" World's
Work, Vol. 26, p. 519. See, also, J. A. Robertson, "Notes from the
Philippines," Journal of Race Development, Vol. 3, p. 470, and Keller,
The best discussion of Rizal's personality is
Colonization, p. 350
f. n.
135
". . .noteworthy that the Filipinos and even the Chines*
It is also
half-breeds (mestizos de sangley)
exhibited this hatred in as bitter s
form as did the Spanish themselves." Keller, Colonization, p. 355. Le
Roy, The Americans in the Philippines, p. 279, speaks of the "tra
ditional hostility between the Filipinos and Chinese."
130 ". During the latter days of my residence in the Islands in 190ii
. .
Philippines, p. 76.
CHAPTER III
A similar fate befell all of the other Islands. See A. G. Keller, Colo-
!
nization, p. 226.
55
56 The Mulatto in the United States
2
Johnston attributes the fact that the Spanish have never shown the
same repugnance as have the Northern nations of Europe to sexual
intercourse with Negroes, to the ancient strain of Negro blood in their
ethnic composition. Sir Harry H. Johnston, "The World-position of
the Negro and Negroid," Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 359-30.
8
Total 953,243
White 589,462
Colored 363,817
4
White 1,067,354 or 67.9 per cent; Colored 505,443 or 32.1 per cent.
The few Chinese are here counted as white as has been the Spanish cus-
tom in all previous censuses. United States War Department Census of
Cuba, 1899, p. 97.
Mixed-Blood Races 57
trace.
In Cuba the opportunities and personal privileges of the
Negro people have been somewhat greater than in most
other parts of the West Indies. They are and always have
been sufficiently below the whites in numbers effectually to
prevent any wide-spread reversion to their ancestral Afri-
can customs. During the slave period, though cases of bar-
barous mistreatment were not infrequent, the Spanish laws
were highly favorable to the slave. It was easy for him to
purchase his freedom and there were a large number of free
Negroes throughout the slavery period. 5 After the aboli-
tion of slavery in 1880, the rights of the black man were
of course much greater and his status much higher, the
Spanish government giving the same consideration to the
colored as to the white Cuban. The rebellions of 1868-78
and of 1895-98 and the threatened uprising in 1906 all
operated to raise the status of the Negro. At present all
civil, military and ecclesiastical positions and honors are
7
in all trades. Bullard says : "Though found in more pro-
fessions than in America, they are less industrious than here.
They show disposition but no aptness for commerce, and
their inclination in this direction must perhaps be looked
upon more as a desire to avoid the hard labor of the fields
than as any serious effort to try fortune in trade." How-
ever this may be, a few have distinguished themselves 8 and
a goodly number have made a reasonable success they show ;
. . . —
Everj'where in public, in the streets, in the the-
atres, —
on steamers and cars our man of negro blood
carries himself with confidence and self-possession. It
is his marked characteristic in Cuba. Looking at him,
one cannot but be impressed with his great gain in
dignity in consequence. He feels himself a worthier
man. In rural guard, police and other official posi-
tions occupied by him, he conducts himself with steadi-
ness and dignity. Placing him in such offices seems
not in Cuba, as in America, to make him foolish and
giddy. These are noteworthy things for Cuba and
the negro race.
The Negro in the New World, p. 59, and William Z. Ripley, "Race
Problems in Cuba," Publications of the American Statistical Associa-
tion, Vol. 7, pp. 85-89.
U. S. War Dept.,
11
Census of Cuba, 1899, p. 69.
12
"Yet the negro is losing ground, politically and socially, and unless
he is content with his present status of farmer, labourer, petty trades-
man, minor employe, and domestic servant, there will arise a 'colour'
question here as in the United States." Johnston, The Negro in the New
World, p. 60.
13
North American Review, Vol. 184, p. 628.
:
In Haiti
military man, and the favorite leader for the time being, of the major
portion of the army. ." Johnston, The Negro in the New World,
. .
p. 19T.
62 The Mulatto in the United States
17
Encyclopedia Britannica: Haiti.
"See H. V. H. Prichard, Where Black Rules White; a Journey
Across and About Hayti, Chapter IV. For a more apologetic account
see General Legitime, "Some General Considerations of the People and
Government of Haiti," Inter-Racial Problems, pp. 183-84.
19
"In most of the country districts polygamy is openly practiced.
The rite of marriage —
civil and religious — is probably confined to about
an eighth of the total adult population. . .
." Johnston, The Negro
in the New World, p. 194.
20
"The 2,500,000 Haitian peasants are passionately fond of dancing,
will even sometimes dance almost or quite naked. And following on
this choregraphic exercise is much immorality. The . . ." Johnston,
Negro in the New World, p. 194. It is interesting to compare this state-
ment with his description of the dance of the Brazilian Negro. "The
dances to which negro slaves were trained . . . usually began with a
slow movement of two persons, who approached each other with a shy
and diffident air, and then receded bashful and embarrassed. By de-
grees, the time of the music increased, the diffidence wore off, and the
dance concluded with 'indecencies not fit to be seen nor described.'
Sometimes it was of a different character, attended by jumping, shout-
ing, and throwing their arms over each other's heads, and assuming the
most fierce and stern aspects. The indecent display was a 'dance of
love,' but the shouting dance was a mimicry of war." Ibid., p. 93. As
a further stage in the evolution of the race and the dance compare the
American Negro's "cake-walk."
Mixed-Blood Races 63
lines and in others the "republic has gone back to the lowest
21
type of African barbarism."
No census ever has been taken, and consequently there are
no accurate figures as to the population. The population,
however, is made up almost entirely of Negroes, about nine-
tenths of whom are full-blood Africans. The ten per cent
22
of mulattoes is said to be a rapidly diminishing class. The
number of whites is very small and of negligible influence in
the affairs of the country. They are, by a provision of the
23
constitution, prohibited from holding real estate.
There is mu-
a sharp contrast between the black and the
latto inhabitants. The blacks, who form the peasantry of
p. 18T.
"But what use is it talking of the 'country' doing this or willing that
when no more than 200,000 out of 3,000,000 Haitians have the slightest
approach to education? ." Ibid., p. 204.
. .
26
"At least two out of the three millions of Haitian negroes are only
are still African
Christians in the loose statistics of geographers. They
pagans, . .
." Ibid., p. 193.
:
In Jamaica
32
Where Black Rules White, p. 82.
Prichard,
83
Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 159. See, also, Ency~
clopcedia Britannica: Haiti.
"Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 159.
66 The Mulatto in the United States
There is a hard and fast color line between the whites and
the Negroes and mulattoes.
The blacks are the laboring class. There has been some
effort to settle them as independent peasant proprietors but
the effort has not been a marked success. The conditions
of life are such as to require but little work in order to
live; the Negroes do the little that is required. 37 They are
without education or the desire for education. 38 They have
little part in the government and in general show little de-
sire to participate. 39 The relations of the sexes are of the
most elastic sort, well over half of the births being illegiti-
mate. 40
87
It was the impossibility of getting the Negroes to do any regular
work that led to the importation of the Chinese and the Indian coolies.
Fronde, The English in the West Indies, pp. 50, 73 ff.
88
"At the present day only about one-quarter of the total colored
population of Jamaica can read and write." The fact that there is
little agricultural or industrial education suited to the race offered in
the schools perhaps accounts in part for their indifference to education.
Though free and liberally supported by the government, the education
is not suited to the needs of the race. See Johnston, The Negro in the
New World, p. 270.
"The black does not want representative government; he prefers to
38
rely on the impartial, despotic rule of trained officials, ." "The blacks . .
being a mother; she would deem herself slighted. Therefore the negro
and mulatto men are much run after; the marriage rate is not only low,
but tends to decrease (it is just now about 3.8 per 1000 persons), and
with its decrease rises the percentage of illegitimate births, which now
[1906] stands at the figure of sixty-five children out of every hundred."
Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 275.
68 The Mulatto in the United States
t
The mulattoes are officially separated from the blacks by
applying- to them the special racial designation coloured.
This class includes the majority of those engaged in the
trades and professions and they fill most of the minor gov-
ernmental positions and some of the higher positions in the
public service. 41 The press of the country, though owned
by white men, is, for the most part, run by mulattoes.
42
Johnston states that
45
lattoes refuse to intermarry with the blacks except in
cases where the black individual is possessed of large fortune
or holds a high government position ; even in this case the
children of the union will be barred, because of their color
46
and features, from the upper class mulatto society.
The same views on the subject of intermarriage of the
races are held by the white people of Jamaica as are held
by the white people of the Southern United States. Mixed
marriages are approved by the ambitious mulattoes and by
the "whites by law." The exceptionally light-colored girls
of this latter class are occasionally able to secure white
husbands from the immigrants to the Island, whom they
have deluded into the belief that they are really white. 47 A
few other pretty, well-educated and wealthy girls of this
class are able to marry white because of their wealth and
4S
of the scarcity of white girls on the Island. The number,
however, is very small, and sexual association between the
white men and the mulatto girls goes on without the for-
45
The same thing is true of the East Indian coolies. "They are proud,
however, and will not intermarry with the Africans. . . . The black
women look with envy at the straight hair of Asia, and twist
their unhappy wool into knots and ropes in the vain hope of being mis-
taken for the purer race. But this is all. The African and the Asiatic
will not mix. ." Froude, The English in the West Indies, pp. 73-74.
. .
46 ".
.When such a child [a mulatto with Negro features] appears
.
married to a woman of mixed ancestry, for the same reason that white
men go to Oklahoma and marry squaws or half-breed girls. ." Need- . .
that a colony of black, coloured, and whites has far more organic effi-
ciency and far more promise in it than a colony of black and white alone.
. . . The graded mixed class in Jamaica helps to make an organic
whole of the community and saves it from this distinct cleavage."
Olivier, White Capital and Coloured Labour, pp. 38-39. See, also,
Livingstone, North American Review, Vol. 185, p. 647.
a "The whites regard the negro as a primitive being, incapable as yet
of standing alone, and adopt the attitude of trainers and teachers: the
negroes are conscious of their inferiority and willingly fall into the po-
.
Mixed-Blood Races 71
In South Africa
mor. 68
63
Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 368.
M "I suppose, in the opinion of the average South African, the admix-
ture in blood of the races is the worst thing that can happen, at least
for the white race, and possibly for both ... he can see the degrada-
tion of the white man, the ambiguous position of the children, often
the resentment of the native in cases of miscegenation; ." Evans,
. .
Black and White in South East Africa, p. 223. See, also, Freraantle,
The New Nation, pp. 217-18.
85
Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 375.
60
Evans, Black and White in South East Africa, p. 299.
67
Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, p. 378.
68
"Sometimes the usual relations of employer and employed are re-
versed, and a white man enters the service of a prosperous Kaffir. This
makes no difference as respects their social intercourse, and I remember
76 The Mulatto in the United States
to have been told of a ease in which the white workman stipulated that
his employer should address him as 'Boss.' " Bryce, Impressions of
South Africa, p. 367.
"Ibid., pp. 3G5-68.
70
Ibid., p. 375.
71
Ibid., p. 375.
72
The New Nation, pp. 319-20.
Mixed-Blood Races 77
Per cent
Racial Ancestry Number of Total
Full blood 150,053 56.5
74
See Handbook of the American Indians, Part I, pp. 913-14:
75
Charles Alexander Eastman, "The North American Indian," Inter-
Racial Problems, pp. 367-76.
79
Indian Population in the United States and Alaska, United States
Census 1910, Supplement 1915, p. 31.
Mixed-Blood Races 79
80 The Mulatto in the United States
Mixed-Blood Races 81
80
Indian Population in the United States and Alaska, United States
Census 1910, Supplement 1915, p. 84.
81
Ibid., p. 78.
82
Ibid., p. 32.
82 The Mulatto in the United States
83
Handbook of
the American Indians, Part I, p. 914.
•
"The Seminoles at this time, 1834, owned perhaps 200 slaves, their
84
1
84 The Mulatto in the United States
Indian blood. John Ross, their most noted man, was one-
92
eighth Indian and seven-eighths white.
Where a race problem has appeared, it has been due in
most cases to an antipathy toward the Negro and Negro
mixtures, or to an effort on the part of these mixtures to
escape classification with the Negro race. The Croatan
Indians of North Carolina, a mixed-blood race of Negro and
white around an Indian nucleus whose identity has been
completely lost, were for years classed with the free Ne-
groes. They persistently refused to accept the classifica-
tion or to attend the Negro schools or churches, claiming
special privileges on the ground that they were descended
from native tribes and early settlers. In 1885, they were
given separate legal existence on the baseless theory that
they were descended from Raleigh's lost colony of Croatan,
and separate school provision was made for them. 93 In some
of the more distinctly Indian tribes, notably the Cherokee
and Osage, there is a bitter rivalry between the mixed-
bloods and the full-bloods, and they have formed rival fac-
tions. The Cherokees, too, draw a color line against their
Negro citizens and refuse to intermarry with them.
63
Handbook of the American Indians, Part I, p. 914.
93
They are a mixture of wasted Indian tribes, forest rovers, runaway-
slaves and other Negroes. There are a number of other similar groups,
the "Redbones" of South Carolina, the "Melungeons" of West Virginia
and East Tennessee and the "Moors" of Delaware, but like the "Cro-
atan Indians" they are rather mulatto than Indian mixtures. See Ibid.,
p. 365.
