Storiesof Explora 00 Arch Rich

Exploration and Discovery
GIFT OF JANE K.SATHER
STORIES OF EXPLORATION
AND DISCOVERY
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

C.
F.
CLAY, MANAGER FETTER LANE, E.G. 100 PRINCES STREET
efo loth: G. P. Bombag, Calcutta anU JKafcras:
PUTNAM'S SONS
CO., LTD.
Toronto:
J.
M.
MACMILLAN AND DENT AND SONS, LTD.
THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
All rights reserved
STORIES OF EXPLORATION
AND DISCOVERY
BY
ARTHUR
B.
ARCHER, M.A.
(Liverpool)
Second Master and principal Geography and History Teacher, Holt Secondary School, Liverpool
Cambridge
at the
University Press
1915
.IV7
Camfcrttrge
PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.

AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
^
X
5.1t:
PREFACE
little
book
is
THIS experience in the teaching of an original
the outcome of several years' course on
the History of Discovery. The course has been given to middle forms, and spread over two years' work, with a This has been supplementary to the fortnightly lesson.
usual work in History and Geography, and the study of both those subjects has been found to benefit considerably. An aspect of human endeavour and progress that is often
only lightly touched upon has received more adequate and connected treatment, with corresponding gain in interest. The course has afforded opportunities for the revision of
World History and Geography, from a

but the chief value has been found to
to wider reading
list
fresh point of view,

lie
in the stimulus
books appended to of such reading.

of
on the part of the pupils. The short this volume illustrates the scope
It has been difficult to choose, from the great mass of material available, just those stories which are at once representative and important in the general history of
exploration,
and interesting
in themselves.
The aim has
been to preserve something of a historical outline, though necessarily incomplete, which may prevent the book from
becoming merely a
series of disconnected biographies,
and
serve to illustrate the continuity of human efforts to solve the great problems of exploration. To the end of
may
334174
-3
vi
PREFACE
the chapters on the Elizabethan seamen, the subject of World-discovery has been treated as a unity. Subsequent
chapters deal with landmarks in the exploration of individual continents. This method has been found useful
in practice.
The sketch-maps
The maps
are intended to supplement a

is
good
physical atlas, which
indispensable for this subject. have been drawn by Miss A. M. Gillett, to
whom
very grateful acknowledgments are due.

the drawing of the
first
Dr John
gave
Sampson, Librarian
facilities for
of Liverpool University, kindly
based on a portolano in his care.

to
sketch-map, which is The author also desires
express his gratitude to
Mr
C.
W.
Bailey, M.A., at
whose suggestion the book has been written, and who most kindly read the proofs and gave much helpful criticism and encouragement.
A. B. A.
LIVERPOOL,
May
1915.
CONTENTS
CHAP.
I.
PAGE
THE ANCIENT WORLD
II.
THE DARK AGES AND THE VIKINGS

ARAB TRAVELLERS.
V
"
-,-
III.
THE FRIARS.
MARCO POLO
.
15
IV.
PRINCE HENRY THE NAVIGATOR

DIAZ,
.;
21
V.
DA GAMA, AND THE ROUNDING

. . .
.
OF THE
.
CAPE
VI.
27
COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE
NEW
.
WORLD
VII.
32
LATER
VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. VESPUCCI, . .. CABRAL, AND BALBOA

'
39
45
VIII.
THE CABOTS
IX.
FERDINAND MAGELLAN AND THE FIRST VOYAGE ROUNP THE WORLD

CORTES AND THE DISCOVERY OF MEXICO
PlZARRO AND THE CONQUEST OF PERU
.
.....
/ -.
.
49
X.
XI.
XII.
56
6l
THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE.

CHANCELLOR
...
....
.
-
WILLOUGHBY AND
.
67
XIII.
JOHN HAWKINS AND THE EARLY VOYAGES OF
DRAKE
XIV.
.'
72
DRAKE'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD
..
77
XV.
XVI.
MARTIN FROBISHER
'+
82
THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. AND BAFFIN
...
DAVIS,
.
HUDSON
.
,
87
V111
CONTENTS
CHAP.
XVII.
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE
SKETCH BASED ON A PORTOLANO OF SIXTEENTH CENTURY HOMERIC SHIP . . WORLD ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS . .
.
xii
3 5
.
VIKING SHIP (Bayeux Tapestry) JOURNEYS OF THE NORSEMEN. EIGHTH CENTURY .

.
...
10
MAHOMMEDAN LANDS
.
. .
IN
.
..
-
12
MARCO POLO IN ASIA . THE CAPE ROUTE TO INDIA

.
-'.-'
"
-.'
"..
18
'.
.
30 34 43
PART OF TOSCANELLI'S MAP ... . T: . THE SPANIARDS IN THE NEW WORLD AN ENGLISH SHIP OF THE EARLY SIXTEENTH CENTURY WORLD-VOYAGES OF MAGELLAN AND DRAKE '.' MAP PUBLISHED WITH THE NARRATIVE OF FROBISHER'S
. ,
'-
.-
48
53
Voyages, 1578
".
_".
between pp. 82 and 83
EARLY VOYAGES IN SEARCH OF THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE FRENCH PIONEERS IN CANADA . TRAVELS OF MUNGO PARK . THE NILE PROBLEM LIVINGSTONE'S JOURNEYS AND STANLEY'S CONGO JOURNEY PART OF COOK'S FIRST VOYAGE
.
.
89
100
.
107 118
134
146 150
160
.
H.M.S. Resolution
AUSTRALIAN EXPLORERS . . ROUTES OF MACKENZIE AND FRANKLIN

.
"
.
.
176
TABLE OF THE MORE IMPORTANT EVENTS TO WHICH REFERENCE IS MADE

B.C.
c.
Foundation of Carthage. Alexander the Great in Asia. 554. Caesar in Britain.

770. 327. A.D.
985.
Eric the
Red
reaches Greenland.
in Asia.
1271-98. 1316-30.
1415-60.
1445. 1484. 1486.
Marco Polo
Friar Odoric in Asia.
Geographical work of Henry the Navigator. "Western Nile" reached. Guinea Coast explored, and Congo reached.
Diaz rounds the Cape.
1493.
14921504. Columbus in the New World. Papal bull, dividing Spanish and Portuguese spheres. Cabot reaches North America. 1497.
1497-99.
Voyages of Vespucci.
1498.
1500.
Da Gama
1513.
1521. 1524. 1534.
reaches India. Cabral reaches Brazil. Balboa views Pacific Ocean.
1519-21.
Voyage
of Magellan.
Conquest of Mexico. Verrazano sails along East coast of North America. Conquest of Peru.
1534-42. Cartier explores the St Lawrence. Orellana descends the Amazon. 1540. 1553. Willoughby and Chancellor in Muscovy.
1562-67. 1576-78.
Voyages of John Hawkins. Voyages of Frobisher. 157780. Drake's voyage round the World. I 5^3. Gilbert reaches Newfoundland. 1 585-6. Davis searches for the North-west Passage. 1595. Ralegh sails up the Orinoco.
TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS

A.D.
xi
1606-30.
Dutch voyages on North, West, and South

Australia.
coasts of
North American voyages of Hudson. Voyages of Baffin. 1615. Champlain reaches the Great Lakes. Tasmania and New Zealand discovered by Tasman. 1642. 1688 and 1699. Dampier's voyages to Australian coasts. 1768-71. Cook's first voyage (South Seas New Zealand East
1608 i o. 1 612-16.
coast of Australia).
1770. 1772. 1776.
Bruce discovers source of Blue
Nile.
1789. 1793.
1796. 1801.
Cook's second voyage (Antarctic Circle reached). Cook's third voyage (N.E. Pacific). Mackenzie's journey down the Mackenzie River. Mackenzie crosses Canada, to coast of British Columbia. Mungo Park reaches the Niger.
Flinders sails along South, East, and North coasts of Australia.
1805.
1829. 1840.
Mungo Park descends Niger to Bussa. Sturt's voyage down the Murray.
Travels of Eyre in Southern Australia. Ross reaches the Antarctic Continent. Franklin's last Arctic voyage. Speke discovers Victoria Nyanza. Livingstone reaches Loanda, from Cape descends the.. Zambesi.
1840.
1845.
1856. 1870.
1860.
Colony,
and
1861.
1861. 1863.
Speke and Grant reach Nile source in Victoria Nyanza. Stuart crosses Central Australia from South to North.
Livingstone reaches Lake Nyassa. Baker reaches Nile source in Albert Nyanza. 1866-73. Livingstone's travels in Central Africa. 1874. Stanley descends the Congo. Nansen's first crossing of Greenland. 1888. Nansen crosses the North Polar Seas. 1893. Scott and Shackleton reach King Edward VII Land. 1901. Shackleton reaches 87-^ S. 1908. 1909. Peary reaches the North Pole. Amundsen reaches the South Pole. 1911.
1912.
Death
of Scott.
Outline sketch based on a Spanish portolano of the early Sixteenth Century

(Figures shown on the sketch include the kings of France, Spain and Fez, the Emperor of Germany, and the Grand Turk ; together with the cities Pr ester John is shown in Abyssinia.) of Cairo and Venice.
CHAPTER
THE ANCIENT WORLD

When we
we
are struck
it is
look at an old map,. like the one opposite,
by its quaint inaccuracy. A great deal of mere guess-work. In place of details of the physical features of Abyssinia, for example, there is a drawing of
Prester John, the mythical Christian king of that part of The actual map upon which the opposite sketch is based contains many names around the coasts of the
Africa.
few names elsewhere. partly because it is a sailor's map, but also partly because of lack of information. Later maps are fuller and more accurate, because men are continually filling in the gaps as the result of increased knowledge. There are few regions of which we do not now know at least the general features, and although much detail remains to be filled in, most of the greater problems in connection with the outlines of the world have been settled.
countries shown, but there are
is
This
say when men first began to learn about the parts of the world beyond their own neighbourhood. The Ancient Hebrews certainly took a great interest in such matters, and had ideas on the form of
It is impossible to
the world, and similar problems. They considered the Earth to be flat, and the centre of the Universe. The
ocean they supposed to be a stream flowing round the world. It must be remembered that in those days, when each nation supplied its own wants, there was little trade,
A. E.
I
2
/
THE ANCIENT WORLD

**
'
[CH.
and consequently little travel, which might help to remove what now seem strange ideas. The home of the earliest trading nations appears to have been in the north-east of Africa and in South-western The fertile region lying between the Tigris and Asia. the Euphrates was the home of the Chaldeans. Another great nation, that of the Egyptians, was settled about the delta of the Nile, so that the two countries were separated by a region of desert, which for a long time
prevented any intercourse.
course did spring
?1v3**
''
>
up between these
Eventually, however, internations, a fact which
is illustrated by accounts in Bible history, such as that of the journey of Abraham and his family from Chaldea into Egypt, and his return with a large company into Canaan. Another illustration is the story of the de-
Joseph by his brethren, who first put him and then sold him to a company of Ishmaelites who "came from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt/' The Egyptians used boats on the Nile, and perhaps
sertion
of
into a pit,
along the coasts of their country, but probably the
first
serious navigators were the people of Phoenicia. This country occupied a region along the coast of Syria. It
was bounded on the
east
by a high
desert,
which hindered
intercourse in that direction, except along definite trade routes. The sea, however, lay to the west, and on this
the Phoenicians soon showed themselves to be able and venturesome.
During
many
centuries,
from about 1500
B.C.,
they
kept possession of the carrying trade of the Mediterranean, and added to their wealth by the sale of the purple dye
which their country alone produced. Their boats sailed from the great ports of Tyre and Sidon north to the Black Sea, and Asia Minor, and west to the coasts of Greece, Italy, Gaul and Northern Africa. They traded east to
i]
THE ANCIENT WORLD
the Persian Gulf and south to Zanzibar.

little
There seems doubt that they even reached the shores of Cornwall, and the Scilly Isles, with which places they traded for tin. They made no attempt to build up an empire, but in some places there grew up Phoenician settlements which became important independent states. Of these the most important was Carthage, founded about 770 B.C. on the
north coast of Africa, close to the modern town of Tunis. From Carthage many voyages were made westwards along
the coast of Africa to beyond the Pillars of Hercules,
Homeric Ship
which was the name by which the two great rocks of Gibraltar and Ceuta, at the entrance to the Mediterranean,
were known.
sides of the
The Greeks, who inhabited both the east and west Aegean Sea, were very much interested in questions relating to the form of the world, and the But the Greeks general nature of its physical features.
did not travel so far as the Phoenicians, although they made settlements, or colonies, in many lands. Greek
colonies were founded
on the coasts of Asia Minor, the

i
THE ANCIENT WORLD
[CH,
Black Sea, and along the northern coasts of the Aegean Others were founded in Sicily and on the coasts of Sea.
Rhone, was founded by Greeks. These colonies were all independent of the government of the mother-country, although all were bound together by such ties as a common religion, language, and a share in the great Games, which were held
Italy.
Marseilles, near
the
mouth
of the
at Olympia, in Greece. The Greek colonies were centres, of trade, and merchants travelled from them in search of merchandise.
In this connection one journey is of special interest, because it led to the discovery of the British Isles. In
a west beyond the Pillars of Hercules, to collect what information he could about the land beyond, so that trade might be opened up. He passed out into the ocean, and north along the coast to the Bay of Biscay. From here he sailed to Britain, which he reached at the coast of Kent. He examined a considerable part of the coastline,
the fourth century B.C. the Greeks of Marseilles sent
famous
mathematician
named Pytheas
to
sail
Passing north he discovered what he called the land of Thule, which he described as being the most northerly land in the world, but the position of
of the
over-estimating Rhine.
its
length,
and then
sailed to the
mouth
which
is
uncertain.
He
then returned across France to
Marseilles.
The Greek thinkers

their
of those
days appear to have built
own
ideas on the foundation of those of the Phoe-
The earliest description of the form of the nicians. world in Greek literature is contained in the poems of Homer, where the world is described as being flat and round, with the great river Oceanus flowing round it, In just as it had seemed to the minds of the Hebrews. later days there were many famous Greek travellers, such as Herodotus, who was not only a traveller but a
i]
THE ANCIENT WORLD
and who wrote accounts of what he saw in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and the north-west of He lived in the fifth century B.C. Here is a India. sketch of the world as it seemed to this Greek.
historian,
AUSTRALIAN
SEA
to Herodotus
The World according
Alexander the Great, of Macedonia, who conquered the whole of Asia Minor, and other parts of Asia and Africa, led his troops into the north-west of India, in
327
B.C.,
and much trade began

like
to follow in the direction
of his conquests.
Alexander were not mainly concerned with the geography of the regions through which they passed, although they were observant men. But in the third century B.C. there were beginning to appear many learned men who were interested in geography for its own sake. It is interesting to notice that as early as 240 B.C. a Greek scholar insisted that the world was a globe, and actually found a method by which he could measure its circumference. Nor was he far wrong in the result. Of course his map of the world contained many curious mistakes. For example he drew the Caspian Sea as if it were con-
Men
THE ANCIENT WORLD
[CH.
nected with the Arctic Ocean, and he placed one long right across the centre of Asia from west to east.
and unbroken mountain chain
When the Romans built up their great empire round the Mediterranean Sea they increased men's knowledge of the world to a great extent. There were not many
famous
rule
Roman
explorers,
it
is
true,
there
was a great increase
in
but under commerce.
Roman
From
Britain and Spain in the far west of the Empire, and from India and Asia Minor in the east, came valuable
products for the use of the wealthy Romans. Anything which increases intercourse of this nature between widelyseparated countries always tends to increase geographical knowledge. Moreover many of the Roman generals were
keenly observant of what they saw. The great Julius Caesar, who went about much in Gaul, Spain, Germany, " and Britain, wrote a series of books or commentaries" in which he not only told of the doings of himself and his
soldiers,
but also described
many
features of the countries which he visited.
of the geographical His account of
the island of Britain, its shape, climate, productions, and inhabitants, is a good example of this side of his work. In the first two centuries of the Christian era, many
famous Greek and

ished.
Roman
students of geography flour-
was Ptolemy, who believed that the Earth was a globe, and who drew a map of the world which was in use for many centuries. As a matter of fact it contained many errors. In those days it was a
Among
these
common
practice to imagine the shape of those lands
which had not been explored. Thus Ptolemy drew the Indian Ocean as an inland sea, with a great southern continent extending from the south-east of China to the coast of Africa. This continent, and the centre of Africa, were marked as being regions of desert, uninhabitable
owing to the heat.
i]
THE ANCIENT WORLD

To sum up the when
is
state of men's
knowledge of the world

to decline,
at the time
the
Roman Empire began
end of the fourth century, it may be said that the lands bordering the Mediterranean were The well known, and fairly well represented on maps. forests of Central Europe to the north, and the deserts of Northern Africa to the south, the Atlantic to the west, and the highlands of Central Asia to the east, may be
that
to say at the
taken as marking the limits of the known world. The coast of Asia as far east as Indo-China, and the coast of Africa as far as Zanzibar on the east and perhaps the Gulf of Guinea on the west, were fairly well known. The whole of the American continent, Australia, the north
of Asia, the north of Europe, and the south of Even in the case of the were Africa, quite unknown. parts of the 'world which were known there was much
and east
inaccuracy, so that the work of the future lay in two In the first place many details were added to directions.
existing
in the
maps which
required
filling in
or amending,
and
second place vast areas of which as yet were explored.
men knew
nothing
CHAPTER
II

During the fifth century the Roman Empire was invaded by great numbers of tribes, most of whom came from Central Europe and the region north of the Black Sea. This is not the place to trace out the story of these movements, or to describe in detail how Vandals and Goths, Franks and Huns, journeyed from place to place, and in some cases settled down to form new kingdoms out of the western part of the Empire. It must be
[CH.
noticed, however, that the
great effects
It
is
movements of the tribes had on Western Europe. not to be supposed that these people were
barbarians in the usual sense of the word, for
many
of
them were highly intelligent and even cultured. In some parts of the Empire the tribes had been allowed to settle for a time, and in this way they had become civilized. This was the case with the Goths. Yet in spite of this the settlements of the new tribes checked the growth of such things as literature and art. Literature ceased to flourish as it had done in the days of the Empire, fewer fine buildings were erected, and such as were built were
of
an
inferior
type of architecture as compared with the

Greeks.
in
later
work
of the
Romans and
days this period from about 600 A.D. to about 1200 A.D. became known 'as the Dark Ages. It is not true that there was no progress in that The period, or that no interest was taken in learning. names of Alfred the Great and of Charles the Great will
To students
show that there were
even at that time. period which had just passed, the Dark Ages seem a time of little progress, and almost deserve their name.
This lack of progress
failure of
scholars of considerable learning Yet, in comparison with the Classical
men
to
is shown most clearly add much to their knowledge
in the
of the
world beyond their own regions during that period. There was much travelling about Europe, but the spread of Mahommedanism, in the seventh centuryv almost entirely cut off Europe from the south and east. Mahomet was a native of Arabia and spent the greater part of his life in teaching the Arabians to accept the Faith which he claimed to have been revealed to him by God. On his death, Mahommedanism spread through Syria and Asia Minor to the north, and through Egypt,
Tripoli,
and Marocco
to the west.
The Mahommedans,
ii]
against the Christians as a Holy War, even crossed the Straits of Gibraltar into Spain, beyond the borders of which they were checked by the Franks. Thus the south and east of the Mediterranean region was in the hands of a people who would not allow
who looked upon war
the Christians of Europe to travel in or through those

lands.
As the Mahommedans themselves were too cowardly

to face the dangers of seeking out new lands or risking themselves upon unknown seas, there was an end of
geographical discovery in that part of Europe. Still there were other parts which were quite uninfluenced by the Mahommedan conquests. Far away in Scandinavia and Denmark lived the Northmen, or Norsemen. They lived
along the shores of the "wiks" or fiord-creeks of the coast. The mountainous and forbidding nature of the interior of
their country drove them to the sea for a means of living. There was little room, too, in their native land, for all to
and as some won power over their neigh" more independent of these Vikings" preferred to carve out a path for themselves. They were accustomed to a hard and life, daring sailors, absolutely
live in comfort,
bours at
home
the
without
It
fear.
was the custom of the Vikings to be buried on shore, in the ships which had borne them so often during their lifetime. Many of such burial-ships have been discovered in recent years, and we can tell what they must ha\e looked like when on active service. There appear to have been two main types of ships, one being used for voyages near the coast or in calm seas, and the
other for longer journeys into the stormy ocean. One of the latter kind has been described as being built of oak, and measuring nearly thirty feet long, and half that width,
and having seats for sixteen pairs of rowers. There was a mast, to which was attached a sail of striking and varied
CH. n]
colours.
THE DARK AGES AND THE VIKINGS n
of shields
Along the gunwale of each side of the ship a row was placed, painted black and gold. Both ends of the ship were richly carved, and stood high out of the
water.
Rowing
their
way
swiftly in their long boats, the Vikings made along the coasts of Europe and out into the
they attacked the coasts of Britain and France. They sailed up the rivers, and Ireland, Germany at first to plunder and burn, but soon they began to make settlements in the lands they reached. Thus they settled in Normandy, which was so named after them, and in England and Ireland. It is said that one band sailed up a great river into the heart of Europe and founded the
Atlantic.
At
first
kingdom
of Russia.
In their earlier voyages the Vikings had not gone far from the coasts of Europe, but in later days they became more venturesome. They made their way out into the. North Atlantic, in spite of the dreadful storms for which
that part has always been feared, and in spite of the complete absence of maps and charts which might serve
had gone out

so
little is
to guide them. Stories are told of other travellers who into the great Atlantic in earlier days, but
known of their work that the brave Norsemen be may given the credit of being the first to do so. It is true that Irish hermits had been to the Faroes and Iceland, but as they were only in search of regions which might give them the solitude they loved so much, their
visits
had little geographical importance. In order to follow the journeys of the Norsemen it is best to look at the map of the world on a globe. It will there be seen that the North Atlantic is not really so wide as it appears on an ordinary map. There is also a chain of islands stretching across from North- West Europe to North America. Thus may be traced the
Orkneys and Shetlands, the Faroes and Iceland.
From
CH.
ii]

is
13
the latter to Greenland
Norsemen passed
another.
sailors of the
on, step
only a short distance. The by step, from one point to
Iceland became a centre for
many
of the
hardy
North, and from its shores at length went the famous Eric the Red, who sailed away to the west in
Soon afterwards he returned to Iceland with the 985. news that he had seen a wonderful new country, covered with verdure, and likely to prove an attractive place for
any
of his
countrymen who might wish to
settle there.
Greenland to this new land. He evidently knew nothing about the interior of the great island, or else he would not have thought it suitable for settlement, covered as it is with lofty mountains buried under eternal snow and ice. However, his account aroused great interest among the Norse folk. A large
Eric gave the
of
name
number
the
of
found a colony in
men and women set off in a fleet of boats to this new land. Thus about 986 A.D.
first European settlement in Greenland was made. In the year 1000 A.D. Leif, the son of Eric the Red, sailed from Greenland south-westwards towards a land
which had been sighted by a number
of the settlers
some
time before. The first part of the new land which was reached was barren and uninviting, and from the description given there seems no doubt that this was the coast of Labrador. Further south, however, they saw a land covered with woods, and at length they reached the island
now
called
Newfoundland.
that this place had

climate, for their pleasure gave
They were delighted to find what seemed to them a very mild they were hardy men of the North. But
way to astonishment when, crossing the narrow channel which separated the island from the mainland, they found a beautiful country of great fertility,
with rivers and lakes well stocked with salmon,

vinbaer, or currants,
and with
they called the
new land
growing in profusion. So Vinland. This is probably the
14
land

known
as
[CH.
Nova
Scotia.
They had
set foot
on the
continent of America nearly five hundred years before Columbus set out on his great voyage.
Several expeditions were sent out from Greenland for the purpose of colonizing Vinland, during the next few years, but the difficulties in the way of success were great.
The
Indians, or Eskimos, fought against the settlers, and there were quarrels among the Norsemen themselves.
Moreover, by the beginning of the fifteenth century, even the original settlers on the coast of Greenland came to an end. The climate was very trying, and the Eskimos were
Thus the clouds settled down once again on the American continent, to be lifted nearly a hundred years later by Columbus and his followers. It must be remembered that the Vikings were not
hostile.
merely sea-rovers who thought of nothing but plunder. They were often willing to open up peaceful trade with the lands with which they came into contact. This is well illustrated in the story of Ohthere, a famous Norse captain,
who came
to England and was patronized by King Alfred. The King took a keen interest in his work, and helped to send him on an expedition round the North Cape, and As a result of this voyage into the White Sea, in 892. a beginning of trade with Archangel was made. Even in their settlements and conquests in the lands of Western Europe the Norsemen indirectly did a service
the cause of exploration, because they gave fresh vigour to the character of the people of those lands.
to
Thus, for example, the English undoubtedly were the better for the mingling with the Vikings in the ninth and tenth centuries. It is certain that after those days the
English were hardier and more inclined to enter on the paths of trade and commerce, and exploration, than they
had been
before.
in]
ARAB TRAVELLERSTHE FRIARS,

.
1
ETC.
15
CHAPTER
III
ARAB TRAVELLERS THE FRIARS MARGO POLO

It
was pointed out
in
the
last
Mahommedans
as a whole did little towards
chapter that the the work
This is specially true with regard to of exploration. maritime discoveries. The Arabs, who were the most important of the Mohammedan people, looked on the world as being mainly a great area of land, with the city of Baghdad as its centre, and with the "Sea of Darkness" So they would seldom flowing beyond in all directions. risk themselves in ships, away from land, for they pictured dreadful horrors as being in store for those who should presume to do so. One Moslem, as late as 1390, declared that the Atlantic Ocean is "so boundless, that ships dare not venture out of sight of land, for even if sailors knew the direction of the winds they would not know whither those winds would carry them, and as there is no inhabited country beyond, they would run a risk of being
lost in mist, fog,
and vapour.
The
limit of the
West
is
the
Atlantic Ocean/'
Nevertheless the Arabs knew a great deal about certain parts of the world. They travelled much about This is illustrated by the Asia, and the east of Africa.
Arabian Nights, especially by the story of Sindbad the Sailor. It is not at all likely that an actual Sindbad ever lived, or even if he did it is certain that he could not have had the marvellous adventures of which the story is told. But there is no doubt that the places mentioned in his story, such as India, Ceylon, Burma, and Sumatra, the "Island of Apes/' were well known to the
stories of the
Arabs.
This
is clear,
because of the accurate descriptions
which are given
in Sindbad's story of the products, people,
16
ARAB TRAVELLERSof those lands.
[CH.
is
and animals
Perhaps the story
really a
gathering together of the stories of much that is imaginary added.

as
many
travellers,
with
Besides its connection with the voyages of sailors such Sindbad along the coasts of Southern Asia, this period is famous for the beginnings of travel between Southern Europe and Central and Eastern Asia. Before dealing with this a little may be said about the Mongols or Tartars. Mongolia is a plateau region in the north-east of Asia.
About the beginning
of the thirteenth century the people
of this country swept over China and conquered it. They then poured across the great plains of the North into
and even invaded Hungary. At certain places had they permanent camps, one of the most important of The Pope of those days these being on the river Volga.
Russia,
resolved to send
The
chief of the
monks to try to convert the Tartars. monks who went on this dangerous
errand was a certain Friar John. He reached the camp on the Volga, and was well received by the Tartar captain He was then told to proceed to the court of or Khan.
the Grand Khan, far
away in Mongolia. The Grand Khan gave the travellers no encouragement and they were compelled to retrace their steps across the thousands of miles of unknown country that lay between them and home. Yet they did not neglect to notice the pastoral habits of the Tartars, and their skill as craftsmen and warriors.
In the reign of Louis IX of France, or Saint Louis as he was called on account of his pureness of life and zeal as a Crusader, a friar named Rubruquis was sent to the court of the Grand Khan, with letters from the King
requesting
Pope and to become Christian. Rubruquis and his companions reached the Volga, after much difficulty, and then had to visit the
to acknowledge the
him
court of the
Khan
of
that
district.
They appeared
in]
THE FRIARS MARCO POLO
17
wearing their Church vestments, and bearing a beautiful The books were taken from them, and were allowed to they proceed. After a long journey they reached the court of the Grand Khan, at a place to the north of the great desert of Gobi. All their efforts to convert this ruler failed, and the monks returned home to Europe about 1255, having spent nearly three years in
Bible and Psalter.
their Asiatic wanderings. One curious result of the journeys of the Christian friars and monks into Asia was that they discovered that
already existed there in a certain form. of the existence of a Christian kingdom heard They in the south-east of the continent, governed by a king named Prester John. Travellers often endeavoured to find this mysterious person, and more will be said in a later chapter about the search for him. While the monks and friars were hard at w ork trying
Christianity
also
r
to introduce Christianity
other
men were working
and papal authority into Asia, equally hard to extend European
The leading part in this commercial interwas taken by Venice. Venice lay in a very favourable position for the work of a great seaport. Situated at the northern end of the Adriatic Sea, halfway between the western and eastern ends of the Mediterranean, it was also within reach of a pass across the Alps, leading to the valleys of the Rhine and Danube. Thus its merchants became more prosperous than those of any other
trade there. course
city in Europe, for they handled great quantities of the riches of the East, which were exchanged for the products
The ships of the Venetians went to and Europe. from all parts of the Mediterranean, as may be read in Shakespeare's story of the Merchant of Venice. Moreover many Venetians undertook long journeys overland
of
to distant states.
The most famous
of all the
Venetian travellers was
i8
ARAB TRAVELLERS
FCH.
his
Marco Polo. About the middle of the thirteenth century father and his uncle journeyed into the south of Russia. Wandering from there to the north-east they
were eventually persuaded to travel to the court of Kubla Khan, far away in distant China. They were well received by the Khan, who asked them to take messages from himself to the Pope, requesting the latter to send
a band of missionaries to convert the Tartars to Chris-
The Venetians returned to Europe, but the Pope was dead, and they had to wait until a successor was
tianity.
Marco Polo
in
Asia
journey to the
After a long delay they began their return Khan's dominions, in 1271. They took with them young Marco Polo, but they could only induce
appointed.
two
gone
friars to go.
far.
Even
these gave
up before they had

Syria, to the
The three travellers started from the coast of and made their way through Armenia and Persia
famous city
nistan.
of
Persian Gulf,
Baghdad. They then went on to the but returned through Persia to Afgha-
They passed the famous trading centres of Kashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan and entered the dreary
in]

They saw many
cities
19
desert of Gobi.
which have long
since been buried in the shifting sands of the desert. After travelling for three and a half years they reached
the court of Kubla at the town of Shangtu in the Khingan
mountains.
The Khan, who lived in a palace of marble, with "hall and chambers of gilt," again showed great favour to his visitors. He was especially interested in young Marco, who was rapidly promoted to positions of great importance. Marco was employed in travelling on behalf of the Khan into almost all the provinces of China, and he took care to note what he saw on his journeys. For seventeen years the Polos served the Khan faithfully, but on their requesting him to allow them to return home he refused to agree. He said he loved them too much to let them and he could give them all they needed in the depart, of riches. At last a favourable chance of escape way came. The Khan of Persia sent an embassy to Kubla, requesting the hand of the latter's daughter in marriage. The Polos were chosen to conduct the bride to her new home. They sailed down the east coast of Asia and
through the Straits of Malacca. They crossed to Ceylon and then made their way to Ormuz. Leaving the
Princess here they crossed overland to Trebizond, on the Black Sea, where they found a ship to take them back to
Venice.
On
their arrival in their
own
city the Polos
found that
people refused to believe they were the men who had gone away so long before. However when they showed
the wonderful garments and jewels they had brought from the East the people doubted no longer. Some time
after this a
war broke out between the Venetians and

