Edexcel IGCSE Geography Student's Book Answers
Edexcel IGCSE Geography Student's Book Answers
Edexcel IGCSE Geography Student's Book Answers
Chapter 1
1
ATMOSPHERE
evaporation
precipitation
precipitation
evaporation,
transpiration
SEA
LAND
drainage
Chapter 1
3 a) Inputs are solar energy and precipitation. Outputs are river discharge and evaporation.
b) A watershed is the boundary between two neighbouring drainage basins.
A confluence is the point where two or more rivers or streams meet.
4 The drainage system is affected by rock type and land use:
Impervious rocks result in a relatively dense surface drainage network. With porous rocks,
much of the drainage will be below ground, so the surface drainage network will be much
less dense.
Human land uses interfere with the natural drainage network in a variety of ways including
by piping streams underground, by filling in and straightening channels and by damming.
5 a) The term lag time is the time it takes for rainfall to reach a river. More precisely, it is the time
difference between peak rainfall and peak river discharge.
b) Lag time is affected by each of these factors:
slope the steeper the slope, the shorter the lag time
temperature the colder the temperature (if the precipitation is in the form of snow or the
ground is frozen), the longer the lag time
precipitation if precipitation is in the form of rain, the heavier and more intense it is, the
shorter the lag time
vegetation the thicker the vegetation cover, the longer the lag time.
6 When comparing Figures 1.6 and 1.7, one can see that the discharge of the Ganges is in general at
least a thousand times greater than that of the Thames. With the Ganges (Fig 1.6), the highest
flows occur in summer and autumn (between June and November), whilst the peak flow of the
Thames (Fig 1.7) is more concentrated and occurs in winter between January and March.
1
7 a) Weathering is the breaking down of rocks in situ by the actions of weather, plants and animals.
Mass movement is the movement of weathered rock down slope under the influence of gravity.
b) The four main ways that rivers transport load are:
solution
suspension
saltation
traction.
8 a) When a river leaves an upland area, it changes in these ways:
Its channel becomes wider, deeper and smoother.
Its speed and discharge continue to increase.
Its course becomes less straight i.e. it meanders more.
b) Deposition is greater along the lowland section of a river because the rivers energy becomes
less. As a result, it is no longer able to transport the full load that it has been carrying.
9 a) The processes that are responsible for the formation of a V-shaped valley are:
vertical down-cutting by the river by hydraulic action and abrasion
weathering and mass movement on the valley sides.
b) Three other landforms produced by rivers in upland areas are:
interlocking spurs which are caused by the river as it swings from side to side
waterfalls where outcrops of hard rock cross the valley
gorges where the widening of a valley is prevented by a capping of hard rock.
10
Chapter 1
deposition sealing
off old meander
narrow neck
gradually
bring
eroded
deposition
deposition sealing
off old meander
Deltas are formed where river mouths become almost completely choked by deposits of alluvium.
The river channel is split into many much smaller channels that carry the river water into the sea.
12 a)
marshes
navigable
channels
island
navigable
channel
b) On the sketch map, the navigable channels, sand and mud banks and marshy areas are labelled.
c) An advantage of this estuary for shipping is that it has some deep channels but their precise
course may change a great deal over time due to further deposition. A disadvantage is that
there are already areas of shallow water caused by the deposition of sand and mud. Ships could
run aground here.
Chapter 1
15 Water quality is important because much water is used by humans, for example as drinking water,
in the form of irrigated food crops and in the processing of foods. Use of polluted or poor quality
water is very likely to have a bad effect on human health.
COLLECTION
STORAGE
TREATMENT
DELIVERY
Costs
Use by river transport requires complex lock systems to get round the dam
Rerouting of transport links that formerly ran along the banks of Yangtze
Chapter 1
Answers
Chapter 2
1 a) The two zones of the coast are onshore and offshore.
b) The four main marine processes are:
hydraulic action this involves the force of waves hitting the bases of cliffs and compressing
pockets of air into cracks and crevices. The result is that the rock becomes fractured and
pieces break off
abrasion results from waves picking up stones and sand and hurling them at the bases of
cliffs and so wearing them away
corrosion this is the dissolving of rocks by sea water
attrition this involves a reduction in the size of material being transported by the sea. As a
result of colliding, the material becomes not only smaller but also more rounded.
3 a)
beach
back
wash
sh
back
wash
sh
longshore drift
swa
sh
ro
ve
f
wa
wa
wa
ve
f
ve
f
ro
ro
nt
swa
back
wash
nt
sh
swa
nt
back
wash
swa
Chapter 2
2 (Note that in the first printing of the student book, the diagrams in Figure 2.2 are incorrectly
headed.)
Constructive waves and destructive waves produce distinct types of coastal features.
The backwash of destructive waves is stronger than the swash. Eroded material is dragged away
from the cliff or beach and is then moved along the coast by longshore drift.
The swash of constructive waves is stronger than the backwash. The result is the deposition of
eroded material on the beach or at the cliff foot.
wind direction
The wind direction is oblique to the shore, as are the wave fronts. This in turn causes the
swash also to be oblique, but the backwash is directly back to the sea.
Longshore drift
b) Longshore drift does three main things in terms of the development of coastal landforms. It
picks up eroded material and so helps the formation of erosional landforms (headlands, caves,
stacks, etc.); it transports material along the coast; and it deposits material and helps in the
formation of beaches, spits and bars.
4 Looking at Figure 2.13, the Jurassic Coast is such a popular tourist location because:
its cliffs are scenic, unspoilt by tourist infrastructure such as hotels
it has good beaches which are mainly sandy and safe for swimming
it has interesting geology, especially fossils
it is readily accessible to a large urban population.
5 a) A storm beach is a ridge at the very top of a beach made up of material (sand and shingle)
thrown up during storm conditions. A berm is the term used for a series of small ridges that
mark the position of normal high tides below the storm beach. So the difference between the
two is their size and location on the beach.
b)
old coastline
longshore drift
prevailing wind
direction
estuary
spit
sand and shingle deposited
as they enter the sheltered
water in the estuary mouth
6 The conditions necessary for the formation of sand dunes are by:
a good supply of sand on a gently sloping beach
strong onshore winds to blow the dry sand inland and build it up into a series of ridges.