CHAPTER IV
86
The Mulatto: the Key to the Race Problem 87
guese immigrant men with the native and later with the
Negro women; in other parts of South America and the
Spanish West Indies, it was the Spanish males with the
native and later with the Negro females; in Haiti it was
the French settlers with the Negro women, and so it has
been in all other cases. There is no mixed-blood race which
is the result of intermarriage between culturally unequal
races and none w here the mothers of the half-castes are not
T
the migrating population becomes fused with that which it finds, depends
chiefly on the difference between the level of civilization of the two
races." Luis Cabrera, "The Mexican Revolution Its Causes, Purposes —
and Results," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social
Science, Supplement, Jan. 1917, p. 5, states the order of ease with which
civilized races fuse with the Mexican mixed-blood race as follows: 1.
8
"Most race crossing has occurred on the outskirts of civilization, ." . .
breed men in their turn prey upon the women of the pure-
blood native race. Both result in additions to the mulatto
group. Moreover, the marriage of the mixed-blood indi-
13
would be quite normal except for the illegitimate children that
It
the women of the mixed-blood race bear to white men. These, how-
ever, cannot all be counted as substitutes for children of a mixed-blood
father. They are usually born before the girl forms a regular sexual
union with one of her own class and are in general to be looked upon as
extra-matrimonial additions to the class. Such relations seem generally
not to be a bar to the girl forming a regular matrimonial alliance with
one of her own class and in some cases at least gives her a decided
prestige.
The Mulatto: the Key to the Race Problem 95
the exception and not the rule. Where it takes place, the
compelling motive is to be looked for in the economic status
of the colored man or woman, in the scarcity of women of
the advanced race, or in a combination of the two. In all
14
"The amalgamation of the negroes by the Mohammedans is facili-
noted in turn.
Of the innumerable bastard races produced by the com-
mingling of primitive groups, none seems to have acquired
a distinct status in the community life. Where there ex-
ist no fundamental differences in culture and no wide ethnic
ciation.
Oppenheimer, 15 discussing the formation of the primitive
state through the subjugation of one group by another
and their gradual reduction to an ethnic and cultural unity,
says:
19
See Bryce, Relations of Advanced and Backward Races. See, also,
AVeatherly, Popular Science Monthly, pp. 478-79.
The Mulatto: the Key to the Race Problem 101
"Carl Crow, "What About the Filipinos?", World's Work, Vol. 26,
p. 519.
18
W. P. Livingstone, "The West-Indian and American Negro," North
American Review, Vol. 185, p. 646.
19
Jean Baptiste de Lacerda, "The Metis, or Half Breeds, of Brazil,"
Inter-Racial Problems, p. 381.
30
Maurice S. Evans, Black and White in South East Africa; A Study
in Sociology, pp. 298 ff.
21
James Bryce, South America; Observations and Impressions, pp.
481, 492. Ross, South of Panama, pp. 29-30, 40-41, 92, 111.
M This intolerant attitude finds its explanation in the fact that the
102 The Mulatto in the United States
was to thrust them back upon the lower race. In Brazil and
in general throughout Spanish America, the numerical
fluence upon the offspring than the white type. The same fact is ex-
pressed in the great frequency of dark hair and of dark eyes among
the half-breeds." Franz Boaz, "The Half-Breed Indian," Popular Sci-
ence Monthly, Vol. 45, p. 768. See, also, The Mind of Primitive Man,
pp. 78 ff; and "Zur Anthropologic der nordamerikanischen Indianer."
Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft fur Anthropologic, Ethnologie
und Urgeschichte. 27:366 ff.; and F. von Luschan, "Die Tachtadschy u.
andere Ueberreste der Bevolkerung Lykiens," Archiv fur An-
alten
thropologic, 19:31 ff., who same fact as regards the mixed
points out the
population of Southern Asia Minor. See James Oliver, "The Hereditary
Tendency to Twinning," Eugenics Review, Vol. 4, p. 40.
2
H. Gregoire estimated that five generations with no Negro blood after
the original cross were necessary to make it possible for a Negro to
pass as a white man. Literature of Negroes, p. 29. "Where the pro-
portion is less than one-eighth of African blood the distinction of class
begins to be obscured, . . ." The Compendium of the Seventh Census of
the United States, 1850, p. 62.
105
106 The Mulatto in the United States
Total 333,000
"It is claimed, however, that this total is too small, and that a closer
:
The crossing of the races began from the very first in-
ii
J. H.The Free Negro in Virginia, p. 19.
Russell,
"In number was about 300; in 1670 it was given
1648 the as 2,000.
from Guinea and Madagascar in the colony. Four years later Governor
Bradstreet estimated that ". there may be within our Government
. .
about one hundred or one hundred and twenty there are very few. . .
blacks borne here. ." In 1708 Governor Dudley estimated the num-
. .
chusetts, pp. 49 ff. See, also, Williams, History of the Negro Ra.ce in
America, Vol. 1, pp. 183, 184.
18
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 29.
17
Ibid., p. 30.
» Ibid., p. 30.
lu
Ibid., p. 30.
20
Ibid., p. 30.
21
In 1790 the slaves numbered 3,707 and the free Negroes 6,531. A
Century of Population Growth, pp. 222-23.
Amount of Race Intermixture in United States 111
22
B. C. Steiner, A History of Slavery in Connecticut, pp. 12-13. Wil-
liams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 254.
23
Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 262-63.
2i
Ibid., p. 310.
28
Ibid., p. 250.
2fl
J. S. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Caro-
lina, p. 15.
"Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 290.
28
H. S. Cooley, A Study of Slavery in New Jersey, p. 39. "In 1704
'An Act for regulating negroe, Indian and mulatto slaves within the
province of New Jersey,' was introduced, but was tabled and disal-
lowed." Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 285.
112 The Mulatto in the United States
34
1,460 were free Negroes and 2,148 were slaves. The per-
centage of mulattoes among the free Negroes was appar-
ently higher everywhere than was among the slaves, but
it
34
A Century of Population Growth, p. 185. In 1752, Baltimore
County had 116 mulatto slaves and 196 free mulattoes, 4,027 Negro
slaves and 8 free Negroes. See, J. R. Brackett, The Negro in Mary-
land, pp. 175-76.
85
Free Negroes 1850:
Black 275,400
Mulatto 159,095
Total 434,495
The Compendium of the Seventh Census of the United States, 1850,
p. 52.
36
See p. 116 below, notes, 45, 47.
87
Free black 891
Free mulatto 4,587
88
1790 59,557 1830 319,599
1800 108,435 1840 386,293
1810 186,446 1850 434,495
1820 233,634 1860 488,070
A Century of Population Growth, p. 80.
114 The Mulatto in the United States
The ratio of Negroes to the white race was less there than
in the Southern colonies ; the relative number of free Ne-
groes was greater. As a result of these two conditions,
there was always a relatively greater admixture of white
blood to the Negro group in the Northern states than in
89
At the time of the first census the ratio of slaves to the white popu-
lation in the, then, Southern States was fifty-three to one hundred; in
New England less than one to one hundred, and five to one hundred in
gro in Virginia, pp. 14-15, points out the larger per cent of free
Negroes in the urban population in colonial days and during the whole
period of slavery.
" Per cent of mulattoes in total Negro population of a chief city and
of the rest of the state of typical Southern, Border and Northern
States in 1860.
Area
116 The Mulatto in the United States
the North was free at this time, the only comparison with
any j^oint is that between the total Negro population of
the two regions. Nearly one-half the Negroes of the North-
ern States were mixed-bloods, as against about one-ninth
of those in the slave-holding states. In summarizing the
distribution in different regions, the Census Report of 1850
8
says :
48
The Co7npendinm of the Seventh Census of the United States, 1850,
p. 82.
49
United States Census, 1910, Population, Vol. 1, Part 1, p. 129. There
is a constant effort on the part of the mulattoes to make the proportion
appear larger. "The figures as to mulattoes have been taken from time
to time and are officially acknowledged to be understatements. Prob-
118 The Mulatto in the United States
ably one-third of the Negroes of the United States have distinct traces
of white blood." W. E. B. DuBois, The Negro, pp. 184-85. He adds:
"There is also a large amount of Negro blood in the white population."
See, also, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 350. Fortune's statement is even
more absurd: "The blood of all the ethnic types that go to make up
American citizenship flows in the veins of the Afro-American people
so that of the ten million of them in this country, accounted for by
the Federal census, not more than four million are of pure negroid
descent, while some four million of them, not accounted for by the
Federal census, have escaped into the ranks of the white race, and are
reenforced very largely by such escapements every year." T. T. For-
tune, "Place in American Life." In Booker T. Washington, The Negro
Problem, pp. 214-15.
60
Question as to the accuracy of these Census figures is frequently
raised. A good deal of this popular skepticism seems to have had its
origin in a widely read book by Mr. Ray Stannard Baker. Mr. Baker
says: "In the last census (1900) the government gave up the attempt
in discouragement of trying to enumerate the mulattoes at all, and
counted all persons as Negroes who were so classed in the communities
where they resided. The census of 1870 showed that one-eighth (roughly)
of the Negro population was mulatto, that of 1890 showed that the
proportion had increased to more than one-seventh, but these statistics
are confessedly inaccurate; the census report itself says: 'The figures
are of little value. Indeed as an indication of the extent to which
Amount of Race Intermixture in United States 119
says:
58
says:
... A
separate enumeration of mulattoes has been
made four times, in the censuses of 1850, 1860, 1870,
and 1890. The results disclosed the fact that where
the proportion of Negroes to whites was lowest, the
proportion of mulattoes to total Negroes was highest.
For example: in 1890, in the South Central States of
Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana,
Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, the mulattoes were
but 14 per cent of the total Negro population. On the
other hand, they were 32.7 per cent in the New Eng-
land group. Expressed differently, of all the so-called
"Negroes" whom a white man would see in Mississippi,
only 11.5 per cent would be of the mulatto type, while
of all those observed in Massachusetts 36.3 were mu-
lattoes. In Maine 57.4 per cent were mulattoes, and
in Michigan they were 53.8 per cent; while in Georgia
and South Carolina they were respectively 9.9 per cent
and 9.7 per cent. . . .
Charleston 23.6
Kentucky 25.2
Louisville 36.6
Missouri 28.4
St. Louis 34.0
Virginia 33.2
Richmond 39.9
This is a comparison of the chief city in the state with the Negro
population of the state as a whole. Were it possible to separate the
urban from the rural regions the differences shown here would be enor-
mously increased. It would probably be found that the mulatto popu-
lation is exclusively or almost exclusively urban and that the rural popu-
lation with rare exceptions is black. United States Census, 1910, Pop-
ulation, Vol. 1, Part 1, pp. 159, 230.
126 The Mulatto in the United States
Intermarriage
1
Edward Wilmot Blyden, one of the ablest men of the Negro race,
maintains the thesis that white intermixture "has been the salvation of
the Negro New World, for the black man who was weak enough
in the
to be caught and shipped away as a slave was naturally inferior in mind
and body to the black man who possessed ingenuity enough to escape
from the toils of slavery and remain at home as a slave hunter." Quoted
from The Crisis, Sept. '13, pp. 229-30. See, also, G. W. Williams, His-
tory of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 2, pp. 544-45, for a variation
of Blyden's thesis.
127
128 The Mulatto in the United States
2
"Indeed, in those early da)r s many a negress was landed upon our
shores by her captors already pregnant by one of the demoniac crew
that made up the company of the slave ship that brought her over."
R. W. Shufeldt, The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization, p. 80.
"The mulatto children were born off the coast of Africa, and
first
their fathers were the first white men the black princesses of that coun-
try ever saw. ." Anonymous, The Independent, Vol. 54, p. 2226.
. .
8
J. H. Van Evrie, White Supremacy and Negro Subordination, p. 153.
4
"In the French, English and Dutch colonies, the laws, or public opin-
ion, so prevents marriages between individuals of different colors, that
those who would contract them, would be considered as degraded by
their alliance, . . ." H. Gregoire, Literature of Negroes, p. 66.
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 129
5
The law of Maryland, 1681, for example, seems to have been called
forth by the marriage of "Irish Nell," a servant of the Lord Proprietor,
who had married a slave. was to determine the status of her mu-
It
latto children. J. R. Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 34, f. n.
"And be it further enacted, that
all issues of English, or other free
born women, that have already married negroes, shall serve the master
. .". Sec. III. Act of 1663. Quoted by Williams, History of the
Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 240. See, also, Brackett, The Negro
in Maryland, pp. 32-34.
7
J. S. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina,
pp. 58-59.
8
Ibid., p. 58.
9
Ibid., pp. 68-69.
30
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 29-31.
130 The Mulatto in the United States
11
the rarest exception there is no reason to believe. Then,
as now, such mixed unions roused an indignant protest from
the decent members of the communit}'. 12
Such intermarriages as did take place in these early days,
15
Brackett also speaks of marriages between these Eng-
lish serving-women and the slaves or free Negroes. Tur-
16
ner speaks of two mixed marriages in Pittsburgh in 1788.
In one case, the couple was said to occupy a respectable
11
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 194-95. Bassett,
Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, pp. 69, 58-59.
" See, for e.g., Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 195-96. Also,
E. I. McCormac, White Servitude in Maryland, p. 67.
13
woman was indicted in the Gen-
In North Carolina in 1727 "a white
eral Court because she hadhusband and was cohabiting with a
left her
Negro slave." Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North
Carolina, p. 58. "Among the servants imported into the colony, there
were often women of a very low type, who during their term of servitude
intermarried with negro slaves." McCormac, White Servitude in Mary-
land, p. 67.
14
History of the Negro Race in America,, Voh 1, p. 24Q.
1B
The Negro in Maryland, p. 196.
19
The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 194.