Genoa.
In one of
the
fights,
the inhabitants of
in
1298, Marco Polo was captured and put into prison at Genoa. While he was in prison he caused to be written
2
20
ARAB TRAVELLERS
[CH.
of the great journey across Asia, and a of the life of the subjects of the Khan. This description book is full of interesting information and although thereP
down an account
no doubt that the details are sometimes imaginary, the main facts have been shown to be much as Marco Polo himself describes them.
is
Polo gives a
full
"never remain
fixed,
account of the Tartars. He says they but as the winter approaches remove
to the plains of a warmer region, in order to find sufficient pasture for their cattle; and in summer they frequent
cold situations in the mountains, where there is water and verdure, and their cattle are free from the annoyance of
During this time they pass on continually biting insects. to higher ground, always seeking fresh grass, because their flocks and herds are too large to remain in one place.
Their tents are moveable." The accounts of the various provinces of the Empire
are very detailed,
and show how advanced
in civilization
the people of those parts were. There was a splendid system of high roads, with posthouses or inns every
twenty-five miles. At each of these stations four hundred horses were kept in constant readiness so that messengers
every help for rapid travel. At three miles were villages, in which were stationed foot-messengers. "They wear, girdles round
of the
Khan might have

of
intervals
their waists, to
that their
which small bells are attached, in order coming might be perceived at a distance and as they only run three miles, the noise serves to give notice of their approach, and preparation is accordingly
;
made by a
fresh courier to
proceed with the packet
Whenever instantly upon the arrival of the former/' which the roads were with trees were lined possible
specially planted to give shade in
out the
summer and on the when snow was ground. way

is
to point
There
not space
to
give
details
of
the
many
in]
21
interesting things Polo tells of Japan and other countries of which he heard, or of his account of the coal, petroleum, and other valuable products which came to his notice
during his travels. It was a very long time before any additions were made to what he had told. But the most valuable of his services was the romantic picture which
he drew of the East, in his book. In those pages the wonders and beauties of that mysterious region stand out very clearly.
CHAPTER IV
With the end of the fourteenth century a new period in the history of exploration is reached. Hitherto, it will have been noticed, almost all the journeys of the travellers about
whom
mention has been made were carried out on land, with perhaps occasional voyages close to the coast. With the exception of the voyages of Hanno the Carthaginian and of the Norsemen -of the ninth and tenth centuries, there had as yet been little attempt to venture on long oceanic voyages. After Marco Polo there were still great travellers
who
crossed vast tracts of land.
Such was the famous
Friar Odoric,
who
travelled from Venice in 1316, through
Persia, India, China, and Tibet, arriving home in 1330. Such, too, was an equally famous Moor, Ibn Batuta, a native of Tangier, who left that town in 1324, with the
intention of visiting Mecca, but who travelled altogether for 75,000 miles in Europe, Africa, and Asia before
,
reaching again twenty-eight years later. Yet the time was at hand when the general direction of exploration
home
was
to follow
new
channels.
22
[CH.
In the long struggle between the Christians and the is known generally as the Crusades, the dependence of the countries of Europe on the products of the East had become more and more marked.
Mahommedans which
Nevertheless owing to the fact that all the trade routes were controlled by Mahommedans, who had overrun all the lands on the east of the Mediterranean and the north
the difficulty and cost of obtaining these had become much greater. The ships of Genoa products and Venice still visited the coasts of Asia Minor and
of
Africa,
Syria to receive the precious goods brought overland by the caravans, but it had become necessary to find some way of obtaining those products without paying the
heavy
tolls
leading part in this
demanded by the Mahommedans. The work was taken by Portugal, which
had succeeded in freeing itself, by 1250, from the presence of the Moors, and which had already, by means of its intercourse with England and Flanders, done much to develop those maritime resources which its position at the meetingplace of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic gave it. It was King John of Portugal (1383-1433) who laid
the foundations of the maritime greatness of his country. He had married the daughter of John of Gaunt, Duke
and brother of the Black Prince. King had several sons, all of whom were as energetic John Of these sons, Pedro and Henry were as their father. the ones who more particularly helped in the work of Pedro was a keen enlarging geographical knowledge. traveller, and in his wanderings throughout Western
of Lancaster
Europe he collected a great deal of information of a useful sort, partly in the form of notes of talks which he had with explorers and seamen, partly in the form of maps and charts. When his father died, and Pedro became Regent, he was ever ready to assist both with men and money the schemes of his more famous brother.
iv]
23
The most important feature in the early life of Henry himself was his contact with the Moors of North Africa.
In 1415 he took part in the capture of Ceuta, a Moorish stronghold on the coast of Africa, just south of the Strait It was in this contest that he won his fame of Gibraltar.
as a soldier, fame which caused his aid to be sought by a soldier so great as King Henry V of England. But more important still was the fact that he learnt much
from the Moors concerning the lands to the south of the Great Desert, lands from which came great caravans laden
with all kinds of valuable produce Prince Henry returned to Portugal, and on a lonely part of the coast near Lagos, at a point now known as Cape St Vincent, he began studying and teaching the art To of navigation with a view to the work of discovery. him came navigators from all parts. It was a time of
much change
pass had been
in the
methods
of seamanship.
The com-
in use since the beginning of the previous
century. By its aid voyages had been made further from the coasts than ever before. Moreover with more
accurate seamanship had come more accurate mapping. Great numbers of what are known as "portolani" had been constructed, -mainly by Italians (see page xii). These were an improvement on the old maps, which gave much that was only imaginary or legendary about the
countries they represented. Henry collected as many of these maps as possible, and he set up a kind of nautical
school.
Mariners were here taught

instruments
for
the use of
maps
and
of
deciding
position
and taking
his captains
astronomical observations at sea.
For years
came and went, going forth to test the theories which had been set up, and returning with reports of varying
success.
if
Their voyages were not fruitless, because even a theory were proved false it was really so much more accomplished in the search for truth.
24

Now, it may be asked, what were the real Henry in this wonderful work? In the
first
[CH.
objects of
Prince
place
he loved discovery for its own sake. He desired to find a way, if such existed, round the south of Africa, partly because such a discovery would go far to remove from men's minds the great fear with which all men looked on
the
real
unknown and would help
to solve the problem of the
by
shape of the world. But, again, Henry hoped that the discovery of this route a new way would be found
to India, a
way which
could be controlled
and which would be
free
from the
tolls
by Portugal, and other draw-
backs of the routes through the Levant. Finally, Henry was a devout Christian and as such he was anxious to do what he could to extend his Faith. To him, the Mahommedan and the Pagan were equally desirable It is said, too, that he was objects of missionary labour. anxious to find the mythical kingdom of Prester John, the
mysterious king
who was supposed
to exist
somewhere
beyond the borders of the Mahommedan lands. At his centre on the peninsula of Sagres, where he built "a palace, a chapel, a study, and an observatory," Prince Henry paid great attention to the building of an improved type of ship, known as a "caravel," in which long and dangerous voyages would be more possible. Between 1415 and 1430 voyages were made to the Canary Islands and Madeira, though these places had been discovered by the Genoese in the previous century. Yet
the Portuguese claimed the discovery for themselves. One result was the planting of a Portuguese colony on the island of Madeira, with which place grew up a considerable trade in wood.
Following these journeys numerous
caravels were sent out to examine the coast of Africa
beyond Cape Bojador, which had been looked on hitherto as marking the limit of possible voyages. It was generally believed that all sorts of horrors were in store for any
iv]

who presumed "
it
25
mariner
to pass the "Jutting-out Cape."
Beyond
lay
sea-serpents, unicorns, lurid flames,
and
a scorching sun/' which made human life impossible. It was partly in order to show the folly of these notions that
Henry was so anxious to win success. At last, in 1434, one of his captains doubled the cape, and found "the sea so easy to sail upon that it was like the water at home." There did not appear any signs of human life, but Henry found little difficulty now in persuading others to go In 1435 more voyages were made, the coast further. being followed for more than five hundred miles beyond Bojador. Signs of caravans were seen in places, and once it was thought a western branch of the Nile had been found, about the existence of which Henry had often heard from Moorish travellers. In reality Henry's ships had reached the "River .of Gold" (Rio d'Ouro), and here an attempt was first made to capture a native. The southern limits of the world as understood in the Middle Ages were now passed, and a new stage in worldknowledge was reached. In 1441 the White Cape (Cape Blanco) was passed for the first time, but it was the capture of natives which first led to real enthusiasm for
the work of Prince Henry's captains. Some of the natives were ransomed by their friends for gold dust, "which more thoroughly won the Prince's cause at home and brought over more enemies and scoffers to him than all
As the ships went further and fertile country became more frequent. At one point notice was taken of a number of natives coasting along seated on hollowed-out logs of wood "with legs over the side to serve as paddles." Unfortunately the craze for gold and slaves became so marked a feature of the Portuguese sailors that the majority of them lost sight of the original motive of exploration which had led Henry to send them forth.
the discoveries in the world."
south the signs of
human
life
26
[CH.
Frequent raids were made on the natives who consequently learnt to fear and hate the Portuguese, who,
they said, only desired to capture them in order to eat them. It seems strange that such work could be carried on by professed Christians, yet the Portuguese did not consider that slave-raiding was not in keeping with Henry himself desired to educate the Christianity. captives, but his men undoubtedly treated them with
great cruelty.
In 1445 were
first
marked the
beautiful
limit
of the
seen the palms (Cape Palmas) which desert region, and soon the
green headland of Cape Verde was passed. "Great was the wonder of the people of the coast in seeing the caravel, for never had they seen or heard tell of the like, but some thought it was a fish, others were sure it was a phantom, others again said it might be a bird that had that way of spinning along the surface of the sea." The reports brought back led to the sending of a great expedition in this same year, to open up trade, and to Prince Henry had find, if possible, the Western Nile. told them it could not be much further and soon they found a place where "the water was sweeter than that of
the surrounding sea." This led them to the Senegal River, but the natives were hostile, so they returned. Perhaps the most important work done about this time
Cadamosto, who had entered the and who in 1455 and 1456 made voyages along the west coast, and entered into friendly relations with the natives of the Gambia River to which led caravan routes from Syria, Tunis, and Marocco. The last important voyage in the lifetime of Henry was that of a certain Diego Gomez, in 1458, who went
was that
of a Venetian,
service of Henry,
far enough south to hear of the existence of the great mountains of Sierra Leone, beyond which he was assured Prince Henry caused the there were mines of gold.
iv]
27
sketch of the world as
construction of a large map, on which was drawn a careful known at the close of his period,
this
really scientific map, free from all Prince had swept away the The imaginary had which prevented progress in exploration, superstition and had shown what was possible by a combination of sound theory and fearlessness in practice.
and
was the
first
details.
CHAPTER V
BARTHOLOMEW DIAZ, VASCO DA GAMA, AND THE ROUNDING OF THE CAPE
When
full
Prince
Henry
died, in 1460, he
had not seen the
accomplishment of his desires with regard to the Still he had shown the exploration of the African coast.
which future work might take, and his captains were willing and eager to follow up that work. Unfortunately the King of Portugal who ruled during the next twenty years was not inclined to do much to help on the work of exploration, though in spite of that fact some progress was made. In 1461 a certain Pedro de
direction
Cintra sailed into the Gulf of Guinea, coasting along its shores for 600 miles, and reaching the Bight of Benin. On this voyage he saw the mountains of Sierra Leone, so
its
on summits/' In 1471 Fernando Po discovered the southward bend of the coast and found the island which still bears his name. In the same year the Equator was crossed. None of the dreadful things took place which men had thought awaited those who crossed that mysterious line. The most noticeable fact appears to have been the change
called because of the "lion-like growl of the thunder
28
DIAZ AND DA GAMA AND
[CH.
in the stars that were visible.
The North Star almost the below while the famous Southern horizon, disappeared Cross began to command attention. The new King of Portugal, who succeeded in 1481, was as keen as Henry had been to win successfully the African He sent captains out with instructions coast for Portugal.
to
raise
large crosses at suitable places, and to take possession of territory in the name of their country. Thus, in 1484, Diego Cao set forth and reached the mouth
of the Congo, near which he planted a cross. The neighchief was the conduct of bouring favourably impressed by
the Portuguese and treated
Cao brought a
priest
them well. In a later voyage from Europe, and the chief was
first Christian convert south of the In 1486, Cao reached what is now Waalvisch Equator. Bay, but he did not go far beyond, and it was reserved for another great mariner to reach the southern extremity of the continent.
baptized, being the
In 1486 Bartholomew Diaz
left
ships and under instructions to do
all
Portugal with three he could to solve
the question of the extent of Africa southwards, and, as He usual, to endeavour to find Prester John's kingdom.
followed the west coast of the continent until he reached
mouth of the Orange River. The currents and winds were here very strong and almost impossible to withstand. Diaz was driven out of sight of land, and for a fortnight his boats were tossed to and fro at the mercy of tremendous waves. To add to the discomfort the cold became inthe
tense, so that the
poor sailors could scarcely perform
the necessary task of working the ships. At length Diaz directed his course towards the east, and then north, and w as soon overjoyed to see land again, the coast here
r
running east and west. He found a bay (Mossel Bay), on the shores of which were cattle grazing peacefully, and then came to another bay further east, where he placed
v]
THE ROUNDING OF THE CAPE

pillar.
29
This bay was afterwards known as Algoa Bay, because it was a stage on the way to Goa, a later Portuguese settlement in India. The coast began to trend a
north, greatly to the joy of Diaz, who began to suspect he must have rounded the south of Africa. But on arriving at the Great Fish River the crew, who were thoroughly frightened, and had no doubt suffered much, insisted on returning. They had desired to turn three had but Diaz pleaded with them to go just days earlier, a little further. Reluctantly the gallant captain turned back, following
the coast until, to his delight, there appeared the Cape
"that so many ages unknown promontory/' The storms which they experienced in its neighbourhood were reckoned as of little account, for had they not news of the most glorious kind for their king? They hurried
itself,
home and received the delighted congratulations of the monarch, who refused to name their discovery the "Cape
there lay the good hope of an "all-Portuguese" route to the wealth of the Indies. No more important event than this voyage
it
of Storms/' as they had suggested, but of "Cape of Good Hope," for beyond
gave
it
the
title
had happened
in the
whole history of exploration.
It
gave encouragement and hope to the great discoverers of the next hundred years. It was undoubtedly the voyage of Diaz which spurred Columbus to risk the great voyage to the Far West, for "if men could sail so far south, one might also sail west and find lands in that quarter." It would naturally be expected that the Portuguese king would at once have set about preparations for another voyage to complete the work begun by Diaz. But delays arose, and although Portuguese travellers were sent to Abyssinia, where the "kingdom of Prester John" was discovered, it was not until 1497 that Vasco da Gama set out from Portugal for the second voyage
DIAZ AND DA GAMA AND

round the Cape.
to the
[CH.
West
Indies
In the meantime Columbus had sailed and attention had been drawn away
from Africa, but Columbus had sailed in the service of Spain, and as he was supposed to have almost reached the coast of China the Portuguese king became anxious for the completion of the journey round the south of Africa. He chose Vasco da Gama to lead what was a national really expedition, and the courageous captain
left
amid the prayers and cheers
of a great multitude.
The Cape Route
to India
There were four ships in the little squadron, and da led them down the west coast until they reached the point where it bends to the Gulf of Guinea. He then took a brave step. He decided to steer directly south-
Gama
east
across
further/
He
the angle, instead of following the coast calculated that this would bring him to the
south of Africa, without the long and somewhat dangerous voyage followed by Diaz. For three months no land was
v]
31
The crews became mutinous and only by showing them to proceed. and cold weather, as Diaz had found, but at last the little bay which he had reached was entered. Here they were able to procure some fresh meat. Proceeding on their way the travellers passed the furthest point reached by Diaz, at the mouth of the Great Fish River. Christmas Day found them off
seen.
great sternness could da Gama induce This part of the voyage was in stormy
a lovely coast to which they gave the name Natal, because was discovered on the birthday of Christ. After a period of rest in a bay further north (Quilimane), they passed on, but disease broke out, owing to the lack of fresh
it
Only by the care of the captain was the disease under control. At Mozambique they first got into kept touch with the Arab traders who travelled between that
food.
part and India and the Red Sea. At Mombasa there was opposition to the weary but excited travellers, but further
more friendly reception awaited them. Presents were exchanged with the native ruler, and then the last stage of the voyage began.
north, at Malindi, a
The ruler at Malindi had provided da Gama with a pilot, and after about twenty days voyage across the Indian Ocean the coast of their dreams at last came in sight. India had indeed been reached (May 1498), and the theories which Prince Henry had believed in so strongly and had striven so courageously to prove were shown to be correct at last. The point at which da Gama anchored was off the town of Calicut, on the south-west coast of India, and great was the excitement both of natives and Portuguese when the latter landed, saying that they had come "in search of Christians and spices/' The ruler was at first friendly, but his feelings were worked on by the inhabitants, most of whom were hostile to the strangers. A little trading was carried on, and then da Gama sailed for home. The voyage back to Africa was a long one,
32

again,
[CH.
and disease broke out
many
of the crew dying in
consequence. Reaching Malindi, they soon set out again for the south. One of the ships had to be abandoned
because it was in such a leaky condition. The Cape was rounded without difficulty, and after touching at the Azores, a group of islands which had been colonized by
the Portuguese in the time of Prince Henry, the Tagus
was reached
This
is
in
September 1498.
not the place to say much of the many expeditions sent from Portugal to India and the East during the next fifty years. Vast armadas were sent to compel
they refused they were Calicut were conand became Portuguese trading stations. In the quered south of Arabia, in the Persian Gulf, and in Ceylon, the Portuguese soldiers and sailors appeared. Soon Portuthe people of India to trade, treated with great cruelty.
if
and
Goa and
guese captains reached Sumatra, and finally they conquered the famous Spice Islands, or Moluccas, and the fabled wealth of the East lay at their feet. Many places
in Africa, too, were now formally conquered, and places were settled as stations on the way to the more desirable East. Thus did the dreams of the fifteenth century bear fruit, and the might and wealth of Portugal became great
indeed.
CHAPTER
VI
COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD

The work
of Prince
Henry the Navigator and those he was the result of a new spirit of interest and enquiry. The effect of the discoveries of the Portuguese was to stir men's minds to an even greater extent than before. Among those who were deeply
sent forth into distant lands
vi]
COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD

by the progress
of discovery
'
33
affected
was Christopher
Columbus, whose wonderful achievements

described.
It is usually said that
may now
be
Columbus was a native of Genoa, Whether this is so or not there is no doubt that he spent most of his early life as a sailor in Genoese ships.
in Italy.
He
sailed in many directions, his voyages ranging from the west coast of Africa as far north as Iceland, as well "Wheresoever ship has as all over the Mediterranean.
sailed, there
have
voyaged/' he
said,
and the simple,
courteous, and generous-hearted sailor might have added that whatsoever there was to learn, in reference to navigaof the world, that had he learnt. could find both of the existing state he gathered and of the ideas of the Ancients of geographical knowledge He as to the form and general character of the world. was equally at home in the book of Marco Polo and in
tion
and a knowledge
all
He
the geographical ideas of the Greeks.
The
stories of the
Portuguese discoveries filled him with an eager desire to emulate that work and to gain an opportunity of testing
his
own
theories.
In 1470 he was in Portugal.. Shortly afterwards he married a lady of Porto Santo, one of the Madeira Islands, and in course of residence there he gained much information from the Portuguese sailors who called at the island from time to time. It was then, probably, that his ideas
began to take definite shape. He became convinced that it was possible "to reach the East by sailing to the West/' He believed that the world was round, as many Greek He pieced together the many thinkers had believed. about the existence of a great land rumours heard vague to the west of the Old World. The Carthaginians had spoken of an "Antilla," Plato of an "Atlantis/' existing out in the Western Ocean. He obtained possession of a map by Toscanelli, a clever Italian. This map showed
A. E.
34
COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY
[CH.
the Atlantic stretching to the coasts of Asia, and marked the position of the imaginary land lying between Europe and Africa and that continent. Moreover tales were told
of strange things which had been washed ashore on the African Islands, curiously carved pieces of trees, and even
EAST INDIAN
OCEAN
Tropic
.of
Cancer"
""CarVar
Part of Toscanelli's
Map
human
"He proceeded from one position to he came to the conclusion that there was undiscovered land in the western part of the ocean that
remains.
another, until
it
;
was inhabited/' In order to test these matters Columbus resolved to lead an expedition across the Atlantic, but the cost would be great, so that he would have to secure assistance.
it
was attainable; that
He first tried the great commercial city of Genoa, but those in authority would do nothing to help. Then he
vi]
OF THE
NEW WORLD
35
thought the King of Portugal would be glad to help one who, like the great Prince Henry, desired to sail forth on a voyage of discovery. But the King of Portugal did not wish to help any plan which might interfere with the So he success of the Portuguese settlements in Africa.
sent a caravel, secretly, to try to forestall Columbus, and on its return after an unsuccessful voyage he told
the navigator that he would do nothing. In despair, Columbus turned to Spain. But the great rulers,
Ferdinand and Isabella, were busy fighting the Moors. committee of so-called experts was allowed to examine the schemes of Columbus, but they failed to understand them, and so denounced them as "vain and impossible." A few of the Spanish nobles were really interested, but for long they were unable to enliat the aid of the monarchs. Columbus sent his brother to the court of Henry VII of England, but owing to a disaster to the ship the maps he took with him were lost and delay occurred while new ones were being prepared. At last Isabella agreed to help Columbus with the necessary money. He was to be an admiral, viceroy of all new lands which might be discovered, and to have a share of all the profits. He was to be the bearer of letters from the Spanish King and Queen to the Grand Khan, Prester John, or any other rulers of the East to whose courts he might come. No doubt Isabella was much influenced by the declaration of Columbus that he
would convert the races
of those eastern lands to Chrisof In the spite royal help it was only with tianity. that crews could be obtained, for men great difficulty feared the dangers of such a voyage into the un-
known. At last, by bribery, and even by using force, crews were found for three vessels, each vessel being There were 120 persons in all, and of less than 100 tons. for twelve months were carried. The Santa provisions
32
36
COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY
[CH.
Maria, with Columbus on board, was decked throughout the Pinta and the Nina were decked only at each end. The harbour of Palos was left in August 1492, and no sooner had the voyage begun than the crews gave trouble. They were afraid when they saw the volcano of Tenerife, in the Canary Islands, but their terror increased when they lost sight of this outpost of the Old World. Columbus
;
tried to soothe his
which lay ahead.
of the wealth information as to the distance covered each day, so that they should not think they were so far from home as
really
men by telling them of the glories He stimulated their greed by telling they would find. He gave them false
was the case. Soon they entered a region where the water was covered with dense masses of floating
This was what
filled
is
seaweed.
first
called the Sargasso Sea.
At
with joy because they thought it Sometimes birds were indicated the nearness of land. them observed, each flight filling again with hope. The winds continued to blow them out to the west, for they
they were
were in the region of the trade winds, and so they began to fear they would never be able to return. Only the
extraordinary
perseverance and determination of the captain prevented a panic taking place. At last they found "a quantity of fresh weeds, such as grow on rivers they saw a green fish of a kind which keeps about rocks
;
;
and recently separated from the tree, floated by them; then they picked up a reed, a small board, and, above all, a staff curiously carved." Thus the signs of land became more frequent and definite, until one evening Columbus took up his position on the high poop of his vessel to keep a
then a branch of thorn with berries on
it,
close personal look-out for the first
appearance of land.
"About ten o'clock he thought he beheld a light glimmering Afraid of making a mistake he at a great distance."
called others to witness the remarkable sight,
"as
if it
vi]
OF THE
NEW WORLD
37
were a torch in the bark of a fisherman, rising and sinking with the waves/' About two in the morning the land was seen clearly, and the ships hove to, waiting for the dawn. The excitement of Columbus may well be imagined. His dreams were about to be realized. Whether the land were fertile or desert, whether the people were like those of other lands, or "some strange and monstrous race/' remained to be seen.
Next morning (October I2th, 1492) a beautiful island (San Salvador, or Watling Island, in the Bahamas) came
into full view.
With
tears of joy in their eyes
Columbus
and
his
men
fell
on their knees on the shore, and thanked

of the
God
for their success.
island in the
name
Then they took possession of the King and Queen of Spain. The
sailors, hitherto so
captain.
The
despondent, thronged to embrace their natives, at first filled with terror, gradually
regained courage when they found the strangers peaceful, and fell in adoration at their feet, "gazing in silent adat the complexion, the beards, the shining armour, and splendid dress of the Spaniards." Gifts of coloured caps, bells, and glass beads were exchanged for parrots, darts, and cotton threads. From the natives Columbus heard that gold was to be obtained from "Cubanacan." Full of the idea that he was off the coast of Asia, he took this to be a reference to Kubla Khan, and decided to set off in the direction indicated. He soon reached Cuba, which he first took to be Cipango (Japan) and then to be Asia itself. Here he
miration
heard, from envoys sent into the interior, of "natives going about with fire-brands in their hands, and certain dried herbs which they rolled up in a leaf, and, lighting one end,
put the other in their mouths, and continued puffing out the smoke. A roll of this kind they called a tobacco/' Maize, or Indian corn, and cotton were common, but
. .
.
Columbus wanted
to find something
more valuable, that
38
COLUMBUS AND THE NEW WORLD
[CH.
he might take back some sign of success that would be appreciated in Spain. He sailed round much of the coast of Cuba, admiring its many beauties, and then reached Hayti, which, from its likeness to parts of Spain, he called Hispaniola. The natives were everywhere friendly, but there seemed no sign of gold. A further discouragement was the wreck of one of the ships on the coast. Columbus
resolved to leave a party on the island, using the wood of the wrecked ship for the making of a fort. Those left
behind were to gather all possible information ready for the use of Columbus on his return from Spain. Meanwhile the Pinta, under Pinzon, deserted, having probably gone
off to search for gold, and only rejoined the others as they were beginning the return voyage. Columbus started for home on January 4th, 1493. Great storms and adverse winds were encountered on the last part of the journey, just before the Azores were
reached.
travellers
halt
was made
a
.at
these islands, and the
solemn thanksgiving in the little church for their deliverance from death. The islands, being Portuguese, were not inhabited by people friendly
offered
Columbus hurried away. More bad weather was experienced, and it was with deep thankfulness that they entered the mouth of the Tagus. They were received politely by the King of Portugal, at Lisbon, although he must have felt somewhat bitter when he realized what an opportunity he had lost. At length, after an absence of seven and a half months, Columbus reached the little harbour of Palos once again, and received the excited admiration of the inhabitants, whose interest was deeply aroused by the natives and native products which the travellers had brought back with
to the Spaniards, so
them
as evidence of their success.
vu]
LATER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS,
ETC.
39
CHAPTER
VII
LATER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. VESPUCCI, CABRAL, AND BALBOA

After spending a short time at Palos and Seville, Columbus received word to go to the Court at Barcelona. The news of his discoveries filled the monarchs with amazement and delight. They at once requested Colum-
bus to prepare for a second voyage, in order to make

It sure of the possession of the new lands. these lands were supposed to belong to the
but according to the ideas of those days

Christians to seize
it
was true that Grand Khan, was right for
heathen.
To
pagan lands in order to convert the remove all doubts the Pope was asked to
sanction the proposals of the Spanish Court, and this he was glad to do, because he looked upon the Spanish King
In order, however, with to prevent a possible quarrel Portugal, the Pope issued a declaration, or bull, on May 4th, 1493, by which an imaginary line was drawn from the North to the South Pole, one hundred leagues to the west of the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands. All land discovered by the Spaniards to the west of this line, if it had not been
and Queen
as pillars of Christianity.
taken by another Christian country before Christmas, Land dis1492, was to belong to the Spanish Crown. to to line was the to the east of covered Portugal. belong This is interesting, because in the first place it shows that no other country was looked upon by the Pope as being at all likely to discover new lands, and in the second
place because the bull took no account of what was to happen if the discoveries of the two nations came to meet on the opposite side of the globe. In 1494, at the
40
LATER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS
[CH.
request of Portugal, the line was moved to a longitude twelve hundred miles further west.
second voyage Columbus had a much larger There were twelve caravels, as well as a number of smaller' vessels. The whole company numbered about 1500 men, and included skilled workers
For
his
fleet at his disposal.
and a number
of missionaries. Seeds and agricultural were taken in for use the new lands. The implements fleet left Cadiz on September 25th, 1493, and a very favourable voyage followed, owing to "the goodness of God, and the wise management of the Admiral, in as straight a track as if they had sailed by a well-known and frequented route/' The first island reached was called Dominica, because it was found on a Sunday. Many other new islands were visited, in some of which it was noticed that the people were cannibals. At last Hispaniola was reached again, but the fortress which had been built was in ruins, and the garrison had entirely disappeared. They quarrelled with the natives and with one another, and all had perished. Then Columbus made a new settlement on the island, but although much time had been spent in search, no gold was found. Moreover the Admiral himself fell ill, and threats of mutiny were common. Anxious to justify himself Columbus sailed on in search of new lands, and
discovered the beautiful island of Jamaica. Returning to the settlement he showed great severity in his government
reports of
Meanwhile exaggerated conduct reached Spain, where his great These used their successes had made him many enemies. influence with the Queen, and Columbus finally decided to return to Spain, his brother becoming governor in his place. Columbus received no great welcome this time on his return to Spain, although the monarchs were kind to him. In 1498 he was allowed to sail on a third voyage, taking
of the
his
town he had founded.
vn]
VESPUCCI, CABRAL,
AND BALBOA
41
reaching the Canaries he divided the fleet, sending three ships direct to Hispaniola, and he himself leading three in a more southerly direction, in the
six vessels.
On
hope of being "guided by God to discover something which may be to his service, and that of our lords, the King and Queen, and to the honour of Christendom/' The heat was now intense, and as the winds were light the voyage lasted so long that the supply of water almost gave out. "On the 3ist July there was not above one cask of water remaining in each ship, when, about midday, a mariner at the mast-head beheld the summits of three mountains rising above the horizon, and gave the Columbus had decided to name the joyful cry of land/' first land seen in honour of the Blessed Trinity, and the sight of the three peaks struck all with wonder at the strange coincidence. The island was called Trinidad. It was so beautiful that it reminded Columbus, from its verdure, "of the gardens of Valencia as seen in the month of March/ Continuing south, Columbus reached what was really the coast of South America, but what he thought was a great group of islands. He passed the Gulf of the Orinoco, being struck with the quantity of fresh water in the sea in that region, and then returned to Hispaniola. He was convinced that he had been near a great continent, and from the beauty of the parts he had seen he declared it must be the Garden of Eden On arrival at Hispaniola he found a rebellion in proFor months he laboured to gress among the settlers. Some who disliked his methods returned restore order. home, and in 1500 the enemies of Columbus procured his The King recall, and he was brought to Spain in chains. and Queen allowed him to lead a fourth voyage, in which he was to find a sea-passage to the Portuguese regions of This was in 1502, and on the way out he revisited Asia. of the islands he had discovered before. Bearing many
'
!
42
LATER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS
[CH.
Here he directly west he reached the coast of Honduras. was astonished to notice the marks of civilization shown
natives, who had "hatchets, formed not of stone, but of copper, various vessels neatly formed of clay, sheets and mantles of cotton, great quantities of cacao, which they used both as food and money/' Columbus failed to find the expected opening, although he sailed south along the coast as far as Darien. When he returned to Cuba more trouble with rebels arose, and in 1504 he
by the
returned to Spain. His patroness, Isabella, died almost at the moment of his arrival, and the great explorer, whose last years had been one long struggle with disease and
misfortune, spent the remainder of his died in 1506.
filled
life
in poverty,
and
After the third voyage of Columbus many Spaniards up the details of the geography of the West Indies.
It was not long before it was discovered that the continent touched by Columbus was really a New World, and not Asia at all. One of those who sailed along the coast of
the
new
Vespucci.
continent was a certain explorer named Amerigo In 1497-8 he sailed along the coast of South
America, and northwards along the coast of what is now the United States. Thus Vespucci took part in what was
really the first
sailed west,
European
till
visit to
later.
did not reach them
those parts, for Columbus In 1499 Vespucci again

of Brazil.
and reached the coast
In the
following year a Portuguese sailor named Cabral was sent on a voyage to the East. On his way out he was driven by the trade winds out into the Atlantic, and also reached the coast of Brazil. Now he reckoned correctly that this was east of the line of division made by the Pope, and claimed it for Portugal. Of course when the line was drawn it had never been thought that it would cut
through a part of the
New World discovered by Columbus,
in the service of Spain.
vn]
VESPUCCI, CABRAL,
AND BALBOA
43
Vespucci now entered the service of Portugal, and in 1501-2 explored the coast of South America, reaching south to a point about 1500 miles north of Cape Horn. Thus was realized the enormous extent of the new southern
shape to the west was not at Vespucci's account of his voyage aroused great interest, and in 1507 a writer suggested that "as a fourth part of the world had been discovered" by Amerigo Vespucci it should be called America after him.
continent, though as yet
its all
known.
Puetrq Rico UUeanSefiP milxica
rmidad
ELA
The Spaniards
in the
New World
In time the name was applied to the whole of the New World, although at the time men had no idea that it formed a continuous land mass. This chapter may be concluded by a brief account of an event which was of little less importance than the work
Columbus himself. The Spaniards made many attempts to form settlements in Central America, but owing to bad leadership
of
44
LATER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS,
ETC.
[CH.
and disease they failed. When the survivors of one expedition returned to Hispaniola they were sent back. Among those on the ship was a man who hid himself in a cask among the cargo. He was a debtor, anxious to
escape from his creditors. This penniless exile was Nunez de Balboa, who showed himself to be the one man able to bring about a measure of success in the settlement on the mainland. When Balboa was discovered on the ship the captain was angry and would have left him on an island, but the
crew pleaded for him and he was spared. On landing at the isthmus of Darien (Panama) he at once became leader He restored order and won the esteem of the colonists. He heard from them of the natives in a remarkable way. of the existence of a great ocean on the farther side of the isthmus, and of a great country, rich in precious metals, One day he climbed the high range in lying to the south. the centre of the isthmus. At the summit a wide extent His were the first European of ocean burst into view. Pacific to the see wonderful (1513) eyes
;
He
stared at the Pacific and all his men Look'd at each other with a wild surmise
Silent,
upon a peak
in Darien.
Balboa resolved to build ships and to sail upon this ocean. He believed that the rich country of which the natives spoke was Asia, and that now at last the wealth of the East was to be attainable. Materials were sent from the West Indies and from Spain, to the east coast of Darien, and then Balboa began to build ships with them, after first having them taken across the isthmus. Just as his was he were almost foully completed preparations murdered by those who were jealous of his success, and
it
was
left to
others to reap the benefit of his wonderful
courage and energy.
vni]
THE CABOTS AND NORTH- WEST PASSAGE
45
CHAPTER
VIII
THE CABOTS AND THE BEGINNING OF THE SEARCH FOR THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE
When
the news of the great voyage of Columbus
reached England probably no Englishman was more sorry than Henry VII himself that the opportunity of
aiding the great navigator had been missed. Consequently it is easy to understand why he showed himself eager to
help a certain Genoese, John Cabot by name, who had been a trader under the flag of Venice but who had settled
with his family at Bristol in the reign of Edward IV.