7 a) A coastline which has experienced a rise in sea level is called a submergent or drowned coast.
b) The main coastal features produced by changes in sea level are:
rias and fjords (caused by a rise in sea level)
raised beaches and relict cliffs (caused by a fall in sea level).
Chapter 2
1
8 Some of the ways in which people affect the character of the coast are by:
protecting the coast from erosion building sea walls, constructing groynes
building piers, jetties and docks
draining coastal marshes and putting them to agricultural, industrial or urban use
creating coastal promenades with hotels and boarding houses facing the sea.
9 a) The main features of the global distribution of coral reefs are:
mainly confined within the tropics
large areas of coral reef in the Pacific Ocean are associated with islands
many reefs are found along the coasts of continents such as along west Africa and
northern Australia
a few reefs occur in more inland locations such as the Red Sea and the gulfs of Aden
and Oman.
b) Physical factors controlling the growth of coral are:
minimum water temperature of 18C
sunlight
shallow water, less than 25 metres deep
salt water
well oxygenated water
clear water free of sediment.
10 a) The intertidal zone is the shore that is exposed to the air between the high- and low-tide marks.
b) Mangroves are a very tolerant ecosystem. They are able to survive in the two different
environments of the intertidal zone, tolerating being regularly flooded by the sea as well as
being frequently exposed to the air. Although essentially a marine ecosystem, mangroves are
also tolerant of being flooded by freshwater. Not only are they able to survive changing water
conditions, they also can cope with great heat and choking mud.
11 The conditions favouring the growth of salt marshes are:
a sheltered coastal location, such as a bay or estuary
frequent flooding by the sea as happens in the intertidal zone
a network of creeks that reduce tidal energy and so encourage the deposition of mud and silt.
12 As one moves inland across a belt of sand dunes, the amount and type of vegetation cover
increases from sparse grasses to heath and woods. It takes time for this plant succession to
develop. Time is needed to add new sand ridges to the dunes to provide protection from
possible flooding by the sea. This would kill much of the developing vegetation. Time is also
needed for soils to develop over sandy areas through the accumulation of humus from
dying vegetation.
13 a) The goods and services of ecosystems are the useful things provided by particular ecosystems.
The goods are material things and the services are opportunities.
b) Goods that coastal ecosystems provide include fish, shellfish, salt and seaweed. Services include
natural harbours for shipping, sandy beaches for visitors to the beach and unusual wildlife.
14 It is important that mangroves are protected because they provide:
protection to coastal settlements in areas that experience tsunamis
goods such as timber, fish and shellfish
opportunities for aquaculture.
15 The main threats to salt marshes are:
reclamation to provide sites for factories and power stations
excavation for harbours or anchorages for port developments
pollution by settlements and industries.
6
16 a) Sand dunes are regarded as the least threatened of the coastal ecosystems because the possible
uses to which they might be put are very limited. These uses are mainly to do with recreation
and leisure (golf links, pony-trekking, etc.).
b) The main threat to sand dunes is trampling by people and livestock. Dunes in their early
stages of development are very sensitive to disturbance by people. If the vegetation is damaged
or dies, then blow-outs are likely. Another threat is the conversion into golf links with the
associated development of club houses and hotels.
INPUTS
17 a)
sediment
water
ONSHORE
FLOWS
water
weathering, erosion
and deposition
sediment
COASTLINE
OUTPUTS
sediment
OUTPUTS
water
FLOWS
OFFSHORE
wave energy
sediment
Chapter 2
INPUTS
b) Managed retreat becomes the preferred coastal management option in areas where there is
less urban development or high quality farmland. In these areas the coast has some value, for
example money may have been invested in housing and various economic activities along that
coast, but not enough to justify huge sums of money being spent on holding the line. Basically,
time is needed for an orderly withdrawal of people and land use.
23 The steps involved in making a coastal management plan are:
Identifying what is happening along the chosen stretch of coast what are the processes of
change and how fast are they occurring?
Investigating the present use and the value of buildings, economic activities and services.
Making a risk assessment to what extent are people and investment along the chosen stretch
of coast threatened by the processes of coastal change?
Determining the most appropriate of the three management options, bearing in mind the value
of the coastal stretch and the degree to which it is threatened by coastal change.
Chapter 2
24 The challenge in dealing with global warming is coping with the resulting rise in sea level. The
three main coastal management options are:
Do nothing let nature take its course, allowing the sea to flood onto the land or to break
through sea walls.
Hold the line use hard engineering to hold back the sea.
Managed retreat let the sea win but in carefully planned stages.
Answers
Chapter 3
1 a) A hazard is an event which threatens the well being of people and their property by causing
injury, death and destruction.
b) The four main types of hazard are geological, climatic, biological and technological.
c) An example of each type is:
geological earthquake
climatic storm
biological contagious disease
technological nuclear explosion.
2 Risk is the chance of a hazard occurring at a particular place and the amount of damage it is likely
to cause. Any location along a plate boundary runs the risk of experiencing an earthquake, but the
risk may be higher in some places than in others. People can be more certain about the risk of a
volcanic eruption in terms of location, but not in terms of time (i.e. when it is likely to happen).
Adjustment involves taking precautions to reduce a hazard risk and its possible damage. For
example, adjusting to the risk of flooding might involve building embankments along a river and
keeping settlement away from flood plains.
3 a) A tectonic plate is a block of the Earths crust which floats like a raft on the underlying mantle.
b)
plate
(lighter)
trench
plate
(heavier)
mantle
mantle
plate
(same density)
plate
mantle
Chapter 3
fold mountains
volcanoes
7 a) Alternative names of tropical storms are typhoons, hurricanes and tropical cyclones.
b) The basic condition necessary for the development of a tropical storm is warm seawater,
greater than 27C, with unstable air above it. The sea heats the air. This creates an area of low
pressure. This low pressure cell quickly intensifies and creates an upward spiral of strong winds.
This uplift leads to very heavy rainfall.
8 Two weather features of a passing tropical storm are:
1) The wind increases in strength reaching to over 100 kph. It then becomes completely calm in
the eye of the storm, then abruptly rises to over 100 kph again and then gradually dies away.
2) These same trends are observed with respect to rainfall. Rainfall intensity increases until the eye
of the storm is overhead. The skies then clear only to see the return of very heavy rainfall which
gradually declines towards the edge of the storm.