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 131
18
position. 17 Branagan declares that such marriages were
common in Philadelphia after the repeal in 1780 of the laws
applying to the Negro. The grandmother of Benjamin
19
Banneker was an English felon transported to the colony
20
of Delaware. There seems to be absolutely no evidence
of any marriages of a mixed sort in which the white con-
tracting party was not of the lowest and usually of a vicious
class.
they get white women for wives, and are likewise exceedingly imperti-
nent to white persons in low circumstances." "I know a black man who
seduced a young white girl who soon after married him, and died
. . .
with a broken heart ; on her death he said he would not disgrace himself
to have a negro wife, and acted accordingly, for he soon after married
another white woman." "There are perhaps hundreds of white women
thus fascinated by black men in this city, and there are thousands of
black children by them at present." Branagan, Serious Remonstrances,
pp. 70-71, 73, 74, 75. Quoted by Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania,
p. 195, f. n.
19
See page 190 below.
20
J. W. Cromwell, The Negro in American History, pp. 86-97.
132 The Mulatto in the United States
rich colored girl; but he never knew of a black man to marry a white
girl." Olmsted adds: "I subsequently heard of one such case."
22
The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 195-96,
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 133
23
The second.
24
Ray Stannarcl Baker, Following the Color Line, p. 172.
23
The following table gives the number of mixed marriages by five
27
Hoffman seems to have included in his figures cases of open con-
cubinage as well as conventional and lawful unions. According to the
statement presented to the Michigan Legislature in 1915 less than 40
mixed marriages have been legalized in the state in the past 30 years.
The committee however were endeavoring to make a case against the
proposed law to prohibit intermarriage and gave expression to a num-
ber of errors of fact. Hoffman is probably the better authority. Re-
port of Committee on Equitable Legislation, "Treatise on Proposed
Changes in the Law of Marriage."
134 The Mulatto in the United States
from 1872 to 1883, there were one hundred and nine mixed
marriages; for the following twelve-year period from 1884
to 1895, there were but fifty-eight.
In twenty-eight states the intermarriage of the races is
females and seven were white males. Of the one hundred and
Michigan ninety-three were white women and
eleven cases in
eighteen were white men.
33 34
Stone 35 comments on the
Boston situation as follows:
1900 32 3 35
1901 30 1 31
1902 25 4 29
1903 27 2 29
1904 27 1 28
1905 17 2 19
Baker, Following the Color Line, p. 172.
33
Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies, p. 119.
It is interesting in this connection to note that of the 18 white men
84
keeper, one had deserted a white wife and family, two others
were of good families but were themselves of bad reputa-
tion.
38
It is perhaps not generally understood to what extent sexually sa-
tiated prostitutes seek Negro men in their search for new stimulation,
The same thing is true of many debauched white men.
39
Race Traits and Tendencies, p. 206.
138 The Mulatto in the United States
For
this reason the idea, unpopular, to be sure, but
indicated by the facts, that the races in America
still
43
There is here no intention to put in question the sincere devotion and
pure romantic love that doubtless led to the marriage unions between
such men as Frederick Douglass, President Scarborough of Wilberforce,
Ira Aldridge, the actor, and other prominent mulattoes and their white
wives. See note 4, p. 316.
140 The Mulatto in the United States
white men. The white boys were sometimes intimate with the house-
maids. .
." Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 86.
.
47
"At this time [about 1850] says Mr. Brown: 'Cincinnati was full
of women, without husbands, and their children. These were sent by
the planters of Louisiana, Mississippi, and some from Tennessee, who
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 141
said to have a settlement of this sort. "The thing that gives a peculiar
and interesting character to many of these ante-bellum Negro settle-
ments is that they were made by Southern slave-holders who desired to
free their slaves and were not able to do so under the restrictions that
were imposed upon emancipation in the Southern states. Many of the
colored people in these settlements were the natural children of their
master. . . ." Ibid,, Vol. 1, pp. 234-35.
48
A Journey in the Seaboard Slave States, pp. 594-97.
—
142 The Mulatto in the United States
1
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 143
housekeeping —
living as if they were married. The
woman not, of course, to be wholly deprived of the
is
society of others —
her former acquaintances are con-
tinued, and she sustains her relations as daughter, sis-
ter, and friend. Of course, too, her husband (she calls
—
him so why shouldn't she?) will be likely to continue,
also, more or less in, and form a part of, this kind of
society. There are parties and balls bals masques —
and all the movements and customs of other fashionable
society, which they can enjoy in it, if they wish. The
women of this sort are represented to be exceedingly af-
fectionate in disposition, and constant beyond re-
proach.
During all the time a man sustains this relation, he
will commonly be moving, also, in reputable society on
the other side of the town not improbably, eventually
;
Unlawful Polygamy
* fl
It is this third and numerically more important element that is
overlooked by Mr. DuBois when he asserts that the mulatto is the product
of "a system of concubinage of colored women in slavery days, together
with some intermarriage." See The Negro American Family, p. 47.
Also, see the article in Inter-Racial Problems, The Negro and elsewhere.
w The Independent, Vol. speaking editorially: "None
55, p. 454, says,
of the intermixture is the fruit of marriage. It has been nearly all
produced in the South, and is all the fruit of white fathers and darker
mothers." Here is exaggeration almost to the point of misstatement.
It is not "all the fruit of white fathers and darker mothers:" some of
it is the fruit of marriage. It has been "nearly all produced in the
South" only in the sense that nearly all of the race has been in the
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 145
white persons with negroes; but excepting those born of mulatto parents,
most persons of the class were not born of free negro or free white
mothers, but of slave mothers and were set free because of their kinship
to their master and owner." J. H. Russell, The Free Negro in Vir-
ginia, p. 127.
83
"It must be said that the stigma of illicit intercourse in Pennsylvania
would not generally seem to rest upon the masters, but rather upon
servants, outcasts, and the lowlier class of whites." The Negro in Penn-
sylvania, p. 31.
a:
54
Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, pp. 83-84,
146 The Mulatto in the United States
88
There is, of course, no scientific credence to be given to the stories
of so many mixed-bloods that they are descendants of some prominent
man. The making of genealogies is not confined exclusively to the newly-
rich class of the whites. It is not meant to question, however, that cer-
tain eminent men may have been
fathers of mulattoes. Benjamin Frank-
lin was openly accused of keeping Negro paramours and seems to have
made no attempt to deny it. "What is sauce for the goose is sauce for
the gander." (1764.) "An humble attempt at scurrility." (1765), etc.
Franklin, however, was not a member of the aristocratic class. His
actions are rather an evidence of the part that the middle and lower
class had to do with the production of the mulattoes. Thomas Jefferson
has also been accused of being the father of mulatto children and he
certainly was of the aristocratic class.
E8
J. C. Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, p. 27, f. n.
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 147
57
European apprenticeship system then in vogue. In gen-
eral, this indentured servant class may be divided into three
divisions on the basis of the cause of their immigration to
America. 58 Many were free, poor people, anxious to go to
America but unable to pay their way, who pledged their
service for a term of years to gain passage. There were
also a goodly number of persons, generally children, kid-
napped in the streets of English cities and sold into servi-
65
at first, there being only thirty in the colony in 1650. In
1671 there were about two thousand slaves and six thousand
white servants in Virginia. Twelve years later, the latter
had nearly doubled, while the blacks had increased to about
three thousand. The Negroes, however, proved their supe-
riority as a servile labor class and from about 1685 on
white servitude began to give way to black slavery. In
66
Maryland, the white servants were numerous and of the
same general type as those of Virginia. Brackett 67 states
that the English jails were in part emptied into the colonies
and adds that many of the indentured class were adventurers
and good-for-nothings. Elsewhere the situation was simi-
68
lar, though in the other colonies the white servants did
not form so high a percentage of the total population. 69
It was these servants with whom the Negroes came into
closest contact. Many of them, of course, were highly re-
spectable persons, 70 but among them were "disorderly per-
71
sons," deported convicts, prostitutes, and the like, in
great numbers. They courted the Negroes as agreeable
companions. 72 The social condition of the black and white
65
See p. 107 f. above.
69
See McCormac, White Servitude in Maryland, Chapter 3, "Number
and Economic Importance."
97
Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 118.
88
Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, pp. 92-93.
69
Maryland, Pennsylvania and Virginia were the three chief colonies
importing white servants.
70 ".
. . In many much worth who had
instances they were people of
met with misfortune, who having been poor in the first place had
or
taken advantage of this opportunity to make their fortunes in the New
World. ." Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North
. .
Carolina, p. 80.
" Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 121.
72
See Bassett, Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 22, for illu-
minating side-light on the consequences of the association of the Negroes
and the low-class whites-
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 149
78
Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 33.
"Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, pp. 29-30.
w Ibid., pp. 30-31.
81
Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina,
p. 34.
"The women grew unchaste, the men dishonest, until in many minds
81
the term 'free negro' became a synonym of all that was worthless and
despicable." David Dodge [O. W. Blacknall], "The Free Negroes of
North Carolina." Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 57, p. 26.
"Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, p. 137. He adds: "However
this may have been, there is ample documentary evidence to show that
in the 19th century there was a large class of the free colored population
the members of which were respectable and observant of decency and
regularity in their family relation."
84
Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, pp. 33, 195.
85
Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina, p. 30.
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 151
86
Ibid., pp. 30, 59. It is probable that they contracted this disease
from the Indian rather than from the Negro slaves. If from the Ne-
groes, they had received it from the Indians.
87
Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 189.
""... Friends were still troubled by the racing of horses and the
meeting of negroes Great crowds of idle whites and blacks, they
. . .
said, drank and behaved riotously there— until, in 1747, horse racing
was forbidden, also, and the constables of the neighborhood ordered to
disperse all crowds of slaves, at the time of the yearly meetings, if nec-
essary by whipping and by the assistance of a posse." Ibid., p. 102.
89
Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony of Virginia, p. 69.
89
Ibid., p. 69.
81
Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, pp. 124-27.
152 The Mulatto in the United States
92
between shameless white persons and Negroes." Wil-
93
liams, speaking of Maryland, says that the Negro slaves
who were at first courted by the convicts and other lowly
whites, at length came to be treated worse by them than
by the opulent and intelligent slave dealers.
This attitude of superiority and the disposition to keep
free from all association with the Negro, which was at all
times true of many individuals and which later came to be
a marked characteristic of the whole poor white class, is
94
thus stated by Ballagh:
140 f. n.
101
McCormac, White Servitude in Maryland, pp. 69-70.
:
between them than between either and the white. There was
some ground of sympathy between them and there were
no laws forbidding intermixture. 108 In many of the colo-
nies, the first slaves were Indians. 109 The captives in battle
105
Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, p. 250.
106
Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, p. 117, mentions such a case.
". . .At about the same time, a Pocomok Indian was imprisoned for
rape of an English woman. ... As it was found that the woman had
willingly erred, the Indian was merely whipped, according to English
law, and advised by the court to be more circumspect."
107
Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, p. 130. See, also, Bassett,
Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 90. He here quotes a cor-
respondent as saying that "many of them [mulattoes] were descended
from Indian and ." . .
108
Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia, pp. 41, 127 If.
W9 Bassett,
Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina,
156 The Mulatto in the United States
were enslaved, 110 and not a few were kidnapped along the
unsettled coasts and sold into slavery among the more set-
"Indian Slavery."
110
Massachusetts sold the captives in King William's war into slavery.
Virginia made slaves for life of those Indians taken in war but hesi-
tated to do so with those offered for sale by other Indians. Steiner,
A History of Slavery in Connecticut, p. 9. Brackett, The Negro in
Maryland, p. 19. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North
Carolina, pp. 72 ff.
111
The first slaves in North Carolina were of this sort. Ibid., p. 71.
112
H. S. Cooley, A Study of Slavery in New Jersey, pp. 11-13.
113
"At first some masters enslaved Indian women to increase their
slave-progeny. This cross was not adapted to slavery, because those of
Indian blood knew the country and were better able to escape. Conse-
quently a law was passed in most states forbidding the enslavement of
the children of Indian mothers. For this reason many Negro men took
Indian wives so that their children might be born free. . .
." J. F.
Gould, "The Negro Finding Himself," Speech before the Boston Business
League, A Negro Organization. Quoted in the Boston Reliance, a Negro
newspaper. It is not meant for humor.
114
Massachusetts in 1712 and Connecticut in 1716 forbade the impor-
tation of Indian siaves on the ground that they were fierce and caused
trouble. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Caro-
lina, p. 73.
U5
Dodge, Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 57, pp. 29-30.
Ibid., p. 72.
many, not the larger part of the free negroes whose freedom dates
if
further back than this century show traits in mind and body that are
unmistakably Indian. ." The Indians seem to have been more used
. .
true of the French settlements. Both the French and the English feel
less repugnance toward the Indian than toward the Negro. H. A.
Trexler, Slavey in Missouri, p. 80. See, also, note 118, p. 157 below.
118
John Fisk, The Discovery of America, Vol. 2, pp. 427 ff., has an
excellent brief description of Indian slavery.
117
A petition in 1843 in regard to the Pamunkey reservation in King
Williams County stated "that all but a small remnant of the old Indian
tribe was extinct, and that in its place were free mulattoes, 'They
. . .
are so mingled with the negro race as to have obliterated all striking
features of Indian extraction. It is the general resort of free negroes
from parts of the country.' " Russell, The Free Negro in Virginia,
all
tribes have been completely absorbed into the negro race." See, also,
p. 81 above.
119
"In treaties made with the governor of Maryland with various
Indians, in 1661 and 1663, there is the stipulation that the Indians are
to return any runaway 'Englishmen.' Later the neighboring Indians
were encouraged to seize runaways by the reward of a blanket or its
value. Treaties with them forbade their harboring servants and slaves,
who were to be given over to the nearest English plantation. The back-
woods offered a near retreat for runaways. As a certain tribe of Indians
had evidently been regardless of the rights of the good people of Mary-
land in their servants and slaves, the Governor and Council decided, in
158 The Mulatto in the United States
74-75.