Cabot, while trading in the Levant on behalf of Venice, had questioned the merchants who brought to the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria the rich products of the East. He had asked them where their merchandise came from, but they always said it had passed through many hands before reaching them from the Far East. Cabot, who was skilled in the knowledge of the maps and charts of those days, and who 'had accepted the idea that the Earth was a sphere, resolved to use an early opportunity of reaching the coast of Asia by sailing from Europe westwards across the North Atlantic. He knew that England could not do without the spices and other riches of the East, and he correctly read the character of Henry VII, whom he believed to be willing to do anything to help
to give
riches.
England a larger share in the conveying of those Cabot knew that if he could find a route to the East which would save the necessity of frequent change
such as the existing route made brought from the East to England, he would be the means of reducing the cost of those
of ship or caravan, necessary for goods
46
THE CABOTS AND SEARCH

to help
is
[CH.
goods to the English.
King
agreement
him in carrying out shown in a Royal
Consequently he requested the his plans, and Henry's letter which the King
published in 1496. In this letter Henry granted to

full
Cabot and
authority "to
saile to all parts, countrys,
and seas
his family of
the East, of the West and of the North/' to seek out parts It will be noticed that no mention is hitherto unknown.
made
of the south, probably because Henry did not desire the ships of Cabot to interfere in those regions which were considered to be the domain of the Spaniards and Portu-
guese.
The Cabots might occupy
all
lands which they
of the King. All the profits were to be theirs with the exception of one-fifth, which was to
discovered, in the
name
be paid to the King. As far as English ports were concerned, they were to be free of all the tolls usually demanded of merchants. All subjects desiring to trade with newly-discovered lands were to obtain the permission of the Cabots.
The actual voyage, which was made in a small ship with a crew of eighteen men, began in 1497. The explorer sailed south of Ireland and into the Atlantic, travelling north until he reached a certain line of latitude and then turning west. The exact point at which he reached the coast of North America is not clear, but probably it was near Cape Breton, in the Gulf of St Lawrence. He then
coasted
for
many
miles,
being
much
struck
by the
which the sea abounded in those parts. He found signs of habitation, but as his crew was small, and he had little supply of food left, he
of fish with
enormous number
resolved to" return, reaching Bristol three months after his departure on the outward voyage.
There is no doubt that the voyage was only intended as a sort of expedition of preliminary enquiry, nor is there any doubt that Cabot believed that he had reached the
vin]
FOR THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE
47
King Henry was greatly pleased with the not and report, only personally gave Cabot a gift of money but also secured him a yearly pension. Moreover preparations were begun for a second voyage. While he was in " Cabot a writer in dresses London, silk, and these says, English run after him like mad people, so that he can enlist as many of them as he pleases." On his second voyage Cabot took with him several
coast of Asia.
laden with goods of English manufacture. His to try to find the island of Cipango, or Japan, Here he expected to find the described by Marco Polo.
ships,
object was
source of most of the wealth of the East.
He
started
May 1498, but little is known definitely as to what happened on this voyage. There is no doubt that the American coast was reached once again, and that Cabot proceeded to sail southwards along the coast, hoping to find the much-desired Cipango, which he knew
from Bristol
in
must lie in warmer latitudes. As day after day passed and no signs of the goal were seen, Cabot realized that the land he was coasting was not Asia at all, but the fringe of a new continent. There seemed no chance of finding a way across this strange land, and Cabot returned. He was no longer patronized by the King, probably because Henry was disappointed at Cabot's failure to reach the East, and also because the King did not wish to bring about difficulties with the Spaniards, whose alliance he desired to keep, and who resented any intrusion in the
Nevertheless regions which they claimed for themselves. Cabot had a service for John performed great England,
and he was no doubt the first European to visit the coasts of North America after the time of the Vikings. Now John Cabot's second son was named Sebastian, and there is no doubt that he made a voyage, probably in 1499, in the same direction as those his father had undertaken. Unfortunately this son was a very con.
48
THE CABOTS AND SEARCH

?
[CH.
and in later years in the account of his own he details from the voyages of his father. added voyage The result was that until recently it was thought that all of Sebastian Cabot's statements were untrue, but there is no need to go so far as that in condemning him. It seems clear that he sailed in command of two ships with crews amounting to about three hundred men in all.
ceiled person,
An
English Ship of the early Sixteenth Century
On
reaching America the course taken was northwards
it was July, "he found monstrous heapes swimming in the sea, and in manner continuall daylight, yet saw he the land in that tract free from ice, which had been molten by the heat of the Sunne." Cabot was actually in search of a route round the
until,
although
of ice
north of America to Cathay, but the difficulty of forcing
vin]
FOR THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE
49
a way through the ice, or perhaps trouble with his crew, caused him to turn southwards. He journeyed as far south as the coast of what was later known as Virginia, indeed some think he even reached Florida. Whatever
the actual places were at which Sebastian Cabot touched, the value of his work is clear. Cabot's idea of the posof the existence of a route sibility by what was known
later as
the North-west Passage/'
was a suggestion
for
others to follow, and so really gave the direction to much of the work of later explorers such as Frobisher, Davis, and Hudson. Moreover the journeys of himself and his
in later days' to a right to the lands
father were the foundation for the claims of the English on the east coast of
North America, and by that time the Spanish government had sent navigators north from the West Indies in
order, to forestall the English in their claim to the great North American continent.
CHAPTER IX
FERDINAND MAGELLAN AND THE FIRST VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD
Columbus had mapped out the coast of Brazil, Spanish colonists had occupied the isthmus of Darien, and a Spaniard had gazed on the broad Pacific.
The
followers of
Would it ever be possible, people wondered, for ships to reach that ocean by finding a channel leading to it from the Atlantic ? The successful discovery of such a channel will ever be connected with the name of Ferdinand
Magellan.
Magellan was born in Portugal, about 1480, of noble

A. E.
50
FERDINAND MAGELLAN AND THE
[CH.
At an early age he became a page in the service famity. of the Queen, afterwards entering the service of King
Manoel.
his successful
This was the king who sent Vasco da Gama on voyage to the East. Great numbers of
expeditions were sent out after that of da
Gama, and
with an
Magellan was one
of
many who became
filled
excited longing to journey to the new lands. In 1504 he joined the fleet of Almeida, who was to be
the
first
viceroy of the
new
possessions.
The
fleet sailed
round the Cape and up the east coast of Africa, then across the Indian Ocean to the south of India. Of the many fights in which Magellan took part this is not the place to speak. In 1509 he sailed on to Sumatra and Malacca. Here he was the means of saving the life of a close friend. He then returned to India, where he entered the service
of the great Portuguese, Albuquerque, Viceroy of India. In 1511 another expedition was sent to Malacca, and
this time Magellan himself was a captain. Whether he personally ever reached the famous Spice Islands, or
Moluccas, is uncertain. In 1512 Magellan returned to Portugal, but he could not settle to a life at home, and so he took part in a war Soon afterwards he was accused of against the Moors.
trading with them, against the rules of the expedition. Perhaps because of this he quarrelled with the King.
This was to prove a turning point in the career of the He had long been considering the possibility navigator. of reaching the Moluccas by voyaging westwards over the
Atlantic,
and by finding some channel into the
Pacific.
He
he
laid his
schemes before the Portuguese King, but the
So, like Columbus before him, Portugal and entered the service of the Emperor and King of Spain, Charles V.
latter refused to help him.
left
1518, after
Magellan laid his plans before this monarch, and in many delays, an agreement was made. The
ix]
FIRST VOYAGE
ROUND THE WORLD
51
for
King was to provide five ships and 235 men, with food two years. There was to be no attempt at exploration
in lands belonging to the King of Portugal. Magellan friends were to receive one-twentieth of the profits, with a share of future trading profits. They were to be
and his
governors of the
new
lands,
and captains-general
of the
armdda.
the five ships were ready. They were the and Antonio, Trinidad, Conception, Victoria, Careful Santiago, and ranged in size from 120 to 75 tons.
last
At
Santo
drawn up so that the ships should not touch with one another on the voyage. The crews were a strange mixture of races. There were, among
instructions were
lose
others., Spaniards, Portuguese, Germans, French, Greeks, Genoese, Malays, negroes, and even one Englishman. A solemn service was held before the voyage began, but many of those who undertook the voyage had already
promised the enemies of Magellan that they would mutiny On September 2Oth, 1519, the coast of Spain was left and the great voyage began. Before leaving, Magellan made his will and left a statement for the King of Spain. In the statement he set forth his ideas with regard to the questions he hoped the voyage would settle. In particular he hoped to make clear the exact dividing line between the spheres of Spain and Portugal in the East Indies, for the line drawn by the Pope at the time of Columbus had not settled what was to happen when Spaniards and Portuguese should meet on the other side of the globe. Magellan hoped to prove that the Moluccas would, from their position, belong to
before long.
Spain.
From
the
the coast of Spain, the Trinidad leading the way,
little fleet
this place
The
for Tenerife. Shortly after leaving steered south-west across the Atlantic. they weather became very bad. "During the storms/'
made
42
52
FERDINAND MAGELLAN
[CH. ix
says one of the travellers, "the holy body of St Elmo appeared to us many times, among other times on an
torch,
exceedingly dark night, with the brightness of a blazing on the maintop, where he stayed for about two
hours or more, to our consolation, for we were weeping. When that blessed light was about to leave us, so dazzling
was the brightness that it cast into our eyes, that we all for more than an eighth of an hour blinded and calling for mercy, and truly thinking we were dead/' The coast of South America was reached near the site of the modern town of Pernambuco. The fleet then proremained
ceeded to
sail south-west along the coast, in the hope of the finding opening which Magellan believed to exist. For a time it was possible to obtain fresh fruit and other
mouth
At length the supplies from the natives on the coast. of the Rio de la Plata was reached, early in 1520. This looked as though it might be the entrance to the
expected passage, but a
the idea was incorrect.
little
examination showed that
the weather becoming very reaching latitude 49^ south, in the anchored Magellan bay of St Julian. From the time they left the coast of Africa there had been threats of
fleet
The
sailed south,
bleak and tempestuous.
On
mutiny on the other
vessels.
The crews were
afraid of the
dangers of the voyage, and, as has been said, some of them had been paid by the enemies of Magellan to ruin the attempt. But Magellan was full of a spirit of the On Easter Sunday highest courage and determination. the mutiny broke out. The captains of two ships boarded a third and imprisoned its captain. Magellan, hearing of
these events, sent an officer with a boat's crew to the ship containing the ringleaders. One of the rebel captains was killed, and so by the prompt action of Magellan the
mutiny was quelled. For two months the ships had remained
at St Julian
tt)
54
FERDINAND MAGELLAN AND THE

life
[CH.
without seeing any sign of

shores.
on the bleak Patagonian

of
One day was seen "a naked man,

and throwing dust on
giant
stature, dancing, singing, Magellan managed to persuade this native to go on board. "He was so tall that we reached only to his waist. His
his head."
face was large, and painted red all over, while about his eyes he was painted yellow, and he had two hearts painted on the middle of his cheeks. His scanty hair was
He was dressed in the skins sewn skilfully together/' On the approach of spring, Magellan sent
painted white.
of animals,
his trusted
companion,
Serrao, in the Santiago to search the inlets
found a wide river-mouth, and spent some days fishing for seals. A storm sprang up, the Santiago was wrecked, and he was in great danger, till two of his crew managed to make their way on a raft to Magellan, who saved them all from certain death. Before leaving St Julian, on August 24th, 1520, Magellan set on
to the south.
He
shore two of the mutineers, the two ringleaders having
already been killed. They were given some supplies but were never heard of again. Only by such resolute conduct could Magellan hope to keep his fleet together.
October 2ist the long-sought channel was found, proved an arduous task to thread a way through the tortuous windings of the straits. At the outset there were more murmurings, and one ship, the Santo but
it
On
Antonio,
deserted
and
returned
to
Spain.
On
the
American
side of the straits
were lofty mountains, with
wonderful glaciers creeping down their sides. To the south were seen bleak uplands on which were the lights of fires. Hence they called that land Tierra del Fuego
the
Land
of Fire.
28th the western outlet was reached, and the ships entered the Great South Sea upon which Balboa had gazed. Steering north and north-west to
On November
ix]
FIRST VOYAGE
ROUND THE WORLD
55
reach a milder climate, the three ships got into the southeast trade winds and wandered three or four months
without seeing land, "except two desert islands."
Of course the travellers had no idea of the length of the voyage before them. As day followed day their * sufferings for want of food and fresh water became
"We ate biscuit, but in truth it was biscuit no but a powder full of worms, for the worms had longer, devoured its whole substance/' They even had to eat the hides which were used in certain parts of the rigging.
intense.
The
was first put into salt water, to soften it. had also to make use of sawdust for food, and rats became such a delicacy that we paid half a ducat apiece for them/ Naturally disease broke out and many died.
leather
"We
After ninety-eight days the islands called by Magellan the Ladrones were reached. The inhabitants were "poor, but ingenious, and above all thieves, and so for that
reason
we
called
these
islands
the
Robber Islands/'
trade was entered upon, and some fresh food obtained. The ships then reached one of the Philippine Here much time was spent in cruising about. group.
little
The natives appeared

Christian.
.
friendly
and many
of
them became
Unfortunately a fight against a native king broke out, and Magellan was killed. Thus, to the grief of his crew, who had learnt to admire
their heroic leader, Magellan was deprived of the chance of finishing his voyage round the globe. But he had made his name fit to rank among those most honoured
and love
in the history of the world.
The two remaining

Victoria,
ships,
the
Trinidad
and the
continued to the Spice Islands. The former vessel was seized by the Portuguese, and so the Victoria
alone, with one quarter of the original crews, sailed home round the south of Africa. The voyage was long and dangerous. Adverse winds, heavy seas, and disease
56
CORTES AND THE
[CH.
troubled them all the way. Forced to touch at the Cape Verde Islands, which belonged to their rivals, the Portuguese, thirteen of the crew were detained for a time as prisoners, and only eighteen worn-out survivors bore home
to Spain the tidings of the greatest feat in the history of
exploration.
CHAPTER X
CORTES AND THE DISCOVERY OF MEXICO
At the time when Magellan was making preparations
voyage into the Pacific Ocean, Spanish expeditions were being led from Cuba to the coasts of Central America and Mexico. Florida had been discovered in 1513. It was still believed that these lands were very near to the
for his
lands of the Grand Khan, and that further journeys overland would bring the Spaniards to the country of that mighty ruler. In 1517 one of the companions of Columbus, a man named Cordova, visited the coast of Yucatan, and
like
Columbus himself was astonished at the high state of shown by the natives. On endeavouring to land, Cordova and his men were opposed by the natives and returned to Cuba with news of their discoveries. During another voyage shortly afterwards the coast was
civilization
explored still further, but the glory of first revealing the wonders of Mexico to the eyes of the world was to fall to the great Spanish explorer and soldier, Fernando
Cortes.
for the Cape.
Cortes was born in 1485, the year before Diaz set out He was intended for the Law, but he soon
life of activity and adventure. In 1504 he set out for Hispaniola, and some years afterwards took part in the final conquest of Cuba, which, with
showed that he desired a
x]
DISCOVERY OF MEXICO
57
Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica, formed the only actual settlements of the Spaniards in the New World at
it was decided to send an expedition endeavour to rescue certain Spaniards who were captive there, and to try to form a settlement there. Cortes was chosen to lead this attempt. Just before setting sail he quarrelled with the governor of Cuba a.nd left the island fully aware that possibly death, certainly Landing on disgrace, awaited his return if unsuccessful. the coast of Yucatan, he fought a -battle against the
that time.
In 1519
to
Yucatan
to
and received the submission of the province. Four days later the ships reached the harbour of San Juan de Ullua, on the coast of Mexico. As soon as the ships anchored, a party of natives came out in a small canoe and asked who the strangers were and whether they intended to stay. They were told that the Spaniards would land the next day. On landing, the Spaniards were helped by the natives to form a camp on the shore, and were shown every sign of friendship. Shortly afterwards an embassy arrived from Montezuma,
natives
the great king of the country, who liyed at his capital, Mexico, far inland on the plateau. The envoys were greatly astonished on learning that Cortes came from
"the greatest and most powerful sovereign in the world, for that title they believed to belong to their own ruler. However they presented the Spaniards with fine cotton mantles, and other articles of fine texture, as well as ornaments of gold. Cortes presented in return "an arm chair, and some ornaments of glass beads," and also gave a display of horsemanship by his cavalry, and a discharge from his guns. The Spaniards were much astonished to
see the envoys busily
"
engaged
in sketching the scenes
they
to
to
were witnessing.
report to
At length the Mexicans departed Montezuma, and to bring back his answer
the Spaniards,
who
desired to see him.
58
CORTES AND THE
[CH.
Now Montezuma, who although reverenced by his people was at heart a coward, feared greatly lest the Like the rest of his strangers should come to his town.
people he looked upon Cortes as a god who had once inhabited the country but who had left years before to go to the east, and who had declared his intention of
returning again.
The King
sent
more
presents, including
"a golden
"silver
sun,
with rich decorations/'
moon/' and told the envoys
and a larger to try to persuade
the Spaniards that the dangers of the road were too great for them to undertake. But Cortes was not the man to
be turned from a purpose once held

of the presents convinced
moreover the sight
him that the city of the King must be very wealthy, and made him more determined
than ever to visit it. Some of his men began to urge that they should return to Cuba, but Cortes skilfully won them over for the time being. He had heard that many in the kingdom of Montezuma were ill-content with their ruler, and would welcome a deliverer. Moreover the Indians
who
of
lived along that part of the coast requested the help
of Cortes to deliver
the
monarch.
removed his This was the settlement
them from the oppressive tax-gatherers Before beginning this work Cortes to a more healthy place, further north. camp
of the
True Cross, Vera Cruz.
Trouble with his own men again broke out, and Cortes had to take a strange step in order to secure their obedience. He burned all the ships save one, and then delivered a powerful speech to the men, appealing to their
became
courage as well as to their desire for plunder. They fired by his words and the meeting broke up with shouts of "To Mexico! To Mexico I"
When
72
Cortes
first
about 400 men.
reached the coast of Yucatan he had When at Vera Cruz another party of
men
body had died
arrived from Cuba, but about 30 of the original of disease or wounds, so that after leaving
x]
DISCOVERY OF MEXICO
59
150 at Vera Cruz it was a very tiny army that set out on the long march to the capital. After the beautiful but unhealthy coastal strip had been crossed, the way led by
feet
a steep ascent to the plateau, which was more than 6000 above sea-level. Here the climate was much cooler,
and the trees were like those of Europe. All along the route Cortes announced to the natives that he came as
a messenger from the greatest king in the world, and that
they must give up idolatry and human sacrifices. At various points the Spaniards came to towns which seemed wonderfully well built, and were ruled by representatives
Montezuma. Most of these refused demands and laughed at the idea that there might be a king greater than Montezuma. With some of the Indian tribes Cortes had to fight, and his successes raised great alarm in the heart of the Mexican king, who viewed with dismay the steady advance of the strangers. He sent more presents, offering to pay a yearly tribute to the King of Spain if Cortes would abstain from entering his capital, but the conqueror took no heed. At this time the great volcano of Popocatepetl broke into eruption, and as this was supposed to take place only
or vassals of
for gold,
when
great danger threatened the native alarm increased. Cortes sent a number of men to climb the mountain and
It seems strange to us that report on what they saw. these men should risk the dangers of such an ascent, as though they had not already quite enough in front of
them, but the mixture of rashness and skill is a feature of the Spanish adventurers of those days. In November, three months after leaving Vera Cruz,
little army, consisting now of 350 Spaniards and about 6000 Indian allies, reached a point from which they looked down on the valley of Mexico. "The scene on which the Spaniards gazed was, beyond question, one of the most wonderful and beautiful ever offered to man's
the
60
contemplation/'
CORTES AND THE

The
valley,
[CH
semblage
of water,
shining cities
"with its picturesque aswoodland, and cultivated plains, its and shadowy hills, was spread out like some
gay and gorgeous panorama before them. Stretching far away at their feet were seen noble forests of oak, sycamore, and cedar, and beyond, yellow fields of maize, intermingled with orchards and blooming gardens. In the centre of the great basin were beheld the lakes; their borders thickly studded with towns and hamlets, and, in the midst, like some Indian empress with her coronal of pearls, the fair city of Mexico, with her white towers and pyramidal temples, reposing, as it were, on the bosom of the waters/' Thus writes Prescott, the great historian of
the Conquest of Mexico. Passing over the causeways which led
across
the
channels of water to the capital, Cortes and his men were received by Montezuma himself, who gave his visitors
them with
great gifts and announced his intention of entertaining all honour. But after some days Cortes began
^o distrust the ruler and by a trick obtained possession of him and took him as a hostage to his own quarters.
The unhappy monarch was compelled
to order his people
to submit to Cortes as the representative of their lawful He also ordered tribute to be ruler, the King of Spain.
strangers, but in spite of all the he refused to renounce his pagan religion. Full of rage, the Catholic general himself broke down the idols in the temple and ordered the holding of Catholic
collected
and paid to the
efforts of Cortes
But his violence produced strong feelings and he began to see the dangers in which he had placed himself by his rashness. Moreover he heard of the landing on the coast of men sent by his rivals, and
services there.
of opposition,
resolved to go with part of his troops to fight them. The remainder of the story of Cortes, of his return to stop a revolt in Mexico, and of the final overthrow of the
x]
DISCOVERY OF MEXICO
61
exploration.
Mexicans, belongs to the study of history rather than of In the story may be read an account of the
strength and weakness of the Spaniards in their methods of dealing with the peoples of the New World. Partly by a display of extraordinary courage and daring, partly by unheard-of violence and cruelty, they built up in Mexico
Spain, from w hich, at first at all events, there poured forth a stream" of treasures to fill the pockets of the conquerors.
and the surrounding lands a
New
The last years of Cortes were spent in frequent journeys between Europe and Mexico, and from the latter country he sent out many expeditions of discovery in various directions. It is interesting to notice that in
J 533
one of these reached the coast of California.
CHAPTER XI
PIZARRO AND THE CONQUEST OF PERU
The story
of the successes of Cortes
and
his
men
in
Mexico induced an ever increasing number of Spaniards to go to the New World. Many of these found their way to the isthmus of Panama, and some of them were companions of Balboa on his famous journey to the watershed from which he first looked on to the broad Pacific. The
Indians of those parts constantly spoke of the existence
of a land of gold to the south, and when Balboa failed in his efforts to lead an expedition in search of that land
others took
up the work. The one who successfully accomplished the task was Francisco Pizarro. Pizarro, a native of Spain, spent his early years
in very dull fashion as a swineherd. But the tales of the New World fired his blood, as was the case with
62
PIZARRO AND THE
[CH.
so many of his countrymen. He escaped to Seville, and eventually he became one of Balboa's assistants in the After spending some years in efforts to colonize Darien.
this
neighbourhood Pizarro set out from Panama, in 1524, with one ship and a crew of men whose sole desire
was
to gain gold. They sailed many leagues down the coast of South America, but suffered from adverse winds and great rainstorms. The land was covered with a dense
and swampy forest, and all their efforts to penetrate it failed. Food supplies ran short, and the men became full
of discontent, although Pizarro gradually won their respect by his generous unselfishness. At length he sent the ship
back, with a large part of the crew, to obtain further He and his own party wandered among the supplies.
forests until they
found an Indian
village in
a clearing.
the natives they heard more about the great and rich country which lay beyond, and this made Pizarro
From
more determined to succeed. Meantime their sufferings from the rain and from disease and famine were intense, and their relief was great when they saw the ship return. The whole party now proceeded down the coast, and at length they found the forest less dense and so they
still
resolved to land.
They discovered a very
large village
which was deserted by the natives when the Spaniards approached, but the latter were afterwards so fiercely attacked that they returned to their ship. The ship was leaky, and Pizarro resolved to return to Panama for repairs. In the meantime, Almagro, a partner of Pizarro, had been left at Panama to await the completion of a second He sailed south after Pizarro but missed him, and ship. returned after reaching a point about four degrees north of the Equator. The two captains were excited by the amount of gold which they had obtained from the natives and at once made preparations for a second voyage. Two ships were secured, and with much difficulty 160 men were
xi]
CONQUEST OF PERU
63
enlisted, and a moderate supply of horses taken on board. The weather being favourable, the point reached on the last voyage was soon passed. A landing was made, and as more gold was obtained it was sent back on one of the ships, to tempt a further number to join the travellers.
Pizarro remained on land, while his pilot, with the other He passed the ships, sailed south to examine the coast.
island of Gallo, and was astonished at the many signs of civilization, just as Cortes had been when on his way
to Mexico.
propelled Indians.
cloth of
Among other things he saw a large raft, by a square cotton sail, and carrying several "But what struck him most was the woollen which some of the dresses were made. It was of
a fine texture, delicately embroidered with figures of birds
and dyed in brilliant colours/' The pilot some of the Indians, to teach them Spanish, and kept went on till he reached half a degree south, returning thence to Pizarro. The latter and his men had again suffered greatly, but the news which the pilot brought, and the return of the other ship with fresh supplies of food and men, encouraged all again. But difficulties again arose, and finally one ship was sent to Panama for; yet more supplies. The leader, with most of the other men, was to remain on the island of The men of this latter party showed increasing Gallo. signs of mutiny, and when relief ships arrived they at once prepared to return home. This was an occasion when Pizarro showed the determined courage for which
and
flowers,
he has always been remembered. Drawing his sword, he traced a line with it on the sand from east to west. Then turning towards the south he said, "Friends and comrades, on that side are toil, hunger, nakedness, the drenching
storm,
desertion
pleasure.
There
lies
and
its
poverty.
and death; on this side, ease and Peru with its riches here, Panama Choose, each man, what best becomes
;
64
PIZARRO AND THE
[CH.
a brave Castilian. For my part, I go to the south/' So saying he stepped across the line. The pilot and twelve
others at once joined him, the remainder returned with the ships to Panama.
Some months later a ship arrived with supplies, and the Spaniards again set out for the-south. They crossed the Equator and entered the harbour of Guayaquil.
"The country was
towns and
here studded along the shore with villages, though the mighty chain of the
Cordilleras, sweeping up abruptly from the coast, left but a narrow strip of emerald verdure, through which numerous rivulets, spreading fertility around them, wound their way to the sea/' The townsfolk presented the strangers with
fruit
and
corn,
and
also
gave them a number of llamas,
the "little camels" of the Indians. Still passing south, the Spaniards at last reached a point nine degrees south
of the Equator, and then returned to excitement, to tell of the wonders they
Panama, had seen.
full
of
The next few months were spent by Pizarro in a visit King of Spain, who gave him authority and help to embark on a course of conquest in the countries he had In 1531 he sailed on his third and last just discovered.
to the
voyage from Panama for Peru, taking three ships, about 180 men, and about 30 horses. Reaching a point just north of the Equator, Pizarro landed with his soldiers, having decided to march along the coast. The ships were
sent on.
After a long march, during which many adventures took place, and much treasure was secured, the Spaniards reached a point whence it was proposed to set out for the interior. This was at the mouth of the Guayaquil river.
in May 1532. Some leagues from the coast a settlement was made, and here a number of the soldiers were left. But Pizarro was intent on some-
The journey was begun
thing better than settlement.
He was
determined to
xi]
CONQUEST OF PERU
65
reach and conquer the land of the Inca, the ruler of a wonderful people of whom Pizarro had heard much during
his journeys along the coast.
The
territory of the Inca
included
the vast plateau which was enclosed between Pizarro had the main chain of the Andes and the coast.
all
been told of the immense wealth of the country, of its fertility and great buildings, and he was resolved to imitate the example of Cortes, who had won such riches in Mexico. Moreover he had probably heard that the rulers were divided against themselves, there being two
claimants for the position of sovereign Inca. Pizarro was told of the position of the chief city, across the great range
of the Andes.
As the march proceeded, many of the soldiers showed Pizarro resolved to deal signs of discontent and fear. with the danger at once. He gathered his men and told them that "no man should think of going forward in the
expedition who could not do so with his whole heart," and that those who were unwilling might return to the settlement. Such was the effect of his example that only
nine went back.
Some days
later,
an envoy came from the Inca, bearing
presents, including "fine stuffs of woollen, embroidered with gold and silver," and assuring Pizarro of the anxiety
of the Inca to meet him, at his city of Caxamalca, on the other side of the Andes. The mountains soon came into
view, "rock piled
upon
rock, their skirts below dark with
evergreen forests, varied here and there with terraced patches of cultivated garden, with their crests of snow
glittering high in the heavens." After days of difficult travelling, the troops
saw before
them the
of the
city, "like
a sparkling
it
gem on
the dark skirts
of the sierra."
But
Peruvian
soldiers,
was surrounded by the dark tents and the hearts of the Spaniards
fear, until
were at
A. E.
first filled
with
they realized that they

5
66
PIZARRO AND THE CONQUEST OF PERU
[CH.
must in any case proceed with their task now they had gone so far. The Peruvians were filled with wonder when they saw the glittering armour and magnificent horses of
the invaders.
Pizarro resolved on a desperate step in order to put himself in a strong position. When the Inca arrived, full
of curiosity to see his strange visitors, he was suddenly addressed by a Spanish priest and urged to accept the Catholic faith, but of course he could not understand a word of what was said to him. He seems to have thrown to the ground a service book which the priest gave him. At once the Spaniards fell upon him and seized him. He would have been killed but for Pizarro, who realized the value of keeping the Inca as a live captive. Such was the
terror of the latter that he readily ordered that the temples of his country should be stripped of their gold to satisfy
the Spaniards, promising to
which he had been placed. the Inca was put to death.

struck to offer resistance.
fill with treasure the room in But on the arrival of the gold The Peruvians were too awe-
The
rest of the story of the conquest of
Peru must be
In 1534 the great city of Cuzco was the successes of the Spaniards caused a captured, and stream of their fellow-countrymen to enter Peru and read elsewhere.
Chile, so that a great Spanish Empire was founded in those parts of South America. In 1540 Orellana, accompanied at first by the brother of Pizarro, made his way down the Amazon from the
Andes to the mouth of the South America crossed from west to east
forests of the
river.
Thus was
for the first time.
xn]
THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE,
ETC.
67
CHAPTER
XII
THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE. WILLOUGHBY AND CHANCELLOR