9 Tropical storms are most common in the Northern Hemisphere in September and October when
sea temperatures are warmest.
Chapter 3
10 a) The Saffir-Simpson scale is a classification of tropical storms. Five categories are recognised
based on wind speeds. Each category is marked by a particular scale of damage. A category 5
storm, for example has wind speeds > 250 kph and causes wholesale damage to buildings as
well as requiring the evacuation of all people.
b) The three main types of damage caused by tropical storms are to:
vegetation
buildings
people.
11 Tropical storms are tracked and their future paths predicted by:
data provided by weather stations
images taken by weather satellites
radar.
12 The three main factors that affect the amount of damage and destruction caused by a particular
hazard are:
the scale and intensity of the hazard
the degree to which people are prepared for the hazard in question
the density of human settlement in the hazard area.
13 It would be reasonable to agree that the higher the population density, the greater the possible
damage. However, the impact of a hazard in a high density area can be quite low if money has
already been spent on various forms of adjustment such as education, warning systems, avoiding
high risk areas and building to cope with the hazard. Furthermore, a HIC country is going to be
better able to cope with a hazard. It will have the resources, organisation and technology to deal
with the immediate emergency and any later reconstruction.
14 The damage caused by tropical storms is generally greater in LICs because most LICs do not have
the resources and technology to cope with storms as well as HICs can, as regards the following:
avoiding the settlement and use of high-risk areas
constructing buildings that are able to withstand hazards such as strong winds and earthquakes
having advanced warning systems and emergency shelters
educating people about preparing for a hazard and what to do during it
having emergency services that come into immediate operation following a hazard (not relying
on emergency services from other countries).
15 Most will probably answer that it is more likely to be an earthquake, because:
Earthquakes affect a much larger area of the world than tropical storms.
The approach of a tropical storm can be forecast thus allowing time for people to take shelter
and precautions, perhaps even evacuating from the forecasted pathway.
An earthquake can strike without notice and can in general cause much more serious damage.
It is the element of surprise that contributes most to making earthquakes scarier hazards.
10
Risk
assessment
Prediction
Preparation
(adjustment)
HAZARD
EVENT
Recovery
Appraisal
Chapter 3
11
Chapter 3
12
Answers
Chapter 4
1 a) The primary sector involves the extraction of resources from the environment. The secondary
sector is concerned with the processing of resources, as in manufacturing. So the difference
between the two is one of resource extraction versus resource processing.
b) The tertiary sector involves providing a wide range of services rather than dealing with natural
resources. So the difference between the tertiary sector and the primary and secondary sectors
is services versus resources (extraction and processing). The quaternary sector also provides
services but of a higher order.
2 The three main ways to measure the relative importance of the economic sectors are by:
the percentage of total working population in each sector. However, the informal sector is not
measured, but in LICs this can be significant. Also it does not take into account the value
(financial and otherwise) of goods and services being provided by labour.
the percentage each sector contributes to GDP. However, this does not include earnings from
overseas activities, such as investment. The informal sector is also not measured.
the percentage of GNI. This includes overseas earnings, but again does not measure the
informal sector.
By a process of elimination, you might conclude that using the percentage of GNI is the best
measure.
4 a) The development pathway is the sequence of changes that a country undergoes as it becomes
more developed, that is, as the economy grows and the people enjoy a higher standard of
living and better quality of life.
b) The relative importance of the economic sectors changes with development. In the beginning
(pre-industrial stage), the primary sector dominates. However, its importance declines as, first,
the secondary sector grows (industrial stage) and, later, as the tertiary sector becomes
dominant. In the post-industrial stage, the secondary sector, declines in importance and the
quaternary sector emerges.
Chapter 4
5 Comparing the pie charts of the three countries shown in Figure 4.4, one can see that in Ethiopia,
the primary and tertiary sectors contribute more or less equally to GDP at about 45% each, while
the secondary sector is insignificant. In contrast, it is the primary sector that is insignificant in
China; the secondary sector accounts for roughly half of all GDP. In the UK, the economy is
dominated by the tertiary sector (roughly 75% of GDP), the secondary sector contributes only half
of what it does in China and the primary sector has almost disappeared.
Remember that these pie charts relate to GDP and not employment. A sector can make a small
contribution to GDP and yet still employ many people, for example the primary sector of China.
Also remember that these pie charts reflect the monetary value of what is being produced in each
sector. Manufactured goods are generally more highly priced than foods, and services are more
costly than manufactured goods.
13
cleaning to selling food, from scavenging to begging. Many children are involved and as a result are
exposed to hazards such as street crime, violence, abuse and unhealthy working conditions.
b) Informal employment is important in many LICs because of the general shortage of full-time,
properly paid work in the mushrooming towns and cities. More people are migrating to urban
areas than jobs are being created. The prevailing poverty forces people to try to gain or
supplement their income by working in the informal sector. Informal employment plays an
important role in the day-to-day running of LIC cities.
Chapter 4
materials and energy, or the markets they sell to. So industries have become more flexible in
terms of their location.
The location of manufacturing is today more influenced by the availability of cheap labour and
cheap land, and attracted to those countries where there are less tight controls on industry as
regards worker safety and environmental pollution.
This change in the relative importance of location factors favours the MICs and LICs, rather
than the HICs. However, it would be wrong to think that HICs are no longer involved in
manufacturing. It is the type of manufacturing that has changed in the HICs the old traditional
industries there have been replaced by new branches of more high-tech manufacturing.
b) The factors that have made the shift possible are:
advances in transport cheap movement of raw materials and goods over long distances by
large freight carriers (ships, railway trains). Also the speedy movement of technicians
advances in communications. It is easy for the head office of a company to keep closely in
touch with factories scattered around the world
the growth of TNCs which are able to operate on a global scale, i.e. have a presence in many
countries.
17 A list of the attractions of the M4 corridor as a location for high-tech industries are:
good transport and accessibility
skilled, well educated labour
presence of universities for research
pleasant living and working environment
government incentives.
Chapter 4
18 The difference between primary and secondary energy is that primary energy is provided by fuels
in their raw state. They do not require processing to be used. Examples are coal and wood which
are burnt to provide heat. Secondary energy comes from the processing of primary energy.
Examples are burning coal and natural gas or harnessing the flow of water to generate electricity.