120
and Servitude in the Colony of North Carolina,
Bassett, Slavery
p. 57, quotes Brikell,Natural History of North Carolina, p. 273, as say-
ing that "The Indians had a natural and irreconcilable hatred for
. . .
the negroes and delighted in torturing them. When they would meet
runaways in the woods they would attack them vigorously, either killing
them or driving them back to the whites."
121
This was by no means always the case between the free Negroes and
the poor whites. See Bassett, Slavery in the State of North Carolina,
p. 43. Dodge, Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 59, p. 29, says: ". Hardly a . .
neighborhood was free from low white women who married or co-
habited with free negroes. Well can I recollect the many times when,
with the inconsiderate curiosity of a child, I hurriedly climbed the front
Nature of Race Intermixture in United States 159
ble says: "This woman was a mulatto daughter of a slave called Sophy,
by a white man of the name of Walker, who visited the plantation," p.
190. Of another mulatto she says: "The woman's father had been a
white man who was employed for some purpose on the estate," p. 194.
It was of course to the master's interest to prevent intermixture so far
as he was able to do so. "If a woman had children she was rendered
less desirable as a slave. ."
. Frequently slave women were offered
.
for sale for no other reason than that they had children. Cooley,
A Study of Slavery in New Jersey, p. 55. However, this was not al-
ways the case. Brickell, Natural History of North Carolina, p. 272,
160 The Mulatto in the United States
says that "a fruitful woman amongst them being very much valued by
the planters and a numerous issue esteemed the greatest riches in the
country." Quoted by Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of
North Carolina, pp. 57-58.
126
"The slave-holders of the Southern states are benevolently do-
. . .
ing their best, in one way at least, to raise and improve the degraded
race, and the bastard population which forms so ominous an element
in the social safety of their cities ." Kemble, Residence on a Geor-
. .
girl who comes to Chicago has been in the city forty-eight hours with-
out being besieged by the colored men and boys of the city whose one
effort and desire is to work her downfall. We talk of the way in which
the white men wrong our girls but it is our men and boys who least
respect and honor them." The black girl is nattered by these attentions,
especially when they come from mulatto men just as the mulatto girl
is flattered by the attention of white men.
Nature of Race Intermixture m United States 163
ways has been greater in the cities and towns than in the
rural districts, and relatively greater in the North than
in the South. Since the freedom of the Negroes and their
immigration to the towns and cities, intermixture of the
races in the South has increased. It is in the urban situa-
tion that the Negro girls and women come into contact most
frequently with dissolute white men. It is there, too, that
the opportunity to conceal the relationship makes the con-
trol of the situation by the prevailing public sentiment less
effective than in the rural situation.
Finally, such intermixture of the races as now goes on,
outside a very little intermarriage, is, for the most part,
between the vicious elements of both races. Under the slave
regime, especially as it took place outside the cities, it was
often a relation between a better class of white men than
is now usually the case and the choicest and usually the
lightest-colored Negro girls. At the present time, there is
chief sinners —if sinners they can be called in such connection —are the
coloured, as distinct from the pure negro, women of the South."
134
Mr. DuBois has pointed out that the process of intermixture goes
on between the mulatto girls and the lower grade of whites. ". in . .
is said, that "very few prostitutes can make a living" because the half-
breed girls "are so easy." E. A. Ross, South of Panama, pp. 222-26.
CHAPTER VII
THEAmericaNegroes
in
first introduced into the English Colonies
were probably not introduced as slaves.
1
1
"Beyond all question the first negroes brought in were not introduced
as freemen. The only question is whether, upon entering the colony,
they became servants or slaves. . . ." J. H. Russell, The Free Negro
in Virginia, p. 23. See, also, p. 19.
'Ibid., p. 137.
H. S. Cooley, A
Study of Slavery in New Jersey, p. 57.
Edward The Negro in the District of Columbia, p. 43.
Ingle,
David Dodge, "The Free Negroes of North Carolina," Atlantic
Monthly, Vol. 57, p. 24, gives 1830 as the date, and reaction against abo-
litionism the cause, of change in race prejudice.
8
J. R. Brackett, The Negro in Maryland, pp. 30 ff.
166
The Growth of the Mulatto Class 167
from the settlers may have given them a status unlike tha£
of other persons in the colonies. Their number was very
small, however, and it was, in general, a generation after
their first introduction before black slavery was recognized
by law. It had existed as a well-established and well-under-
stood custom long before it anywhere received legal sanc-
tion.
But gradually the Negroes acquired or were assigned a
4
ually," says Turner, "the very best negroes had come to
be regarded as of an alien race, and as an outcast and de-
graded people with whom no intimate association was pos-
sible." Color prejudice grew up as the characteristics of
the Negroes became better known and increased in strength
with the increase in numbers of the blacks. Where the
numbers remained small, the prejudice remained very largely
a simple, organic, repulsive reaction against the strange
and the ugly. As long as the numbers remained so small
as to constitute no immediate menace, the outward ex-
pression of the race prejudice remained in abeyance. Where
the slaves were more numerous and better known, the sen-
timents and attitudes were more definitely organized and
the Negro, as such, was assigned a separate and lower eco-
nomic and social status as the only conceivable working
relation that could exist between two groups at the oppo-
site extremes of human culture.
This race, ever more and more separated from the white
group by the action of the whites, was in no sense a homo-
geneous group. 6 Its members were much alike as to color
7
and other physical characteristics, but in temperament
and in talent they differed much as other men differ. As
their domestication progressed, they rapidly became a less
4
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 199.
5
Ibid., p. 143. See, also, J. C. Ballagh, White Servitude in the Colony
of Virginia, pp. 97 ff. and G. W. Williams, History of the Negro Race
;
service, and thus their offspring had opportunities beyond the other
negroes. Lunsford early learned to read and write Many men of . . .
rt(t
Except for natural procreation, the principal additions or
. . .
recruits to this class [free Negroes] throughout this period were the
result of illegitimacy. There was no tendency to attribute to a few
negroes and mulattoes of such low origin any higher social standing than
."
that occupied by more than 99 per cent of their race and color. . .
some gained and held a place of comparative comfort and security, the
mass came under the obloquy attached to slavery without participation
in the benefits enjoyed by the average bondsman." E. Ingle, Southern
Sidelights, p. 285. See, also, p. 279. See, also, Williams, History of
the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, pp. 315, 286; Cooley, A Study of
Slavery in New Jersey, pp. 45 ff. ; Steiner, A History of Slavery in
Connecticut, p. 23, f. n. ; J. S. Bassett, Slavery in the State of North
Carolina, pp. 34 ff. ; Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of
North Carolina, pp. 66 ff.
13
These slaves "who thus came under the religious influence of their
masters and mistresses" were most likely the ones first converted to Chris-
tianity. See Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North
Carolina, pp. 48-50. See, also, E. Ingle, The Negro in the District of
Columbia, p. 19.
172 The Mulatto in the United States
The third class came little into contact with the whites. 18
On the plantation, they might never see the master and
seldom any white man from one year's end to another. On
the larger plantations and in Jamaica, it was even possible
for the slaves to see little more of the white man than did
their ancestors in Africa. On these larger plantations, the
institution was a more strictly economic one in contrast to
the more patriarchal type it assumed in the back country
and on the smaller plantations.
" "I should tell you that Aleck's parents and kindred have always
been about the house of the overseer, and in daily habits of intercourse
with him and his wife; and wherever this is the case the effect of in-
voluntary educationis evident in the improved intelligence of the de-
I
speech and crude in action were assigned to labor in the
fields and forest. . . ." After speaking of the class of
domestic servants he adds
24
See p. 139 above.
25
"Indeed it was notorious that freemen sold their own mulatto chil-
free negroes. Most of them were mulattoes, not a few of them were
set free by their fathers and thus they fell easily into the life around
them. This mulatto class was partly due to the easy sexual relations be-
tween the races. A white man who kept a negro mistress ordinarily
lost no standing in society on account of it. The habit, though not com-
mon, was not unusual. Often the mistress was a slave, and thus there
were frequent emancipations either by gift or by purchase of liberty,
till the stricter spirit of the laws after 1831 checked it." Bassett, Slavery
in the State of North Carolina, pp. 45-46.
29
See Booker T. Washington, Story of the Negro, Vol. 1, pp. 227 if.
27
So far as a sex relation exists anywhere between a master and a
subject race it is always the choicest females who are so honored. The
statement in the text, therefore, refers to the colored side of the mu-
lattoes' ancestry. There is no implication of or denial of fundamental
racial superiority. Their mothers were the choicest individuals of their
race.
The Growth of the Mulatto Class 177
and training, the best specimens of the race and raised the
percentage of mulattoes in the favored classes.
But the most important reason that the mulatto was
chosen in preference to the Negro for any employment that
brought him into association with the master family was
the fact that he was a better looking animal. 28 He made
a better appearance. 29 For this reason he was selected as
the house and body servant. This favored class of domes-
tic servants "were usually bright and intelligent negroes
who, through contact and sympathetic supervision, acquired
in many instances a training in manners and methods of
30
incomparable grace and efficiency."
28
Sir Harry H. Johnston, "Racial Problems and the Congress of
Races," Contemporary Review, Vol. 100, p. 154.
29
"She was quite indifferent to the public opinion that required only
fine-looking, thoroughly trained servants about the establishment of a
gentleman." Smedes, A
Southern Planter, p. 65.
30
Thomas, The American Negro, p. 15. ". The mulattoes were em-
. .
ployed in towns. ... I have seen great plantations with not one of them
— all black." Bassett, Slavery in the State of North Carolina, p. 90,
quoting a correspondent, apparently with approval.
31
The various opprobrious epithets applied to members of the race,
and to the opposite race as well, have always been most widely used
by the Negroes themselves. "Crackers," "twisters," "niggers," "burr-
heads," "mule-niggers," "polka dots" and the like, if not invented by
Negroes were and are more often used by them than by the opposite race.
See The Chicago Defender, Editorial "So Say We," 10-9-1915.
32
In 1860, for e.g., 2,554s of the 3,441 free Negroes were mulattoes.
"
34
the largest body of free Negroes. Evans says :
36
Frederick Douglass testifies to the same fact as does
37 38
Mr. DuBois, Edward Blyden and, naively or otherwise,
34
Maurice S. Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, p. 93.
See, also, Ray Stannard Baker, "The Tragedy of the Mulatto," The
American Magazine, Vol. 65, p. 588.
35
J. W. Cromwell, The Negro in American History, p. 213.
ze
Life and Times, p. 458.
37 ".
.The thing that makes the mulatto especially useful is that,
.
with the white man, he shares the pride of his white blood and is less
likely than the black to submit to artificial distinctions of race where
nature has bridged them. ." Crisis, Editorial, 9-1913.
.
88
E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race, p. 18.
180 The Mulatto in the United States
hated him for his ambition to escape from the race and
43
align himself with the whites.
•^Once started, the mulatto class tended to perpetuate it-
47
See Raymond Patterson, The Negro and His Needs, p. 40.
18
See, E. B. Renter, "The Superiority of the Mulatto," American Jour-
nal of Sociology, Vol. 23, pp. 83-106.
CHAPTER VIII
183
;
3
DuBois, Booklover's Magazine, Vol. 2, p. 4.
4
John J. Ingalls, "Always a Problem," Chicago Tribune, 5-28-1893.
3
A. F. Stone, Studies in the American Race Problem, p. 27.
The Leading Men of the Negro Race 185
8
"Biological Effects of Race Movements," Popular Science Monthly,
Vol. 87, pp. 267-70.
7
J. J. Holm, Race Assimilation or the Fading of the Leopard's Spots,
p. 279.
8
H. E. Belin, "A Southern View of Slavery," American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 13, p. 518.
9
Encyclopedia Britannica: Negro.
10
R. W. Shufeldt, The Negro: A Menace to American Civilization-
p. 43.
11
Lectures on Man, pp. 192-93.
The Mulatto in the United States
a figure out of Balzac and the Comedie Humaine. Part Napoleonic sol-
dier, part San Dominican negro, ... ye gods of the drama, what an
heredity! ... he seems to us a savage tale-teller, seated at the camp-
fire, holding his companions breathless. Alternately lazy and energetic,
sensual and shrewd, he has all the undiluted primitive forces of huge
25
Van Evrie, was a man of mixed blood. Francois Domi-
nique Toussaint, the guerilla chief of the Negro insurrec-
tionists in Haiti, seems not to have been a full-blooded Ne-
26 Geoffray of Martinique, engineer, mathe-
gro. Mr. Lille
the negro," p. 171. Gregoire seems not certain that there was such a
man or if there was that he was a Negro.
Annibal: an officer in the Russian artillery at the time of Peter the
Great.
The Son of Annibal: a mulatto.
Anthony William Amo: born in Guinea, educated in England.
L'Islet Geoffray: a mulatto.
James Durham: mulatto slave, practiced medicine in New Orleans.
Thomas Fuller: mathematical prodigy. Apparently a Negro.
Othello: published "An Essay Against the Slavery of Negroes."
"Othello" was a pseudonym. The race of the writer is not known. There
seems to be no reason for calling him a Negro.
Benjamin Banneker: a mulatto.
Ottobah Cugoano: published his reflections of the slave trade and the
slavery of Negroes.
James Eliza John Capitein: educated in Holland. Wrote some Latin
verses.
William Francis: Jamaican Negro of the eighteenth century. Edu-
cated in England. Taught Latin and mathematics in Jamaica.