It has already been pointed out that the desire of the English to find a route to the East other than those routes which were under the control of foreign nations led to
the attempt to find the North-west Passage. But the attempts had failed for the time being, and so it was that
the minds of
many navigators turned in the direction of the only alternative route, that is round the north of Norway and along the northern coasts of Europe and Asia.
At the time when
Passage" began,
this
search
for
"
North-east
manufactures were growing rapidly, and so English merchants listened readily to the suggestions of Sebastian Cabot, then in England, that an expedition should be fitted out and sent to the Northeast, both for trading purposes and to discover new lands. The merchants formed a company known as a "Merchant Adventurers' Company/' for "the discovery of lands not Three ships and some before known to the English/' pinnaces were prepared and were put under the command of Captain Sir Hugh Willoughby and Captain Richard Chancellor. On setting off, in 1553, they were given letters from King Edward VI to "the Kings, Princes, and other Potentates inhabiting the Northeast partes of the Worlde, toward the mighty Empire of Cathay/' The rulers were urged to give the servants of the English King
English
free passage, "for," proceeded the message, ''they shall not touch anything of yours unwilling to you. Consider you that they also are men. If therefore they shall
stand in neede of anything, we desire you of all humanitie, and for the nobilitie which is in you, to ayde and helpe
52
68
THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE
[CH.
them with such things as they lacke, receiving againe of them such things as they shall be able to give you in recompense. Show your selves so towards them, as you would that we and our subjects should shew ourselves
towards your servants, by our regions."
if
at
any time they should passe
attempted to call at the Shetland Islands but were prevented owing to the violence of the wind. Crossing the sea, they reached the Lofoden Islands, Here they met a Norwegian off the coast of Norway. fisherman in a small boat, who answered their questions and advised them to sail into harbour and obtain a pilot, who would guide them on the next stage of their journey. "But when wee would have entred into an harbour, the land being very high on every side, there came such terrible whirlewinds that we were not able to beare in, but by violence were constrained to take the sea agayne." The storm separated the ships, and Willoughby with two of them drifted on, losing all idea of his position, and "perceiving that the land lay not as the Globe made mention." He went round the north of Norway and passed, without knowing it, the place where all had agreed He appears to have touched to meet in case of separation. at the island of Novaya Zemlya and then turned west again, crossing the entrance to the White Sea and reaching the coast of Lapland. Here the travellers spent the winter, suffering greatly from the cold and from want of
travellers at first
The
proper food. All of Willoughby's party perished, the ships being discovered at a later date. In the meantime Chancellor had reached the appointed
He waited here place of meeting, at Vardos, in Lapland. a few days and then decided to go on, because the winter
was approaching, and he knew that
it
to delay further. Just before starting again he of Scots, party probably fishermen. They warned
would be dangerous met a him of
xii]
WILLOUGHBY AND CHANCELLOR
69
the dangers he would have to face, but he refused to be dissuaded, "holding nothing so reproachful as incon-
and levity of mind determining either to bring that to passe which was intended, or else to die the death." Chancellor's crew, fired by his example, resolved to back him up. So he sailed on, "until he came at last to the
stancie
.
place where he found no night at all, but a continuall light and brightnesse of the Sunne shining clearly upon the huge and mightie sea." Entering the White Sea, the
travellers
saw a boat containing some fishermen.
The
English ships endeavoured to approach the strangers, but the latter were afraid of the great vessel, and endeavoured
to escape. They were, however, reassured by the courtesy of Chancellor and his companions, and then wished to
was of great was reported in the country round, the "common people came together offering to these newe-come guests victuals freely, and not refusing to traffique with them, except they had been bound by a certaine religious use and custome, not to buy any forrein commodities, without the knowledge and consent of the King." Meanwhile the people sent a messenger to the Emperor to enquire with regard to what they were to do in the matter of the strangers. The messenger was told by the Emperor to invite the English
"kisse his feet."
The kindness
of the English
service to
them
later on, because
when
it
it
to journey to the court, at the ruler's own expense, but was so long before the messenger returned that the
travellers
had already started out. The journey "was very long and most troublesome." Sledges were used, "the people not knowing any other mariner of carriage,
the cause whereof
is
grounde, congealed in the winter time colde."
the exceeding hardnesse of the by the force of the
While on their way, Chancellor and his companions met the messenger who had been sent to learn the wishes
70
of the
effect
THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE
[CH.
Emperor. The answer of the latter had a great on the people, who were known as Muscovites.
They gave the best possible attention to the travellers, who at last reached Moscow, "the chiefe citie of the The latter enterkingdome, and the seat of the King/ tained them with great splendour, and the visitors were much impressed with what they saw, they being the first
7
Englishmen to enter the heart of Russia. At length Chancellor, taking letters from the Emperor
the English Sovereign, returned to England. The letters, which announced the visit of Chancellor to the
to
court of the Emperor, went on to say "we are willing that you send unto us your ships and vessells, when and as
often as they may have passage, with good assurance on our part to see them harmlesse. And if you send one of
your majesties counsel to treate with us whereby your country marchants may with all kinds of wares, and where they shall make their markets in our dominions, they shall have their free Marte with all kinds of wares to come and goe at their pleasure, without any let, damage or impediment/' The report which Chancellor gave as to the possibilities of trade with Russia were so favourable that the Company decided to fit out a second expedition in 1555. Agencies were to be set up in various parts of Russia, and trade was to be entered upon, either through the Emperor or In any case the traders were to directly with his people. see that they gained sufficient profit, having in mind "the notable charges that the companie have diffrayed in advancing this voyage/' They were also "to use all ways and meanes possible to learne how men may passe from Russia, either by land or by sea to Cathay, and what may be heard of our other ships, and to what knowledge you may come, by conferring with the learned or welltravailed persons, either naturall or forrein/'
xn]
WILLOUGHBY AND CHANCELLOR
71
This voyage was again a success, and Chancellor remained in Russia through the next winter, the main
expedition returning to England. A third expedition set out in 1556, and when it reached the coast of Lapland the
remains of Willoughby's ships were found. Chancellor came north from Moscow to reach his friends, and after some trading had been carried on he returned on one of the ships, in company with an ambassador of the Russian Emperor. On the ship were "waxe, trane oyle, tallow, furres, felts, yarne and such like, to the summe of /2O,ooo, together with 16 Russies attendant upon the person of
the said Ambassador/'
Disaster overtook the travellers,
and two
of the four ships perished off the coast of Norway. third ship did not reach the Thames for many months,
while the fourth, with Chancellor on board, was wrecked off the coast of Scotland. The captain perished, and the
The ambassador at cargo was seized by the Scots. length reached the city of London, where he was well received by the citizens, and by King Philip and Queen
Mary, who were then reigning. Friendship was thus firmly established between England and Russia. The development of trade with Russia, and the great obstacles in the way of navigation round the north of the Old World, prevented much progress being made with the
problem of the North-east Passage. One or two daring sailors reached points further east than Willoughby had reached, but it was not till 1879 that a steamer actually made its way by that route from the North Sea into the
Pacific Ocean.
72
JOHN HAWKINS AND THE
[CH.
CHAPTER
XIII
JOHN HAWKINS AND THE EARLY VOYAGES OF DRAKE

The conquests and settlements of the Spaniards in the were followed by a great growth of traffic between those countries and Spain. Treasure poured into
New World
strict regulations
the European possessions of the Spanish monarch, but were made to ensure that none but
Spaniards should share in the profitable trade that went

on.
The English had done little since the voyages of the Cabots to fix a hold upon any part of the New World.
There were other directions, such as the Mediterranean, in which they could make sure of returns for any trouble they might take. Moreover the monarchs of England and Spain were outwardly friendly, so that the English seamen had to avoid anything which might be resented by the Spanish King. But it is always difficult to confine trade to particular
channels, especially
when
traders
know
of
new openings
which promise well. The difficulty of obtaining sufficient labour on the sugar plantations of the West Indies caused the Spaniards much anxiety. Thus it was that when John Hawkins, whose father had made several voyages to Brazil, heard that negroes "were very good merchandize in Hispaniola, and that store of Negroes might easily be had upon the coast of Guinea/' he determined to begin a traffic in slaves between Africa and the Spanish possessions.
On
his first voyage, in
obtain, "partly
300 negroes.
1562, Hawkins managed to the and partly by other means/' sword, by These he sold in the West Indies. He
xin]
EARLY VOYAGES OF DRAKE
73
obtained in exchange "hides, ginger, sugar, and some quantity of pearls/' He sent a quantity of hides to be
sold in Spain, but the authorities there would not allow any trading with the English to take place.
In 1564 Hawkins made a second voyage. This time he had some difficulty in inducing the Spaniards of Venezuela to trade, as they were afraid of the anger of the governor. Their unwillingness, however, was not
very strong, for they greatly desired the slaves. Coasting along the Caribbean Sea, and visiting Jamaica and Cuba,
Hawkins
managed to get rid of all his slaves. the coast of Florida, where he found a group passed of French settlers. Leaving here, the ships were driven
at length
He
by the
prevailing westerly winds north-eastwards along the coast of North America, to Newfoundland, whence
they returned to Europe. This was the first time Englishmen had sailed along the coast of the future United
States.
The third, and in some respects the most important, voyage of Hawkins began in 1567. With increasing difficulty he managed to dispose of his cargoes of slaves. But the process
of selling had delayed him considerably, so that the hurricane season began before he had left the zone of danger. His ships went for refuge into the harbour
of St
Juan de Ullua, on the coast
of Mexico.
Now among
little fleet
the captains of the other ships in the was Francis Drake, who commanded his own
Drake had spent his early manhood an apprentice on a ship which traded in the North Sea. He had then become one of the band of English traders on the west coast of Africa, and had made a
vessel, the Judith.
as
considerable
went on
at
money there. When Hawkins Drake voyage joined him on the Judith. It happened that the Spanish settlers on the mainland San Juan were expecting a Spanish fleet. They were
amount
of
his third
74

' '
[CH.
much afraid on finding their mistake,

"
but/' says Hawkins, immediately when they saw our demand was nothing but victuals, were recomforted." There were treasureships in the harbour, but Hawkins did not plunder them.
He
also sent
word
to the governor,
who was
200 miles inland, asking for permission to

obtain food.
refit
at Mexico, and to
Just afterwards the Spanish fleet "of thirteen great Hawkins refused ships'' appeared outside the harbour.
to enter until they agreed to refrain from attacking the English. But, shortly after being admitted, to allow
them
the Spaniards treacherously attacked the English ships, and also a party which had landed on the narrow neck
which almost closed the entrance to the harbour. Eventually only Drake's ship and one other escaped. Drake's ship, the Judith, sailed straight for home. The other boat, the Minion, was far too full of men for the So thus, with many sorrowful supplies that it contained. hearts, we wandered in an unknown sea by the space of
of land
' '
fourteen days,
their
hunger forced us to seek the land." At request one half of the men were put ashore. The boat then went on its way, reaching the coast of Spain Mount's six weeks after leaving the coast of Florida.
till
own
Bay, Cornwall, was reached in January 1568. "If all the miseries and troublesome affairs of this sorrowful voyage should be perfectly and thoroughly written," says Hawkins, "there should need a painful man with his pen, and as great a time as he had that
and deaths of the martyrs." Yet the were really important, because they Hawkins voyages showed that it was impossible for the English to hope for
wrote the
lives
of
this
any peaceful share in the trade with the West. From time onwards English seamen and Spaniards were in
constant opposition in the New World. Francis Drake had lost much of his
little
fortune in
xin]
75
the attack of the Spanish ships at San Juan. On his return to England he described the wrongs which he said the Spaniards had done to the English, and so he roused
strong feelings against the Spaniards. He resolved to find out more about the Spanish possessions and then to
take his revenge. He first made two preliminary voyages to the Indies and then returned to make preparations for
a direct attack on the Isthmus of Darien, in the heart of the Spanish Main.
In 1572 he set out with two ships and a few small pinnaces, the latter in sections, to be put together when
Landing at a suitable point on the coast, a was built> and the small pinnaces were strong for work. Drake had heard that the treasures prepared of Peru were taken in galleons up the west coast to the Isthmus of Darien, and were then packed on the backs of mules and carried across the Isthmus to the Atlantic side, there to be placed on ships for conveyance to Spain. The port on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus was Nombre de Dios, and it was to seize the treasure at this place that Drake made his first plans. Arrived at the treasure port, Drake soon drove away
required.
little fort
the greater
number
of the terror-stricken Spaniards.
He
was just about to .break open the treasure-house in the town when he fell, badly wounded. His men bore him to the boats, for his life was more precious to them than
all the treasure they were seeking. During the next few weeks the English sailors captured many Spanish ships, and plundered many places on the coast in spite of all the
made by the Spaniards to prevent these doings. There was, in the interior, an Indian tribe known as the Cimarrons, and these people were very hostile to the
efforts
Spaniards, who had treated them badly. Drake secured the friendship of these natives, and they agreed to help his schemes. After a long interval of waiting, the Indians
76
[CH.
reported that the

across to
fleet which was to carry the treasure Europe was at Nombre de Dios. Consequently the treasure would shortly be on its way across the Isthmus. Drake determined to seize it while on this
its
stage of
journey.
With a bod y of about fifty men, including thirty Indians, Drake started on this desperate attempt. The way from the coast was up a gradual incline and through magnificent forests. At one point on the way the English captain was shown, from a tall tree, a view of both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Drake was filled with a longing to sail his ships upon the great ocean to the South, and vowed that he would do so some day. Soon afterwards the little force halted at a point where it seemed easy to ambush the train of mules now coming from Panama. But owing to the indiscretion of one of his men, the alarm was given, and the Spaniards kept the treasure back at Panama, sending forward only a few mules with nothing of value on their backs. Thus Drake was again disappointed. Yet another attempt was made on a mule-train near Nombre de Dios, and this time a large amount of treasure was secured. At last Drake felt that he had secured enough for his immediate purposes, and so he sailed back, with his two remaining ships, to England. He reached home on August igth, 1573, and he received a hearty welcome from his friends and fellow-townsfolk. But the Queen was displeased because Drake's conduct was making it
keep the peace with Spain. After four years, the damage done to English ships by the Spaniards caused the Queen to agree to Drake's plan of leading a small fleet into the Pacific, and there
difficult to
attacking the Spanish towns and galleons. Elizabeth's ministers did not approve of this scheme, but she gave Drake secret help. Others, too, contributed money and
xin]
77
encouragement, and so Drake secured ships for the voyage to which he had looked forward since he first beheld the Pacific from the tree on the Isthmus of Darien.
CHAPTER XIV
DRAKE'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD
Drake left Plymouth on November i5th, 1577. He had with him the Pelican, which was his own flagship, the Elizabeth, the Mangold, and the Swan, as well as a small pinnace. The beginning was somewhat unlucky,
they reached the open Channel a storm and broke they had to return to Plymouth for repairs. It was December I3th before the final start -was made. Twelve days later the coast of Marocco was reached. The inhabitants appeared friendly, but by a trick they succeeded in capturing one of the English sailors. The
for as soon as
squadron passed southwards along the coast of until the Cape Verde Islands were reached. "Here," says one of Drake's companions, "we gave ourselves a little refreshing, as by very ripe and sweet grapes, which the fruitfulness of the earth at that season of the year yielded us and that season being with us the depth of winter, it may seem strange that those fruits were then there growing. But the reason thereof is this, because between the tropic and the equinoctial, the being they sun passeth twice in the year through their zenith over their heads, by means whereof they have two summers and being so near the heat of the line they never lose the heat of the sun so much, but the fruits have their increase and continuance in the midst of winter/' Several of the islands in this group were passed, and
little
Africa
78
DRAKE'S VOYAGE
[CH.
near one of them a wine-ship was captured. Gradually the fleet neared the Equator, where they were "becalmed the space of three weeks, but yet subject to divers great
storms, terrible lightnings and much thunder/' For fiftyfour days there was no sight of land, and then the coast of Brazil was reached, at latitude 33 south. Here the
natives tried to bring about the wreck of the fleet by making sacrifices to "devils/' and by making "heaps of
sands,
and other ceremonies."

fleet
Passing further south, the Plate, where fresh water was
entered the River
obtained.
Some
miles
further a good harbour was found and seals became Drake had now reached the coast of Pataplentiful. gonia, and "the people of the country showed themselves unto him, leaping and dancing, and entered into traffic with him; but they would not receive anything at any man's hands, but the same must be cast on the ground." On reaching St Julian, the harbour in which Magellan had wintered, and where he had been compelled to punish certain mutineers, Drake found it necessary to hold an enquiry into the conduct of Captain Doughty, one of his chief companions. Doughty had been a source of great and he was formally tried, "as the to Admiral, anxiety ijear as might be to the course of our laws in England." He was found guilty, and after receiving Communion by the side of his Admiral he was executed, "otherwise the success of the voyage might greatly have been hazarded." After two months' stay at St Julian, the squadron, now reduced to three ships, set out for the Straits of Magellan, which were reached three days later. They found the straits had "many turnings, and as it were It was shuttings-up, as if there were no passage at all."
,
difficult to find
anchorage, owing to the depth of the water.
The height of the mountains amazed them all, as they had amazed Magellan and his men. The straits varied
xiv]
ROUND THE WORLD
79
much in width, and there was great difficulty in finding a way through the tortuous windings. At one point an
island
was found, with "great

;
store of fowl
not
fly, of the bigness of geese
which could whereof we killed in less
than one day 3000, and victualled ourselves thoroughly

therewith/'
After sixteen days the "South Sea' came in sight. The Pelican, now renamed the Golden Hind, led the way into
'
what Magellan had called the Pacific Ocean. But to Drake and his companions the great ocean showed a very A great gale drove them away to the different aspect.
During this gale the Marigold sank with all Beating their way slowly back, the travellers reached the islands which lie off Tierra del Fuego, again "in one of which was such plenty of birds as is scant The Elizabeth meanwhile lost touch credible to report/' with the Golden Hind, and its captain set out for
south-west.
its
crew.
England.
Drake had no intention of giving up his voyage, even though he had now only one ship left. He sailed northwards along the coast of Chile, and at length reached a region where the Spaniards had earned for themselves the fear and hatred of the native Indians. From the latter Drake heard that a Spanish treasure-ship was at
anchor in the harbour of Valparaiso. Sailing there forthwith, he found the ship in the hands of so small a crew
that he captured
it
without any
difficulty.
Of course the
Spaniards never dreamed of English seamen appearing on that coast. The few Spaniards who were in the town
fled
when Drake landed. Some plunder was obtained, and then, under the pilotage of a Greek who lived there,
The Valparaiso ship had yielded plenty of wine and gold, and the English were tempted, to .land at several At one place they were attacked points along the coast.
the English set out for the harbour of Lima.
8o
DRAKE'S VOYAGE
"
[CH.
by the Spaniards, but at another, being landed, we found by the sea side a Spaniard lying asleep, who had lying by him thirteen bars of silver. We took the silver and left the man/' At yet another place they landed and captured
"or sheep of Peru/' each laden with fine "We found not ships. one person; for they, mistrusting no strangers, were all gone to the town." At Lima were twelve ships. Drake plundered these, Here, finding plate "and good store of silks and linen." too, he heard that a great treasure galleon had gone north to the Isthmus of Panama. Hurrying after this prize, he at length caught her, and a greater store of plunder than ever was the result. "We boarded her, and shot at her three pieces of ordnance, and strake down her mizen and, being entered, we found in her great riches, as jewels and precious stones, thirteen chests full of plate, fourteen pound weight of gold, and six and twenty ton of
eight llamas,
silver.
At Arica were three small
silver."
valuables,
satisfied
After capturing other ships and stripping them of their Drake began to think himself "sufficiently
return.
and revenged." He thought it well to plan his The question was whether it would be wise to
go back through the Straits of Magellan. He decided against such a plan, partly because he knew the Spaniards would be on the watch for him, and partly because he did not like the dangers of a voyage through those stormy So he resolved to cross the Pacific to the Spice straits.
Islands,
and thence to make

first
his
way round
the Cape of
Good Hope.
It
was
distance, in order that
necessary to continue north for a long winds might be met favourable to
the contemplated voyage. For six weeks the Golden Hind voyaged on, the air becoming cold almost beyond what the
men
could bear.
At length a point was reached
xiv]
ROUND THE WORLD
81
where there was a "low plain land," and "a fair and good bay." This was the bay on which the town of San Francisco now stands, and was far north of any point yet
reached by the Spaniards. The natives were full of interest and surprise on seeing the English. They persuaded themselves that the visitors
were gods, and insisted on disfiguring themselves as a sign Their King willingly submitted to Drake, him and allowed to take possession, formally, in the name
of sacrifice. of the
Queen.
Drake,
its
who
called the
country
Albion/'
recognized
suitability
for settlement.
"New On
his departure "he set up a monument of being there, as also of Her Majesty's right and title to the same namely,
;
a plate, nailed upon a fair great post, whereupon was engraved Her Majesty's name, the day and hour of arrival there, with the free giving up of the province and
people into
Her Majesty's hands, together with Her Highness' picture and arms, in a piece of sixpence of
current English money, under the plate."
Leaving this inviting country, Drake set out across the broad Pacific. For nearly seventy days the Golden Hind went straight upon its course. At the end of this time the Philippines were reached, this being the region in which
poor Magellan had met his fate. Thence Drake sailed for the Moluccas, or Spice Islands. The King of one of these islands was very friendly to Drake. He visited the "in white lawn of dressed Calicut," and Englishman attended by many young men in similar attire. The natives bore presents of "rice, hens, sugar, plantains, and
cloves."
The King's visit was returned by Drake. He found every mark of great wealth and also noticed that there were resident agents who traded for merchants of southern The merchants were Mahommedans. But Europe.
though the English found the island very fascinating
A. E.
82
DRAKE'S VOYAGE
it
[CH.
Drake thought
island they noticed "that
wise to proceed on his journey. At one amongst the trees, by night,
did show themselves an infinite swarm of fiery worms flying in the air, whose bodies being no bigger than our common English flies, make such a show and light as if
every twig or tree had been a burning candle/' It was difficult work to find a passage through the numerous islands of those regions. At one place the ship struck on a rock, and remained fast for hours, but at
off. Calling at a few islands, notably Java, where he was much impressed by the skill of the natives in cooking food, Drake sailed south-west to the Cape of Good Hope, "which was the first land we met, neither did we touch with it, or any other land, until we came to
length floated
Sierra Leone,
upon the coast
of Guinea."
3rd, 1580, the Golden Hind entered the harbour of Plymouth after her three years voyage, and Drake received knighthood on his ship at the hands of
On November
the Queen, a fitting reward for his gallant services. He was the first Englishman who had ever sailed round the
world.
CHAPTER XV
MARTIN FROBISHER
Since the failure of John Cabot to find a channel leading from the north-west of the Atlantic to Asia no
attempts had been made to resume the search. For a time English attention was directed to the north-east, where Willoughby, Chancellor, and others tried to find a route to the land of Cathay. But in 1574 Sir Humphrey Gilbert published a work in which he sought "to prove a passage by the North-west to Cathay, and the East
"NO!
Map
published with the narrat
ceanus
capo
di butma,
f
sjpe
H
of Frobisher's
Voyages, 1578
xv]
Indies/'
MARTIN FROBISHER
Two
83
years later, Martin Frobisher, who had sailed to the west of Africa and round the coasts of
Ireland, decided to test the value of Gilbert's idea. The Queen wished him success and gave him authority to set out, she herself waving farewell to the little expedition as it set sail from the Thames on June 8th, 1576. There were but two ships, the Gabriel and the Michael, .with a small pinnace. They sailed round the north of the Britain, past Orkneys and Shetlands, and on July nth
sighted the coast of Greenland, "rising like pinnacles of The coast was so steeples, and all covered with snow."
no landing was possible. They next came near the coast of Labrador, but again a landing was Near this place they approached an iceberg, impossible. which "fell one part from another, making a noise as if a great cliff had fallen into the sea/' Soon afterwards they found an island on the shore of which a number of people were standing. These were
packed with
ice that
induced to
visit Frobisher's ship,
"being nineteen persons,
and they spake, but we understood them not. They be like to Tartars, with long black hair, broad faces, and flat Their noses, and tawny in colour, wearing seal-skins.
boats are
made
all
of seal-skins, with a keel of
wood
within the skin."
Meantime, as a result of storm and mists, the pinnace lost, and the Michael slipped away secretly for home, taking the false news that Frobisher and the Gabriel had been cast away. In spite of these disasters Frobisher struggled on, "determined at the least to bring true proof that land and sea might be far to the northwestwards, beyond any that man hath heretofore discovered/' He reached the south-east of Baffin Land, and when the ice had somewhat reduced in amount he entered what appeared to him a strait, but what was really an "He passed above inlet on the coast of Baffin Land.
.
had been
62
84
fifty
MARTIN FROBISHER
[CH.
leagues therein, as he reported, having upon either hand a great main or continent. And that land upon his right hand as he sailed westward he judged to be the continent of Asia, and there to be divided from the land
of America,
which
lieth
felt
upon the
left
hand/'
Now
Frobisher
quite certain that he
had discovered
the desired passage between North America and Asia, and since Magellan had given his name to the straits he had
name to the waterway he had discovered. The " strait " is now marked on the map as Frobisher Bay.
discovered to the south of America so Frobisher gave his
"Being ashore upon the top of a hill, he perceived a number of small things floating in the sea afar off, which he supposed to be porpoises or seals, or some kind of strange fish; but coming nearer, he discovered them to be men in small boats made of leather/' Frobisher bartered with these men, obtaining skins of seals and
bears in exchange for bells and looking-glasses. But they were treacherous people, for when five of Frobisher's men ventured ashore they were captured by the Eskimos and never seen again. Frobisher was determined to take one of the strangers home with him, as a token of his discoveries, but he had He managed to do so great difficulty in capturing one. at last by tempting one to come within reach by dangling a bell before him. The native greatly desired the bell, and when he made a move to reach it, Frobisher let it fall and caught the man fast, "and plucked him with main force boat and all/' out of the sea into the ship. "Whereupon when he found himself in captivity, for very anger he bit his tongue in twain within his mouth notwithstanding he died not thereof, but lived until he came in England and then he died of cold which he had taken
;
at sea/'
Frobisher reached England in October 1576, and was
xv]
MARTIN FROBISHER
85
congratulated by all, especially "for the great hope he brought of the passage to Cathay/' He and his men had collected various articles of interest in the northern lands.
other things was a piece of black stone, which, though heavy, seemed of little value. But by an accident the stone came to light in London, and was declared to
Among
At once there was great excitement, and urged Frobisher to take out another expedition to bring back more of the black stone. "Thus preparations were made for a new voyage, and the captain was more especially directed for the searching and discovery of the passage/' Frobisher left London in May 1577, having one of the Queen's ships, the Aid, and the Gabriel and Michael. The voyage took the same
contain gold.
many
direction as before, except that the ships made direct for Frobisher's Strait after passing the south of Greenland.
They marvelled
at the
abundance
of fish in the seas
round
about, as well as at the great number of icebergs. "It is a marvel to behold of what great bigness and depth some
some seventy, some eighty fathoms under the water, besides that which is above, seeming All these are in taste islands above half-a-mile in circuit. to in and seem be bred the sounds fresh, thereabouts, or in some land near the pole, and with the wind and the
islands of ice be here,
tides are driven along the coasts/' After some delay, owing to ice, the strait
was entered
After confor the precious stone began. siderable trouble a sufficient load was collected. Meanwhile conflicts took place with the natives. The captain of the Michael declared he had seen traces of the five men
and the search
who were lost on the previous voyage, but all search for the missing people failed. The land south of the strait was formally taken
possession of in the name of the Queen, and soon afterwards the voyage home began. There were storms and
86
MARTIN FROBISHER
[CH.
seas, so that the Michael became separated from the other ships and reached England at a different time, at Yarmouth. The others also drifted apart but at length all reached London. Frobisher reported to the Queen the
heavy
success of his voyage, especially in the matter of the ore,
and was commended by her, in particular "she rejoiced very much, that among them there was so good order, every man so ready to do whatever the General should command/' The land discovered by Frobisher was to be called "Meta Incognita/' because it was unknown before. It was decided to send a third expedition under Frobisher, with fifteen ships, and a number of volunteers who were willing to settle in the new land. The voyage began in May 1578, and by the beginning of July the strait was again reached. But bad weather caused Frobisher to miss the entrance, and for some time his fleet was driven into Hudson's Strait, thus accidentally following the right
course for Cathay. Eventually they found their way back to Frobisher's Strait, with the loss of many ships. More ore was taken on board, and as the season was late
it
was decided
to sail for
home, without staying to make
further discoveries.
When the fleet, scattered by storms, arrived in England, was to find that the ore had been proved to be valueless. Thus Frobisher 's work was no longer looked upon as of any practical use. He had begun by attempting to solve a problem in geography, and had been led aside from his main object, like so many others of that age, by the desire to grow rich quickly. Nevertheless he had shown himself a brave and determined explorer, and he had added greatly to men's knowledge of the Frozen North.
it
xvi]
THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE
87
CHAPTER XVI
THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. HUDSON AND BAFFIN
John Davis.
Although Frobisher had not succeeded in his main object, that of finding a North-west Passage to Cathay, many of the leading English merchants and navigators The next stage still believed in the possibility of success. was in the work accomplished by Captain John Davis. A native of Devon, which has produced so many of the greatest English seamen, Davis was a neighbour and companion of the Gilberts.- In 1585 he agreed to lead an
expedition to the North-west. The chief friend of the expedition was a Mr William Sanderson, a merchant of London, who spared no money to make it a success. In
so acting, Mr Sanderson was only following the example of many of the merchants of Elizabeth's days. They were
DAVIS,
always willing to risk their money in any venture which promised to extend the field of commerce and to bring
a suitable return.
vessels,
Davis and his men started in 1585, with two small the Sunshine and the Moonshine. They first visited the Scilly Isles, where Davis spent twelve days, carefully making a chart of the seas round about. They then crossed the Atlantic, being amazed at the great numbers of porpoises and whales which they met. Twenty-two days after leaving Scilly they reached the
"which was the most deformed, the rocky, and mountainous land that ever he saw tops altogether covered with snow, and the shore beset with ice, a league off into the sea. The captain named
east coast of Greenland,
.
it
the land of Desolation."
88
Sailing
[CH.
round Cape Farewell, the ships turned north,
along the west coast of Greenland, though the land was not visible until a point was reached about 64 degrees
Here they found an opening which they named It is on this opening that the town of Godthaab stands. On landing, the Englishmen found traces of people. At length, the inhabitants were seen, and made a noise "like the howling of wolves/' The sailors brought their musicians, and caused them to play, " ourselves dancing and making many signs of friendship/' The natives were shy, but by careful imitation of their attitudes, especially in what appeared to be an act of
north.
Gilbert Sound.
worship towards the sun, the sailors induced them to approach. Eventually trade for furs and skins was entered into. "We were in so great credit with them upon this single acquaintance, that we could have anything they had/' The land in this part was more promising than any they had found in the south of Greenland, there being
'/many green and pleasant isles bordering upon the shore/' Learning from the natives that there was a great sea to the north and west, Davis set out again, after "using the people with kindness in giving them nails and knives, which of all things they most desired." He expected to reach China, but actually crossed the strait which bears He found a long opening his name in the maps of to-day. he reached on the other side of leading into a land which the strait. This opening was Cumberland Sound, "which we supposed to be our hoped strait." It was too late in
the year to explore further, so the mariners returned to London, where the report of their supposed success in finding the desired Passage aroused great interest.
Arrangements were at once made, principally by the This aid of merchants of Exeter, for a second voyage. took place in 1586. The mariners were to follow the
XVI]
DAVIS,
HUDSON AND BAFFIN

fall
89
strait until
"they found the same to
into another sea

it
upon the west side of this part of America, for then
C.FayeueU
Early Voyages in search of the North-west Passage
was not
to be doubted, but shipping with trade might be conveyed to China/! On arrival at the south safely of Greenland, two of the four ships sailed up the east
go
coast.
[CH.
The other two, with Davis, again reached Gilbert Sound. The Eskimos were friendly, but one of the ships
at once returned home, sickness having broken out. Davis was determined to proceed with his enquiries, and crossed the strait. He passed south, finding a big opening to the west, which he thought might be a passage, "for/' he says, "no doubt the north parts of America are all
islands."
A glance at
the
map
will
show how
correct this
idea was.
Henry Hudson.
for the
In 1607 Hudson, the successor of Davis in the search North-west Passage, began a series of remarkable
voyages by sailing north along the east coast of Greenland and proving the impossibility of finding any ice-free passage between that land and Spitsbergen. But, like Davis, he was the means of bringing to notice the possibilities of the whale and walrus fisheries in that region. In 1608 Hudson visited Novaya Zemlya, and tried to take up the search for the North-east Passage, which had
baffled
many since
This
attempt
the days of Willoughby and Chancellor. failed, and the following year Hudson
entered the service of the Dutch East India Company. They sent him to Novaya Zemlya again, and from there
he sailed to the coast of North America. Passing southward along this coast, he discovered the wonderful river which bears his name and at the mouth of which New York, formerly New Amsterdam, now stands. This discovery led to the formation of Dutch settlements there, which were conquered by the English in the reign of
Charles
II.
In 1610 Hudson, who had been commanded to leave the service of the Dutch, was sent out in the Discovery, to find if "through any of those inlets which Davis saw but
durst not enter" a passage was possible to "the other
xvi]
DAVIS,
HUDSON AND BAFFIN
91
ocean, called the South Sea/'

reliable one, his chief
His crew was not a very mate proved himself treacherous,
to go on so risky a voyage. Hudson's him. son accompanied young On the way across the Atlantic, Iceland was reached.
and others were unfit
There was abundance of food to be obtained, and the men were loth to leave the pleasant hot springs of that wonderBut Hudson was anxious to find again the ful island. beautiful land he had seen on his last voyage. Strong gales and currents drove the ship too far to the northwest. The "Desolation Cape" of Davis, now Cape Farewell, was passed, and in a few days the Hudson
Strait
was
entered.
On
the
right
was
the
"Meta
Incognita" of Frobisher,
on the
left
the north of Labrador.
Soon the ship turned south into Hudson Bay, and passed along the east coast until the extreme south of James Bay was reached. For four months the little ship appears to have been driven about in James Bay, for no one knew what lay to the west. At last the waters froze, and the dread winter of the North settled down on the frightened crew and their brave captain. Food ran short and the crew became
openly mutinous. When the ice at length broke, the ship started for home, but after a few days it was again enclosed in the ice. The crew placed poor Hudson and
his boy,
and
also those of their
own number who were