The difference between renewable and non-renewable energy is that renewable energy comes
from sources that can be used again and again. Examples are hydroelectricity from running water
and the tides, wind power and solar energy. Non-renewable energy comes from sources that,
once used, cannot be replaced. Examples are fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
19 a) The energy gap has two slightly different meanings. The first is the difference between a
countrys rising demand for energy and its ability to meet that demand from its own resources.
The second meaning is the gap in energy supply resulting from the phasing out of nonrenewable sources and their replacement by renewable sources of energy.
b) Countries which have an energy gap are those countries which have high levels of energy
consumption and relatively low levels of energy production. Examples are the UK, Italy and
Spain in Europe; Mexico and Ecuador in Latin America; and Japan in Asia.
20 The arguments in favour of using energy more efficiently are that it reduces the amount of energy
needed. This is likely to reduce the use of non-renewable sources of energy and lower carbon
emissions. The result will be less atmospheric pollution and possibly less global warming. Using
energy more efficiently also means that there is a greater chance of energy needs being met by
the use of renewable sources.
21 Ways I could reduce my consumption of energy include:
hibernating or turning off PCs when not in use
switching off lights when I am the last person to leave a room
not overcharging mobiles
walking rather than using the car
using energy-efficient light bulbs.
15
22 The benefits of using coal as a source of energy are that there are large proven reserves and it is
relatively cheap. The costs are:
it causes atmospheric pollution
its carbon emissions contribute to climate change
the mining and processing the coal have adverse impacts on the environment.
23 Nuclear power is not renewable because it relies on a non-renewable mineral resource uranium.
In fact, the known global reserves of uranium are very limited. The uranium has to be converted
into a nuclear fuel before it is used to raise the steam that generates electricity. However, used fuel
can be reprocessed and therefore recycled. Because of this recycling nuclear energy is sometimes
classified as a renewable source.
Chapter 4
24 By the time that the world runs out of oil, people should have found alternative sources of energy.
Ideally, those alternative sources should be of a renewable kind. Examples are wind, water, solar
and tidal power, all of which are used to generate electricity. People might also discover an
alternative energy form to electricity.
16
25 In support of the statement that most renewable sources of energy are clean and environmentally
friendly, you might:
identify renewable sources (wind, water, solar, tidal)
explain that they do not pollute the environment other than visually disfigure the landscape
admit that the use of water (i.e. rivers) can have an adverse impact on river regimes, and that
wind farms are believed to have an adverse impact on birds.
If you disagree with the statement:
identify renewable sources (as above)
explain that the sources may be clean, but they do have adverse environmental impacts,
particularly disfigurement of the natural environment. Also mention the points made above
about the use of rivers and wind farms
conclude that the sources are only clean with respect to land, water and air, but not with
respect to scenery and wildlife.
Answers
Chapter 5
Chapter 5
4 The goods of the savanna include grazing for livestock, fuelwood from the scattered trees and
shrubs, and food such cereals and berries. The services are maintenance of biodiversity, open
recreational space, and arable land.
5 The features of the temperate grassland biome are:
distribution poleward of the tropics in large areas in the heart of North America, along the
Atlantic coast of South America, central Eurasia, China, southern Australia and New Zealand
soils chernozems which are dark in colour and highly fertile
vegetation dominated by short grasses.
6 a) Farming in the Midwest of the USA experienced a crisis in the early 20th century because the
once fertile land was abused by being over-worked. This, plus the virtual monoculture of cereals
and the failure to properly fertilise the soils, set in motion a sequence of declining yields. The final
straw was provided by the run of drought years in the 1930s. Because the soil was by then in a
poor condition and the land left bare for part of the year, severe soil erosion set in.
b) To restore agricultural productivity, the soil was improved by introducing crop rotation to replace
the previous monoculture. Tree belts were planted to protect the soil from wind erosion. Straw
and other crop litter was retained after the harvest and left on the soil to protect it from erosion.
Terracing and contour ploughing was done to prevent soil being washed downslope during
periods of heavy rainfall. There was more irrigation to stop the soil drying out.
17
7 The characteristics that generally distinguish a rural environment from an urban environment are:
lower population densities
smaller individual settlements
most jobs are in the primary sector, especially farming
prevalence of greenery rather than concrete areas and development
it is less well served by transport.
There are often conservation efforts to protect the biodiversity, scenic beauty and recreational
value of rural environments.
8 It has become necessary to protect and manage some rural environments to:
protect against the spread of urban areas, especially onto more valuable agricultural land or
land of high scenic quality
provide recreational space for urban populations
conserve biodiversity
ensure the survival of wilderness areas.
Chapter 5
9 Farming is an open system with inputs (such as land, soil, climate, seeds and livestock), internal
flows (the actual growing of crops and rearing of livestock on the farm) and outputs (such as food,
profits and waste). It is also an open system in that it is influenced by market conditions (such as
the level of demand and commodity prices) and governments (offering subsidies and grants to use
farmland in a certain way).
10 a) Some governments try to control farming to ensure that:
the country produces what is needed, either for home consumption or for export to
other countries
there is neither under- nor over-production.
b) Examples of government intervention are:
giving subsidies and grants to encourage farmers to grow certain products, as in the EU
taking land out of production to reduce surpluses, such as the set-aside scheme in the EU
constructing roads to encourage the opening up of new farmland, as in the rainforest
of Brazil.
11 The differences are:
With subsistence farming, most of the food produced is consumed by the producers. With
commercial farming, the food that is produced is mainly sold to consumers via markets
and shops.
Arable farming is focused on the growth of crops while pastoral farming on the rearing of
livestock.
Intensive farming involves using a relatively small amount of land to produce a high yield or
high value crop, for example in market gardening and horticulture. Extensive farming uses large
areas of land to produce a product with a lower yield and price, for example animal herding or
wheat growing.
12 Six ways to increase food production are:
extending the farmed area cultivate more land to produce more food
irrigation this ensures a supply of water especially during the dry periods in the year. This
allows for year-round growth of crops, provided temperatures remain sufficiently high
crop rotation ensures that vital minerals are returned to the soil and the soil is not overused
applying fertilisers to enrich the soil
applying herbicides and pesticides to eliminate weeds and diseases
genetic modification of crops and livestock to increase their individual productivity and give
them greater protection from disease.