Olandad, or Gustavus Vassa: brought to England as a child; wrote
memoirs.
Ignatius Sancho: an English butler. An edition of his letters was
printed after his death.
Phyllis Wheatley Peters: apparently black.
25
White Supremacy and Negro Subordination, p. 163. Van Evrie
would seem to be in error here. Tradition has it that both Thomas
Fuller and Mrs. Peters were full-blood Negroes. See p. 190 below.
29 ".
Judging from his pictures, you cannot but form the opinion
. .
that Toussaint was not a pure-blooded negro: the features, the shape
of the head, the setting of the eyes are all so many strong reasons
against such a supposition." Where Black Rules White, p.
Prichard,
278. For a contrary opinion see the Negro Year Book, 1914-15, p. 75.
C. V. Roman, American Civilization and the Negro, opposite p. 8, gives
a picture of Toussaint and calls him a "full-blood." Either the picture
or the caption is in error: the picture is not that of a full-blood Negro.
;
her ancestry. She was sold into slavery and in 1761 she
was brought to America where she served in the household
of Mrs. John Wheatley of Boston and from whom she re-
ceived some slight instruction in English and Latin. She
went to London with the son of her mistress. While there
she published a small volume of poems upon which rests her
claim to fame. She certainly was not a poet, 28 but her ef-
tual improvement.
Thomas Fuller, 29 a mathematical prodigy of the same
period, seems also to have been a black man. He enjoyed
considerable local fame because of his power to perform
complicated mathematical calculations. He was unable to
read or write and, as is usual with prodigies of this sort,
seems to have been a mental defective.
Benjamin Banneker seems to have a decidedly better
claim to prominence than either of the preceding. He is
p. 399.
Woodson, History of Negro Education, pp. 87-88.
80
Woodson, History of Negro Education, pp. 90-91, 62-63.
"Williams, History of the Negro Race in America, Vol. 1, pp. 385,
390. See p. 131 above.
The Leading Men of the Negro Race 191
83
Negro Year Book 1914-1915, p. 334.
J. A. Kenney, The Negro in Medicine, p. 6.
Woodson, History of Negro Education, pp. 88-89.
83
Also known as George Sharp.
84
J. S. Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the Colony of North Caro-
lina, p. 73, says Chavis was a full-blood Negro. This seems to be an
error. See, also, the same writer's article in the American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 13, p. 826.
8B
Bassett, Slavery and Servitude in the State of North Carolina, p. 57.
192 The Mulatto in the United States
"Ibid., p. 15.
*T
W. T. Thomas, "Race Psychology," American Journal of Sociology,
Vol. 17, p. 746, speaks of Miller as a "full-blooded black," The At-
The Leading Men of the Negro Race 195
Ohio.
49
"His mother's father was a Malay Indian, and his other grand-
parents were by birth full-blooded savage Australian aborigines born
in the wilds back of Melbourne. ... At the age of 16, Woods was
brought by his parents to America. . . ." S. W. Balch, "Electrical Mo-
tor Regulation," Cosmopolitan, Vol. 18, p. 762.
50
The Negro Problem: A Series of Articles by Representative Amer-
ican Negroes of To-day.
61
C. W. Chestnutt mulatto
W. E. B. DuBois mulatto
Paul L. Dunbar black
T. Thomas Fortune mulatto
H. T. Kealing mulatto
Wilford H. Smith mulatto
Booker T. Washington mulatto
196 The Mulatto in the United States
Ira Aldridge
The Leading Men of the Negro Race 197
sale the pictures of "all the great men of the race." 54 Their
88
Greenwood, Mississippi.
"See any issue of the Negro Star, for e.g., 1-14-1916. Letter from
the General Manager under date of 1-25-1916.
65
See p. 189 above.
Bfl
Crispus Attucks mulatto
W. E. B. DuBois mulatto
Frederick Douglass mulatto
Alexandre Dumas mulatto
Paul Laurence Dunbar black
Richard T. Greener mulatto
John Mercer Langston mulatto
S. Coleridge Taylor mulatto
Henry O. Tanner mulatto
Francois Dominique Toussaint mulatto
Sojourner Truth mulatto
Booker T. Washington mulatto
Race Adjustment, pp. 186-98.
198 The Mulatto in the United States
opinion of Mr. Miller, the best that the race in America has
produced. "The names here presented," he says 58 "are at
least respectable when measured by European standards.
It is true that no one of them reaches the first, or even the
second degree of luster in the galaxy of the world's great-
ness." But they are all individuals in whose accomplish-
ments the race may well take pride. Of the names pre-
sented, one is that of a black woman, one that of a black
man, and the remaining fourteen are names of men of mixed
blood. The complete list follows:
60
Cromwell presents a slightly variant list. His intention,
as stated in the preface to his volume, is the publication of
a book which will give "the salient points in the history of
the American Negro, the story of their most eminent men
and women . . ." The twenty persons selected include
58
Race Adjustment, p. 188.
59
See note 49, p. 195 above.
J. W. Cromwell, The Negro in American History.
60
The Leading Men of the Negro Race 199
65
The California Eagle advertises for sale the pictures
of "the most Famous Men of the Colored Race, living and
dead." Their picture features eight men, one of whom,
Dunbar —was black. The remaining seven are names of men
01
Cromwell calls Blyden a full-blood Negro but this seems not to
have been the case. He was a dark man of mixed ancestry.
62
See p. 197 above.
63
See note 52, p. 196 above.
"Cromwell calls Price a full-blood Negro. He was probably not a
man of unmixed Negro blood. He passed, however, as a full-blood
Negro and the race took great pride in claiming him as such. A good
photograph appears on p. 212 of Cromwell's book.
66
A Negro newspaper of Los Angeles, California.
:
of mixed blood. 66
The Colored American Review^ 1 offers a similar list
C. E. Bentley
H. C. Bishop
J. W. E. Bowen
R. H. Boyd
W. Stanley Braithwaite
B. G. Brawley
Miss H. Q. Brown
Mrs. B. K. Bruce
John E. Bruce
Roscoe C. Bruce
I. T. Bryant
W. H. Bulkley
Harry T. Burleigh
Miss Nannie H. Burroughs
William H. Bush
J. S. Caldwell
James L. Carr
W. J. Carter
C. W. Chestnutt
George W. Cook
Will Marion Cook
L. J. Coppin
W. H. Crogman
Harry S. Cummings
A. M. Curtis
James L. Curtis
J. C. Dancey
Franklin Dennison
R. N. Dett
J. H. Douglass
W. E. Burghardt DuBois
James Reese Europe
204 The Mulatto in the United States
son addressed, were the foremost men of the race. The men
addressed proved about thirty per cent courteous. Thirty-
six lists were received, including in all two hundred and fifty
"-jC©«5©t-C0G*<O©CDG*TpCi«O
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The Leading Men of the Negro Race 813
one.
lists would
In the opinion of the Negroes themselves, these
seem to include members of the race and many others
all —
who have made any success in life which would entitle them,
to mention outside purely racial or local circles. It in-
cludes some men of first-rate intellectual ability and a few
men of exceptional talent ; perhaps, a few men of eminence.
But in the first stages, at least, of the evolution of a primi-
". . . In most cases I do not consider these men of any real note.
You have included many Negroes who have not risen above medi-
ocrity. . .
."
". . . In looking over your list Ifind so many of mediocre fame that,
I am at a loss to divine to what use you intend to put the informa-
tion. . .
."
When this stage of the inquiry was reached the couple of hundred
names remaining out of the original list of several thousand were, with
half a dozen exceptions, dropped from further consideration. They
were, in the opinion of the best informed men of the race, names of
persons of absolutely no consequence one way or the other. In a few
cases the names of these men were retained in order to give in complete
form an original compilation.
The chapters in their final form were submitted in whole or in part
to men of widest information on matters of racial interest for final
verification.
CHAPTER IX
THE HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY OF THE NEGRO
consideration. 2
After eliminating from the total those per-
sons who have little or no better claim to eminence than
would an equal number of individuals taken at hazard from
the generalNegro population, there still remained the names
of seventy persons. Of this number, however, the names
of sixteen have appeared one or more times in the lists
given in the preceding chapter, 3 and so are omitted here.
The names remaining are as follows:
Mary A. Carey
S. Teacher and speaker mulatto
William H. Carney Soldier in Civil War mulatto 7
Eliza Ann Cook Started school for Negroes mulatto
Alexander Cornish Started school for Negroes mulatto
Louisa Parke Costin Started school for Negroes mulatto
William Costin Bank messenger mulatto
and Indian
a
See, also, note 86, p. 213 above.
8
Of the sixteen names dropped for this reason one is that of a
black man, one that of a black woman and fourteen are those of
mulatto men.
4
One authority called Ambush a mixed-blood.
6
Several authorities called Cain a mulatto.
"Two authorities called Carey a mulatto.
7
One authority called Carney a full-black. This was obviously an
error.
218 The Mulatto in the United States
11
One—Madison Washington—seems to have been merely a literary
character. See story by Frederick Douglass.
"Of the 60 names omitted for this reason, 6 are of black men, 3 of
black women, 47 are mulatto men and 4 are mulatto women.
:
as follows
Reconstruction politician mulatto
C. C. Antoine
Painter mulatto
E. M. Bannister
Musical prodigy black
Thomas Bethune
Nellie Brown Singer mulatto
13
Two correspondents called Cato black.
14
One authority called Gleaves black.
"Three correspondents considered Jones a mulatto.
ia
Revels came from the Croatan Indian group. See pp. 81, 85 above.
The History and Biography of the Negro 281
\. 0. Stafford
: ;
follows
J. W. Adams mulatto
Rev. W. G. Alexander mulatto
Dr. J. B. Banks mulatto
Miss Ella D. Barrier mulatto
Henry Black mulatto
Rev. E. R. Carter mulatto
A. C. Cornell mulatto
Mrs. W. M. Coshburn mulatto
Walter M. Coshburn mulatto
Prof. W. H. Council black
William Custalo mulatto
J. H. Darden mulatto
Mrs. L. A. Davis mulatto
Louis Earnest black
Miss Hattie Gibbs mulatto
Nora A. Gordon mulatto
E. Hansberry mulatto
Prof. W. E. Holmes mulatto
Mrs. Emma T. Hort mulatto
Hon. S. J. Jenkins mulatto
James Kelly- mulatto
Horace King mulatto
W. W. King mulatto
M. N. King mulatto
J. T. King mulatto
G. H. King mulatto
M. J. Lehman mulatto
Rev. W. W. Lucas mulatto
Rev. Leigh B. Maxwell black
Prof. J. L.Murray mulatto
Rev. Cyrus Myers mulatto
Rev. M. W. D. Norman mulatto
Miss Ida Piatt mulatto
Mrs. Mary Rice Phelps black
B. F. Powell mulatto
Mrs. M. A. Robinson mulatto
Rev. D. J. Sanders mulatto
Dr. B. E. Scruggs mulatto
Huston Singleton mulatto
Albretta Moore Smith mulatto
Charity Still black
D. A. Straker mulatto
Lillian J. B. Thomas mulatto
Mrs. Margaret Washington mulatto
Rev. W. B. West mulatto
Miss Emma Rose Williams mulatto
Mrs. D. H. Williams mulatto
Mrs. Fannie Barrier Williams mulatto
Mrs. Sylvanie F. Williams mulatto
21 22
M. W. Gibbs in the preface to his volume says
23
Paul Laurence Dunbar.
a*
Rev. J. A. Booker, Bishop W. B. Derrick and Rev. J. P. Robinsoi
The latter may be a man of unmixed Negro blood; the two former ail
probably men of mixed blood. All three are dark as to color an«
have the characteristic rough features of the African though in n
case of an extreme sort.
28
Of names omitted for this reason, one is that of
the nineteen
full-blood Negro and eighteen are names of mulattoes.
28
Twentieth Century Negro Literature or Cyclopedia of Thought b
One Hundred of America's Greatest Negroes.
77
Preface, pp. 6, 10.
The History and Biography of the Negro ££5
J. M. Cox
The History and Biography of the Negro mi
R. G. Robinson Principal LaGrange Academy mulatto
Mrs. M. E. C. Smith Teacher, Jacksonville, Fla. mulatto
30
Fannie Barrier Williams, A New Negro for a New Century.
81
Of the thirty-six names omitted for this reason twenty-two are of
:
Anthony Barrier
Amon C. Beaman
Hugh M. Browne
Anthony Burns
Peter H. Clark
Thomas Coppin
William Crafts
Mrs. William Crafts
J. Howard Day
33
Robert Bogle, Henry Jones and Prosser were caterers. Thomas
Shirley contributed to start a Negro school. The fifth man, Juan, was
a murderer.
Booker T. Washington calls Lucretia Mott a Negro. This seems
34
8*
Osborn Perry Anderson One of "Men at Arms"
the mulatto
James M. Bell Friend of John Brown mulatto
John Anthony Copeland One of the "Men at Arms" mulatto
40
Newby Dangerfield One of the "Men at Arms" mulatto
Jim Daniels Slave in Kansas mulatto
41
Shields Green One of the "Men at Arms" black
James E. O'Harra United States Congress mulatto
Lewis S. Leary One of the "Men at Arms" mulatto
and nine were black men. Eighteen of the women were mu-
lattoes and* one seems to have been a woman of pure blood.
Sixty of the one hundred and seven names have appeared
44
in preceding lists. The forty-seven not previously men-
tioned are listed as follows
John Prout
Charles L. Reason
Sarah Redmond
44
Of the 60 omitted for this reason 52 were men and 8 were women.
Of the men 3 were black and 49 were of mixed blood. Of the women,
one was black and the remaining 7 were mulattoes.