Thus, with
too
weak
to be of service, in a small boat.
barely any food on board, the tiny boat was cut adrift, and floated into the Unknown. Its occupants were
never again heard
of,
though
efforts to trace
them were
made
after the return of the mutineers to England.
William Baffin.
This part of the story of northern exploration may be concluded fitly by a brief mention of William Baffin, who
92
[CH.
made
1614.
had Hudson
several voyages to the Arctic between 1612 and He acted as pilot to a captain named Bylot, who been one of Hudson's companions, in a voyage to
Strait in 1614.
The
result of this
voyage was to
convince Baffin that there was no chance of a passage being discovered to the west of the strait. During this
voyage the land to the north of the strait was visited, and many years later it received the name of Baffin Land. In 1616 Baffin was sent as pilot again to follow up the route taken by Davis. He visited the west coast of Greenland, and passed Cape Sanderson, the point which marked the "farthest north" of Davis. He explored Baffin Bay to the entrance of Smith Sound, and then
returned south past the entrance to Lancaster Sound, which he did not believe would be the desired passage. Perhaps it was blocked with ice when he saw it.
T
CHAPTER XVII
GILBERT AND RALEGH
'
' ' .
The voyages
the Gulf of
Hawkins and Drake to the shores of Mexico and the West Indies had increased the
of
interest of the English with regard to the lands lying between Spanish settlements and the fishing grounds of the Newfoundland region. A French explorer had previously sailed along the east coast of North America and had proved that the land was continuous in that direction.
Englishmen began to think that this region, forming the what is now the United States, would be a suitable in one which to make settlements, especially as they considered that the voyages of the Cabots gave them some
east of
claim to the region.
Ir^a-S
xvn]
GILBERT AND RALEGH

of the chief teachers of this idea
in the
93
One
Gilbert,
his
and famous step-brother, Sir Walter Ralegh. In 1578 Gilbert was given a patent, or royal authority to hold any lands in those parts which he might discover. He sailed on his first voyage in that year, but the attempt In 1583 he set out on his final attempt, taking failed. with him five ships, varying in size from 10 to 200 tons. Gilbert himself was on the Delight, the others were the Ralegh, the Golden Hind, the Swallow, and the Squirrel. There were about 260 men in all, including skilled workers in stone, metal, and wood. "Resides," writes one of the company, "we were provided of music in good variety;
was Sir Humphrey work he was helped and encouraged
by
riot
horses,
omitting the least toys, as morris-dancers, hobbyand May-like conceits to delight the savage people,
whom we intended to win by all fair means possible." Two days after the start, the Ralegh deserted and
returned home.
contrary winds and
The outward journey was delayed by fogs, during which the Swallow and
Icebergs were Squirrel parted company with the others. be carried seen, southwards, "whereby may conjectured
some current doth set that way from the north." This was the Labrador Current, which still sends its "mountains of ice" south, to the danger of our ships. A seven weeks voyage brought the travellers to the coast of Newfoundland. In one of the numerous bays of that coast the Swallow was found again, while in the harbour called St John's the Squirrel was seen at anchor. The merchants engaged in the fishing had refused to allow
that
his
the vessel to enter the harbour, but when Gilbert produced commission there was immediate willingness to admit
the ships and furnish
them with
all
necessaries.
"In
so much as we were presented, above our allowance, with wines, marmalades, biscuit, sweet oils, and sundry
delicacies."
94
GILBERT AND RALEGH
[CH.
Gilbert formally took possession of the harbour of St John's, "and 200 leagues every way/' in the name of the
Queen.
careful examination of the resources of the district
revealed great possibilities. There were fish and fowl in abundance, animals covered with rich fur, trees valuable
timber and for products such as gum and turpentine, and even signs of abundance of mineral ore. There were fruits and grass, but Gilbert gathered that
for
their
although the climate was warm and pleasant in summer, the cold of winter was great.
At
last Gilbert resolved to sail further south.
For
one reason, many of the men were showing themselves, to be without any control. They were acting as pirates,
breaking the rules which Gilbert had drawn up for the benefit of the colony, and even attempting treachery
against him. The Swallow was sent home direct, with the sick and the less courageous. Gilbert sailed in the
Squirrel,
with the other two ships.
The
Squirrel
was
heavily laden with gums and other stores, At first it was intended to sail to Cape Breton Island, but the water became too shallow as the island drew near,
and the Delight, which had most of the supplies on board, was wrecked, and most of the crew were lost. Reluctantly Gilbert agreed to return home, promising himself and the others that he would again visit those parts the following year. As the voyage proceeded it became clear that the overladen Squirrel was in great danger of being swamped. Gilbert was begged by his men to change into the Golden Hind, but said, "I will not forsake my little company going homeward, with whom I have passed so many storms and perils." Shortly after passing the Azores the sea became very rough. Those on the Golden Hind caught a glimpse of Gilbert "sitting abaft with a book in his hand/' perhaps
xvn]
GILBERT AND RALEGH
95
the Bible, and crying out as they approached within hearing, "We are as near to heaven by sea as by land/'
"The same
being ahead were out, and our watch cried the General was cast away, which was too true/' Not a word was ever heard again of the brave Gilbert, who had remained firm 'in a purpose by all pretence honest and godly, as was this, to discover, possess, and to reduce unto the service of God and Christian piety those remote and heathen countries of America not actually possessed by Christians/'
'
night, about twelve of the clock, the frigate of us in the Golden Hind, suddenly her lights
Sir Walter Ralegh.
Mention has been made of the help which Sir Walter Ralegh gave to his step-brother, Gilbert, when the latter was preparing for his voyage to Newfoundland. Ralegh also helped in finding the money necessary to send a party of colonists to the coast of what is now North Carolina.
To this settlement was given the name of Virginia, in honour of Queen Elizabeth. One result of the journeys to Virginia was the introduction of tobacco and potatoes
into England.
interesting than this was a famous which journey Ralegh made in search of the fabled land and city of El Dorado, which was supposed to be in Guiana, in the north of South America, and where there was supposed to be abundance of gold. It was said that somewhere in the valley of the Orinoco was an unconquered land which was richer far than even the vast empires of Peru and Mexico, which had already been conquered by the Spaniards. The ruler was said to live in a palace of gold, close to the waters of an enormous There was probably some reason for these stories, lake. for it is known that Guiana is rich in gold, and that its
But even more
96
GILBERT AND RALEGH
[CH.
common in those days. In the the rivers overflow their banks and rainy season, too, well the idea that might give they were a great inland sea.
use for ornaments was
and two others rejoining later. While here he saw the famous pitch lake. This measures a mile and a half across, and
set sail in 1595, starting with five ships reaching Trinidad six weeks later with only two,
Ralegh
is
solid except
when
softened
by the heat
of the sun.
For the actual journey up the Orinoco Ralegh took about a hundred men, with provisions for a month. He left the ships behind, going on with five small boats.
An Indian pilot guided them through the many branches of the Orinoco delta. The Indians rather resented the appearance of the little fleet. These natives lived in houses on the ground in the dry season, but in the rainy season they had houses built in the forks of tall trees, high enough to be free from the danger of flood. The journey was a very trying one. The heavy rains, together with the great heat, made the work of pulling the boats against the strong current of the river particularly
difficult to
the English sailors,

sulky,
who
suffered
much
dis-
and threatened mutiny. Only by constantly assuring them of the nearness of success could Ralegh induce them to proceed. Reaching the main stream of the delta, the travellers
comfort.
They grew
to admire in the beauty of their surroundings. and fish were plentiful, and flocks of parrots, and numbers of musk-ducks, "all colours, carnation, crimson, orange, tawny, purple, green, spotted and striped/' provided tasty soup. Raids were made on native villages, in order to replenish their supplies, and the discovery of gold dust, in an Indian basket, encouraged further efforts. Soon the mountains of Guiana came in sight, and the
found
much
Fruits
natives, hearing that the visitors were not Spaniards, gave
them
turtles' eggs, wine,
bread and
fruit.
xvn]
GILBERT AND RALEGH
97
Passing further up the Orinoco, between high rocks at first, there soon appeared "low banks of deep red soil, and Thus Ralegh had reached the fertile undulating plains/'
llanos, the fertility of
which makes them one of the best
At the junction of the Carol! parts of South America. (Karoni) with the Orinoco were seen magnificent waterfalls,
the roar of which was heard long before the
falls
themselves were seen.

river was now beginning to rise in flood, and a landing to be made, and sent parties ordered Ralegh out to explore the countries round. Never had he seen
The
such a beautiful country,

valleys of fair
"with
its
abrupt
hills
and
fertile smiling green grass, the path being of hard sand and easy to march on either for horse or foot, the deer crossing it ever and again, with little fear
man, the birds towards the evening singing on every thousand different tones and notes/' After collecting specimens of rocks, which showed signs of gold, and also some stones which looked like diamonds, Ralegh set out on the return journey. Daily thunderstorms and the violence of wind and wave alarmed them, but at last Trinidad was reached. The fleet of ships arrived in England at the end of the year,
of
tree in a
having been away, in all, nine months. Ralegh wished to lead another expedition, but at the accession of James I in 1603 he got into trouble and was In 1617 he was released, to fit out and lead imprisoned. an expedition to Guiana in search of silver and gold. He was not able to fulfil the orders of the King that he should not get into conflict with the Spaniards. Consequently on his return he was executed, to pacify the Spanish King. To-day, Britain owns a large tract near
the region Ralegh had examined, and signs are plentiful that his talk about gold and diamonds was not all grounded
on fancy.
A. E.
98
FRENCH PIONEERS
IN
CANADA
[CH.
CHAPTER
FRENCH PIONEERS
XVIII
IN CANADA. VERRAZANO, CARTIER AND CHAMPLAIN
Not many years after the voyages of the Cabots it became the regular practice of large numbers of seamen from the north-west of France, especially from Britanny, to visit the shores of Newfoundland in order to share in the profitable fisheries of that region. Thus the French were already interested in the New World when Verrazano,
a native of Florence, offered to lead an expedition to the coast of North America, with a view to obtaining for France a share in the new lands. The King of France, Francis I, willingly accepted the offer, for it might be the means of enabling him to save at least a portion of the
New World from his

Verrazano
left
rivals,
the Spaniards and Portuguese.
Dieppe in 1524 and reached North
He then coasted along to the north, passing Carolina. Delaware Bay and the Hudson River, the mouth of which
he examined.
Further north
still,
now
called the
New England
states,
he reached what are and even went as
As a result of this voyage the far as Newfoundland. land lying behind the coast they had visited received the name of New France. Thus England, Spain, Portugal, and France had all now some claim to the American continent. The remarkable fact is that in the case of each country
the claim was based on the voyage of an Italian But the real hold which the French eventually secured on the New World was due mainly to the work of a native
!
Cartier had visited of Britanny, named Jacques Cartier. Newfoundland, and believed in the existence of a passage somewhere between Labrador and that island. In 1534 he was given two ships and set out across the Atlantic.
xvin]
VERRAZANO, CARTIER, CHAMPLAIN

cliffs
99
He
the
sailed along the east coast of
Newfoundland, noticing
and many bays. One island great rugged attracted much attention by reason of the numerous birds which lived there. These birds, and the polar bears which used to swim off to the island to catch them, were a welcome source of fresh food to the seamen. Through the Strait of Belle Isle and down the west coast of Newfoundland Cartier passed, reaching Prince Edward Island. The beauty of this country entranced
him.
There were forests remarkable for their pleasant odours as well as for their lovely tints. All kinds of edible berries grew in abundance. As it was summer, the climate was so warm that when Cartier reached a large
of
bay on the coast

Bay, or
New
Bay
of
Warmth.
Brunswick he called it Chaleur Bad weather prevented him
Lawrence, so after visiting Anticosti he sailed back through the Strait of Belle Isle and so to Europe. He had not realized the existence of a strait to the south of Newfoundland. While on the coast of New Brunswick, in Gaspe Bay,
sailing
from
into
the St
had met some Indians who had come down the They were not pleased when they saw him erect a cross, with a shield on which were the arms of France and an inscription. Yet they allowed him to take two young men back with him to France, to learn the
Cartier
St Lawrence.
language, so that they might act as interpreters on a later
voyage. In 1535 Cartier, after a long voyage, again reached the The total crew coast of Labrador with three ships.
amounted
Indians
to just
over one hundred, besides the two
who accompanied them, and who soon began to recognize the scenery on the way into the Gulf of St Lawrence. They told Cartier of the -great river/ which
entered that Gulf, and which stretched far inland beyond what they called "Canada," that is to say Quebec.
72
100
Cartier
FRENCH PIONEERS
IN
CANADA
[CH.
had had some vague idea that the passage to China might be reached this way, and was disappointed to find that as the water was fresh, instead of salt, this was impossible. For some time he cruised about the Gulf, noticing on the Labrador side what he called "sea-horses," by which he meant walruses. Then he sailed on up the river, passing the Saguenay, a tributary on the north bank, and
French Pioneers in Canada
finally reaching Quebec. ships for the winter, and
Here he resolved to leave

then he started
off
his
with small
The Indians
further,
boats to find the settlement at Hochelaga (near Montreal). at Quebec tried to deter him from going
but he persisted. Hochelaga proved an interesting settlement. There were about fifty houses, surrounded by a stockade. Several
xvin]
VERRAZANO, CARTIER, CHAMPMJSp
>
and the English were much rather interested, though disgusted, to watch the proThe cesses by which the food was prepared for eating.
families lived in each house,
little village
was on the top
of
hill,
and
to this hill
Cartier gave the
name
is
of
Mont
Real, or Royal Hill.

site.
The
town
of
Montreal
not far from this
Returning to Quebec- (then called Stadacona), the winter, mainly owing to the outbreak of the dread disease of scurvy. Many died, and although an Indian remedy was found, it was a much reduced body of men that returned to France, in the summer of 1536. They took several Indians back with
Frenchmen spent a miserable
them, and perhaps it was through them that the strait as Cabot Strait, between Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island, was discovered and used then for the first
known
time.
In 1541 Cartier went on his last expedition to the St Lawrence. He reached Quebec and there built a fort.
failed in an attempt to take boats through the above Montreal. These rapids were afterwards rapids named La Chine Rapids, because it was believed a route to China lay beyond. The settlement at Quebec was soon given up, although other Frenchmen took Carrier's It was forty place when he returned to France in 1542. years before the attempt to build up a French colony in these regions was again made. The chief credit for the successful beginning of French colonization in Canada is due to Champlain. As a young man he had voyaged to the West Indies and Mexico, and had suggested to the French King the advisability of In 1603 cutting a canal through the isthmus of Panama. he was sent, with other captains, to visit Canada. He reached Hochelaga, but the Lachine Rapids prevented him from going further up the river, just as they had prevented Cartier. Yet he learned much from the Indians
But he
102
FRENCH PIONEERS
IN
of
CANADA
the
St
[CH.
concerning the lakes and rivers

region.
Lawrence
In 1604 he again went to the New World. He reached Acadia, or Nova Scotia, and after being nearly wrecked on Sable Island he entered the Bay of Fundy. An
attempt was made to form a settlement at St John, New Brunswick, but the colonists were afterwards moved to the west of Nova Scotia, where the town of Annapolis was founded later. Meanwhile Champlain explored the lands to the south (Maine and Massachusetts). In 1608 Champlain sailed direct to the St Lawrence. It was then that the foundation of Quebec took place. The site is on a rocky promontory, easy of defence, just where the river begins to narrow. The following year
Champlain joined a war-party of Huron Indians, who were on their way to fight their enemies, the Iroquois, who lived to the south of the St Lawrence. On this journey Champlain ascended the Richelieu River and discovered the lake which has since borne his name. Champlain took a large share in defeating the Iroquois, mainly because he and his companions had firearms. This was the cause of a long period of hatred on the part of the Iroquois and their allies towards the French, and when in later years the English and French were at war in North America
of great service to the English. Champlain paid several visits to Canada during the next few years, but his principal work was carried out in
this fact
16.13
was
and 1615. In the former year he went up the Ottawa River and saw the Chaudiere Falls, near which the capital of Canada has grown up. It was too difficult
to force a
way through
though Indians had told him of an
the dense forests any further, "arm of the sea/'
probably Hudson Bay, which might be reached that way. In 1615 Champlain again ascended the Ottawa, passed up its tributary, the Mattawa, crossed Lake Nipissing,
xviii]
VERRAZANO, CARTIER, CHAMPLAIN
103
and then descended French River to Georgian Bay, on Lake Huron, "the first of the great American series of From here he lakes to meet the eyes of a European." Lake Huron Indians to Ontario, which he accompanied in an attack on the then wounded crossed. was He returned to and next Quebec. "To him year Iroquois, belongs the honour of opening the path of discovery in the northern interior of North America, where the bounds of knowledge were thenceforth slowly but steadily
extended."
CHAPTER XIX
MUNGO PARK AND THE NIGER PROBLEM
Although the whole
of the outline of the coast of Africa
had been determined by the end of the fifteenth century, little was known about the interior of the continent. Native information was unreliable, and consequently all
kinds of strange ideas were held as to such matters as the For example, as late as direction of the great rivers.
1760 it was believed that the Niger flowed to the West, and that the Senegal and the Gambia were two of its
outlets.
In 1787 an Association for furthering the work of African exploration was founded in England. A traveller who was sent to trace the course of the Niger perished in Africa, and Mungo Park offered to take up the same task.
He was
who had studied medicine at Edinburgh and had already made a voyage to the East Indies. He set sail in 1795 for the west coast of Africa, full
a Scot
of a determination to find out all
country and the customs
of its natives.
its
he could about the He was under

course, finding its
orders to reach the Niger and trace
104
source and
MUNGO PARK
mouth
if
[CH.
possible,
and
visiting the great cities
on
its
banks.
describes the deep
After a month's voyage he reached the Gambia. Park and muddy river, with its mangrove
swamps, in which dwelt the alligator and hippopotamus. For nearly a month he journeyed up the river and then landed on the north bank, paying a visit to Pisania. This was a British trading factory, to which were brought Here Park stayed some time, slaves, gold, and ivory. learning the Mandingo language, which was the most
useful for that part of Africa. Unfortunately he fell ill of malaria in the rainy season, the great enemy of Europeans. It was now August, and Park found it a gloomy season, "when the rain falls in torrents; when suffocating heats oppress by day, and when the night is spent by the
terrified traveller in listening to the
croaking of frogs
,
(of
which the numbers are beyond imagination) the shrill cry of the jackal, and the deep howling of the hyaena; a
dismal concert, interrupted only by the roar of such tremendous thunder as no person can form a conception of but those who have heard it."
When the dry season began, Park recovered, and set out from Pisania in December 1795. He took with him a negro named Johnson and a black boy named Demba. Six other natives who were journeying east joined him.
He
also
had a horse and two
asses,
some
provisions, with
An umbrella, beads, amber, and tobacco to buy more. a compass, a sextant and a thermometer, with change of
clothes,
and some pistols, completed his outfit. The first important place reached was Medina. Here he was well received by the King, but was warned by him
not to proceed further because of the dangers of the But Park was not to be deterred, and resolved journey.
to press forward. The King furnished him with a guide, and so he made his way to a place called Koojar, where
xix]
AND THE NIGER PROBLEM
105
he witnessed a native wrestling-match, followed by a

dance.
The explorer was much amused by the great

of
his
superstition
tinually
preparing
attendants, who were concharms to ensure a safe journey.
native
"This was done by muttering a few sentences, and spitting upon a stone, which was thrown before us on the
The same ceremony was repeated three times, which the negroes proceeded with the greatest confidence every one being firmly persuaded that the stone
road.
after
;
had carried with
it
everything that could induce superior
powers to visit us with misfortune/' Towards the end of December the river Faleme, a
tributary of the Senegal, was reached. On the other side of this stream was the capital of the native state through
which Park was
travelling.
Park was taken to see the
King, who looked on him with suspicion, as he could not understand a man travelling merely for curiosity. The gift of the umbrella and other presents pleased him, but caused him to express a desire for more. Park consequently had to hand over his coat, which had very attractive yellow buttons. The women of the royal household were very inquisitive and rude. They said that his skin had become white through his having been dipped in milk while young. After leaving this place the travellers entered a region where their dangers increased rapidly. Envoys were sent from a king to demand tolls, and Park was compelled to give up half his belongings. On December 27th he reached the Senegal, "here a beautiful but shallow river, moving slowly over a bed of sand and gravel. The banks are high and covered with verdure; the country is open and
cultivated."
On
Kasson was entered.
the other side of the river, the state of Here the inhabitants lived in
constant terror of the Moors.

place the people were compelled
While Park was at one by a Moorish king to say
106
MUNGO PARK
[CH.XIX
eleven prayers "as a testimony of their renunciation of
paganism/'
One of Park's companions was a negro blacksmith, who had been absent from his home in Kasson for four
Park gives a very touching account of the reunion with his relatives. He was received with and singing dancing and every sign of affection. From this Park was convinced "that whatever difference there is between the Negro and European in the conformation of the nose and the colour of the skin, there is none in the genuine sympathies and characteristic feelings of our
years. of this
man
common nature." On January i5th, 1796, Park King of Kasson. He was very
entered the town of the
friendly, but reminded Park of the great difficulties which lay ahead. War was on the point of breaking out between various states lying
to the east, but the King promised to make enquiries as to the possibility of further progress. Hearing later that war had not yet begun, Park pressed on through the state
of Kaarta, at the chief
town
of
which he was taken to

' '
I had a large hut to await an interview with the King. in this seated spacious apartment," he scarcely myself mob it was found impossible "when the entered; says, to keep them out, and I was surrounded by as many as
me, and asked
When the first party had seen a few questions, they retired to make room for another company; and in this manner the hut
the hut could contain.
me
filled and emptied thirteen different times." Hearing that an enemy's army was coming, Park, who had been well treated by the King of Kaarta, left for the town of Jarra, which was in the Moorish kingdom of
was
Ludumar, and "was of considerable extent; the houses built of clay and stone intermixed." The attendants of Park refused to go any further with him, as they were afraid of the Moors, and had already had to face too many
io8
MUNGO PARK
[CH.
Still Park was determined to press on, and sent dangers. to Ali, the King of Ludumar, for permission to do so.
The King sent a slave to guide him, and he was also joined again by his faithful boy, Demba, who refused to desert
him.
On his journey through Ludumar, Park was constantly molested by bands of Moors. Moreover he was troubled by a dreadful plague of locusts. Eventually he was seized and taken to Ali's camp at Benowm. It presented to the eye a great number of dirty looking tents, scattered without order over a large space of ground and among the tents appeared large herds of camels, cattle, and
;
goats. to put
Park had again with the up annoying curiosity of the natives, particularly the women, who "asked a thousand questions, inspected every part of my apparel, and searched my
his entry into the King's hut,
On
They even counted my toes and fingers, as if doubted whether I was in truth a human being." they That night was spent by the unlucky prisoner on the ground outside the tent of the chief slave, but next day he was placed in a hut, which he had to share with a hog. Day after day, Park says with bitterness, he had to put up with a constant series of insults and torments from these Moors, whom he describes as "the rudest savages on earth." Almost all his remaining goods were seized. The King obtained his compass, and was much mystified at the behaviour of the needle in always pointing in one He was so scared that he returned it. Park direction.
pockets.
and
his
at length fell ill of a fever, worn out by disappointment Sandstorms and whirlwinds added to ill-treatment.
discomfort.
Even then he occupied
his
time
in
learning Arabic, and trade and habits of the countries round.
in gathering information as to the
The approach of an army caused the camp to be struck, and Park was taken further north, where he was shown to
xix] the Queen.

to

She took much interest
his lot.
109
improve
in him, and did much The great trouble now was lack of
water, for Park was well within the desert region. "Day and night the wells were crowded with cattle, lowing and
excessive fighting with each other to come at the troughs thirst made many of them furious; others, being too weak to contend for the water, endeavoured to quench
;
by devouring the black mud from the gutter/' Park was not allowed to drink at the wells, lest, being a Christian, he should contaminate the water. At last he was allowed to go to Jarra with a body of troops which were bound there. On the way a great sandstorm was encountered. "During the night there was much lightning; and about daybreak a very heavy sand wind commenced, which continued with great violence until four in the afternoon. At times it was and the cattle were so tormented impossible to look up by the particles lodging in their ears and eyes, that they ran about like mad creatures, and I was in continual danger of being trampled to death by them/' Soon after his arrival at Jarra, Park heard that owing to the approach of the enemy the town was to be abandoned. Worse still was the news that he was to be led back as a prisoner to the Moors. He resolved to escape, although he had little equipment or clothes. "And/' he says, "I had not 'one single bead, nor any other article
their thirst
;
of value in
or corn for
my possession, to purchase victuals for myself, my horse/' He set out, alone, on the morning
He was
had been sent
soon overtaken by three Moors, to take him back. They
who
of July 2nd. said they
his coat
proved to be robbers, however, and after relieving him of they allowed him to proceed.
The way again
led across a stretch of desert,
and the
intense.
sufferings of the traveller
from
thirst
became
storm arose, and he managed to
collect rain-water in
no
his clothes.
MUNGO PARK
[CH.
At other times, the croaking of frogs led him a watering place, while the. kindness of occasional natives prevented him from dying of hunger. At length Park reached Sego, and he saw the object of his mission,
to at Westminster,
"the long sought majestic Niger, as broad as the Thames and flowing slowly to the eastward" He
was much astonished by the prosperity of the country round Sego, "altogether a prospect of civilisation and magnificence which I had little expected to find in the bosom of Africa/' But for a long time he could find no one to give him shelter, until at last a kind-hearted woman took pity on him and gave him food and a bed. On the next day Park resolved to continue his journey down the Niger. As he went on, his difficulties increased. To the hostility of natives was added the danger of wild beasts and the discomfort of mosquitoes. His health again began to fail, and on reaching Silla, eighty miles beyond Sego, he resolved to return. The river was then in flood, and it was only with much difficulty that Park could make any progress. He had to avoid Sego this time, because {he King, who had at first been friendly, began to oppose his progress, probably thinking he was a spy. Park was sometimes able to obtain food by writing charms for the natives. The charm was written on a board, and then the ink was washed off and swallowed, so
as to give the full benefit of the charm.
At
slaves
last
was
he reached a place from which a caravan of to be sent to the coast in the dry season.
for the
start,
Park occupied himself in had colwriting summary lected about the climate, productions, and people of the countries he had traversed. The caravan started at the appointed time, and without further misadventure the Gambia was reached, and Park found himself at Pisania. He then set out on a vessel
While waiting
down
of the information he
xix]

for the
in
West Indies, whence he obtained a ship reached England after an absence of two years and seven months. In 1805 Park again set out for the Gambia. He took with him a number of artisans, and picked up about forty This was an soldiers from the British garrison at Goree. unwise step, because the men were not fit for the work
bound
home.
He
a bad season.
to
that lay before them; moreover the start was made in After covering about half the distance to
the Niger the rain set in. Many of the party fell ill, and add to the difficulties of the journey, some of the native attendants used to steal as much as they could.
At
last the
Niger came in sight.
Park and one or two
A others decided to voyage down the river in canoes. of from the received was King Sego promising message
them a safe passage. At one town, where a market was being held, Park set up a stall, selling many articles for cowries, which would enable him to pay his way further down the river. In one day he obtained
to give
25,000 cowries. At the same place Park and his companions obtained
two canoes, which they repaired and joined together to form what they called ''His Majesty's schooner Joliba." It was forty feet long and six feet broad. The voyage which followed is one of the most remarkable in history. It has been described as a greater venture than that of Columbus. Both were journeys into the unknown, but Columbus always had the chance of turning back, whereas there was nothing for Park to do but to go forward. With a crew of eight men, some of whom were sick and the others of little use, the voyage was begun. The river was dotted with dangerous rocks, and infested by hippopotamuses, and on the banks were often fanatical Moors. Yet Park was determined to discover
the termination of the Niger or perish in the attempt.
ii2
MUNGO PARK
[CH.
It was the latter fate that actually befell him. No more news ever reached England from the great traveller, but in 1810 a native who was sent to search for news found the man who had acted as guide to Park on his last voyage. He told how they had sailed on, past Timbuktu and down the Niger until they reached the Here they had been attacked by natives, rapids at Bussa. and Park and the other whites had perished in the
river.
The theory that the Niger and the Congo were one still remained, and in 1816 the Government sent out two expeditions, one to sail down the Niger, and the other to go up the Congo. Both these failed. In 1825 a traveller named Clapperton, who had previously crossed the Sahara and the Sudan to the Niger, set out from Lagos From here he went to Kano to the town of Bussa. and Sokoto. Unfortunately he died of fever at the latter
place in 1827, but his companion, Lander, return to the coast.
managed
to
In 1830 Lander and his brother again set out from Lagos, and after three months reached Bussa. They at once made preparations to journey down the Niger in It was a beautiful journey for the most part. canoes.
Past mountains and forests they went, until at length mangrove swamps began to appear, reeking with evil vapours. On the 24th of November, 1830, the sound of Atlantic rollers was heard, and soon the sea itself
became
last!
visible.
The
secret of the Niger
was solved
at
xx]
THE NILE PROBLEM
113
CHAPTER XX
THE NILE PROBLEM.
I.
BRUCE AND THE BLUE NILE
Although the early Egyptians, who lived in the valley of the Lower Nile, were a people of much civilization, they do not appear to have had full knowledge of the course of the river upon which they so much depended. They probably knew the main stream as far as where Khartum now stands; perhaps they knew the whole of the Blue
Nile. The difficulties in the way of journeys up the White Nile were great. Above the junction with the Bahr-el-Ghazal the river was choked with floating vegetaMoreover there was no trade to attract tion, or sadd. a commercial people in that direction. The interest of the Egyptians was mainly centred in the lands round the
Eastern Mediterranean.
The Greeks, however, took great interest in the course The Greek historian, Herodotus, travelled some distance up the river, and collected information, though much was inaccurate, about the upper part of its course. Yet for two centuries before Christ there were ideas that the main Nile rose somewhere among vague lakes far to the south, and near a group of snowy great the Mountains of the Moon. Ptolemy, a mountains, Greek traveller and writer, drew a map of the Nile, about
of the Nile.
150 A.D., which remained the chief authority for the course of that river until about the end of the fifteenth
century,
when more information came from
various
travellers, especially Arabs.
At the beginning
Jesuits, of Portugal,
r
of the seventeenth century certain had visited Abyssinia, and one of
them had undoubtedly found the source in 1613. But his w ork w as little known
T
of the Blue Nile
or talked about,
8
A. E,
ii4
THE NILE PROBLEM
[CH.
consequently the problem of the origin of the great river At last, near still remained to interest and baffle men. the end of the eighteenth century, came one who was to
what the Jesuit had found so long before, and whose glowing descriptions and thrilling adventures were to fill the story of his work with romantic interest. James Bruce was a native of Scotland, and in his younger days had shown great interest in foreign travel. He was for some time in business in Spain. When home,
rediscover
his friends.
he often discussed matters of geographical interest with He was specially anxious to take part in the
work of settling the problem of the source of the Nile, and at length a fortunate chance gave him the opportunity. In 1763 the great Earl of Chatham, appointed
Algiers, in
William
Pitt,
afterwards
him Consul
at the
town
of
Northern Africa. Bruce at once accepted the because he knew it would help in the preparation post, for his Nile journey. While stationed at Algiers, he learned all he could of the language of the Arabs, and took
many trips into the interior and along the coast. Finally, leaving Algiers, he narrowly escaped death from shipwreck. He sailed about the Eastern Mediterranean, visiting Crete,
Asia Minor, and Syria. Keenly interested in the study of the ruined cities of the past, he found much to occupy
him in these regions. Cairo was reached in July 1768, and here Bruce was able, owing to his knowledge of astronomy and medicine, to gain the patronage of the The latter gave him letters of ruler, or Bey, of the town.
introduction to rulers of importance further up the Nile, and in December Bruce began his journey up the river.
"The
vessel
on which we embarked on the voyage up
the Nile," he says, "was about one hundred feet from stem to stern, with two masts and two monstrous sails."
For some distance, as the wind was contrary, the boat was drawn by rope. As they passed on, the travellers
xx]
115
noticed the ever-narrowing strip of fertile country, and the wonderful series of pyramids. The ruins of Memphis,
deep interest to Bruce, who At Luxor he was describes them in detail in his Journal. advised by a friendly native governor to leave the Nile and travel to the coast of the Red Sea, and then to journey by boat to Abyssinia. Before doing so he decided to go as far as Syene or Assouan, near which he visited the first of the series of great cataracts. "The river, not half a mile broad, is divided into a number of small channels, where the current tries to expand itself with great violence. Finding, in every part before it, opposition from the rocks of granite, and forced back by these, it meets the opposite currents. The chafing of the water against these huge
Thebes, and Luxor were
all of
obstacles, the meeting of the contrary currents, makes such a noise and disturbance that fills the mind with
confusion."
Leaving Syene, Bruce returned down the river to Keneh, where he joined a caravan which was setting out for Kosseir, on the Red Sea, on February I7th, 1769. "Having mounted my servants, and taken charge of our own camels (for there was a confusion in our caravan not to be described, and our guards we knew were but a set of thieves), we advanced slowly into the desert. Our road lay through plains, without trees, shrubs, or herbs. There are not even the traces of any living creature, neither serpent nor lizard, antelope nor ostrich, the usual inhabitants of the most dreary deserts. There is no sort of water on the surface, brackish or sweet. Even the birds seem to avoid the place as pestilential." A body of Turks, on their way to Mecca, joined the caravan, because they heard it included an Englishman, to whom they could
.entrust their bags of
money in safety. The last stages of the journey were through a hilly country rich in marble. "It has been a wonder/' says Bruce, "among all travellers,
'
82
n6
THE NILE PROBLEM

rest,
[CH.
and with myself among the
where the Ancients procured that prodigious quantity of fine marble, with which all their buildings abound. That wonder now ceases, after
having passed, in four days, more granite, porphyry, marble, and jasper, than could build Rome, Athens,
Corinth, Syracuse, dozen .such cities/'
Memphis,
Alexandria,
and
half
built
Kosseir proved to be "a small mud- walled village, upon the shore, among hillocks of floating sand/'
boat, Bruce visited the peninsula of
Embarking on a
and then went south Here he was well received to Jidda, the port for Mecca. by some of his own countrymen, and after a month's rest
Sinai, in the north of the
Red
Sea,
he set out once again to the south. He sailed to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and then returning up the west side reached Massouah on September igth, 1769.
The
ruler of this
town was
at first inclined to
make
matters uncomfortable for Bruce, but hearing that the latter was a great Englishman, whose ill-treatment would
be avenged by the British
fleet,
he resolved to receive him
He sent his nephew to meet Bruce, and to courteously. hear what he had to say. Bruce presented the letters of introduction which he had obtained at Cairo, and from the "He then returned me the letters, and Sharif of Mecca.
our coffee being done, I rose to take my leave, and was presently wet to the skin by deluges of orange-flower
water, showered
silver bottles/'
upon me by two
of his attendants,
from
The next day the
ruler himself interviewed Bruce.
He
giving
and tried to frighten him into up all he had, but Bruce remained bold and outspoken, and warned him that his countrymen would
bullied the traveller,
avenge his death. After six weeks of suspense, a message was received from the ruler of one of the provinces of Abyssinia, ordering the governor of Massouah to forward
xx]
117
"the physician" at once, as the King of Abyssinia, whose health was bad, desired his help. Even after starting on
his inland journey, disguised as a Moor, the explorer was only saved from a final attempt on his life by the friendly
warning of the nephew of the governor. "Thus finished a series of trouble and vexation, not to say danger, superior to anything I ever before had experienced/' The way inland led over a country thickly covered with beautiful acacia blossoms and tamarinds. The traveller followed, with his native companions, the dry bed of a torrent, and although they saw lightning and heard thunder among the mountains, they were not alarmed, until "on a sudden, we heard a noise on the mountains above, louder than the loudest thunder. Our guides flew
and removed it to the top of a green hill, which was no sooner done than we saw the river coming down in a stream about the height of a man, and the breadth of the whole bed it used to occupy. The water was thick tinged with red earth and raised in the form of a deep river, and swelled a little above its banks/' At
to the baggage,
last
the ascent of
Mt
Taranta, the highest in Abyssinia,
was begun. It was only with great difficulty that the heavy astronomical instruments could be moved. Soon after reaching the plateau region Bruce purchased a horse, which proved useful to him in many ways, as on more than one occasion he was able to save himself from danger at the hands of natives by his exhibition of skill as a rider. The town of Adowa was next reached, and here Bruce received the very greatest courtesy from the governor. At this town was carried on a manufacture of coarse cotton cloth "which circulates instead of silver money/' The people of the district were able to gather in three harvests every year, of wheat, barley, and peas. On January i7th, 1770, Bruce left for Gondar, the capital. On the way some interesting ruins of ancient Abyssinia
n8
were passed.
THE NILE PROBLEM

The wayside was
[CH.
thick with hedges of
honeysuckle, interspersed with vine, yet not everything was pleasant, for the travellers were often scared by great
numbers
of lions
and hyaenas.
Large black ants, an inch
The
Nile
Problem
At some places long, caused them much inconvenience. the natives tried to prevent further progress, but Bruce
usually overcame them,
by
insisting that
he was the
King's guest, and must not be stopped on his journey;
xx]
119
gift of a piece of red cloth was a more friendly treatment. On February I5th Gondar was reached. The King was absent at the time, but the Queen desired Bruce to stay in the palace, and to try to cure the royal children,
on some occasions the
further incentive to
who were
After obtaining a suffering from smallpox. to his Bruce says obedience strict of directions, promise he set all the servants to work. All the doors and windows
were opened, the sufferers were fumigated with incense and myrrh, and washed with warm water and vinegar. Fortunately the invalids began to recover, and so the fame of the stranger grew. Many of the Abyssinians tried to lead him into arguments about religion, but Bruce refused to take part. On being taken to the King's presence, he was asked the usual questions "about Jerusalem and the Holy Places where my country was ? why I came so far? whether the moon and the stars were the same in my country as theirs?" Owing to a quarrel with a drunken soldier, Bruce lost the favour of the King for a time, but recovered his goodwill by a display of skill with a rifle. His long stay at Gondar enabled Bruce to make many
valuable observations as to the country and its inhabiHis Journal contains a most interesting account tants.
of the industries, government, religion, and social habits He also made careful notes of the climate. of the people.
"The rains generally cease about the 8th of September; a sickly season then follows till they begin again about the 2Oth of October they then continue pretty constant, but moderate in quantity, till the 8th of November. All
;
epidemic diseases cease with the end of the rains, and it is then the armies begin to march/' Suddenly Bruce was appointed governor of a province
in the south of the country, but before taking up his office he took part in a war against a native chief whose
120
THE NILE PROBLEM
[CH.
province included the region round the source of the Blue Nile. As a reward for his own share in the war, Bruce asked for and received the "village of Geesh, and the sources where the Nile rises/' On October 28th he set out from Gondar. On approaching his destination he was opposed by a chief who tried in every way to
hinder him.
tion of
He gave him
it,
but Bruce tamed
and
also
a vicious horse as a present, gave a very striking exhibi-
good horsemanship.
This removed the last shred
of opposition to the traveller's progress, and at length he resumed his journey to the desired spot. Passing through a region of uneven ground torn by torrents, he
reached the banks of the Nile. The natives would not allow him to cross the river except on foot, with shoes off, such was their reverence for the stream. "After coasting some little time along the side of the
valley, we began to ascend a mountain on the right. The climate seemed here agreeably mild, the country covered with the most lively verdure, the mountains with beautiful trees and shrubs, loaded with extraordinary fruit and flowers." Arrived at the top of this mountain,
the travellers saw, immediately below them, the Nile itself "now only a mere brook, that had scarcely water to turn a mill." Even at this stage the guide refused to
go further unless he received the crimson sash which Bruce was wearing. The latter could scarce restrain his excitement as the goal drew nearer. At last the guide pointed out the last stage of the journey. "If you go
the length of the fountains, pull off your shoes, as you did the other day, for these people are all Pagans; and they believe in nothing that you believe, but only in
this river, to which they pray every day, as if it were God." Bruce rushed forward to the spot indicated, "a little island of green sods," and soon stood over the principal
xx]
fountain.