13 Irrigation has a downside in that too much irrigation can lead to the ground becoming
waterlogged. This is not good for plant life, especially crops. Also, the evaporation of irrigation
water during hot, dry seasons causes salts in the soil to form a pan or hard layer within the upper
parts of the soil. This salt pan is poisonous to plants and also interferes with soil drainage. Also,
some irrigation water is being pumped at a rate that cannot be sustained by the underground
aquifers. Furthermore, irrigation reservoirs use up areas that could be good agricultural land.
18
14 There is so much controversy over the growing of GM crops largely because of uncertainty on two
counts: 1) their impact on ecosystems, and 2) possible adverse effects on human health. Also,
seeds are expensive and therefore out of the reach of LIC farmers.
15 One of the consequences of an overproduction of food in HICs are low prices resulting in farmers
not being able to make a profit and people eating too much. Eating too much is resulting in an
obesity epidemic with many health risks. There is also much wastage of food.
16 The UK imports 40% of its food because:
certain types of food are being produced more cheaply elsewhere. UK farmers cannot compete
some types of food need warmer weather to grow, such as bananas and pineapples
there is a year-round demand for seasonal fruits and vegetables because people expect the
same products to be on supermarket shelves throughout the year.
17 The main causes of food shortages in LICs are:
Fast rates of population growth means that there are many more people to feed.
There is a large volume of rural-urban migration so more people are relying on the food
produced by others; there are fewer people producing food.
International agri-businesses are taking over farmland and using it to grow crops for export or
for biofuels.
Benefits
Chapter 5
18 The sequence involved in the cycle of hunger is: People suffering from hunger are malnourished.
This means that they lack energy and are vulnerable to disease. This in turn means that they are
unable to work, particularly on a full-time basis. This in turn means either that they are not able to
grow all the food they need or are unable to buy food. The result is that there is less to eat and so
people become more hungry and malnourished.
21 The case for preserving rural space in the urban fringe is:
its use for recreational purposes
the attraction of having green space close to suburban development, i.e. amenity value
it helps create a gradual transition from rural to urban space.
22 The attractions of the commuter belt are:
cheaper housing
slower pace of life with less stress and pressure
better residential environment
access to the countryside
the possibility of a relatively better quality of life than in the denser urban areas
but these attractions are offset by the costs of commuting.
23 Farms in the accessible countryside are diversifying by:
going organic
selling directly to customers via farm shops and farmers markets
providing overnight accommodation and becoming involved in tourism
using farmland for recreation and leisure
becoming involved in craft industries.
24 The main changes taking place in the remote countryside are:
continuing out-migration of younger people resulting in ageing populations
depopulation
decline in commercial and social services
greater involvement in tourism and leisure activities
use of broadband to overcome remoteness thus allowing telecottaging and the influx of
some newcomers
its increasing popularity as a retirement area.
19
Answers
Chapter 6
1 a) Urbanisation is the process whereby an increasing number of people live in towns and cities
rather than in rural areas.
b) Three causes of urbanisation are:
economic development creating job opportunities outside farming
high rates of natural increase in towns and cities
rural-urban migration.
2 Cities in LICs are growing faster than those in HICs because of:
higher rates of natural increase
greater volumes of rural-urban migration
HICs already being highly urbanised, are further along the urbanisation pathway.
Chapter 6
20
b) Similar activities tend to come together at particular locations within the city because:
their location is controlled by the same location factors, such as access to clients and
good transport
they can afford the same general level of land values
they often benefit from clustering in the same part of the city, for example shops or offices
in the CBD.
11 Typical features of a CBD are:
high densities of people and traffic, especially during the day
vertical development in the form of office blocks
land use is predominantly non-residential (commercial)
it is often the oldest part of the town or city.
13 a) A ghetto is an area in which a minority ethnic group is concentrated. In these areas, the ethnic
group accounts for the majority of the population.
b) The reasons given for the existence of ghettos are twofold:
One reason suggests that members of a minority group choose to live close together
because they feel more secure and more at ease. Living in a ghetto helps them to preserve
their culture and traditions. It also gives them more political influence.
The second reason suggests that ghettos develop because of discrimination by the majority in
a whole range of different matters such as housing, employment and education. Members of
an ethnic minority are forced to live in areas of poor, cheap housing, usually in particular areas.
Chapter 6
12 a) The features that distinguish different groups of people within the city are:
social class
wage or salary levels (affluence)
ethnicity
type of residential occupancy (owner-occupiers versus tenants).
b) These different groups live in different parts of the city because they vary in terms of what they
can afford to pay for housing, i.e. they will live in that part of the city where the costs of
housing are affordable for them.
14 a) Shanty towns are areas of slum housing built of salvaged materials and located either on the
urban fringe or within the city on hazardous ground previously avoided for urban residential
development.
b) Shanty towns develop mainly as a result of large volumes of rural-urban migration. The supply
of proper housing is unable to meet the demand, so people are forced to make their own
dwellings wherever there is any vacant (unused) space.
15 Some of the ways of improving living conditions in shanty towns could be by:
providing basic services such as piped water and proper sewage disposal
recognising that residents have a right to live on the land that they occupy
setting up self-help schemes in which residents are encouraged to build their homes of proper
materials to make them safer and more permanent
providing social services such as schools and healthcare.
16 The push factors responsible for people moving to the urban fringe are poor quality housing and
residential environments, the closure of factories and a decline in services in the centre. The pull
factors to the fringe include better housing and residential environments, cheaper housing,
nearness to work, and access to the countryside and recreational areas.
17 Retailing is moving out of CBDs to urban fringe retailing parks because of better accessibility,
especially by car and with car parking space; the parks are able to attract customers from more
than one town or city; and there is more space and cheaper land for the large-scale retailing units
(superstores).
18 a) Three other types of business development found on the edges of HIC cities include industrial
estates, business parks and science parks.
b) For these businesses, the attractions of the urban fringe are much the same as for retailers,
especially as regards access, space and the wider recruitment of workers as well as clients.
A more pleasant working environment is also important to business and science parks.