"Woodson, Education of the Negro, p. 281.
The History and Biography of the Negro 233
46 47
In Daniels's study of the Boston Negroes are men-
tioned some men and women of the Negro race of more or
less prominence in and about Boston in the early days. This
J. H. Allston
Philip J. Allston
E. H. Armistead
William O. Armstrong
Powhattan Bagnall
J. B. Bailey
Gertrude M. Baker
Walden Banks
Jehial C. Beaman
Edgar P. Benjamin
Paul C. Brooks
E. E. Brown
W. W. Bryant
Seymour Burr
Mrs. Olivia Ward Bush
Jacqueline Carroll
Julius B. Chappelle
J. Milton Clark
Jonas Clark
Bob Cole
Robert F. Coursey
48
Of the 40 omitted, 7 were women and 33 men. Of the women, one
was black and six were mulattoes. Of the men, 2 were black and
31 were mulattoes.
49
This is not concurred in by all the authorities.
60
He and his brother were called "The White Slaves."
The History and Biography of the Negro 235
51
One correspondent considered Crawford a full-blood Negro.
52
Questioned by one authority.
SS
Hodges is a dark mulatto, not a full-blood Negro as is frequently
asserted.
236 The Mulatto in the United States
Harriet Smith
:
Lewis Adams
The History and Biography of the Negro 239
Benjamin T. Green
William E. Gross
George C. Hall
Prince Hall
R. M. Hall
Fenton Harper
T. N. Harris
Jare Haralson
T. S. Hawkins
Matt Henson
E. M. Hewlett
L. P. Hill
Mrs. L. Hill
Richard Holloway
J. T. Holly
Harry Hosier
A. Hubbard
John Hyman
Deal Jackson
Jennie Jackson
John Jasper
Cordelia A. Jennings
Mrs. Mary F. Jennings
Rev. O. C. Jenkins
L. E. Johnson
63
Or nearly so.
81
The authorities about equally divided.
The History and Biograph" of the Negro 841
D. C. Suggs
£44 The Mulatto in the United States
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CHAPTER X
246
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 247
2
The seem to have been about equally divided between Ne-
soldiers
groes and mulattoes. The 55th Regiment of Volunteer Infantry, for
example, had a total of 980 enlisted men. Four hundred and thirty
were mulattoes and 550 were apparently pure black. The black men
were probably two or three times as numerous as the mulattoes in the
general population. See Burt G. Wilder, "The Brain of the American
Negro," Proceedings of the First National Negro Conference, p. 49.
8
The color of these free Negroes, according to General Butler, was
"about that of Vice-President Hamlin, or the late Mr. Daniel Webster."
See J. P. Ficklen, The History of Reconstruction in Louisiana, p. 121.
4
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, pp. 157-59.
6
Ibid., p. 159.
8
Henry O. Flipper mulatto
John H. Alexander mulatto
Charles Young mulatto
'Ibid., p. 161.
248 The Mulatto in the United States
All this is probably true and exactly the same thing is,
been twenty members of the Negro race, not more than three
11
\V. E. B. DuBois, BookloveSs Magazine, Vol. 2, pp. 2-14.
The Negro and tlie Mulatto in Pursuits 251
13
1914-1915, p. 151.
"Shufeldt, not always reliable, is authority for the statement that
Murray was a black man. Murray had a rather unsavory reputation
having divorced his Negro wife and married a white woman. He was
later convicted of forgery and sentenced to a three-year term in the
penitentiary. "Every line of his cannon-ball head was modeled on
African lines. His complexion is that of the ace of spades, and his
features are of the pronounced negro type. ." R. W. Shufeldt,
. .
Louisiana
C. C. Antoine mulatto
Oscar J. Dunn mulatto
P. B. S. Pinchback mulatto
South Carolina
R. H. Gleaves mulatto
Alonzo J. Ransier mulatto
Mississippi
Alexander K. Davis " mulatto
*>Ibid., p. 153.
21
Ibid., p. 153.
254 The Mulatto in the United States
George H. Jackson .
mulatto
Consul at Cognac, France
James W. Johnson mulatto
Consul at Corinto, Nicaragua
I^emuel W. Livington black
Consul at Cape Haitien, Haiti
Christopher H. Payne mulatto
Consul at Thomas, West Indies
St.
Herbert R. Wright black
Consul at Puerto Cabello, Venezuela
William J. Yerb mulatto
Consul at Sierra Leone, West Africa
22
Negro Yttar Book, 1914-1915, p. 27.
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 255
R. H. Terrell mulatto
Municipal Court of Washington, D. C.
Ralph W. Tyler Indian and mulatto
Auditor of the Navy
was possible to obtain them, the names of all men who are
mentioned in the literature as having held elective or ap-
pointive offices, or as otherwise having distinguished them-
selves by political ability, or gained political prominence.
After eliminating from the list thus compiled, the names
of men who have a better claim to distinction than the
all
24
Harry E. Baker, a mulatto clerk in the United States Patent Office,
claims to have verified 800 patents granted to Negroes. He estimates
that 400 others, unverified, have been granted. His plan of discovery
and verification has been to circularize the patent attorneys, newspapers,
"conspicuous citizens of both races," etc., on the subject. "The answers
to this inquiry cover a wide range of guess work, many mere rumors
and a large number of definite facts. These are all put through the
test of comparison with the official record of the patent office. ." . .
But even at the highest estimate that Mr. Baker claims for his race the
number of inventors is pitifully small. H. E. Baker, The Colored
Inventor.
28
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, names sixteen, pp. 284 ff.
M Reprinted in D. W. Culp's Twentieth Century Negro Literature.
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 257
L. C. Bailey
258 The Mulatto in the United States
A. T. Augusta
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 261
t
J
,
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 263
Allen University-
?m The Mulatto m the United States
as follows
T. Nelson Baker Yale 1903 black
Edward A. Bonchet Yale 1876 mulatto
William L. Bulkley Syracuse 1893 mulatto
J. R. L. Diggs 111. Wesleyan 1906 mulatto
W. E. B. DuBois Harvard 1895 mulatto
George E. Haynes Columbia 1912 mulatto
Lewis B. Moore Pennsylvania 1896 mulatto
Pezavia O'Connell Pennsylvania 1898 mulatto
C. H. Turner Chicago 1907 mulatto
C. G. Woodson Harvard 1912 mulatto
R. R. Wright, Jr. Pennsylvania 1911 mulatto
63
1914-1915, p. 231.
M E. V. Just, a light mulatto, received the Ph.D. degree from the
University of Chicago in 1916.
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 271
R. A. Carter
:
G. W. Allen
278 The Mulatto in the United States
J. C. Dancy
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 279
L. G. Jordan
:
as follows
83
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, p. 182.
84
Died 1913.
85
Rev. Robert Morgan.
89
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, pp. 183-84.
87
Ibid., p. 184.
88
Catholic Encyclopaedia.
89
Ibid.
90
Negro Year Book, 1914-1915, p. 187.
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 281
282 The Mulatto in the United States
that the writers did not share and but imperfectly under-
stood. Ashamed of the black man, and frequently unac-
quainted with him, the Negro writers have been unable,
or unwilling, to give expression to real Negro life. The
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 288
been a creation that is like neither the one nor the other.
Aside from the slight work of Paul Laurence Dunbar, a
frank interpretation of Negro life and Negro character by
a Negro who knows his people and is not ashamed of them
is yet to be written.
In other forms of writing, the Negro has been handi-
capped by a lack of training. Few Negroes are trained
men. A dozen names include all the men of the race who
have received a first-class university training. Even the
number of college graduates is very small, and most of
these are from so-called colleges or universities which are
generally not prepared either in equipment or faculty to
give a first-class high school training. The graduates of
the best of these "Universities" at most are trained in two
years of college work. Consequently little is to be expected
of the Negro in a scholarly way — the surprise is that there
has been anything. Of real scientific study by Negroes,
there has been almost nothing ; of first-class historical study,
very little. On the Negro question, to the discussion of
which the Negroes have contributed more in volume than to
any other question, no Negro as yet has been able to give
an unbiased, objective statement.
The only attempt worthy of any serious consideration,
by a member of the race, to evaluate the writing of Negroes
is that of G. B. Brawley. In a small volume published in
91
The Negroes in fiction seem always to be mixed-bloods, octoroons
or near-white, and only the rough and despicable and pitiable charac-
ters are black. *
284 The Mulatto in the United States
93
1910, 92 he says that he has attempted
where.
On the stage, in competition with the performers of the
white race and playing before audiences of white people,
very few Negroes have been able to make even a tolerable
success. Whether due to a peculiarly difficult apprentice-
ship through which the Negro with stage ambitions must
101
pass or to a relative absence from the race of any his-
trionic ability of a high order, 102 the number of Negro
stage celebrities is very small. The drama has had no con-
siderable following among the race, and the productions de-
pending upon race patronage for support generally have
103
not been of a high order of merit. Brawley names Ira
"Mrs. S. C. Fuller.
100 j<j
ie jy e g ro i n Literature and Art, p. 44.
101
Brawley, The Negro in Literature and Art, p. 39.
102
P. A. Bruce, "Race Segregation in the United States," The Hib-
bert Journal, Vol. 13, p. 877.
10
*The Negro in Literature and Art, pp. 39 ff.
288 The Mulatto in the United States
by the men of the race, as well as for their minutely detailed vul-
garity and lascivious indecency they are perhaps not equaled by the
lewd literature of any people.
109
James W. Johnson, "The Negro of To-day in Music," Charities
Vol. 15, pp. 58-59.
110
The Negro in Literature and Art, pp. 53 ff.
The Negro and the Mulatto in Pursuits 291
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292 The Mulatto in the United States
ness life of the community. Where the Negro has been suf-
1
The Colored People of Chicago: An Investigation Made for the
Juvenile Protective Association, 1913.
293
294 The Mulatto in the United States
4
Issue of 1914-1915, pp. 311-18.
296 The Mulatto in the United States
W. T. Andrews
300 The Mulatto in the United States
R. H. Boyd
Negro and Mulatto m Business and Industry 301
James E. Garner
302 The Mulatto in the United States
Isaac H. Smith
Negro and Mulatto in Business and Industry 305
J. Winter
— 1
world.
In the analysis of this group of exceptional Negroes,
effort was made to follow the same line of demarcation
adopted by the Bureau of the Federal Census. In the group
of full-blooded Negroes, were placed those who so consider
themselves or are so considered by other Negroes who know
them, as well as those individuals of undoubtedly pure Ne-
gro ancestry. In the group of mulattoes, were placed those
individuals who claim to be mulattoes or who so pass in the
communities in which they live, as well as those whose color
and features show clearly and unmistakably that they are
of a mixed racial origin. No individuals were placed in the
mulatto group where the evidence of mixed ancestry did not
appear to be conclusive. Many questionable and border-line
cases were placed with and counted as Negroes of full blood.
1
Mary Helen Lee, The Eurasian: A Social Problem, pp. 12-13.
2
J. Smith, Ten Years in Burma, p. 117. Lee, The Eurasian, p. 14.
8
See 32 f. above.
p.
4
Davenport shows that among the hybrid population of Jamaica
and Bermuda there is a marriage selection against the dark males. They
have less opportunity to become husbands of light-colored women than
do light-colored males and hence they have a smaller chance of becom-
ing fathers. This selection, he thinks, must have a real effect, in suc-
cessive generations, in causing the hybrids to become lighter. C. B.
Davenport, Heredity of Skin Color, pp. 27 ff. See, also, William Thorp,
Role of Mulatto in Inter-Racial Situation 317
color line against the more highly colored groups and en-
deavor to form such matrimonial unions as will, they hope,
bring their offspring yet closer to the white type. 5 The
Spanish half-breeds everywhere show a similar tendency.
"Every one wishes to be reckoned as a white man." 6 The
mixed-breed Indians in the United States tend to intermarry
among themselves and not with the full-bloods. 7 In the
United States almost every Negro of prominence from Fred-
erick Douglass to Jack Johnson has married a white woman
or a light-colored mulatto. 8
There is no intention here to criticize the mulattoes or
notable cases of black men who have married white women and the
multitude of prominent colored individuals who barely miss committing
the heinous crime by invariably marrying the near-white women of
their race. What is so commonly practiced by the higher ups in every
community should not be so highly censurable in Mr. Johnson's action
simply because his matrimonial fitness largely looms up to the colored
woman from a standpoint of financial healthiness of purse." C. A.
Stokes, Kansas City Sun, a Negro paper, 4-3-1915. See, also, W. H.
Thomas, The American Negro, p. 408; Maurice S. Evans, Black and
White in the Southern States, p. 33; R. W. Shufeldt, The Negro: A
Menace to American Civilization, p. 196; Ray Stannard Baker, "The
Tragedy of the Mulatto," American Magazine, Vol. 65, pp. 582-98;
Bert Williams as quoted in the Chicago Defender, 12-26-1914.
318 The Mulatto in the United States
the colored, and that the latter is everywhere eager to mix with the
more and more the customs and habits of the colored races
and conforming more closely to the manners of life of the
white group. By marriage selection, they endeavor to
make their children more like the Portuguese and less like
the members of the lower groups. Economic and profes-
sional success, or the achievement of political position ad-
mits them to the lighter grades of Brazilian society. Pov-
erty, atavism, or failure may throw individual members into
ing classes and the luxurious vegetation by means of which life can
be at least supported with a minimum of effort, the people are inclined
to be indolent. . .
." The South American Year Book, 1915, p. 216.
^Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 381. Johnston, The Negro in
the New World, p. 100 f. n.