''It
is
121
easier to guess than to describe the at that moment/' says the explorer, " in that standing spot which had baffled the genius, industry, and enquiry of both ancients and moderns for
situation of
my
mind
the course of near three thousand years. .. .Though a mere private Briton, I triumphed here, in my own mind, over kings and their armies," for these latter had never succeeded in the quest. Yet Bruce did not forget his debt to God, who had protected him in so many dangers, and he knew that just as many dangers remained to be faced on the way back. A rapid return was made to Gondar. The town was in the midst of a civil war, and Bruce was compelled to It was not until help the King against his enemies. December 26th, 1771, one year after his return from the source of the Nile, that he left Gondar for the last time.
adventures he reached Sennar, when once he was again delayed by the hostility of the natives. he was allowed to go, and after much suffering Eventually from thirst and from the choking sand in the desert, Syene was once again reached, the return to Cairo being accomplished in January 1773.
After
many
CHAPTER XXI
THE NILE PROBLEM. II. BURTON, SPEKE, GRANT AND BAKER
Burton and Speke.
The journeys
of the Blue Nile.
of
Bruce had confirmed what was known The problem of the White Nile, which
far
was not explored
above Gondokoro,
still
remained.
Just before 1850 certain missionaries heard reports from
122
THE NILE PROBLEM
[CH.
natives concerning the existence of an enormous inland sea, somewhere near the Equator, in East Africa. Among
those
who became
interested
in
this
question
was
Lieutenant Richard Burton,
already guished himself by entering Mecca, the sacred city of the Mahommedans, in disguise. Burton, who was stationed at Aden, resolved to try to reach thq Nile by going He was joined by Lieutenant through Somaliland.
who had
distin-
Speke, a young officer of great ability as an explorer. But the journey through Somaliland was stopped by the This was in 1854. natives. In 1856 Burton and Speke started from Zanzibar to " Great Lake." They were well test the news of the
received
by the Arabs at Unyamwezi (Kaze), but were "Great Lake" of the missionaries was really Still the explorers went on and three separate lakes. discovered Lake Tanganyika. They found that no river ran out of the lake to the north, and that therefore it
told that the
could not be connected with the Nile. Burton fell ill, and on returning to Kaze he agreed to stay there while
Speke went north. Although Speke himself was
far
from
well, partly the
result of a beetle entering his ear, he pushed through miles of difficult country and reached the southern end
This was called Nyanza by the natives, the word meaning a great extent of water. Speke prefixed the title Victoria to the native name. When first he saw the blue waters of the lake, a
of a great lake.
number
of islands obstructed his
view northwards.
He
was struck with admiration at the calm beauty of the scene. "But/' he says, "the pleasure of the mere view vanished in the presence of those more intense emotions called up by the consideration of the commercial and geographical importance of the prospect before me. I no longer felt any doubt that the lake at my feet gave birth
xxi]
BURTON, SPEKE, GRANT AND BAKER
123
to that interesting river, the source of which had been the subject of so much speculation, and the object of so many explorers/'
But he had
to rejoin
Burton without testing
his belief.
Unfortunately the two quarrelled. Perhaps Burton was jealous of the success of Speke; certainly Speke was somewhat harsh with Burton. Both received a great
reception on their return to England, but Speke at once prepared to lead another expedition to the Victoria Nyanza. This time he was joined by James Grant, a
traveller of great personal charm.
The expedition left Zanzibar in October 1860. It included some native police from South Africa, Arabs,
and negroes, besides mules and donkeys for and goats for milk and meat. The South Africans, who fell ill of fever, soon had to be sent back. About 300 miles from the coast troubles began. Many natives deserted, enemies demanded taxes, and the floods rose. By the time Kaze was reached, the original party of 220 had been reduced by one-half, and all the mules and donkeys were dead. The friendly Arabs at Kaze spoke of a high mountain,
freed slaves,
transport,
white with snow, to the west of the Victoria Nyanza, and also of another lake in the same direction. Before setting out for the north, Speke had to try to bring
about peace between natives and Arabs, but without success. Consequently he could not engage many porters He started at last, and passed to carry his supplies. a where the extortions of the chief were through region enormous. Speke himself was now "a most miserable spectre in appearance," owing to a distressing cough from which he was suffering. South-west of Victoria Nyanza they reached Karague, the land of a king who showed himself most friendly. Food was given freely, "for there are no taxes gathered
124
THE NILE PROBLEM
[CH.
from strangers in the land of Karague." Walking through hill country to the west of the lake, Speke saw little Soon he entered the famous kingdom of the actual water. This land of Uganda (1862), the first European to do so. was extremely beautiful, and seemed very prosperous. Houses were clean and neat, the climate was healthy, and bananas grew in plenty. The natives thought their king the mightiest in the world, and paid him great reverence, in spite of the fact that he was cruel enough to order the death of any in his court, often without real reason. Speke stayed Jiere some time, and was enterthe
tained well
One
find out
of the
by the capricious king. main objects of the journey had been
to
whether the Nile really did flow from the Victoria Nyanza, as Speke believed after his first journey. He reached the Nile at first a little below its outlet from the lake, and walked south again, past rapids, until he came It was in sight of the Ripon Falls, where the outlet is. a sight/' he writes, "that attracted one to it for hours, the roar of the waters, the thousands of passenger-fish leaping at the falls with all their might, the fishermen coming out in boats and taking post on all the rocks with rod and hook, hippopotami and crocodiles lying sleepily on the water, the ferry at work above the falls,
' '
and
cattle driven
down
to drink at the margin of the
lake/'
Paddling down the Nile in canoes, the party were soon compelled by a hostile chief to leave the river. They went far to the west of the Nile, and so missed Lake Kioga. For two months they were delayed at the court of another hostile chief. This was specially annoying, because they heard of the existence of another lake (Albert Nyanza) not far to the west, yet were not able to visit it. At last they got away, and in February 1860 reached Gondokoro. Here they met Samuel Baker and
xxi]
BURTON, SPEKE, GRANT AND BAKER
125
his wife, who had ascended the Nile with the idea of meeting Speke. From Gondokoro Speke and Grant descended the Nile to Cairo, and arrived in England
in 1863.
Samuel Baker.
Baker had spent the early part of his manhood in very roving fashion. He had been in Mauritius, Ceylon, Eastern Europe, and Asia Minor. But the Nile Problem attracted him, and with his wife he reached Cairo in He first resolved to learn Arabic, and after going 1861. up the Nile to Berber, he ascended the Atbara. At first the river-bed was almost dry, but "in one night there was a mysterious change. The river had become a magnificent stream. I realised what had occurred: the rains were falling and the snows were melting in Abyssinia. These were the main sources of the Nile floods/' Baker reached Khartum by way of the Blue Nile, and then ascended the main Nile to Gondokoro, where, as has been seen, he met Speke. When Baker declared
his intention of visiting the lake to the west of Victoria Nyanza, the Arab slave-traders at Gondokoro did all
they could to prevent him from going. Baker managed to bribe the traders and then made his way south. But his porters gave trouble, and he had to abandon his
ammunition, and other goods. Passing up the eastern branch of the Nile, Baker, who was accompanied throughout the journey by his wife, entered the native land of Unyoro. Although the Albert Nyanza was now only a
it
fortnight's journey away, the King, Kamurasi, declared was six months off, and delayed Baker for some time.
At
last, on being presented with a double-barrelled gun, he allowed the travellers to go. Both Baker and his wife suffered from illness all the way to the Albert Nyanza, which was reached at its
126
THE NILE PROBLEM
[CH.
south-east coast (1864). Baker found the lake shrouded in mist, and so much exaggerated its size. They sailed
to the point where the Nile enters from the Victoria Nyanza, and then ascended the stream to the Murchison
which they thus discovered. "The river drops in one leap one hundred and twenty feet into a deep basin, the edge of which literally swarms with crocodiles/' Baker had settled that the Nile received the waters of the Albert Nyanza, as Speke had found that it reHe now ceived the waters of the Victoria Nyanza.
Falls,
decided to return, although in reality the Nile Problem was even yet not finally decided. On the way back the He travellers again fell into the hands of Kamurasi.
insisted
on their helping him against some ivory-raiders. Baker did by hoisting the British flag, and so putting This the King under British protection. After much further trouble, Gondokoro was again reached, and the travellers went by Khartum and Suakim to England, where they
landed in 1865.
CHAPTER XXII
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
The whole roll of the world's great explorers contains no greater name than that of Livingstone, both because of the great work of exploration he carried out and
because of the wonderful example of Christian unselfishness and devotion to duty which he showed throughout the thirty years of his African travels.
Born in 1813, in Scotland, he was at first engaged in a cotton mill, where he earned enough to enable him to attend classes at Glasgow University. He studied
xxn]
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
127
medicine, and was accepted as a medical missionary for But war broke out against that country, service in China.
so in 1840 he set out for South Africa instead. Landing at Algoa Bay, Livingstone travelled in an
700 miles to Kuruman. He stayed a time among the natives, learning their language, and winning their respect by his skill as a He taught them how to irrigate the land by doctor. drawing water from the river by a canal, "though/' he wrote, "we have only one spade, and this without a handle." Moving north to Mabotsa, near the Transvaal border, he was wounded by a lion. Still further north, in a
ox waggon
for
considerable
region governed by Sechele, a friendly chief, he stayed a long time with the natives, "building, gardening,
cobbling, doctoring, tinkering, carpentering, waggonmending, preaching, schooling, lecturing/' He had trouble with the Boers, or Dutch farmers, who did not like his idea that blacks ought to be treated as human beings,
just as the whites.
In 1849 Livingstone led a party of twenty into the Kalahari desert, to seek a lake which was said to exist
to the north.
For a month they wandered
in a desolate
Once they thought they country, often without water. saw the lake, but the view was a mirage, and the lake
was
off. At length they reached Lake and then to Kuruman. returned In 1851 he Ngami,
really 300 miles
journeyed north to the land of the Makololo, a people ruled by a chief named Sebituane. On the way they from want of suffered water, but the friendly again reception by the Makololo made up for all their troubles. While in this land Livingstone paid his first visit to the great Zambesi river, which was about 130 miles to the
north-east.
After a visit to the Cape, in order to send his family
128
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
[CH.
home, Livingstone returned to the Makololo. The great King Sebituane was dead, but his successor Sekeletu gave all possible help when the explorer declared his
intention of attempting to reach the west coast at the Portuguese town of Loanda. Livingstone said that where
the Portuguese slave-raiders had been he could go, and he
was determined to try
to open
up a road
for ordinary
trading purposes. In 1853 he left Sekeletu's town at Linyanti, accompanied by a body of the Makololo. He says, ''our chief
hopes for food were in our guns. I carried twenty pounds of beads, a few biscuits, a few pounds of tea and sugar, and about twenty pounds of coffee/' Among other strange articles he took a magic lantern, which proved
overawing the natives in certain districts. stage of the journey, down the Chobe, and the Zambesi, was fairly easy. But Livingstone began up to suffer from fever, in fact he had no fewer than twentyseven attacks before reaching Loanda. Passing into a region where the natives were hostile to Sekeletu, the travellers were well received by the niece of the head-king. She herself led them through a region of very dense Still further on another chief, "in a snuff-brown forest.
of great use in
The
first
them guides, and received a present of "a a razor, some beads and buttons, and a powdershawl, He asked Livingstone to bring a coat from horn/' Loanda, as the one he had was old. Lack of food now worried the party. Moreover the
coat/' gave
demanded toll from them, so that their As they drew nearer were steadily reduced. belongings
various chiefs
the coast, the natives became more hostile,

forests
and the
were almost impassable.

signs of weariness,
Even
Livingstone's
own
men showed
but they could not bear At last to see him disappointed, and agreed to go on. and reached was of the the valley crossed, and Kwango
xxn]
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
129
the descent to the coast began. The Makololo were "We were marching astonished at the sight of the sea. with our father/' they said, "believing that what along the ancients had told us was true, that the World had
no end;
but
all
at once the
World
said to us 'I
am
no more of me/' Livingstone was well received by the English commissioner at Loanda, but although ill, he refused all advice to return to England from there. He had promised to see the Makololo safely home, and he stuck to his word. Linyanti was again reached, about a year after the start from Loanda. A few weeks later Livingstone started for the east coast. He was accompanied by Sekeletu as far as the
finished, there is
Zambesi.
A little later the party came in sight of the columns of vapour rising from the great falls of that mighty river. Soon the falls themselves were seen, and words fail to express the wonder and delight of the
travellers at the magnificent picture. Livingstone ventured to name the falls after Queen Victoria. "From
the end of the island where we first landed, though within a few yards of the falls, no one could see where the vast body of water went; it seemed to lose itself. Creeping with awe to the end of the island, I peered down into
a large rent which had been made from bank to bank of the broad Zambesi, and saw that a stream 1800 yards broad leaped down 320 feet, and then became suddenly
compressed into a space of 15 or 20 yards." As they went down the Zambesi valley, tribes were met which threatened hostility, but the wonderful calm
and courtesy
of Livingstone
won them
over,
and the
party proceeded without danger, through a forest country, until Quilimane was reached, at the mouth of the river. Livingstone left the Makololo there, promising to return eventually and take them back to their own land.
A. E.
.
130
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
At the end
[CH.
at once found himself a hero.
of 1857 Livingstone reached England, and He was appointed British
Consul in East Africa, and returned there with a considerHe took a steam pinnace, able number of men in 1859.
and on reaching the Zambesi this vessel was put together. A few months were spent in examining the lower part of the river, which was proved to be navigable as far as the Kebrabasa Rapids. Livingstone
in sections,
then began to explore the Shire, a large northern tributary of the Zambesi. The pinnace was christened Asthmatic, because of the snorts and groans which issued from her engines in the attempt to cover a few miles an hour. Three ascents of the Shire were made. Lake Shirwa was discovered, and a beautiful land beyond was reached. The natives here were very industrious, "working in iron, cotton, -clay, and making baskets and fish nets, and men and women turning out for field-labour." Before the
' '
' '
end
The next
of the year, Lake Nyassa was reached. six months were spent in conducting the
Makololo to their homes again, and then Livingstone once more made his way to the mouth of the Zambesi. In 1 86 1 he ascended the Shire, taking a small boat which was carried when the Murchison Falls were reached, and on which he sailed into Lake Nyassa. The country round this lake was seen to be very fertile, but was
But Livingstone spoiled owing to frequent slave raids. saw the promise of the land, and now an important British colony occupies the west shore of the lake.
recalled to England by the Governbecause the Portuguese were complaining ment, mainly In 1866 he about him. again set out for Africa, being resolved to explore the land to the north-west of Nyassa, with a view to solving some of the problems with regard
The explorer was
to the rivers of Central Africa, especially as to the Nile sources. Many of his men deserted, and food was scarce.
xxn]
Still
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
131
he struggled on, and, first touching the south of Tanganyika, reached Lake Moero. Eight months later he discovered Lake Bangweolo. Turning south again, Livingstone tramped wearily on until he reached Tanganyika, and crossed it to Ujiji on the east side. He was dreadfully weak, owing to lack
of suitable food, the dampness of the climate, and the exertions he had made in walking so many miles. Yet
he set out again for the Lualaba, one of the head-streams of the Congo, and this he reached in March 1871. He thought this must be the Nile itself, though he felt doubts as to whether it might not prove to be the Congo. In this part of Africa he saw the evils of the slave trade at their worst, but was powerless to do anything except write home to the Government as to what he saw. Returning to Ujiji, almost worn out, he was just
entering the village
out,
when
his native servant, Susi, called

It
"An Englishman!"
was indeed an Englishman,
stone,
Henry M. Stanley, who had been sent to look for Livingand found him almost at the point of death, in
the heart of Africa. Stanley's arrival, with fresh supplies, cheered the explorer, who recovered sufficiently to make with Stanley a trip on Tanganyika, during which they
no river ran from its northern end. Stanley could not persuade Livingstone to return home, and On reaching the coast he sent reluctantly left him. and men to supplies Livingstone, who set out again in
settled that
August 1872.
reached
After eight months' painful wanderings, the traveller But he Ilala, on the south side of Bangweolo.
his
spirit
was physically exhausted, though

eager to the
last.
remained
April 3Oth he passed away. His faithful followers carried his body for eight months all
On
the
in
way
to the coast,
Westminster Abbey.
whence it was taken to be buried But the work Livingstone did
92
i 32
DAVID LIVINGSTONE
[CH.
in trying to lessen the sufferings of the unhappy natives lives on, and even to this day in many of the remote
parts of the continent his
name
is
held in reverence.
CHAPTER XXIII
STANLEY AND THE CONGO
In 1874, three years after his meeting with Livingstone Henry Morton Stanley was sent out to Africa again by the owners of the Daily Telegraph and
in Central Africa,
the
New York
Herald.
He was
asked to resume the
work which Livingstone's death had left unfinished, that is to say he was to try to solve the chief problems still remaining as to the rivers and lakes of Central Africa. In particular he was to see if there was any connection between Lakes Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika.
Stanley started out from England on journey with only three other white men.
brothers
this
great
Two were
Barker, was
the
named Pococke; the clerk of a London hotel.

it
other,
named
taken with the party.

sections, so that
boat, 40 This boat was
feet long, was built in eight

it
might be carried where
could not
be used.
At Zanzibar Stanley collected a troop of about some of whom had been with him on his natives, 300 last journey, but many of whom were unknown to him and proved to be unreliable. The first part of the journey from the coast was troublesome. There were heavy rains and the supply of food became short. Many of the natives were ill.
"Some
suffered from dysentery, others from fever, asthma, chest diseases, and heart sickness, lungs were
weak and rheumatism had
its
victims/'
During
this
xxm]
stage
of

the
133
Striking
march Edward Pococke
died.
north-west from Ugogo, towards the Victoria Nyanza, the party entered a well-watered country. But already
twenty
of their
number had
hostile
deserted.
Moreover
died, and eighty-nine had natives murdered several,
and then attacked the camp, killing twenty-two more. Soon a magnificent open country was reached. ''The country rolled, clear and open, like a treeless park, with The grass was only an scarcely a single shrub or tree. inch high. The herds of cattle and flocks of goats and
sheep absolutely whitened the glorious park country/' This is a region in East Africa, south of Lake Victoria,
truly a land of plenty, where
two yards
of sheeting
were
worth an ox
One day Frank Pococke, who had gone ahead to the brow of a hill, came back, saying, "I have seen the Lake, It was indeed an arm of the sir, and it is grand!" Victoria Nyanza, "which a dazzling sun transformed into silver, some 600 feet below us, at the distance of
three miles.
in their joy,
'
Well might the native porters sing aloud

:
up your heads, O men, and gaze around Try you can see its end. See, it stretches moons away,
Lift
if
This great, sweet, fresh -water sea/
"
After paying off many of his native troop, Stanley set off on a journey round the Lake in the boat, the After some difficulty a crew of ten had Alice. been induced to* go on board with Stanley. The two whites were to await the return of the boat. Sailing down Speke Gulf, which Stanley now named in honour of its discoverer, the boat made its way into the Lake All sorts of strange sights were seen. There proper. were great herds of hippopotami, on approaching which the boat had to be anchored. Dreadful thunderstorms
Lady

filled
[CH.
the crew with alarm, and attacks by natives had
constantly to be repelled. After passing the channel which drains the Lake to
the Nile, over the Ripon Falls, the boat reached the
(SecheU)
Mabotsa
KuTuman
Livingstone's Journeys and Stanley's Journey down the Congo
land of Uganda, on the north-west coast. A native, accompanied by a fleet of canoes, came to greet them. He bore a message from the Kabaka, or King of Uganda. "He is in great hopes that you will visit him. He does
xxiii]
135
not know from what land you have come, but I have a swift messenger with a canoe who will not stop until he gives all the news to the Kabaka. His mother dreamed a dream a few nights ago, and in her dream she saw a white man on this lake in a boat coming this way, and the next morning she told the Kabaka, and, lo! you
have come!"
This King gave Stanley a splendid reception. It was only sixteen years since Speke's visit to the same country.
"Hosts
of questions were fired off at
me
about
my health,
and its aim, Zanzibar, Europe and its people, the seas and the heavens, sun, moon, and stars, angels and devils, doctors, priests, and craftsmen in general. I was subjected to a most searching examination, and in one hour and ten minutes it was declared unanimously that I had passed/' Stanley was much impressed by the simple honest life of the King of Uganda and his
my journey,
people.
On the way up the Victoria Nyanza, back to the camp again, the travellers were treacherously attacked by natives on the bank. The latter held out their hands
as
if
in friendship,
boat.
and then removed the oars from the Only by using boards from the boat itself as oars
could the crew get the boat away. On arrival at the camp they heard that Barker had died during their absence. Stanley himself fell ill and had to remain
inactive during several days.
The whole party then was engaged in warfare
Uganda. The King but in the intervals of fighting he found time to discuss religion with Stanley. The King had already been urged by Arab slave-traders to become a Mahommedan, but he resolved to embrace the Christian faith, "because the white men refuse to make slaves, saying we are all sons of God." When Stanley announced his desire to proceed with his quest,
set out for
this time,
136
[CH.
the King sent an army to accompany and protect him for the first part of the journey. From Uganda Stanley travelled west, and saw part of what he afterwards learned to be the Albert Edward
Nyanza.
Thus, with his complete examination of the
Victoria Nyanza, and the streams flowing into it, he had finished the first part of his work, the examination of the southern sources of the Nile. He then went to Ujiji,
on Lake Tanganyika, where he had met Livingstone. ''The surf is still as restless, and the sun as bright; the sky retains its glorious azure, and the palms all their beauty; but the grand old hero, whose presence once filled Ujiji with such absorbing interest for me, was gone From Ujiji Stanley sailed round the whole of the Lake. He found that there was no stream connecting Nor it with the Victoria Nyanza, as had been thought. was there any regular stream issuing from it, though the water of the Lukuga, on the west side of the Lake, sometimes appeared to travel slowly away from it. The next step was to leave Tanganyika and cross the country lying to the west until the Lualaba was reached. Stanley reached this stream at its junction with the Luama, which is a tributary joining it on the eastern bank, just about 5 south latitude. Truly the Lualaba, which Livingstone had discovered and partly examined, was a noble stream. "A secret
' ' !
rapture stream.
my soul as I gazed upon the majestic The great mystery that for all these centuries Nature had kept hidden away from the world of science was waiting to be solved. For two hundred and twenty miles I had followed the sources of the Livingstone (Lualaba) to the confluence, and now before me lay the superb river itself! My task was to follow it to the
filled
Ocean."
Passing
down
the river to Nyangwe, the party met
xxni]
there an
STANLEY AND THE CO^GO
137
Arab named Tippu-Tib, who had taken part in an earlier expedition in the Upper Congo region with an explorer named Cameron. From Tippu-Tib Stanley learned that the Congo had not yet been tracked to its mouth. He added that the river passed through dense forest. One of the Arab's followers declared that it went and then north, and then still north, through a north, land of dwarfs, "the queerest looking creatures alive, just a yard high, with long beards and large heads. And/' he added, "there are monstrous large boa-constrictors,
suspended by their tails to the branches, waiting for the The ants sting you passer-by, or for a stray antelope.
like
wasps. The leopards are so numerous that you cannot go far without seeing one. The gorillas run up to you and bite your fingers off one by one/' In spite of all these terrors, Stanley resolved to make
Much was to be said and against such a course. He and his one white companion, Frank Pococke, argued the matter, agreed to toss-up, and, when the result of the toss was against their going, decided to go! Tippu-Tib agreed to join them
the attempt to follow the river.
for
with a party of over 200 fighting men, as well as porters and slaves, and to accompany them for "sixty marches/' So they set out on the banks of the river through the dense tropical forest. "Down the boles and branches, and creepers vegetable cords, the moisture trickled and fell on us. Overhead the wide-spreading branches, in
many
interlaced strata, each branch
heavy with broad
thick leaves, absolutely shut out the daylight. knew not whether it was a sunshiny day, or a dull, foggy, gloomy day for we marched in a feeble solemn twilight,
;
We
such as you
after sunset.
may
experience in temperate climes an hour
at
in
The path soon became a clayey paste, and every step we splashed water over the legs of those front, and on either side of us."
138
[CH.
difficulty further.
Tippu-Tib soon wanted to return, but with great Stanley managed to induce him to go a little The river had been out of sight for some time,
it
but
to go
was again reached. Stanley appealed to the men on with him. "The one God has written that
we
this year the river shall be known throughout its length ; will take to the river, and keep to the river. To-day
I shall
boat on that stream, and it shall never I swear it." leave it until I finish my work. The burning words of the brave explorer had effect. Thirty-eight agreed to go with him "to the salt sea." The Lady Alice was once again placed on the water, and floated slowly down, some of the party walking on the bank. Hostile natives attacked them, and were with This happened again and again, difficulty driven off. but nothing turned Stanley from his purpose. Soon the
launch
my
first of
the series of cataracts
was reached. twenty-two days were spent in passing them, "during the nights and days of which we had been beset by the perverse cannibals who have made the islands amid the
cataracts their fastnesses."
as the Stanley Falls There were seven cataracts in all, and
known
After more attacks by great fleets of native canoes, the Lady Alice passed into a region where the native people were not so hostile. Stanley had now realised that the "Livingstone" river was really the Congo, the
lower course of which was already known. At last the river broadened out into a "pool." Sandy islands and
long
reminded them of England, and at Pococke's suggestion the expansion of the river was called "Stanley Below this, rapids began again. The canoes had Pool. to be carried over the rocks in many places, but Pococke insisted in taking one canoe over the rapids, and he was drowned. So Stanley had no white companion left. On reaching the great Isangila cataract, the fifth from
cliffs
xxiii]
139
the sea, Stanley resolved to strike overland to the port Boma. He had, though at great cost, accomplished his object, and solved the problem of the Congo. He
of
had traced a
line
on what had been a blank map, and
as a result of his journey the great Congo region was afterwards made into a centre of trade, from which
Europe has obtained vast supplies and oils.
of
ivory,
rubber,
CHAPTER XXIV
PIONEERS ON AUSTRALASIAN COASTS. TORRES, TASMAN, DAMPIER
One
is it
that
its
curious fact about the great Southern Continent existence was believed in for centuries before
it
was actually discovered. In the Middle Ages thought that there must be a great land mass
was
in the
southern part of the world, in order to act as a kind of balance to the land in the northern part. On many of the maps of those days it was customary to draw an
imaginary continent, which, after the discovery of South America, was sketched as a continuation of that continent stretching to the south of Africa and across the Southern
Pacific
(map
p. 82).
The voyage
of Magellan
proved that
the mainland of South America terminated at the, strait he discovered, but it was not till later that the nonexistence of a "Terra
to America,
Aus trails/' or Southern Land, near was proved. It has been seen that the Portuguese and Spaniards, The following different routes, had entered the Pacific.
Portuguese were mainly anxious to develop the trade which the East Indian Islands afforded. The
in spices
140
PIONEERS ON
[CH.
Spaniards were perhaps more eager to discover new lands. Many Spanish sailors during the sixteenth century sailed from the west of South America into the Southern Pacific. As a result, many groups of islands were seen, and the Spaniards were ready to look on some of these as being
Thus in reality the coasts of the Southern Continent. in 1595 the Marqueza Islands and the New Hebrides
were discovered, though
many
of the
crew who took
part in this expedition perished. Among those who returned to Spain was de Quiros, who brought back stories of the Southern Continent, stories he had heard
from the natives of various
islands.
In 1605 de Quiros set out in search of Terra Australis,
accompanied by Torres. To the largest island in the New Hebrides he gave the name " Australia of the Holy
Ghost/' the
name
Australia being
now
first
used.
De
Quiros left Torres, in a second ship, and returned to Mexico. Torres sailed west and passed through the
strait
now
Australia.
it
bearing his name, between New Guinea and But the Spaniards kept this fact secret, and
was not revealed until 1796. Meanwhile the Dutch had displaced the Portuguese in the Spice Islands and other of the East Indies. They then began to search for Terra Australis, which a Dutch writer in 1598 had declared to be "the most southern of all lands, separated from New Guinea by a narrow strait, and ascertained by some to be of so great an extent that if it were thoroughly explored it would be regarded as a fifth part of the World/' Between 1606 and 1630 many Dutch ships touched at various parts of the northern, southern, and western coasts of the continent. The presence of Dutch names, such as Cape Leeuwin, Hartog Island, and Carpentaria, shows the general direction of the Dutch discoveries. The greatest of the Dutch explorers in these regions
xxiv]
AUSTRALASIAN COASTS
%
141
was Abel Tasman.
in Java, to try to reach the first sailed across the Indian
In 1642 he was sent from Batavia, Southern Continent. He
Ocean
to Mauritius,
and
Consequently he missed Australia and land first at the coast of Tasmania. reached altogether, He named this Van Diemen's Land, in honour of the Governor of the East Indies. He did not discover that this new land was an island, and after seeing traces of
then turned south-east.
human habitation, Tasman sailed off

land,
as well as the footprints of wild beasts, to the east. Thus he reached a new
which was in fact the South Island of New Zealand, and which was reached at its northern end. Tasman Bay But marks, in the modern maps, the place reached. Tasman missed Cook Strait and sailed up the west coast of North Island to its furthest point, which he named Cape Maria Van Diemen. When his ships anchored, canoes full of natives came out, and these people were so hostile that Tasman had to withdraw. Though warlike, and evidently cannibals, they were
to natives in other parts of the Pacific. clearly superior From New Zealand, which received its name in honour
of Zealand (Sealand), Tasman's and discovered a group of islands peopled by natives who showed themselves remarkably friendly. They appeared not to know the use of arms at all. Hence the islands received, later, the name of Friendly Islands. Here fresh water was procured, and then the return to Batavia was begun.
of the
Dutch province
ships sailed north-east,
In 1644
Tasman again
set out, to
endeavour to trace
more
He
definitely the outlines of the Southern Continent. did little, however, beyond exploring the northern
coast,
and quite
failed to find his
way through
sailors
Torres
Strait, to the east.
Thus Dutch exploration

to
of Australia
practically
came
an
end.
Their
had not
the best,
discovered the east coast, which was
much
142
PIONEERS ON
to trade
[CH.
and they preferred

the East Indies.
among
the rich islands of
Even the fact that New Guinea was an island, although Torres had proved it so, was not admitted by the Dutch. They still insisted that it was
a continuation of the Australian Continent.
One impor-
tant fact, however, had been made plain by Tasman's voyages. There was no connection between Australia
and the mythical great continent of southern polar seas. The Dutch considered they had done sufficient to entitle them to give the name New Holland to what we now call Australia. But for a long time nothing further was done to lift the veil from the continent. The next step forward was the outcome of the voyages of a searover, or buccaneer,
named Dampier.
In the latter half of the seventeenth century many English sailors raided the coasts of Spanish America, Dampier took part in especially on the western side.
several of these expeditions, but mention can only be
made
voyage
here of his work in discovery. His first important in this connection brought him to the north-west
coast of Australia in 1688.