21
19 a) The differences between a brownfield and a greenfield site is one of use. A brownfield site is
usually within an urban area that has been previously used by some non-agricultural activity. It
currently lies idle as it waits for some new use to be found for it. A greenfield site is usually
located outside urban areas, where its use has been mainly agricultural.
b) The arguments for using brownfield sites include:
reducing the loss of countryside and land that could be used for food production or
recreation
helping to revive old and abandoned urban areas
the services needed by development are already in place
being located closer to the jobs and services of the urban centre reduces transport and
commuting costs.
Chapter 6
20 a) Deprivation occurs when a persons well-being falls below a level which is widely thought to be
the absolute minimum. Housing, employment, health and education are the key aspects of life
in which deprivation can be most severe.
b) The cycle of poverty is based on the idea that poverty and deprivation are passed on from one
generation of a family to the next. The children of poor parents may receive little parental
support and may be forced to attend inadequate schools. As a result, they leave school at the
earliest possible opportunity with few qualifications. This means that they have difficulty in
finding work other than in that which pays minimum wages. Their children, in turn, are born
into the same deprived circumstances and become trapped in the same cycle.
21 Using Figure 6.27, one can identify that those areas of Birmingham which are the least deprived
occur in the suburbs to the north and east of the city centre. There is also a noticeable belt to the
southwest of the centre.
22 a) The reasons for the decline of the inner city in the 20th century were:
buildings became old and obsolete, and costly to maintain
people preferred to move out to live in new suburbs due to better transport links and the
attraction of a better environment
deindustrialisation resulting in factories closing down and a loss of jobs.
b) The reasons for the revival of the inner city in the 21st century are:
people and businesses realising the advantages of living close to the jobs, services and
amenities of the CBD rather than a long way from them in the suburbs and beyond
the increasing costs of transport
changing public tastes and perceptions of the cool lifestyle and trendy residential locations
with people appreciating the character of the old buildings once more
effective rebranding.
23 a) Gentrification is the movement of better-off people back into rundown, inner-city areas,
resulting in the improvement of the housing, built environment and image.
Gated communities are areas where expensive housing is protected by a perimeter wall or
fence with controlled entrances for residents and their visitors.
b) In gentrification and gated communities, it is the wealthier people who have benefited most.
With gentrification, they are able to enjoy living close to their place of work and also enjoy the
CBD with all its amenities. With gated communities, wealthy residents are able to enjoy very
good housing that is secure and relatively free from crime and vandalism.
22
Answers
Chapter 7
1 The threats most likely to disturb fragile environments are:
population pressure
unsustainable use of resources
ignorance of the environment and the workings of ecosystems.
2 a) The ecological footprint is the impact people have on the environment, mainly through their
consumption of resources.
b) Sustainability is the long-term maintenance of the well-being of people and the natural world
though the responsible use of natural resources.
3 Three main types of soil erosion:
sheet erosion moderate rainfall on bare soil on gently sloping ground
gully erosion caused by intense rainfall falling on poorly vegetated slopes
wind erosion strong winds blowing over bare soil.
Chapter 7
4 The term that best describes soil erosion is the washing away or blowing away of soil. The term
that best describes desertification is little vegetation now covering an area.
23
c) It the exploitation of these goods and services that are the main causes of deforestation, both
directly and indirectly. Indirectly, for example through clearing forests to make way for the
roads and other transport infrastructure needed to exploit these goods and services.
11 The creation of vast areas of farmland, particularly to create pasture for livestock, is the main
cause of the large-scale deforestation of the tropical rainforest biome. Cleared land is also being
used to grow biofuels. Another cause of deforestation is population pressure and the building of
new settlements.
12 You might argue that the land use which most threatens the future of the tropical rainforest is the
clearance of the forest for livestock rearing and the growing of biofuel crops. The impact is huge
because of the scale of the clearance and the fact that the forest is completely cleared. At least where
large-scale timber extraction is taking place, there is a chance of some recovery as usually not all the
trees are felled. The forest may survive in the form of a secondary forest.
Chapter 7
13 The two main concerns about the deforestation of the tropical rainforest are:
the loss of a valuable carbon sink so global levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may
increase leading to more global warming
the loss of biodiversity with its myriad of different tree, plant and animal species, many of
which may harbour undiscovered benefits to mankind.
14 The sustainable management of the tropical rainforest involves ensuring that future generations
will be able to benefit from the same goods and services provided by the tropical rainforest. This
can be done by:
protecting its biodiversity as much as possible
carefully planning and controlling selective logging
replanting forested areas once they have been felled
developing alternative sources of energy to reduce the amount of timber used as fuel
restricting the building of new roads since it is these that encourage the further exploitation of
the forest.
15 The sustainable management of the tropical rainforest is most likely to be achieved by:
international agreements about the importance of the tropical rainforest to the health of the
world and the need to protect and conserve it at all costs
finding substitutes or alternative sources for the resources currently taken from the tropical
rainforest, for example by agroforestry (growing timber and fuel on plantations elsewhere).
16 a) Overall, the average temperature between 1860 and 2000 rose by nearly 0.8C, but the rise has
been a fluctuating one. There have been peaks of increase at around 1870, 1880, 1940, 1960
and possibly 2000. During that time, global temperatures have also declined for short periods
as for example between 1860 and 1865, and between 1900 and 1920.
b) The graphs for global temperatures and carbon dioxide emissions overall show the same
general accelerating trend, but carbon emissions have shown a distinctly smoother rise. The
CO2 plot does not show the same, quite abrupt, fluctuations as the temperature plot.
17 a) The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.
b) The greenhouse effect is believed to be a result of greenhouse gases, released by human
activities, accumulating in the atmosphere. They act as a giant one-way blanket. Solar radiation
is allowed through to warm the Earths surface. However, outgoing radiation from the Earth
cannot escape into space and remains trapped in the atmosphere. Indeed, some of this
radiation or heat is reflected back to the Earths surface. As a consequence, the atmosphere
becomes progressively warmer.
18 It is the warming of the atmosphere that causes global warming. As global temperatures rise, so
the worlds ice sheets and glaciers begin to melt. This meltwater is carried to the oceans and so
causes sea-level to rise.
19 Global warming may lead to there being more energy in the atmosphere. This in turn may result
in more extreme weather events and therefore more hazards such as tropical storms, tornadoes,
floods, droughts and periods of severe cold.