It is to be remembered that conditions differ very radically in
North and South Brazil. The great bulk of the Negro population is
in the tropical regions of the North. Between the North and South
Brazil "There is very little in common save the language." Koebel,
The South Americans, p. 9. "So mixed is the blood of the lower classes
that it is very difficult to tell who or what many people are, ." . .
be pure white; that the classes immediately below have absorbed and
will continue to receive a small amount of Negro blood while in "the
ordinary people" the absorption of Negro blood will be "large enough
to make a slight difference in the type." And finally he quotes a Bra-
zilian "statesman" to the effect that the Negro is disappearing by
absorption into the white race and "his blood will remain as an appre-
ciable, but in no way a dominant, element in perhaps a third of our
people, while the remaining two-thirds will be pure whites." When it
27
"Yet the Negro is losing ground, politically and socially, and
unless he is content with his present status of farmer, laborer, petty
tradesman, minor employee, and domestic servant, there will arise a
'colour question' here as in the United States." Johnston, The Negro
in the New World, p. 60.
The one thing that makes the relations of the races more friendlly
38
in Cuba than in the United States is that there their desire to mix
with the whites is granted. R. L. Bullard, "How Cubans Differ from
Us." North American Review, Vol. 186, pp. 416-21. Note particularly
p. 417.
29
R. L. Bullard, "The Cuban Negro," North American Review, Vol.
184, p. 624.
ao
lbid., p. 628.
326 The Mulatto in the United States
ority.
31
The men at the top are white ; the men at the
32
Every man between is envious of the
bottom are black.
colors lighter than himself and contemptuous of those more
highly colored.
The racial situation on the mainland is not markedly dif-
approximate more and more the white type, 3 and a single '
tries, been able to draw the line between the whites and the various
grades of pure- and mixed-blood natives below them. Keller, Coloni-
zation, p. Bryce says "there are no longer any pure Indians"
317.
and that most of the aristocracy have remained pure white. South
America, p. 232. See, also, p. 478.
84
Seventy-five per cent mixed; 15 per cent Indian; 10 per cent Euro-
pean descent.
85
If one may speak of a "type" in a hybrid population.
36
Sir Charles Bruce, "The Modern Conscience in Relation to the
Treatment of Dependent Peoples and Communities," Inter-Racial Prob-
lems, pp. 291-92. James Bryce, "Migration of the Races of Men,"
Contemporary Review, Vol. 62, p. 130. J. H. Van Evrie, White Su-
premacy and Negro Subordination, pp. 157-58. Friedrich Ratzel, His-
tory of Mankind, Vol. 2, p. 27.
37
Lacerda, Inter-Racial Problems, p. 378. Luis Cabera, "The Mexi-
—
can Revolution Its Causes, Purposes and Results," Annals of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science, Supplement, Jan.
1917, pp. 4-5.
328 The Mulatto in the United States
guerilla warfare.
Where there exists a strong sense of nationality or of
racial pride on the part of each of the two parent races;!
in the situation, the mixed-blood individuals usually are <
The Eurasian
occupies an unenviable position. He
is too proud to mix with the natives, who will, indeed,
have none of him, and the European shuns him. He
is a sort of social neutral stratum, regarded as for-
'coloured.' But very few members of this section of the people hai
so classified themselves in the census ... the term coloured, having \
custom come to be applied to persons of a distinctly brown or cle?
66
The mulattoes are not in all cases satisfied with the arrangement.
Davenport quotes "An olive-skinned man" as saying: "'I've often
said I'd change the British flag for the American flag any day. Inj
America they are prejudiced against all colored people. You may be
a millionaire, but if you're colored you can't marry into white families
or associate with them. Here with the English, if you are colored and
have money you are all right, they associate with you; but if vol
haven't money you are nowhere. The English aren't as honest as the;
American, for they (English) hate the color just the same and only
accept it for the money. ." Heredity of Skin Color, Appendix B
.
.'
(b), p. 106. See, also, Livingston, North American Review, Vol. 185,
pp. 646-47.
66
H. E. Jordan, "Biological Status and Social Worth of the Mulatto,"
Popular Science Monthly, Vol. 82, p. 573, stresses the absence of politi-
cal contention, Jamaica not being a self-governing colony, in account-
ing for the difference in the race problem in Jamaica and the United
States. ".
. .But perhaps the perfect adjustment between the races
in Jamaica and the elimination of any 'problem' of this kind finds its
explanation in a more rational and a more consistent political treat-
ment made possible by the absence of any constitutional prescription.
We may well suspect that the inconsistency of according to the negro
legal (constitutional) equality and withholding it practically (politi-
cally and socially) has had a morally harmful effect upon both black and
white. To stultify oneself as between one's theory and practice is
."
always subversive of high moral tone. . .
67
It is also very different from the German native policy. The Ger-
mans, believing that an educated native of any shade of color is neces-
sarily a rascal, have avoided the complications produced by a semi-
educated native population by conforming their native educational policy
to the industrial needs of the situation. Keller, Colonization, p. 589.
—
Role of Mulatto in Inter-Racial Situation 335
a
E. Atkinson, "'The Negro a Beast,'" North American Review, Vol.
181, p. 209.
»W. E. B. DuBois, Souls of Black Folk, p. 49.
4
"In places like Charleston they had (and still have to some extent)
an exclusive society of their own which looked down on the black
Negro with a prejudice equal to that of the white man." Ray Stan-
nard Baker, "The Tragedy of the Mulatto," American Magazine,
Vol. 65, p. 588. See, also, Maurice S. Evans, Black and White in the
Southern States, p. 93.
Role of the Mulatto in the United States 341
8
A complete list of the Negroes who took any active or important
part in the propaganda is given on page 192 above. Washington,
Frederick Douglass, pp. 154-55, names twelve, all of whom are included
in the list above.
9
"William Lloyd Garrison was quick to discern that the cause needed
more than any other man or thing, as an argument
this fugitive slave,
and an illustration of the further work of the anti-slavery society."
Washington, Frederick Douglass, p. 72. He is speaking here of the
anti-slavery people using Douglass as an exhibit. See, also, p. 144.
Ray Stannard Baker, "Problems of Citizenship," Annals of
10 the
14
"The Negro inherits a brain which work has cultivated for four
and added to it the skill of a practical hand. The white
generations,
man sodden by the idleness of four generations, and he
inherits a brain
has improved his birthright by a life of soddenness. Fairly con- . . .
sidered, the only class ready for suffrage in the South is the Negro.'*
Wendell Phillips, 1865. Quoted by F. A. Bancroft, Negro in
Politics, p. 10.
16
This idea persists among the Northern mulattoes even to-day. "I
do not think it is claiming too much to say that 'Uncle Tom's Cabin'
was a fair and truthful panorama of slavery; ." James W. John- . .
16 ".
. . We passed along until, finally we turned into a street . . .
here I saw a street crowded with them. They filled the shops and
thronged the sidewalks and lined the curb. I asked my companion if
all the colored people in Atlanta lived in this street. He said they did
not, . . . The unkempt appearance, the shambling, slouching gait and
loud talk and laughter of these people aroused in me a feeling of almost
repulsion. . .
." Johnson, The Autobiography of an Ex-colored Man,
pp. 53-54.
"The most bitter arraignment of the Negro which at the same time
keeps accurately to the facts is the volume of W. H. Thomas, The
American Negro, a mulatto who went South after the War to be a
leader of the race. As a disclosure of the mulattoes' sentiments and
attitudes it is the most valuable single document in Negro literature.
It states the things that others deny or endeavor to conceal. Said one
of the most widely known mulattoes of the race in discussing the book:
"Of course it's true; every word of it is true. But, damn it, we don't
want those things told." The chief value of the document, however,
is quite aside from the facts with which it deals. It lies in the treat-
ment of the facts, in the naive disclosure of the psychology of the dis-
illusioned mulatto.
346 The Mulatto in the United States
18
The repulsive reaction of the Northern trained mulatto in contact
for the time with the real Negro has found its best expression to
first
date in the book of Mr. DuBois, The Souls of Black Folk. This book
is the outcome of the brief period of bitter exile which the author
their votes." Charles Sumner, Speech in the Senate, Works, Vol. 11,
p. 50.
22
Washington, Frederick Douglass, pp. 278-80.
See, also, Negro Year Book for lists of these Negro politicians
of Reconstruction days.
23
"Beverly Nash, for many years the leader in the Senate and on the
stump, had been a boot-black and a hotel porter." Bancroft, The
Negro in Politics, p. 30. Nash was known as "a five thousand dollar
man," that being the amount he always asked for his vote on important
bills.
24 "
if the Negro knows enough to fight for his country, he knows
'. . .
25
In the South Carolina Legislature of 1873 for example, many of
the members could neither read nor write. In Mississippi "the County
supervisors were often black, only a few of whom could either read
or write." Bancroft, The Negro in Politics, pp. 30, 39-40.
28
In the South Carolina Senate 1868, "Only four of the Negro Sena-
tors were on the tax books; and they together paid only $2.10. Fifty-
eight of the colored representatives paid no taxes." Ibid., p. 22.
27
"After a session or two of apprenticeship under white leaders, many
of the Negro officials became adepts in the shameless practices of the
time." Ibid., pp. 29 ff.
Role of the Mulatto in the United States 349
83
"The entire body of Negroes, under middle age, have not even
a tradition among them of that kindly intercourse between the master
and his bondsmen which did so much
smooth away the harsher feat-
to
ures of slavery in its They cannot understand the
practical working.
feeling of loyalty which made their fathers the faithful protectors of the
Southern white women and children when all the white men had been
enrolled in the armies of the Confederacy." Bruce, Hibbert Journal,
Vol. 13, p. 870. This loyalty of the slave to his former master is a
thing that frequently does not fall within the comprehension of the
present generation of mulattoes. Benjamin Brawley, one of the most
capable of the present generation of mulattoes, discussing with con-
siderable insight the recent fiction dealing with Negro characters, is
unable to grasp the fact that a Negro of exceptional type should have
preferred to remain with the old master. See, "The Negro in American
Fiction," Dial, Vol. 60, pp. 445-50, especially the criticism of "Abraham's
Freedom" {Atlantic, 9-1912), pp. 448-49.
88
Booker T. Washington, The Future of the American Negro, Chap-
ter 3.
84
Sir Harry H. Johnston, The Negro in the New World, p. 403.
352 The Mulatto in the United States
I
354 The Mulatto in the United States
43
Just as the ideal of literary training for primitive people has every-
where failed to produce satisfactory results. "The defect of a primarily
literary training lies in the fact that it distracts attentionfrom the real
intellectual needs of a race. ... It ordinarily leads to a dangerous half-
education implying a well-trained memory but an undeveloped judg-
ment, together with an overweening self-confidence and vanity. . .
."
49
McCord, The American Negro as a Defective, Dependent and Delin-
quent, p. 125.
50
The opponents of Mr. Washington deny that there is a "scintilla
of evidence to show that the increase in these ventures and in property
owning by Negroes is due solely or even mainly to the influence of in-
dustrial and agricultural education." V. P. Thomas, The Crisis, July,
1913, p. 145.
51
Booker T. Washington, The Story of the Negro, Vol. 1, p. 31.
82
See Evans, Black and White in the Southern States, p. 204.
356 The Mulatto in the United States
53
In New Orleans, for example, where there existed a large number
of free mulattoes, separate accommodations were provided long before
the War.
B4
McCord, The American Negro as a Dependent, Defective and Delin-
quent, p. 273.
Role of the Mulatto in the United States 357
not the mass of the race but the ambitious Negroes and
mulattoes who desired to escape from the race and asso-
ciate with, and live among, the whites.
As the practice of racial segregation spread, it was pres-
55
E. G. Murphy, The Schools of the People. Evans, Black and
White in the Southern States, p. 156.
M Frequently by the Negroes. For example: "Let us as a race not
wait for the Caucasian to force us but let us segregate voluntarily in
every particular. The white man has suggested it and now let us fol-
358 The Mulatto in the United States
cal and unnatural, they have never been given any choice in the matter
and they have, at last, come to acquiesce in the arrangement. What
is the result? It is leading to the unification of all A fro- Americans as
no personal inclination or mutual persuasion could have done. The
'colored' (mulatto) class, which contains the most intelligent and ambi-
tious men of the race, has deliberately thrown its lot with the black,
and set itself to the task of educating and training them for the great
struggle which they believe is to come. . .". W. P. Livingstone, "The
West Indian and the American Negro," North American Review, Vol.
185, p. 646.
Role of the Mulatto in the United States 361
80
"I love my people and prefer to live among them. I am not ashamed
of being a Negro." C. V. Roman, "Racial Self-respect and Racial
Antagonism," Atlanta Congress, 1913, p. 445.
61
The condition of the mulatto or educated Negro who has not yet
reached this point in his development appears everywhere in the writings
of the mulattoes. For example: ". there is to my mind no more
. .
pathetic side to this many sided question than the isolated position into
which are forced the very colored people who most need and could best
appreciate sympathetic cooperation; [the educated and upper classes]
and their position grows tragic when the effort is made to couple them,
whether or no, with the Negroes of the first class I mentioned [the
lower classes]." Johnson, The Autobiography of an Ex-colored Man,
p. 78.
362 The Mulatto in the United States
the race. They, too, are the men who rob and defraud him
in the lodges, who grow wealthy, through appealing to the
Negro's desire to be like the white man, with nostrums to
blanch the skin and straighten the hair, who gain wealth
and distinction among their race by fostering, and catering
to,the Negro's morbid interest in and superstitious fear
of death and love of vulgar funeral display. But whether
they guide and help the black man or fatten on his gulli-
bility? they are in every respect the prominent men of the
race and the leaders in the race's social affairs. Whether
1 hey are engaged in robbing the black man, preaching to
him, healing his sick or burying his dead, and in spite of
their concealed dislike and their contempt for the degraded
black man, the mulattoes are endeavoring to raise him to
a higher mental, moral, and industrial plane.