his business to find out
Dampier was not content
to skirt the coasts of the lands he reached.

it
He made
of the north of "the miserablest were that he writes Australia they people of the World/' The land was bordered by low Water could only sandhills, behind which were woods. be obtained by digging wells.
ever
and wrote descriptions of he could. Of the inhabitants
what he could of the interior, the products and people when-
Dampier
left his
ashore on an island
off
ship shortly afterwards, being put the coast of Asia. After many
wanderings he reached England, and so interesting and promising were his accounts considered that in 1699 he was given a ship to go on another expedition. Passing round the Cape of Good Hope he reached Australia at
xxiv]
AUSTRALASIAN COASTS
143
Shark's Bay, on the west coast.
Dampier was disappointed
Steering north-eastwards, to find the land barren and
waterless, though the beauty of the flowers struck him very much. After journeying nearly a thousand miles along the north coast, he returned to Timor, in the East He then sailed along the north of Indies, for supplies.
New Guinea, examining the coasts carefully. He then went to Batavia and thence returned to England. His remaining voyages are of no special interest in connection
with Australian discovery.
For many years after these events the English took no part in voyages of discovery in the South Seas. There was no incentive to trade, because in 1711 the sole right of trading was granted to one company. Consequently other ships were only sent in time of war, when there was a chance of obtaining plunder. The next step forward towards revealing the secrets of the Australasian region was taken by the famous Captain Cook, whose daring deeds and wonderful perseverance must form the subject
of another chapter.
CHAPTER XXV
CAPTAIN COOK
in Yorkshire in 1728. After serving for a short time as an apprentice to a village shopkeeper he went to the port of Whitby. He then entered the service of a firm of merchants owning several
James Cook was born
small collier vessels, and on one or other of these ships he learned the art of practical seamanship. But in 1755, on the threat of war with France, Cook decided
to volunteer for services in the
Navy, and he was an able
I 44
CAPTAIN COOK
[CH.
seaman on H.M.S. Eagle for the next two years. His promotion was rapid, because of the skill he showed in
his work.
He proved
very useful in taking soundings
depth of the St Lawrence during Wolfe's preparations for the siege of Quebec in 1759. Consequently at the age of thirty Cook was master of a King's ship, a
of the
wonderful tribute to his

to
skill
and energy.
He
continued
work, and was again examine the coasts of islands in the Gulf to employed of St Lawrence. But yet greater tasks awaited the industrious sailor.
study the
scientific side of his
Many had
crossed the Pacific Ocean from
Panama
to
the Philippines, but little was known of the greater In 1768 Cook was put in command part of that Ocean. of the Endeavour, which was to go to the South Seas on a voyage of scientific discovery. The immediate object was a journey to the island of Tahiti, in the Society Here it was intended to make certain astroIslands. nomical observations, for which the place was specially suitable, but eventually the voyage produced results of
importance to the world. Sailing from Plymouth, the Endeavour touched at Madeira and Rio de Janeiro, and passed through the Strait of La Maire, to the south of Cape Horn. After
far greater
taking the required astronomical observations, Cook cruised among the Society Islands, from which he sailed
south-west.
of
In October 1769 he reached the east coast Zealand, between latitudes 38 and 39. This of was, course, the side opposite to that reached by Tasman, who always thought New Zealand to be part The bay Cook reached first of the Southern Continent.
New
he called Poverty Bay. The natives were hostile here, and the Endeavour passed south to Cape Turnagain. Again bearing north past Poverty Bay, the extreme north
point of the North Island was reached, and the ship
xxv]
sailed
CAPTAIN COOK
145
down the west coast of that island. Cook Strait was threaded and so it was proved that the north of New Zealand was definitely an island, and not part of a
southern continent.
Cook's men wished to return, but the captain did not consider his work completed. He sailed on, round the whole of the South Island and up the west coast of North Island. On reaching Cape Farewell it was decided
England by way of the east coast of New Holland, or Australia, and thence by the East Indies.
to return to
Besides settling the outlines of New Zealand, much information had been gathered by Cook and his scientific companions concerning the nature of the land and its
inhabitants.
In the latter work
much
assistance
had
been given by a native interpreter from Tahiti, who had volunteered to accompany them from the Society Islands. Cook described New Zealand as being "well adapted for
the plentiful production of all sorts of the fruits, plants, and corn of Europe/' and so it has proved itself. The
natives "are as large as the largest Europeans. Their complexion is brown, but little more than that of a
stain.
Spaniard. Both sexes mark their bodies with a black Their dress is formed of leaves split into strips,
which are interwoven, and made into a kind of matting/' Such is an extract from the earliest account of the Maoris, who, though cannibals, always showed themselves a
remarkably
intelligent people.
In April 1770 Cook sighted the east coast of Australia, near Cape Howe. The natives, though visible, would not enter into communication, and beyond the naming of
various landmarks nothing was done until a harbour was reached to which, because of its richness in flowers and Here a few plants, the name of Botany Bay was given. natives were seen. They opposed the landing of the
sailors as long as
A. E.
they could, and then disappeared into

10
146
the forest.
CAPTAIN COOK
[CH.
The country around was very fertile and beautiful. Splendid trees were separated by stretches of rich grass, and in the branches were numbers of gailycoloured parrots and other birds. North of Botany Bay was seen a channel which led
Part of Cook's First Voyage
into a magnificent harbour, although
it
was not then
This was the splendid harbour of Port Jackson on the shores of which the great city of Sydney has been
examined.
built.
All the
way northward was

plain,
beautiful
coastal
the same stretch of with mountains to the west,
xxv]
CAPTAIN COOK
147
sometimes near, sometimes far away. North of Moreton Bay the travellers found mangroves growing, a sign of the tropical regions they were now entering. Animal, fish, and insect life was abundant. There were bustards as big as turkeys, green caterpillars with There were vast thick-set hairs that stung like nettles.
numbers
coast of
of butterflies, mosquitoes,
and
ants.
But the
what
is
now Queensland was dangerous because
Careful soundings of the shallows and reefs of coral. were taken, but about latitude 16 south the Endeavour suddenly struck on a reef. The sharp pinnacles of coral
pierced the bottom of the boat, and
all
efforts to get
her
off
seemed
last the
useless.
The land
itself
was about twenty-
four miles distant.
wind and sea grew less violent, and with the rising tide the ship floated. But the pumps scarcely sufficed to keep the water down, and then a sail, covered with oakum and wool, was stretched over the outside of the leak. Thus they were able to make for land, which they reached where Cooktown now stands, and here they beached the ship. The point of the mainland opposite where they struck the reef was named Cape Tribulation.
At
During the time necessary for the repair of the ship, an examination of the surrounding land was made. A sort of cabbage was found, as well as bananas. All this fresh food was of great value in keeping up the health of the crew. A kangaroo was seen by Cook, who described it as being "of a light mouse colour, in shape and size
much
like
have taken
a greyhound. It had a long tail also. I should it for a wild dog if instead of running it had
not leapt like a hare or a bird." The natives in these parts were more friendly than those further south. They painted their bodies red and white, in streaks, and their hair was black and either
148
CAPTAIN COOK
[CH.
But they lost their temper on being straight or curly. refused food, and even set fire to the grass round the camp. These natives showed no interest in the usual
gifts offered
them by the
English, but did no actual
harm
to their visitors.
All along the east coast, except for a short distance, the Endeavour had sailed inside the Great Barrier Reef.
The water here was calm, though the hidden reefs of At last Cape York was reached. coral made it dangerous. been seen by Torres was which had Here the strait entered, and Cook had the satisfaction of proving that Australia was not a continuation of New Guinea, though the Spaniards had known the fact long before. To the whole of the land along which he had sailed Cook gave the name New South Wales, "a much larger country than any hitherto known, riot deemed a continent, being
Landing on one of the islands off Cook "displayed the English colours, and Cape York,
larger than Europe/'
took possessibn of
all
the eastern coast of the country,
by the name of New South Wales, for his sovereign, the King of Great Britain/' From Cape York Cook steered for the south of New Guinea, and thence to Java, where the ship was repaired. The way home was round the Cape of Good Hope, and England was reached in May 1771, after an absence of nearly three years. The work of Cook had been remark-
made but
able not only for the great geographical discoveries he also for the way he had looked after his crew.
In earlier voyages crews had suffered greatly from scurvy. Cook studied the causes of the disease, and by insisting on careful feeding, and giving as much fresh food and lemon juice as possible, he managed to keep his crew
almost free from illness of this sort. The next voyage of Captain Cook cannot be described in detail here, although it was one of the most instructive
xxv]
CAPTAIN COOK
149
voyages ever made. He left England in 1772, in the He was told to go Resolution, and with one other ship. to the Cape and then to search to the south for any lands
which might
lie
there.
The Antarctic
Circle
was crossed
Zealand
for the first time, in 1773.
Sailing east,
New
visited, and then again the ships turned south, reaching as far as 70 south. Fog and floating ice made the voyage dangerous, but at last the edge of the solid ice which surrounds the Polar Continent was reached,
was
in
January 1774.
Many groups of islands, including New Caledonia, and Norfolk Island, were discovered on the way back to New Zealand, and from here the return journey was made
round Cape Horn. It was proved that no continent existed anywhere in the Southern Hemisphere, at least between 50 and 60 south. Cook's last voyage was undertaken to solve a different problem. He set sail in 1776 with orders to find out definitely, by an examination of the west coast of North America, whether or not a passage existed to the north of that continent. In the Resolution, and accompanied by the Discovery, Cook sailed first to Tahiti, where he left a number of domestic animals. From here he passed north-west to Hawaii, in the Sandwich group, and then sailed to the west coast of North America, the region which Drake had named New Albion. Cook reached the coast about 44^ north, and then sailed to what is known as Nootka Sound, on the west of Vancouver Island. The natives proved friendly, and after repairing his ships Cook put out to sea, reaching the coast again much
further north, near Mount St Elias. of Alaska, he entered the strait which
Skirting the coast
had been discovered
by
Bering.
until the north coast of
Although Cook continued on America turned east, there was
clearly
no chance
of a
CAPTAIN COOK
[CH.
Cook resolved passage, the way being blocked by ice. to return to the Sandwich Islands to await a better
opportunity. He reached the group at the end of 1778. On the island of Hawaii he was received with every mark of reverence, the people evidently looking upon him as a god whom they had long expected. Unfortu-
nately Cook and his
men
offended
them
in various ways,
H.M.S. Resolution
The especially in not respecting their religious scruples. were to but allowed had to back, sail, owing ships put
to
gale.
This
time
the
natives
were
a
angry
and
cutter, threatening. dispute belonging to the Discovery. The natives were accused of stealing the cutter. Cook landed, resolved to teach the native chief a lesson. While he was talking to the
arose
about
small
xxv]
chief his
CAPTAIN COOK
men began
to fire
151
on the natives.
Cook was
attacked by the natives, and though he showed the

greatest bravery he
was
killed.
In this last voyage the great navigator had explored the unknown coast of North America for 3500 miles. He had proved that Asia and North America lie very close to one another at the northern extremity of the
object of the voyage had failed. Yet, as has so often been the case, the actual results were
Pacific.
The main
much more
valuable than anything which could have
followed the success of the object for which Cook had His work well entitles him to the honour first set out.
"the most distinguished navigator Great He had planted the British Britain has ever produced/' on a which to be one of the most valuable land was flag
of being called
parts of the Empire, and had brought the light of definite knowledge to bear on the map of the Pacific Ocean,
which had been so long shrouded
in darkness.
CHAPTER XXVI
BASS AND FLINDERS
The story
contains no
describes
of the exploration of the coasts of Australia
more fascinating chapter than that which the work of Bass and Flinders, in the years
following the first British settlement in Australia. This settlement was first attempted at Botany Bay, but a
more
suitable place was found further north, on the shores of Port Jackson, and here, in 1788, began the building of the future town of Sydney.
Bass,
who had
the
life
too uneventful for his liking.
entered the navy as a surgeon, found On the arrival of
152
his ship at
BASS AND FLINDERS
[CH.
Sydney he resolved to embark on a journey along the coast of New South Wales, the name by which the whole coast of the east of Australia was then known.
"A little boat of eight feet long, called Tom Thumb, with a crew composed of ourselves and a boy, was the best equipment to be procured for the -first outset/' So writes
Flinders, who arrived at Port Jackson as a midshipman on the same boat as that which brought Bass, and who joined the latter on his expedition.
first journeys took them up several of the rivers neighbourhood of Botany Bay, in 1796, and during these trips rich deposits of coal were found. In 1797 Bass set out in a small whale-boat, with food for six weeks, and a crew of eight. He entered and examined the many bays which lie between Port Jackson and Cape Howe. From the latter point he sailed west along a poor sandy coast. The boat was leaky and the journey dangerous, yet Bass proceeded until he reached Western Port. He had then been seven weeks from Port Jackson, and his provisions being almost spent it became necessary
Their
in the
to return.
As he journeyed east, Bass noticed the strong westward drift of the current. "Whenever it shall be decided," he said, "that the opening between this and Van Diemen's Land is a strait, this rapidity of tides, and the long southwest swell that seems to be continually rolling in upon the coast to the westward, will then be accounted for/' Thus Bass had really found that Van Diemen's Land, or Tasmania, was not an extension of Australia southwards, as was thought, but an island, separated from the mainland by a strait, which now bears his name. Bass returned to Port Jackson after a voyage of eleven weeks. He had obtained further food by capturing fish, geese, and black swans, and, he quaintly adds, "by He had been able to explore 300 miles of abstinence/'
xxvi]
coast,
BASS AND FLINDERS

and so had added many
153
details to Cook's account.
In 1798 Flinders joined him in a full examination of the coasts of Tasmania, and the correctness of the views
of Bass as to the existence of the strait
was proved.
At
one point of the coast three natives were seen. The explorers landed and presented one of them with a black swan. "He seemed entirely ignorant of muskets, nor did
anything excite his attention or desire except the swan and the red kerchiefs about our necks. He acceded to our proposition of going to his hut but finding from his devious route and frequent stoppages that he sought to tire our patience, we left him delighted with the certain possession of his swan, and returned to the boat/' After his return with Bass, on the conclusion of this voyage, Flinders carried out exploration of the coast of Queensland. He then returned to England, and in 1801 was put in command of the Investigator, a Royal ship which was sent out for the purpose of carrying out a thorough examination of the coasts of Australia. Going out by way of the Cape of Good Hope, Flinders reached
;
Australia close to Cape Leeuwin, at the south-western
The Investigator then proceeded eastward to King George's Sound, near which she was The repaired, and wood and water were put on board. natives here showed themselves friendly, but not anxious for communication. They were greatly interested when a party of red-coated marines landed and drilled on the "When they saw these beautiful red-and- white .shore. their bright muskets, drawn up in a line, they with men, absolutely screamed with delight; nor were their wild gestures and vociferations to be silenced, but by comcorner of the continent.
mencing the exercise, to which they paid the most earnest and silent attention." The coast of the Great Australian Bight was carefully The land was marked by continuous high followed.
154
cliffs
BASS AND FLINDERS
[CH.
and offered little hopes for future settlement. Its drawback was lack of water. On the eastern side of the Bight a cutter and its crew of eight were lost. They had been sent to obtain water, and had probably
chief
been upset by the strength of the current. Flinders named the place Cape Catastrophe. Soon afterwards Spencer Gulf was reached. Flinders sailed up this opening, probably with the idea that it might be the termination of a great strait, joined to the Gulf of Carpentaria, and so dividing Australia into two But as he sailed on, the Gulf became narrower, parts. and at last the head was reached. There did not seem even to be a river flowing into .the Gulf at this point. "At ten-o-clock our oars touched the mud at each side, and it was not possible to proceed, further/' While Flinders was examining the head of the Gulf one of his comrades ascended the highest point of the Flinders Range. This peak was named Mount Brown. At the mouth of Spencer Gulf an island was visited. This was found to be inhabited by large numbers of kangaroos, many of which were shot. "And a delightful feast they afforded, after four months privation from almost any fresh provisions. Half a hundredweight of heads, fore-quarters, and tails were stewed down into soup for dinner on this and the succeeding days; and as much steaks given, moreover, to both officers and men, as they could consume by day and by night. In
for so seasonable a supply, I named this southern land Kangaroo Island." Passing along a coast rich in gum trees, the Gulf of St Vincent was reached. The country round it appeared
gratitude
to be generally superior to that on the borders of Spencer Gulf. Further east still, in Encounter Bay, a French
ship
was met.
terms,
friendly
The two countries were not then on and Flinders feared an attack. The
xxvi]
BASS AND FLINDERS

to be
155
were quite friendly, and, like him, on a proved journey of discovery to the west. In spite of the fact that Flinders had been the first to journey along that coast, it was found afterwards that the captain of the French ship proceeded to give French names to the landmarks along the coast which Flinders had already named. The French were always very anxious to claim Australia, and a few days after the first English settlers landed at Port Jackson a French
French, however,
expedition had arrived at Botany
purpose. After
Bay
for
the
same
examining the magnificent harbour of Port
Phillip, "Where/' Flinders remarks, "a settlement will doubtless be made hereafter/' and near which the great city of Melbourne grew in later days, Flinders proceeded through Bass Strait and so back to Port Jackson. "It may be said the officers and crew were, generally speaking, in better health than on the day we sailed from Spithead, and not in less good spirits/' The people of Port Jackson said that the freshness of the colour of the crew reminded them strongly of England.
the coast of
In July 1802 Flinders again set out northwards along New South Wales. He touched at various
points on the coast, and gained much information about the natives and the nature of the country. He then tried to get his boat through the Great Barrier Reef,
but found
it
almost impossible to do
so.
The "Reef"
consists of a large number of reefs, with only black lumps, "like the heads of negroes" standing above water here
was soon found that any attempt to navigate among them would only lead the ship into a
there.
It
and
hopeless labyrinth, but after a few days a passage to the open sea was found.
Flinders gives a description of a part of the reef on
which he landed.
"We
had wheat-sheaves, mushrooms,
156
BASS AND FLINDERS
[CH.
stag-horns, cabbage-leaves, and a variety of other forms glowing under the water with vivid tints of every shade
betwixt green, purple, brown, and white, equalling in beauty and excelling ii) grandeur the most favourite pasture of the curious florist." Passing through Torres Strait, and examining many islands on the way, Flinders entered the Gulf of Carpen-
was quite unknown, and Flinders The land round the Gulf is flat and sandy, bordered with mangroves, and washed by a muddy and shallow sea. The sea was so shallow that the Investigator dare not approach near enough to examine
taria.
The
coast of this
it.
proceeded to explore
the details of the coast.
leading to the south of Australia
Flinders' idea of a great strait had now to be aban-
doned.
which had always been leaky, where the rotten timbers were. "The report consisted of a very short list of the few timbers which were still sound/' Yet Flinders determined to go on with his voyage. Natives were seen in abundance, but they disappeared in extraordinary fashion, sometimes going into caves dug into the ground. Altogether 105 days were spent along the coast of
Meanwhile the was examined to
ship,
see
the Gulf of Carpentaria. Still further west, Cape Arnhem and Melville Bay were passed, and finally Arnhem Bay was reached. Here Flinders was astonished to meet with a fleet of Chinese junks, in which were Malays who had come from Asia to fish for trepang, a kind of sea-cucumber. But the condition of the Investigator was so bad that Flinders was compelled to return to Sydney.
his adventures were not over. Starting England, his vessel was wrecked on a reef, and he returned to Sydney in a small boat. He finally left for home in a schooner, which was compelled to put into the French island of Mauritius, for repairs. The Governor
Even now
for
xxvi]
BASS AND FLINDERS
157
kept Flinders as a prisoner for six years, and the great

sailor eventually died in
England on the day on which
the account of his travels was published. It was in this book that the first suggestion was made to call the "Terra
Australis"
by the
single
name
Australia
CHAPTER XXVII
THE PROBLEM OF THE AUSTRALIAN RIVERS. STURT'S VOYAGE DOWN THE MURRAY
For twenty-five years
first
after
the foundation of the
English settlement at Sydney little was done to prepare for extension towards the west. For one thing
the free settlers were largely outnumbered
by convicts
transported from England. But the chief drawback was the long line of the Blue Mountains. These are not of very great height, but they presented great difficulties owing to the steepness of their slopes and the impenetrable nature of the scrub and forests of their foot-hills and valleys. But the need for further pastures was very great, and repeated attempts began to be made with the object
of finding a
who had been
gap
in the forbidding mountains.
At
last,
in 1813, a farmer named Blaxland made his way to the summit of the ridge, and saw fertile plains stretching
His route was This explorer followed by Evans year. and was rewarded actually crossed the Blue Mountains, by seeing a country "handsomer" than anything he
between the
hills
on the other
in
side.
the
same
had ever seen

well- watered/'
before,
"with gently-rising
hills
and
dells
He
passed
down
the Fish River until
158
it
PROBLEM OF AUSTRALIAN RIVERS
[CH.
joined another stream. The combined stream he called the Macquarie. In 1815 Evans discovered the head waters of the
Lachlan, and his reports of the rich country now known as the Bathurst Plains filled the colonists of Sydney with
was not long before they began to drive mountains by means of a wonderful road which had been constructed with great speed and
enthusiasm.
It
their flocks over the
skill.
The accounts of the Macquarie and Lachlan filled all minds with wonder. These rivers flowed westward, away from the sea. The question was, what became of them? Did they flow into some great inland sea, or did they cross the whole continent and find outlets far away to
the north, or west ?
The attempt
determined, for some time to come, Australian exploration.

the Lachlan.
to solve this problem the direction of
In 1817 an expedition was sent under Oxley to examine Unfortunately Oxley met with bad luck. The country he passed through proved remarkably poor,
and as he himself was not of a very hopeful turn of mind he brought back most discouraging accounts. As he passed down the Lachlan it showed itself as a mere trickle. Sometimes it disappeared altogether in vast swamps, covered with yellow reeds. At other times it became a flood. Oxley returned fiill of gloom as to the possibilities of this country. In 1818 he set out again, this time
to follow the Macquarie. This river, too, appeared to end in marshes. One successful outcome of the trip, however, was the discovery of the magnificent Liverpool Plains, one of the most fertile regions in the continent. These plains were discovered as the party made its way back from the Macquarie to the coast. During the next few years the Murrumbidgee, lying
intending
xxvii]
to
STURT'S
VOYAGE
159
south-west of Sydney, became known to the settlers, who were ever in search of new pasture for their In 1824 an expedition was undertaken by Hume, flocks. a settler of great practical skill as a bushman, and Hovell,
the
They did not get on well together, but they crossed the Murrumbidgee by means of a waggon, under which a tarpaulin was stretched, and reached the Murray Then they made their way to the great range at Albury.
a
sailor.
of the Australian Alps, across which they found a gap. They reached the coast at Port Phillip, near where Geelong
now
Their accounts of the country they had passed through were very different from the accounts given by Oxley, and encouraged others to renew the efforts to solve the problems of the south-east of Australia. Of all the stories in connection with this work the
stands.
is
most fascinating
Sturt in 1829.
In
^ e previous year he had, in company
that of the great journey
made by
with Hume, explored the Macquarie and reached the Darling, only to find that the water of the latter was salt, and he had correctly decided that this was due to
the salt springs in the bed of the river. Sturt resolved to start again, proposing on this occasion to follow the
Murrumbidgee,
and to' find whether all these rivers eventually joined some xmain stream far to the west. Sturt had been a soldier, and had taken part in the He was remarkbattles of Wellington in Spain, in 1813.
able not only for his personal courage, but also for his One of the kindest-hearted of gentleness and patience.
explorers, he set his men in Australia an example not only of endurance under the greatest difficulties, but also This was of forbearance in all dealings with the natives.
a fact that had

explorer, as
much
to
do with his successes as an
was seen
in the case of Livingstone.
His Sturt began his journey on November 3, 1829. three of whom were main party included seven others,
CH. xxvii]
convicts.
STURT'S
VOYAGE
161
important item in the outfit consisted of in sections so that it might be carried and easily put together when required. It was also arranged that a vessel should be sent to the Gulf of St Vincent, to pick the party up if they should reach the coast in that neighbourhood. Three weeks after
a whale-boat,
An
made
Murrumbidgee was reached. At first it though the stream was going to show itself a splendid river, but after a few days it began to cross a swampy country, just as the Lachlan had done, and
starting
the
seemed
as
only with great difficulty could the course be followed. For this first part of the journey the party drove waggons, but after reaching the junction of the Lachlan and the
Murrumbidgee the boat was put together and Sturt resolved to follow the actual stream. The extra members of the party were sent back some distance to await the return of the main party. This was on January 7th, 1830. The boat was little more than twenty-five feet long, and a smaller punt, containing most of the food, was taken in tow. The latter boat was soon pierced by a tree-stump and sank, and. two days were spent in rescuing the stores. Gradually the stream grew more rapid, and entered a belt of trees. Suddenly, on January I4th, the boat was driven past a junction "into a broad and noble river/' The river was 120 yards wide, and from 12 to 20 feet deep. Surely, Sturt thought, this must be the great collecting river for all the streams that had been
by various explorers in south-eastern Australia. It was, in fact, the Murray, and a glance at the map will show how correct Sturt was in his theory. As they journeyed down the noble stream natives
appearance at various points. They were at first, but Sturt seems to have had nearly a marvellous power of winning them over. One big native volunteered to run along the bank and help to
their
all hostile
A. E.
seen
made
II
162
PROBLEM OF AUSTRALIAN RIVERS

little
[CH.
protect the
A little lower down his help very numerous and warlike band of blacks threatened to destroy the travellers, and they were prevented by the native, who suddenly appeared
party.
proved
useful, for a
and angrily commanded them
to desist.
Shortly after this encounter the boat reached a point
where another stream joined the Murray. This stream was the Darling. Still Sturt rowed on, although food was running short and the blacks were difficult to pacify. The weather became oppressive, and rowing was almost On February 3rd the Murray was seen to impossible. turn due south, and as the days passed signs of the
nearness of the sea became very plentiful. On the gth they reached a lake (Alexandrina), and Sturt felt that
this was surely the end of the journey. But there was no navigable outlet to the sea, which soon appeared only two or three miles off. Then the water became shallow. It was impossible to get the boat to the sea, and full
of bitter disappointment, for they knew a vessel awaited them not far to the west, the party turned back.
The journey back had to be undertaken against the stream, and with a stock of food, consisting only of a
sugar and tea, which was rapidly disappearing. Yet the example of their leader encouraged the rest to go on. For weeks they struggled against great odds. Shallows and rapids appeared in turn. Sometimes the boat had to be pushed by main force, but no one comTo make matters worse the natives were more plained. Yet Sturt refrained from causing the hostile than ever.
little flour,
death of even one of them.

travellers could obtain food was by swans which were occasionally seen. The men's shooting hearts were cheered with the thought that they would soon reach the place where they had left the rest of the party with food supplies, on their outward journey.
The only way the
xxvii]
STURT'S
grief
VOYAGE
163
!
Imagine their
when they found

left
They had only food
the place deserted for a few days, and the boat
could not hope to overtake the relief party in that time, owing to the bends in the river. Two of the travellers were sent on across country to find the camp, and before
had been consumed by Sturt At this extreme hour the two companions. returned "with knees and ankles dreadfully swollen, and
their return the last food
and
his
with limbs so painful that on arriving in camp they sank to the ground, yet they met us smiling and rejoicing to
relieve us so seasonably/'
Sydney was reached after a total absence of six months, and after a boat journey of nearly 2000 miles. Never had the value of a good leader been more strikingly shown than on this expedition.
CHAPTER XXVIII
EYRE AND THE CROSSING OF AUSTRALIA
Eyre
As the years passed many flourishing settlements were founded on the Australian coasts. Two of the most important of these were Melbourne, which became the capital of the new state of Victoria, and Adelaide, which
became the
as
capital
and centre
of the settlement
known
South Australia.
The people
in the settlements took
an increasing interest in the exploration of the interior and more distant parts of the continent. Adelaide, in particular, sent forth expeditions to examine the prospects of opening up routes for stock-farmers to the north and
west.
Eyre took a leading part
in this work.
II
2
164
EYRE AND THE
[CH.
Eyre had originally intended to be a soldier, but he was rejected on the ground of physical weakness. This
seems very strange in view of the extraordinary energy he showed in his journeys of discovery. He went to Australia and spent some time in sheep-farming, during which he learned much about the habits and languages But he longed for the life of an explorer, of the blacks. hoping thereby to be the means of opening out new country for his fellow colonists. So in 1840 he set out on a journey to the heart of the continent. The journey was a failure. The way was barred by the salt marshes of Lake Torrens, and it seemed hopeless to expect to find a way across such a region. Eyre moved his party
to the south-west of the peninsula now named after him. He then resolved to attempt the great task of skirting the whole of the coast round the Australian Bight, and
making
This meant a journey of his way to Albany. over a thousand miles along a barren and almost waterless coast, but, as in the case of all the Australian pioneers, Eyre never hesitated to risk the dangers. He hoped to find at least small waterholes at intervals, and on the
existence of these his fate would depend entirely. The first point of importance reached was Fowler's
Bay, on the eastern side of the Bight. While the main party rested here, Eyre, with a native "boy," made repeated efforts to reach the head of the Bight. But
such a journey.
was too numerous to attempt returned to Fowler's Bay, and in spite of letters from Adelaide begging him to give up the attempt he eventually started with a white named
Eyre
realised that his party
He
Baxter, three natives, nine horses, a pony, and six sheep. For days the party struggled on. Blinding storms of sand, and clouds of biting insects, made life almost For the first 135 miles not a drop of water intolerable.
could be found.
Then, when
all
seemed hopeless, a small
xxvin]
well
CROSSING OF AUSTRALIA
sand-hills.
165
was found amongst some
This sort of
thing happened again and again, water was exhausted.
when
their supply of
The usual method followed was that when a well was reached the whole party rested for some days while the horses, almost dead with fatigue and thirst, refreshed
Eyre himself would for ahead further go looking supplies, and then, if successful, he would send his boy Wylie back with the good news, and to bring the others forward. On one
themselves for another step forward.
occasion the party had to retrace their steps for forty
miles, in order to get back to a well, there being apparently no water ahead of them. To add to the difficulties the
prickly scrub grew so thickly as to be almost impassable, and the poor horses could make no headway until most of the stores of guns, and finally provisions, were taken from their backs and buried.
So from day to day the weary travellers pushed on. Signs of wreckage on the coast only made their mental Still Eyre was determined not sufferings all the greater. to give up. Early one morning, when their last drop of water had been drunk, he took a sponge, and managed to collect with it a quart of dew from the blades of grass. But the plucky leader was soon to face even worse than
thirst.
The two whites took in turn the duty of keeping watch at night. One night Eyre took the first watch, and while his companion, Baxter, was sleeping, he went out into the scrub to collect the horses, which had wandered away. Suddenly the black boy, Wylie, came running to him and begged him to return to the camp. There he saw a terrible sight. Baxter had been shot dead by the other two natives, who had plundered the camp and made off. Apart from his grief, Eyre was
now
in a forlorn condition.
He
could not even be sure of
166
EYRE AND THE
[CH.
who proved himself, however, one gun of any use had been left thoroughly loyal. Only this was for the time being out even the and natives, by of action owing to a bullet having stuck in the breech. Eyre tried to melt the bullet by holding the rifle in
the faithfulness of Wylie,
his head.
rifle exploded, and the bullet just grazed Surely no man ever had such providential escapes from death as did this courageous explorer! Next day the treacherous rebels drew near to Eyre
the
fire.
The
and Wylie, and tried to induce the latter to join them. But he refused, and when Eyre approached them they ran away. That night Eyre pressed on instead of camping, and so he got far ahead of them. When their stolen provisions were exhausted, the blacks would have to meet a worse death than that they dealt to Baxter. The long journey began to draw nearer its conclusion. The Bight was fairly left behind, and then a strange change came over the weather. In that part of Australia the winter months are a time of heavy rains and great The two wanderers were drenched through again cold. and again, and they shivered in their scanty clothing. In June 1841 they suddenly saw a ship. It was a French Eyre lit a fire on ship, commanded by an Englishman. the cliff, and in answer to his frantic signals a boat put off and the two were taken on board. They were given a warm welcome, and, what was more important, plenty
of
good food.
set off
After resting on the ship for a fortnight, Eyre again on the last 250 miles of his journey. The cold and rain were more trying than ever. Rivers began to
appear, and through these they had to wade. Truly this was a contrast to their experiences on the first part At last they came in sight of the little of their journey.
settlement at Albany, and entered after they had left Adelaide.
it
just over a year
xxvm]
CROSSING OF AUSTRALIA
167
Of course the journey did not open out a new and promising country and it might seem as though to that extent the labour had been useless. But many of the journeys across Australia appeared to have the same result. Yet information was really being obtained by such journeys. Sometimes the travellers were unfortunate in just missing tracts of land which were quite promising. Sometimes they saw districts under conditions of severe drought, when everything was parched and burnt. Yet later explorers often found the same regions changed by
the magic touch of moisture into smiling tracts of verdure.
Leichardt.
There are
of
many more
stories
of the
endurance of
Australian explorers, but only brief references to some
them may be made In 1844 the German
here.
explorer, Leichardt, started
from
Brisbane to cross the north-east of the continent. After many narrow escapes from the hand of the blacks, who were more hostile here than in the south, he reached
Port Essington, near
Van Diemen's
Gulf.
He made two
further expeditions, but they were unsuccessful, and on the last journey, on which he had set out with a view to
party completely disappeared. Probably they were overtaken by a sudden flood, when travelling in the dry bed of
crossing the continent from east to west, he
and
his
some
creek.
Kennedy.
who
was the journey of Kennedy, from Rockhampton in 1848 to explore the coast northwards to Cape York. Accompanied by ten white men, and a faithful black named Jacky Jacky, he pushed on through a region of drenching rains and heavy swamps. The hostile natives pressed round the
Full of pathetic interest
set out
168
THE CROSSING OF AUSTRALIA
[CH.
party and repeatedly hurled spears at them. The vegetation became almost impenetrable. At various points members of the party had to be left behind, overcome by
the difficulties of the road and the lack of proper food. Finally only Kennedy and Jacky Jacky reached the
northern end of the York Peninsula, where a boat was waiting to meet the travellers. But the natives slew Kennedy, and only the loyal Jacky Jacky reached a
place of safety.
In 1861, after five previous attempts, Stuart succeeded in crossing the centre of the continent from Adelaide to
While he was accomplishing his led by Richard Burke, was its from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria. making way This expedition was ill-managed, and after an extraGulf.
Van Diemen's
task
another expedition,
ordinary series of blunders the leaders, Burke, Wills, Grey, and King, reached the shores of the Gulf. On the
way back
all
but King
lost their lives.
xxix]
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE
169
CHAPTER XXIX
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE
In 1763 the English drove the French power from Canada, that is to say the region of the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes. A period followed during which the fur-traders of both nations gradually penetrated the
But the chief share regions lying to the north-west. in this work was taken by British pioneers, and their
work
is of great interest and importance as having led to the opening up of routes through a region destined to be one of the most valuable parts of the British Empire.
Nearly one hundred years before the conquest of British Hudson Bay Company had founded forts, or trading posts, on the western shores of that inland sea. But little was done by the agents of the Company towards inland exploration before the middle of the eighteenth century. After that time many adventurous journeys were undertaken on behalf of the Company by pioneers such as Samuel Hearne, whose story makes But it was a rival company, with fascinating reading. its headquarters at Montreal, that produced a pioneer whose work stands out above even the work 'of Hearne and his colleagues. This pioneer, whose name has been connected with the river which he first placed on the map, was Alexander Mackenzie. Born on one of the storm-girt islands of the west of Scotland, Mackenzie went to Canada at the age of He entered the service of a fur-trading company sixteen. at Montreal. In 1788, after helping in the founding of Fort Chipewyan, on Lake Athabasca, as a fur-collecting
Canada the
170
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE
[CH.
centre, he resolved to try to sail down the Slave River, with a view to tracing its course to the sea if possible. His party included a number of French Canadians, two Indian guides, with their wives, and a German. For
some distance there was also a French Canadian trader, named Le Roux, who was on his way to a station on the Slave Lake. The whites started in June 1789, in a
birch canoe, the Indians travelling in a smaller canoe. The first stage of the journey, down the Slave River,
although not through an unknown region, was very There were numerous rapids, and the canoes trying.
and supplies had to be carried from point to point. Such a means of passing rapids is called a portage. There was food to be obtained by shooting some of the many birds to be seen on the journey, Pemmican, the dried flesh of fish, formed a further, though perhaps unpleasant, source of supply. The bites of mosquitoes added to the general discomfort, and even when the Great Slave Lake was reached there was great danger of the frail canoes being crushed between the floating
masses of
ice.
After exploring some of the numerous arms of the lake, the outlet was at last discovered at the western
extremity. A long journey, then followed down the To the west rose the magnificent great river Mackenzie. snow-crowned heights of the Rocky Mountains. New
were seen, and their accounts of the ahead did not add to the confidence of the dangers Still the Indians were not hostile, though travellers. in many ways they were remarkably backward. For instance they knew nothing of pottery, but made utensils of bark. When they wished to boil water they did so by dropping red-hot stones into the bark pot containing the water. From these natives stories were heard of the Russian traders of the far west of Alaska. The
tribes of Indians
xxix]
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE
171
traders were said to have wings, though they never flew. Perhaps this was a reference to the sails of their boats.
The Indians described