24
23 a) The main aims of the Kyoto Treaty were to reduce global emissions of carbon dioxide and for
every nation to contribute (5% global emission reduction by 2012).
b) The Treaty has not yet come into force because not every nation has signed it. This is mainly
because some governments cannot agree on the carbon quotas. LICs argue that they should
not have to cut their emissions as they are only beginning to industrialise and that they
contribute little to current emissions. The leading industrial nations say that their economic
prosperity would be threatened if the quotas are much less than they are today. Other countries
argue that since they have large carbon sink forests, they do not need to cut their emissions by
as much as others.
Chapter 7
22 a) The countries with the largest populations and the highest industrial outputs produce the most
carbon dioxide emissions. They are the USA, China, Russia, Japan and India.
b) The main sources of carbon dioxide are:
the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas)
the burning of fuelwood
some industrial processes.
24 Carbon sinks are parts of the globe that are capable of absorbing large amounts of carbon
dioxide, such as forests.
Carbon quotas are the amounts of carbon that countries or organisations are allowed to emit.
Carbon capture is extracting carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels before it is released
into the atmosphere and storing it, mostly underground.
25 The most important way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions is to change energy sources, moving
from fossil fuels to renewable sources such as nuclear, wind, solar, hydro and tidal power. The
problem is that it is difficult for these alternative sources to produce as much electricity as
currently comes from fossil fuels. The most productive source would be nuclear, but there are risks
attached to this.
The use of fossil fuels will have to continue, but it is important that they are burned more
efficiently and that carbon capture techniques are used.
Carbon sinks should be increased. This can be achieved by halting deforestation and encouraging
the planting of more forests.
25
Answers
Chapter 8
1 Definitions are:
Globalisation is the process, led by TNCs, whereby the worlds countries are all becoming part
of one vast global economy.
Interdependence is a situation in which the economic decisions and activities in one country
affect other countries and so different countries and regions come to rely on each other as part
of the global economy.
The global economy is the evolving economic system that increasingly links the countries of
the world. It involves the worldwide exploitation of resources, labour and information, and the
worldwide production and marketing of goods and services.
The global village is a term used to convey the idea that people all around the world are being
drawn closer together into a single global community.
Chapter 8
2 The five flows involved in the growth of the global economy are:
trade
foreign investment
migrant labour
aid
information.
3 Many British companies now locate part of their production and ICT services work abroad. The
factories of China and the offices of India threaten some British workers jobs. These shifts are
helping to cause an export boom in China and India where GNIs are rising rapidly.
4 a) Deindustrialisation is a decline in the manufacturing industry in a particular region. It may be
because it has become more profitable to manufacture elsewhere.
b) The global shift or relocation in manufacturing is largely from HIC to MIC, as from the UK to
China. It is largely a result of the TNCs which are driven to search out the cheapest or most
profitable locations for specific types of manufacturing. The shift involves many of the so-called
traditional branches of manufacturing (such as iron and steel, chemicals and shipbuilding) and
well as more modern consumer industries (such as clothing and electrical goods).
5 Many TNCs have set up factories in LICs. The three main advantages they gain from doing this are:
cheaper labour and land
labour is easier to control as there are less government regulations as regards working
conditions, for example wages and health and safety
fewer environmental or anti-pollution restrictions.
6 a) Two characteristics of transnational companies (TNCs) are:
They are major players in the global economy in terms of influence and financial power.
They control complex production chains that knit together locations scattered around
the world.
b) Examples of TNCs and their main business are:
Royal Dutch Shell oil and gas
ING Group financial services
Toyota motor vehicles.
7 TNCs operate globally in these ways:
Whilst their headquarters are located on one country, they have business interests (branch
plants and offices) scattered around the world.
They have very long production chains, for example there are often huge distances involved in
the manufacture of a pair of jeans with the cotton, synthetic fibres and zips etc. all being made
in different parts of the world.
Mining companies often mine a wide variety of resources in different parts of the world. For
example, the British Australian mining company Rio Tinto not only mines Namibias deposits of
uranium but is also extracting other minerals in other countries.
Motor manufacturers assemble parts made in many countries. Each company often has a
number of assembly plants scattered around the globe.
26
Chapter 8
9 a) The greatest cost to countries hosting TNCs is that the profits leak out of the country. This
means that the host country is deprived of capital (investment) to encourage more economic
development.
b) The greatest benefits are the jobs created and regular wages. It is the spending of those wages
that will help to create a demand for goods and services. Providing those goods and services
should create still more jobs and support more economic development.
12 a) A package holiday is a holiday in which travel and accommodation are put together by a tour
operator and sold as a relatively cheap package.
b) It is a popular form of tourism because it:
is relatively cheap
offers tried and tested destinations with the elements that many people expect of a holiday,
that is sun, sea and sand
is heavily promoted in the mass media
is relatively organised and an easier option for people.
13 Economic benefits of mass tourism are that it:
creates employment and the wages of employees help to boost the local economy
creates a demand for souvenirs which in turn encourages the growth of craft industries
creates a demand for food and a range of services which in turn create jobs
gives some LICs a basis for economic development.
14 Some of the socio-cultural impacts of tourism are:
in some places, it has revived traditional handcrafts and performing arts
it makes tourists aware of cultural differences and different codes of behaviour so it can be
educational
some tourists engage in offensive loutish behaviour, failing to observe dress codes and
consuming too much alcohol
results in more crime and the corruption of local people.
27
Chapter 8
Weaknesses are the very high costs (including surcharges) of a holiday in Bhutan. This means that
it is mainly a destination for more wealthy tourists. Tourists have to be escorted all the time. There
is therefore no chance for individual exploration or interaction with local people. This means that
tourists are unable to learn about Bhutans people.
28
22 a) A refugee is someone who has left their country of nationality because they are being
persecuted for their religious beliefs, ethnicity or political views. They are admitted to and
allowed to live in another country. An asylum seeker is someone who has left their country of
nationality and has applied to be officially recognised as a refugee. So an asylum seeker is a
refugee in waiting!
b) Some examples of the push factors giving rise to internally-displaced people (IDPs) are major
natural hazard events, such as widespread flooding, serious earthquakes, and drought and
resulting famine. But there are also more human factors such as tribal warfare, battles for
political power, racial or religious persecution and terrorism.
23 Factors that are increasing the volume of global migration are:
more unrest in the world so more people are pushed to leave their homes
modern transport so people are able to undertake long-distance migrations
globalisation resulting in large movements of labour and the relaxing of national boundaries,
for example in the EU
modern communications that allow would-be migrants to see and feel potential destinations
before making their decisions to move.