The organization takes on the form of a primary group
relation. From the similarity of life and activities, comes
a similarity of sentiments and ideas. The mulattoes and
other superior men become an integral part of the race, de-
sirous of a respected place in the thoughts of the group,
and ambitious for an honored place in its counsels. The
mulatto feels himself in alliance with the group and in the
cooperation of common activities a sympa-
there arises
thetic understanding and appreciation which fuses the mu-
latto, in sentiments and attitudes, with the larger whole.
He is identified with the black group, mute long-
feels the
ing of the common folk, feels himself a part of it, is moulded
by it, and comes, little by little, to realize himself as a
factor in the common life and purpose of the group. He
ceases to be, in thought and feeling, a stranger among his
people; he learns to appreciate them, ceases to be ashamed
of his relationship to them, ceases to resent being classed
with them. Their problems become his problems ; their life,
Role of the Mulatto in the United States 368
of an evolving people.
In the South, as elsewhere among the Negro people, the
mulattoes enjoy a prestige because of their color; the Ne-
groes readily accept them as superior men. The condi-
tions of life for the Negroes are decidedly easier in the
South than in other sections of the country and this is
especially the case for the mulattoes and other men of busi-
ness and professional training. 62 To the extent that they
do a work for the good of the race and live an honest and
industrious life, they are helped by the white man and do
not have to meet his competition. Race prejudice and dis-
63
crimination are less clearly manifested than in sections
of the country where the struggle for professional exist-
ence is somewhat more severe, and where the tolerance of
racial shortcomings is less evident. There is no lack of
02
be remembered, of course, that in competition, the Southern
It is to
trained Negro has proven his equality if not his superiority to the North-
ern trained Negro. See G. E. Haynes, The Negro at Work in New
York City, pp. 50 ff.
63
E. R. Turner, The Negro in Pennsylvania, p. 149.
Editorial, The Free Lance, 11-6-1915.
"Despite evidences of racial friction which crop out here and there,
the relations existing between the individual Negro and the individual
white man are often closer and better understood and more sympa-
thetic than those obtaining in any community outside of the South."
Booker T. Washington, The Southern Workman, quoted from the Chi-
cago Defender, 12-19-1914.
"For years after the war the North went into a frenzy, especially
during political campaigns, over outrages, real and alleged, upon their
colored fellow-citizens in the South. In the North to-day the Negro
has less chance to gain a livelihood above the very humblest levels than
he had twenty-five years ago, and only in rare instances does education
beyond the prime essentials benefit him in his struggles upward."
Boston Traveller, 11-15-1915.
;
64
It has not, of course, been possible to live up to any such theory.
See the Negro Year Book, pp. 365-67.
85
This is due in large part to the fact that in the North the Negro
is in the city, whereas in the South he is more generally a rural man.
;
ness way. Their idea of the Negro and their attitude to-
ward him, and the attitude of the white man.
is the idea
The attitude is less kindly toleration and
one of more or
mild contempt which changes to active discrimination and
positive hatred when the Negro assumes the attitude of an
equal and seeks the privilege of social equality. In their
public utterances the Negro may be idealized, but there is
no desire or disposition on the part of the mulatto to have
any intimate association with him.
Yet the mulattoes assume the role of spokesman for the
race; they undertake to represent the Negro and to speak
for him. Their superior education, their higher economic
status as well as their greater individual success, and their
more prominent position give plausibility to their assump-
tion of leadership and allow them, rather than men who are
closer to the race and better able to voice the feelings and
attitudes of the inarticulate mass, to get themselves accepted
as representatives of the Negroes. They appear as cham-
pions of the Negro at all times when there is profit or noto-
riety to be gained by so doing. They make incendiary
speeches, draw up petitions and protests, appear before leg-
islative and executive committees as the representatives of a
people they only imperfectly represent. They are the men
68
Mr. Washington had in mind when he wrote:
89
The National Association for the Advancement of the Colored Peo-
ple, the chief present-day association concerned with the political rights
and the social ambitions of the Negroes, claims a membership of only
9,500. Of this membership many, perhaps the great majority, are white
persons. Certainly the organization has always been financed and largely
managed by white persons. See The Crisis, 3-1916, p. 225.
70
Many leading Negroes who were
earlier identified with the move-
ment Booker T. Washington, later went
in opposition to the policies of
over to the constructive point of view. See, for e.g., John Daniels, In
Freedom's Birthplace, p. 128.
Role of the Mulatto in the United States 371
color.
71
The result of the adoption of such a policy would
be, of course, to allow the exceptional men of the race, that
is the mulattoes, to escape from it and be accepted by and
absorbed into the white race. The demands of the militant
mulattoes thus amount to a plea for special privilege; it
is a plea for themselves and not for the Negroes. They ask
the opportunity to escape from the race toward which they
feel much the same prejudice as does the white man/ They
5
spokesman for the race but they are not an integral part of
it as are the mulatto leaders of the South. The Negroes
resent,more or less, the mulattoes' assumption of superior-
ity their presuming to speak for a race with whom
and
they neither live nor associate. At the same time, it is the
desire of every ambitious Negro to secure admittance to
the more exclusive circles and to escape from the black
group. The mulattoes are rather outside the race, above
it. They have not given up the hope of equality with the
whites ; they are not satisfied to be Negroes and to find their
lifeand their work among the members of the race. They
are contemptuous of the blacks who are socially below them
and envious of the whites who are socially above them. The
accommodation of the races is on horizontal lines with the
educated and light-colored mulattoes standing between the
blacks and the whites.
The arrangement, however, seems to lack the elements
of permanence. The realization of the mulattoes' ambi-
71
See, for example, "Editorial," The Crisis, 2-1914, pp. 186-87. Also,
Katherine B. Davis, The Crisis, 6-1914, pp. 83-84,
372 The Mulatto in the United States
" The Jamaican solution of the race problem. See pp. 331-35 above.
"The Brazilian solution of the problem.
See pp. 320-24 above.
74
A fact frequently recognized by the Negroes themselves. See, for
e.g., The Kansas (City) Elevator (A Negro Paper), 2-2-1916.
Role of the Mulatto in the United States 373
race and owing to the fact that the lack of any intolerant
racial prejudice allowed the lower classes to associate, and
freely intermix, with the Negro women. The mixture prob-
ably somewhat decreased during the period of national
slavery owing to a bitter hatred that grew up between the
Negroes and the lower-class whites and to the fact that the
Negroes were under a stricter control. The intermixture
also appears by statistical measurement to have gone on at
a rate somewhat slower than was actually the case owing to
the fact that much of it was with the mulatto rather than
with the black girls. Since the Emancipation there has
378 The Mulatto in the United States
*****
is fixed, and there is, therefore, an almost entire absence of
the bitterness which characterizes the Northern division of
the mulatto group.
1
In Chicago the most effective technique seems to be a gentleman's
agreement among the real estate men.
A recent ruling of the United States Supreme Court November 5, —
1917 —holds all residential segregation laws to be unconstitutional. It
will be of interest to note in how far this decision will modify the
present tendency.
2
an open question and one just beginning to be investigated
It is still
scientifically, whether or not the difference in mental ability of the races
is sufficiently great to warrant their separate education as a matter of
economy and educational policy. See, for e.g., M. J. Mayo, The Mental
Capacity of the American Negro.
3
See G. W. Crawford, Prince Hall and His Followers, for a recent .
seek and prefer the society of their own class and color.
The fact that they are unwelcome in the hotels and restau-
rants, in the theaters and other places of amusement and
entertainment open to the whites, never comes within the
experience of any but the very exceptional Negro. The ex-
clusion policy of the whites is in line with the natural tend-
ency of the blacks ; it affects and offends the small class
a larger colored population, has less than 200 in its mixed high schools.
Editorial, Crisis, 2-1912, p. 184-85.
8
See E. W. Blyden, Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race, pf
168-69.
9
Editorial, "Segregation —Let Her Come," The Conservative Coun
selor, Waco, Texas, 9-2-1915.
10
See Editorial, "Paying for a Name," Chicago, Illinois, Idea, 9-9-191J
n Booker T. Washington, "Why Should Negro Business Men G
South?" Chanties, Vol. 15, pp. 17-19.
Summary: Present Tendencies 387
for a black skin, that the black man seldom attains. They
have, and tend to maintain, an exclusive social status that
is the despair and the envy of the black man. 17 Their
superior economic position, their superior training, their
light color and the tradition of superiority, all combine to
make them the important and superior individuals in any
racial group.
Certain consequences of this movement are fairly obvious.
According as one judges these to be desirable or undesirable,
one will be disposed to approve or oppose the nationalistic
tendency.
Racial solidarity means an increased isolation of the
Negro group. The bi- racial adjustment tends to keep the
races apart. The further the Negroes develop a sense of
nationality, the further do they voluntarily separate them-
selves from the white world. Direct individual competition
between the members of the races tends to diminish. They
receive less stimulation from the culture of the other race;
they are isolated from that stimulation. 18 To the extent
that this becomes true, the Negroes cease to measure their
talents and accomplishments by the standards of the supe-
rior race. They do not compete with the white man, The
isolation narrows their interests and their conceptions, foi
17
See editorial, "Don't Blame All," The Bee, Washington, D. C, 1-30-
1915. See, also, Boston Reliance, 3-13-1915.
18
J. H. DeLoach, "The Negro as a Farmer," Atlanta Congress, 1913,
p. 381.
Summary. Present Tendencies 391
just to the extent that they are isolated from the white
10
C. H. McCord estimates the number of Negro college graduates
from 1840 to 1909 as 3,853, and from 1910 to 1914 inclusive as 1,147,
a total of 5,000 in all for the period of 75 years. The American Negro
as a Dependent, Defective and Delinquent, p. 14.
392 The Mulatto in the United States
26
S. D. McEnery, "Race Problem in the South," Independent, Vol.
55, p. 426.
27
"There is, indeed, rather a tendency to racial solidarity in opposi-
tion to the whites on all questions whatsoever; . . . There is, more-
over, a not rare belief among the whites that the preachers and leaders
contribute to increase these tendencies and teach hostility rather than try
to uplift the race morally." Page, The Negro, p. 304. See, also, p. 307.
^McCord, The American Negro, p. 109.
29 «(
'Segregation," Crisis, 12-1913.
Summary: Present Tendencies 395
80
This is true in spite of a species of "race pride" which seeks out
)lack men for high positions and show purposes instead of seeking
:orapetence.
396 The Mulatto in the United States
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INDEX TO NAMES OF MEN WHOSE ETHNIC
ANCESTRY IS ANALYZED
Abbott, A. R., 228, 238. Antoine, C. C, 220, 252.
Abbott, A. W., 247, 259. Appo, William, 231.
Abbott, Granville S., 217. Archer, H. E., 228, 266.
Abner, David, 265. Archer, Mrs. Henrietta M., 228.
Adams, Mrs. Agnes, 234. Armisted, E. H., 234.
Adams, Cyrus Field, 299. Armstrong, William O., 234.
Adams, John, 217. Arnett, B. W., 232.
Adams, J. W., 222. Atkins, S. G., 225, 277.
Adams, Lewis, 238. Attway, W. A., 296, 299.
Adger, Robert, 229. Attucks, Crispus, 197, 200.
Aldridge, Ira, 196, 198, 288. Attwell Ernest, 238.
Alexander, John H., 228, 247. Attwell, Joseph S., 238.
Alexander, J. N. W., 254. Attwood, L. K., 238.
Alexander, M. S., 299. Augusta, A. T., 232, 247, 260.
Alexander, N. H., 297. Augustin, Peter, 229.
Alexander, William, 299. Avant, Henry, 299.
Alexander, W. G., 222, 259.
Allen, B. F., 268. Bacote, S. W., 278.
Allen, G. W., 277. Bagnall, Powhattan, 234.
Allen, Isaac B., 234. Bailey, Grandmother, 229.
Allen, Macon B., 234. Bailey, J. B., 234.
Allen, Richard, 191. Bailey, L. C, 257.
Allen, William G., 238. Baker, D. W., 297.
Allensworth, Lt. Col. A., 247. Baker, Gertrude M., 234.
Allston, J. H., 234. Baker, Harry E., 225, 256.
Allston, Philip J., 234, 298, 299. Baker, T. Nelson, 270.
Alstor, J. W., 277. Baldwin, Maria L., 238.
Ambush, James Enoch, 217. Ballard, W. H., 299.
Amiger, W. T., 266. Banks, Charles, 208, 298, 299.
Amo, Anthony William, 189. Banks, Mrs. Charles, 299.
Anderson, C. H., 296, 298. Banks, J. B., 222.
Anderson, Charles W., 203, 208, Banks, Walden, 234.
253, 299. Banneker, Benjamin, 189, 190, 196,
Anderson, Duke William, 217. 198, 199, 257.
Anderson, John C, 232. Bannister, E. M., 220, 287.
Anderson, J. H., 225. Baptiste, George de, 239.
Anderson, Louis B., 228. Barbadoes, James, 219.
Anderson, Osborn Perry, 231. Barnet, Mrs. Ida Wells, 201.
Anderson, Major W. T., 247. Barnett, Ferdinand L., 228.
Andrews, W. T., 299. Barrier, Anthony, 229.
Annibal, 189. Barrier, Miss Ella D., 222.
Annibal, Son of, 189. Bass, Charles T., 299.
399
400 Index to Names
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