25 a) The strongest pull factor attracting migrants to the UK is work with wages that are higher than
back in their home countries.
b) Some of the opposition to the arrival of immigrants in the UK is the fear that:
they are taking jobs away from UK citizens
they are taking advantage of social welfare benefits
they are not paying income tax
they are taking over the housing in particular localities.
Chapter 8
24 Some governments try to manage international migration when they feel that there is either too
much or too little net in-migration. In the former case, it might be that there are already high
levels of unemployment in their country. In the latter case, it may be that a government feels that
its population needs to be boosted because natural increase is not producing sufficient overall
population growth or that there is a shortage of labour.
29
Answers
Chapter 9
1 a) GDP stands for gross domestic product. This measures the value of all the goods and services
produced and provided in a country in a year.
b) The advantages of using per capita GDP as a measure of development are that countries vary in
their physical size, their total populations and the size or value of their economies. Expressing
this total value per head of population creates a more even playing-field for a better
comparison of countries.
2 There are three main forces behind economic development. They are:
Resources examples are soils, climate, minerals, the quality of labour, capital, technology
Internal boosters examples are national pride and ambition, government support and
business culture
External boosters examples are globalisation, geopolitics, TNCs and international development
agencies.
3
Tertiary
sector
% GDP in employment
Chapter 9
Primary sector
Secondary
sector
Time
Quaternary
sector
30
7 Over much of the world, more than 90% of the population have access to clean water. That
includes most of North and South America, Europe, Russia, Australia and New Zealand.
Over much of Africa, the Middle East and southern Asia the level of access is less. This is
particularly the case in many parts of Africa where access falls to less than 60%.
8 There is a broad similarity between where more than 90% of the population have access to clean
water and where illiteracy rates are less than 10% (Brazil in South America is an obvious
exception). High rates of illiteracy are conspicuous in a belt that includes Africa, the Middle East,
and south and south-east Asia. In much of this belt, less than 75% of the population have access
to clean water.
10 a) Ethiopia is classed as an LIC because its per capita GDP is below $100 which is a threshold used
for identifying the least economically developed countries in the world.
b) The term used to describe rapidly growing economies is RIC (recently-industrialising country)
or emergent economy.
c) The main reasons for the poverty and low development levels within Ethiopia are:
overpopulation
scarce resources
poor education and skills training
lack of capital
political unrest.
Chapter 9
9 a) HIC (high-income country): relatively well developed and prosperous countries such as the UK,
USA and Japan
NIC (newly-industrialised country): countries which have enjoyed much economic development
over the last 30 to 50 years such as South Korea, Taiwan and Malaysia
MIC (middle-income country): a mix of recently-industrialising countries such as Brazil,
China and Mexico; and countries undergoing less rapid development such as Morocco,
Romania and Indonesia
b) The development staircase is the pathway or sequence of steps or events involved as a LIC
moves towards becoming an HIC. Each step on the staircase represents a distinct stage in the
climb to become more developed. These steps or stages provide a basis for classifying
countries.
31
b)
Milan
Turin
THE CORE
Genoa
boundary
Rome
THE
PERIPHERY
Naples
Chapter 9
22 a) Your brief report explaining Chinas population policies since 1970 should recognise three
periods and these will provide a good structure for your report:
1970 to 1979: There is much advertising and active promotion of family planning
programmes.
1979 to 1987: The one-child programme is firmly implemented because the preceding
voluntary programmes did not cut the birth rate by very much. There were severe penalties
for those couples having more than one child.
Since 1987: The one-child policy has been relaxed in a series of small steps allowing rural
couples and those belonging to minority groups to have more than one child, particularly if
the first was a girl.
b) Some of the consequences of those policies have been:
gender-selective abortions (to avoid having a girl)
little emperors (spoilt one-child boys)
unbalanced sex ratios (many more men than women, and wives in short supply)
labour shortages in rural areas.
Chapter 9
21 a) Many believe that it is necessary for governments to try to change population growth rates in
order to bring population numbers into balance with things such as food supply, resources and
development opportunities. Growth rates may be influenced or changed in both directions
increased or decreased.
b) Two other ways of slowing population increase are to:
encourage emigration
control immigration.
c) A government might try to increase the growth rate by offering couples incentives to have
more children or by encouraging immigration.
23 a) Aid is the help given to one country by either another country or by an international
organisation. The help can be in the form of money, loans, goods or technical assistance.
b) Many LICs need aid to get them moving along the development pathway so that their people
can enjoy a better standard of living and quality of life. In many LICs, there are real obstacles to
development, for example a lack of capital and technology.
24 a) The four main types of aid are:
official aid aid provided by governments
multilateral aid a government donates to international organisations, such as UNESCO and
the World Bank, who actually deliver the aid
bilateral aid aid given directly by one country to another
voluntary aid aid provided by non-governmental organisations such as Oxfam, Christian
Aid and other charities.
b) The advantages and disadvantages of receiving aid are:
Advantages
Disadvantages
33
c) Tied aid means that there are conditions attached to the granting of aid to a particular country.
It might be that the receiving country has to provide specific resources, such as minerals, in
return. Aid may be in the form of a financial loan which has to be repaid within a given period
and with interest. This can be a problem to the development of a country.
25 a) An NGO is a non-government organisation funded by voluntary contributions rather than by
governments. Many of the well-known NGOs operate at an international level and exist to cope
with global issues.
b) Figure 9.33 shows that Oxfam spends most of the money it raises either on providing various
forms of aid to the developing world (38%) or on relief (aid) in emergency situations such as
after major hazards and conflicts. 17% is spent on planning and organising this development
and emergency aid work, and 6% on campaigning and making the world aware of the work
that it does. The overall management and administration of Oxfam accounts for only 2%.
Chapter 9
26 a) Free trade is trade between two or more countries which is not obstructed by trade barriers
such as tariffs and import restrictions.
b) In theory, free trade should exist within the European Union and other trade organisations but
even within the EU, individual countries can take actions to protect their own trade. Many
so-called free trade agreements make trade with countries outside the agreements more
difficult for the rest of the world. Global trade mostly favours HICs at the expense of LICs.
34