this
also a great river to the west,
being the first mention of the Yukon. In spite of frequent trouble with the chief Indian
of
company, who continually expressed a was made. The river was deep and the current strong. There were plenty of berries, fit for food, growing on the banks, and near the junction with the Bear River seams of coal were noticed. This coal was on fire, probably owing to the escaping gases, which had become ignited on contact with the air. Sometimes the banks were high, but nearer the sea the country became flat and swampy. Mackenzie found plenty of vegetation growing, although he was so far north, but the trees were very tiny, and became very scarce as the delta was reached. At last the party reached the sea, but only to find it choked with masses of ice. The journey back to Fort
guide
the
desire to return, steady progress
Chipewyan took
longer,
because
of
the
difficulty
of
paddling against the strong current. Three and a half months after the first start from the fort it was again reached, after a total canoe journey of over two thousand
miles.
to
make
After a visit to England, Mackenzie returned to Canada preparations for another journey of discovery.
determined to try to reach the Pacific Ocean by following the Peace River, the great feeder of the Athabasca, and -by crossing the ranges of mountains to the west. The voyages of Captain Cook and Vancouver, who sailed round the island of his name in 1793, resulted in the collection of much information about the coast of British Columbia and the islands lying near to it. It was Mackenzie's task to reach these coasts and so link up the east of Canada with the Far West.
He was
172
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE
[CH.
Leaving Fort Chipewyan in October 1792, he proceeded to cross Lake Athabasca, which he left at its western end. He journeyed up the Peace River, about the general direction of which he already had a fair idea, until he reached the foot-hills of the Rockies. The now of winter the formation of a approach compelled be to for it would make further camp, impossible progress
during that severe season. The camp was pitched near the point where the Smoky River joins the Peace, on
The scenery in this region was magnificent and there was any amount of big game. Starting up the Peace River again in May 1793, and
its
southern
bank.
having Indian guides, the little party soon found their It became necessary to lift progress barred by rapids. the canoe out of the water and carry it along a path cut through the forest on the bank, until it could be once
again floated. This process was frequently gone through. When the point was reached where the two headstreams of the Upper Peace River meet it was decided to
follow the southern stream, which was called the Parsnip, because of the abundance of vegetables of that kind
growing near the stream. Soon the heart of the Rocky Mountains was reached, and Indians were met whom it needed all Mackenzie's tact to restrain from hostility
against the stranger whites. Carrying their goods and canoe with them, the party made slow progress over the
watershed, passing great mountains, sometimes bare and sometimes covered with magnificent forests of spruce, The 'activities of the pines, poplars, and other trees.
beavers in this region attracted the attention of Mackenzie. At last a stream was reached which flowed westward. Mackenzie believed this might lead to the Columbia River,
which flows into the Pacific. The canoe was launched again, but the force of the stream was so great that it was driven from side to side, and many holes were made
xxix]
in
it.
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE
The
travellers
173
were compelled to wade waist deep
in the water, holding the canoe, but eventually it was upset and many of the stores were lost. Mackenzie again
had great difficulty in inducing the rest to proceed, but they became more cheerful when, after repairing the canoe, they reached a more navigable stream. This was the Eraser River, and on its broad and steady current
they were borne rapidly westwards, although even now rapids bothered them at intervals. Hearing from Indians that the Eraser River, after its great southward bend, was not very navigable, and that a better way to the sea would be found by following a right-bank tributary further to the north, Mackenzie turned the canoe round and followed this tributary as Then the canoe was carefully far as possible to the west. in a sheltered position, and the journey across placed
another watershed, or mountain "divide/' was begun. This was a weary task. The weather was alternately
very hot and bitterly cold. There were dreadful thunderstorms and showers of enormous hailstones. Moreover the Indian guides continued to give trouble. Still Mackenzie persevered, and soon a river leading
the sea was reached. Following the bank of the stream, the travellers reached an Indian village where they were received with great hospitality. They were
to
given shelter and a large amount of fresh salmon, which they found everywhere plentiful on that coast. As they
approached the latter they found the Indians more hostile, partly because Vancouver had been there just before and had fired on some of them. When he reached the coast and had spent some time in examining it, Mackenzie decided to return. Before doing so, however, he made an inscription in clay letters on a rock, in the following words "Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by land, the twenty-second of July, one
:
174
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE
"
[CH.
thousand seven hundred and ninety three. The return journey, although very tiring, especially among the precipitous mountains, was carried out more quickly than the outward journey. The canoe was found where they had left it. The Eraser was ascended, the Rockies crossed, and a rapid journey down the Peace River brought them back to Fort Chipewyan on August 24th,
I793-
Thus was the continent of North America first crossed, by a white man, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
CHAPTER XXX
SIR
JOHN FRANKLIN
With the beginning of the nineteenth century came a new interest in the problems of the Arctic Seas, especially in the question of the North-west Passage, towards the discovery of which little had been done since the days of Hudson and Baffin. In 1818 an expedition, in which John Franklin took part, was sent to Spitsbergen, with instructions to make an effort to push on from there as
far as the
North
Pole,
if
possible.
As a matter
of fact
the seas north of Spitsbergen were found completely frozen, and as far as the object of the journey was con-
cerned there was no success.
But in one direction the voyage was useful. It enabled Franklin to learn a great deal about the conditions
of
Arctic
exploration,
and
this
was
of
great
assistance to
him
in his later work.
Franklin had been
in the naval
the Navy since his boyhood. He served wars following the French Revolution, and also accompanied Flinders on his great voyage in the
an
officer in
xxx]
Investigator
SIR
JOHN FRANKLIN
175
he learned
seas
much
round the coasts of Australia. On this voyage of what may be called the scientific side
of seamanship.
He became
and
and
coasts,
in the
skilled in the art of surveying power of observing natural
conditions to the best advantage. While the expedition to Spitsbergen
was going on, another voyage, under Ross and Parry, was being made in search of the Passage. These men reached Smith Sound, to the north of Baffin Bay, and on the return journey saw the entrance to Lancaster Sound. In the
following year, 1819, Parry was sent again to examine the various sounds leading from Baffin Bay. He was then to endeavour to reach the Bering Strait, and so
The story of this voyage is an but only its result may be noticed here. interesting one, Parry passed through Lancaster Sound and reached Melville Island, but ice prevented further progress. In 1821 both Franklin and Parry were sent in quest of the mysterious Passage. Parry passed through Hudson's Strait and made his way through the narrow channel between Melville Peninsula and Baffin Land. Two winters were passed among the Eskimos, who were
pass to the Pacific.
very friendly and gave much help. The expedition arrived back in England in 1823. Meanwhile Franklin had orders to endeavour to reach
the Arctic coast of North America
by
land, travelling
from Hudson's Bay. Hitherto the Arctic coast had only been reached at two points. Mackenzie, as has already been described, had reached the mouth of his river in
1789, while Hearn had reached the mouth of the Coppermine River as far back as 1771. Franklin was to reach the mouth of the same river and then to examine the
coast as far as he could to the east, perhaps meeting Parry, who was then moving west from the north of
Hudson's Bay.
CH.
xxx]
SIR
JOHN FRANKLIN
177
Franklin was accompanied by Dr Richardson, a seaman named Hepburn, and two midshipmen named Back and Hood. The party sailed from England in May 1819, and reached York Factory, on the west coast of Hudson's Bay, at the end of August: Here a boat was secured, about forty feet in length, made as light as possible, because it would be necessary to carry it over considerable distances between streams or past From York Factory a toilsome journey of 700 rapids. miles brought the party to Cumberland House, a trading station a little north-west of Lake Winnipeg, on the Saskatchewan River. Richardson and Hood were left at Cumberland House,
while the rest pushed on, in mid-winter, to Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca. The cold was intense. For instance,
it is
drunk.
said that the tea froze in the pots before it could be In the spring the others came up and the whole
party passed down the Slave River to Fort Providence, north of the Great Slave Lake. This part of the journey was rendered difficult by rapids, and by the usual hotweather plague of insects. At this point two other
.as well as more than thirty half-breeds. Proceeding in canoes through a country intersected by many rivers and lakes, between many of which the canoes had to be carried, a point was reached near the head of the Coppermine River. Here it was resolved
Europeans joined,
to winter,
and a
little
group of buildings was erected.
To
Enterprise was given. At first food was abundant, but as the winter proceeded there was great scarcity. With great bravery Back, the midthis the
name Fort
shipman, set out by himself for Fort Chipewyan for He travelled on snow-shoes altogether for a supplies. distance of over 1000 miles, with little protection against the bitter cold, and sometimes for days without food. He returned with the supplies in four months.
A. E.
12
178
SIR
JOHN FRANKLIN
[CH.
In June 1821 a start was again made. Passing down the Coppermine through a region rich in reindeer and other game, the Arctic Ocean was reached. Then began
a wonderful journey in light canoes along the rocky and dangerous coast to the east. There were masses of moving ice which nearly crushed the canoes. Every little turn of the coast was examined as far as uo| west, when a return was decided on, owing to shortage of food. This point was named Point Turnagain. over 550 miles had been covered since leaving Already
the
mouth
of the river
Franklin resolved to take a shorter cut back to Fort Enterprise. He left the coast at Arctic Sound and passed
up Hood River.
things.
Food became
of carrying the supplies led to
and the difficulty the abandonment of many

scarcer,
Even the two canoes were made smaller. Violent winds arose, and at last all food came to an end. The party had to live on lichens and an occasional stray animal or bird; even shoe-leather was eaten. Naturally everybody became weak and ill. When the party reached Fort Enterprise, where they expected to find supplies which Indians had promised to place there, they found nothing except an old deerskin and some bones, which, with lichens, served as food. To add to their sufferings, Richardson and Hepburn, who had been left some distance behind with the weaker members, arrived with news that Hood had been murdered by a half-breed who had gone mad. Further deaths followed, and then Indians arrived with supplies. Mr Back had gone ahead and procured them the help of these
people. Slowly the return was accomplished, and after a total journey of over 5000 miles, during which they
had endured dreadful

reached.
sufferings,
York Factory was
Even
his sufferings
on
this
occasion did not deter
xxx]
SIR
JOHN FRANKLIN
179
Franklin from setting out for the Arctic coast again in This time, accompanied by Richardson and Back, 1828. the party went first to the Great Bear Lake, where
winter quarters were built.
was navigated
the
coast
to its
Next year the Mackenzie mouth, and Franklin sailed along
while Richardson led a party towards the Coppermine. River. The sea was navigable at intervals, and altogether about 1000 miles of coast were explored by the two parties. Franklin reached 150 west, while a ship sent by the Government to meet him had passed through the Bering Strait and reached almost to 160 west. Franklin, together with Parry and Ross, whose work cannot be described here, had filled in many of the details Still in the map of the Polar seas, north of America. the Passage had not been finally accomplished, and in
westwards,
Franklin, although nearly sixty years of age, requested the command of a new expedition. In the
1845
had been Governor of Tasmania, and had Ross in preparing for his journey into the Antarctic, a journey which led to the discovery of the "ice-barrier" of the Antarctic Continent. The two ships which Ross took were used on Franklin's new expedition. They were the Erebus, and the Terror.
interval he
assisted
Franklin was to proceed by Lancaster Sound, and then to pass south and west towards Bering Strait. Practically the whole route was known except a strip from the west of Lancaster Sound to the south. A
straight course was steered for Baffin Bay, and at some islands near Disco, on the west coast of Greenland, the
final preparations
were made. Supplies were taken for three years, and the voyage thence was begun in a spirit of complete harmony and faith in the gallant commander,
as one
seen
who saw them depart testifies. by the captain of a whaler, fast
They were again

in the ice further
i8o
north,
SIR
JOHN FRANKLIN
[CH.
some time later. After that, nothing was ever heard of them, except indirectly. There is no sadder story in history than the tragedy of this expedition. When nothing had been heard of
them
were
sent.
for nearly three years, numbers The story of those efforts
of search ships
in detail here. Gradually little were picked up, and remains of the fittings of the vessels were found. Eskimos spoke of the crews having left their ships in the ice, and of their dying one by one in the snow. It is clear that the two ships under Franklin passed through Lancaster Sound, crossed Barrow Strait, and entered Franklin Strait, between Prince of Wales Land and Boothia Felix. Here the two ships were frozen in for two winters. Day .after day passed. Provisions grew low, and yet even the summer sun brought no relief. In 1848 a party set Still the crews were not idle. out to explore the coast of King William's Land. They reached the south, and so found a strait which had already been reached from the north coast of America by other explorers. So they had really solved the problem of the North-west Passage, for this was the last link in the series of channels through which the Passage led. But soon after their return to the Erebus Franklin died. He died in the midst of the ice which had resisted him so long, and surrounded by his faithful followers, but with the news of victory fresh in his ears. So a brief note left behind tells. After a third winter spent in the ships, the survivors abandoned them and set off southwards on foot along the western shore of King William's Land for the mainland. They took two boats with them, and these, a few skeletons, and numberless remains of clothing and other articles, were found by McClintock in 1859 a l n g their
cannot be given items of information
xxx]
track.
SIR
JOHN FRANKLIN
of
left
181
Such was the pathetic end
one of the most

Isles.
promising expeditions that ever
the British
CHAPTER XXXI
THE NORTH POLE
The attempts made
since the sixteenth century to
discover routes leading from the Atlantic to the Pacific round the north of America and Eurasia led to increased
interest in Arctic exploration for its
own
sake.
It
has
already been seen how explorers
like
Franklin and Parry
spent years in Arctic seas, during which they added slowly to the details of the maps of those regions. Mention
has also been Pole itself.
made
of attempts
made
to reach the
North
The past half-century has brought about a large number of expeditions having as their object the "conquest of the Pole." The complete story of their attempts, though it cannot be given here, would show a wonderful
record of determination, pluck, and perseverance. No one nation may claim to have achieved success unaided
others, for in polar exploration, as in all other such work, individuals have built upon the work of their
by
predecessors, learning from their failures, and adopting methods which have met with any degree of success in
those attempts. It may cause wonder in some minds as to
why
the
pursuit of the Pole should be thought worth the expense and the loss of life which has resulted. Apart from the
"glory of achievement/' which will always be an incentive

as long as the human race lasts, there are many facts of science which can only be properly explained by an
182
THE NORTH POLE
[CH.
examination of the polar regions. Such questions as the circulation of winds and ocean currents, to take two points only, are becoming more easy to understand as successive expeditions bring back the results of their
enquiries in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Of the great number of expeditions which have set
out within recent years for the Frozen North, and which have met with varying degrees of success, two only may be noticed here. One expedition, that of Dr Nansen, is noteworthy for the careful thought which led to the
drawing up of the plan followed. The other expedition, that of Admiral Peary, will ever live in History as the one which finally succeeded in attaining the actual Pole. Dr Nansen, a native of Norway, had devoted most
of his
his
life
to the study of the Arctic regions.
One
of
most famous exploits was the crossing of Greenland from east to .west in 1888. This was a wonderful piece
of work, because not only
is
the east coast very difficult
to approach, owing to the ice-formations which cling to it, but the ice-covered plateau of the interior rises swiftly
to a height of several thousand feet. Dr Nansen devoted the next few years to a careful study of the winds and currents of the Arctic seas. As
a result of this he formed a daring plan. He had come to the conclusion that there was a steady drift of the ice in the Arctic Sea, setting from the north of the Bering
and passing away again the and coasts of Greenland by Spitsbergen into the he Atlantic. argued, if a ship could be Consequently,
Strait, crossing the polar region,
taken into the
ice-drift, it
would be carried by the gradual
movement
of the drift across the polar region, perhaps near the Pole, and so into the Atlantic. He resolved
He had a special to put this theory to a practical test. Since the vessel would vessel built, named the Fram.
probably be frozen into the
ice for
two or three
years,
xxxi]
it
THE NORTH POLE
183
specially constructed in such a way that when the should press against its sides it would be lifted, instead of crushed, by the pressure, and so would rest on the ice.
was
ice
Setting off from Norway in June 1893, the expedition, which consisted of thirteen men, rounded the north of Scandinavia and reached Novaya Zemlya. Here a careful selection of Siberian dogs was taken on board, for it was thought that sledge- journeys might be useful, and perhaps
necessary,
at
certain stages
of the
route.
The Fram
proceeded through the Kara Sea and past Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of Eurasia. Soon the bow was
turned to the north, and about the end of October the
had closed round the ship. The vessel behaved exactly had been foreseen. The pressure of the ice raised it on to the surface, and slowly it drifted towards the polar
ice
as
Great heaps of ice were piled up against the regions. sides of the Fram, and it appeared again and again as
if
she would be ground to powder, but she withstood all. On the splendid ship drifted, until, in January 1895, when she had been frozen in the ice for fifteen months,
and when latitude 83 had been reached, it was clear that her course would carry her beyond the immediate Then came the most wonderful region of the Pole.
event in this extraordinary voyage. Dr Nansen decided to leave the ship, taking one companion, and to travel by sledge as near to the Pole as possible. This meant
cutting themselves off from the Fram altogether, because she would have drifted far away by the time they returned.
The splendid teams
of dogs took the two explorers swiftly over rough ice, until it became so obstructed by great ridges that further progress had to be abandoned. They had then reached 88| north, the highest latitude which
had, up to that time, ever been reached. The journey back was full of dangers. Sometimes the ice opened, showing "leads" or lanes of open water. They had
184
THE NORTH POLE

"
[CH.
taken with them small
kayaks" or Eskimo boats, and
Polar bears attacked them, but they managed to reach a group of islands, east of Franz Josef Land. Here they spent the winter of 1895-6,
living the life of Eskimos.
crossed the leads on these.
Next spring they resumed
their journey to the south,
month having lived on the flesh of dogs, seal, and bear. later they reached the south of Franz Josef Land, where
was waiting. Soon after the Fram itself arrived, having broken reaching Norway, out of the ice just as Dr Nansen had foretold it would
to their delight a relief ship
do.
which Dr Nansen had taken crew not a single man In his delightful book called Farthest North Dr Nansen has written a deeply interesting account of the whole expedition. The journey which was finally successful in reaching the Pole was the work of Admiral Peary, of the United States Navy. Peary had devoted a great deal of time to expeditions in Greenland, and among the islands to the north of the American continent. He it was who first proved that Greenland itself was an island, for he
Owing
to the great care
in arranging for the comfort of his was any the worse for the voyage.
crossed that land quite close to its northern extremity. Moreover, he studied the Eskimos closely, and thus
learned
regions. for him to desire their help, they gave it willingly. Although Peary had suffered much during his many expeditions, as, for example, losing eight of his toes
much useful information about life in He won their respect, and when the
the Arctic
time came
through frostbite, he continued to make preparations determined attempt to reach the North Pole. For an earlier journey the Roosevelt had been specially built, and on his final journey, in 1908, he set out on the same His book, The North Pole, tells a story of steady ship. perseverance and unconquerable courage. His ship took
for a
xxxi]
THE NORTH POLE
185
to Grant Land, north-west of Greenland, and there he stayed through the winter, until March ist, 1909. On that date Peary started off from Cape Columbia, the most northerly point of Grant Land. He had brought a large number of Eskimos, with their families, on the Roosevelt, and during the winter they had hunted and
him
helped in the preparations for the final dash. A large of dogs, and the best of the Eskimos, started with the Americans on the sledge journey. As they
number
men and
passed on, parties were sent back at intervals, the weakest the weakest dogs being chosen for that purpose.
At last Peary, his black servant, and four Eskimos, were the only ones left. He had sledges and dogs, and a fair supply of food, when he started on the last 130
miles to the Pole.
Day after day they travelled, their excitement and anxiety increasing as the chances of On April 6th, 1909, the Pole success appeared greater. was reached in a region where nothing but ice was to be seen, ice which proved to be the frozen surface of a
deep
sea,
and not the covering

in the Roosevelt,
of a polar
continent.
A rapid journey back to Cape Columbia,

journey
and an uneventful
home
soon enabled the explorer
to receive the congratulations of the civilized world.
CHAPTER XXXII
THE SOUTH POLE
Pole
In one^ particular respect the quest for the South is rather a different story from the record of human
effort to
reach the North Pole.

in
been made
Far more attempts have the direction of the latter than of the
former, and the explorers engaged in the search for the
186
THE SOUTH POLE
[CH.
North Pole have only made comparatively slight progress, On each expedition, as compared with the latitudes reached by their predecessors. But although exploration towards the south has been carried out for many centuries, the final stages of the approach to the South Pole have been
accomplished with great rapidity. The reason for this is partly geographical.
After the
voyages of the sixteenth century, the supposed Southern Continent began to be marked further and further south
on the maps.
The
old idea that
it
was linked on
to
Africa and South America disappeared. The voyages of the eighteenth century, especially the second voyage of
Captain Cook, still further went to prove that the Antarctic Continent must be placed far to the south. This voyage also resulted in the crossing of the Antarctic Circle for
the
first
time, in 1773.
Mention has already been made of the voyage of Ross, in the Erebus and Terror, in 1840. To him is due the credit of being the first to see the great mountains rising on the actual Antarctic Continent, south of the region of pack-ice which surrounds the continent. The position of the two volcanoes named after his two ships shows the This land he named Victoria direction of his discovery. Land, and the great ice-cliffs which rise from the sea in this region were examined for many miles. From 1830 to 1900 a number of explorers from various European countries filled in some of the details about the Antarctic coasts and neighbouring seas, but from 1900 onwards extraordinary progress was made towards the
Pole itself. In 1901 Captain Scott set out in the Discovery with a well-equipped expedition. Among his companions was Lieutenant Shackleton, and he had a crew of forty, nearly all of whom were sailors in the Royal Navy. King Edward Land was discovered and the first land expedition was sent southwards from the Barrier. In the course of
xxxii]
THE SOUTH POLE
187
this expedition the peculiar nature of the obstacles to Antarctic exploration was experienced. These obstacles consisted largely of the absence of animal life, which
might furnish food, the very low temperatures reached, and the constant blizzards. Moreover the ice was full of great cracks, or crevasses, which made travelling very dangerous. On this journey latitude 82 1 south was
reached.
In 1908 Lieutenant Shackleton went south again in the Nimrod, and the account of this journey given in his book The Heart of the Antarctic is one of the most
interesting stories of discovery ever written.
He
started
" " near Zealand, and landed a shore-party Mt Erebus. Among the equipment was a motor-car, which proved of little service, and a number of ponies from Northern Asia. Some of these died very soon, but the others did some good service, although eventually
from
New
were destroyed either for food or through accident. Eventually Lieutenant Shackleton, with three others, made a dash for the Pole, taking sledges and four ponies. The course led through a mountainous region, and three of the ponies became exhausted and had to be shot.
all
The
last part of the
Glacier,
and the fourth pony
ascending this. The along the glacier the level plateau was reached. food supplies were insufficient, yet the four men pushed
journey led up the great Beardmore fell into a crevasse while After a continual rise for 100 miles
near 88 south they were only 97 miles from the of food compelled a return, and when the reached the Nimrod again they were exhausted. party It is fitting that this little book should conclude with a reference to the expedition which, more than any in the whole history of exploration, has appealed to the
on
until,
Pole.
Lack
hearts of
men
of all nations,
English-speaking peoples.
more particularly those of The. story of the discovery of
i88
the South Pole
THE SOUTH POLE
[CH.
by Captain Amundsen can scarcely be the from pathetic tragedy of Captain Scott's separated final journey, the full story of which has been graphically told by Commander Evans, and which is still fresh in
all
minds.
Captain Scott and his gallant companions left England in the Terra Nova in June 1910. Never was an expedition better fitted for the work in front of it. The men were
all carefully chosen, not only for their physical fitness, but also because they were of the right character to take part in a journey where the spirit of true comradeship was to count for so much. There were dogs and ponies,
and was
also motor sledges. utilised in order to
Every
make
possible scientific help the work as complete as

left
possible in its results.
On November
2gth the ship
New
Zealand, having
altogether sixty After passing through a heavy gale the icebergs began Next came nearly 400 to appear in latitude 64 south.
officers, scientists,
and seamen on board.
miles of pack-ice, through which the ship forced its Soon McMurdo Sound into an open sea beyond.
entered,
built.
way
was
and here, on Ross Island, winter quarters were Captain Scott took out a party from here to " form a provision depot, called One- ton Camp/' about 144 miles south of the winter quarters. On the way back a team of dogs almost disappeared down a crevasse,
and they were only rescued with difficulty. On another occasion some of the party, with four ponies, found
themselves on an ice-floe drifting out to sea. rescued, with the loss of three ponies.
They were
In October 1911 preparations for the actual journey south were complete. Advance parties were sent on, and The ponies did stores of food were placed at intervals. but one work the loads, drawing by one they heavy good had to be shot, and were used for food. Slowly the
xxxii]
THE SOUTH POLE
189
Beardmore Glacier was ascended, just as in Shackleton's expedition, and in December the polar plateau was reached. Here, as at other points, the party was reduced by the return of certain members to the winter quarters. About 87 south the final party, consisting of Captain Scott, Dr Wilson, Captain Gates, Lieutenant Bowers, and Seaman Evans, were left to try to reach the Pole, which was now 145 miles distant. Soon after starting the polar party came across the tracks of Captain Amundsen and his party. He was a in who had left Norwegian Norway August 1910 with the intention of trying for the North Pole. He had journeyed in the Fram, Nansen's old ship, but on hearing of Peary's success in discovering the North Pole he decided to make a dash for the South Pole instead. With provisions for two years, and a splendid equipment,
including dogs, Amundsen made his winter quarters at the Bay of Whales, about 400 miles further east than
Scott's winter quarters. From here he made a successful dash for the South Pole, which he reached on December i6th, 1911, having been lucky in the matter of weather, but having also reaped the reward of careful preparation. The Pole itself he found to be on a snow-covered plain,
"alike in
all
directions/'
Captain Scott's party did not know of Amundsen's Their disappointment success, but pushed steadily on. must have been keen when, after great difficulties, they
reached the Pole on January i7th, 1912, just a month after Amundsen left, and saw the signs of his success. "Yet," says Commander Evans, "Scott and his companions had done their best, and never from one of them came an uncharitable remark."
Starting for the long journey back to their winter
quarters difficulties began. Seaman Evans fell ill, and delay resulted at a time when provisions were none too
igo
plentiful
for
THE SOUTH POLE

such circumstances.
of the
[CH.
xxxn
when the foot Seaman Evans
died.
On February I7th, Beardmore Glacier was reached, The cold became more intense
instead of less so as the remaining four pushed north, over a very rough surface, along which only a slow rate
of progress could be kept up. Then came what is one of the most heroic acts that have ever been recorded. Captain
Gates was suffering from severe frostbite. He knew that he was delaying his companions. On March i7th he walked out into the blizzard, in order to save his comrades by enabling them to hurry on. "It was the act of a brave man and an English gentleman," said Captain Scott, and his words will find an echo to the end of History. On March 2ist Captain Scott, with Wilson and Bowers, reached a point eleven miles from One-ton Camp. They had two days' food supply, but were already exhausted. A camp was made, and here they died, for a terrific blizzard prevented them from setting out on the last few miles which lay between them and abundant supplies of food and fuel. Their bodies were discovered by a search party on November i2th, 1912. Captain Scott's diary, which he had kept entered up until the day of his death, gave in a few short sentences the story of their last days. His last words were on behalf of others, words of anxious thought for the dependents left behind in England, words of true appreciation of his own companions. "Had we lived/' he said, "I should have had a tale to tell of the hardihood, endurance, and courage of my companions which would have stirred the heart of every Englishman." He died, but his tale has nevertheless been told to the world, and has stirred all hearts. Indeed the shining example which he and his comrades have given will be for all time a guiding star for those
who
tread the path of duty.
SOME BOOKS FOR REFERENCE AND FURTHER STUDY

is. 6d. Jack. the Putnam's Sons. 55. Prince Henry Navigator. Beazley, Beazley, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen. Oxford University
Bailey, Africa.
Press.
45. 6d.
Besant, Cook.
Macmillan.
2s. 6d. 25. 6d.
Bruce, Travels in Abyssinia. Nimmo, Hay, and Mitchell. Blackie. 6d. Cartier, Voyage, &c. 25. 6d. Corbett, Drake. Macmillan.
Fitchett,
New World
Franklin, Journey
3 s. 6d.
to the
2 vols. Smith, Elder. of the South. Polar Sea. Dent. is. net.
the
12s.
Froude, English Seamen in

Gilliat,
Sixteenth Century.
Longmans.
Heroes of the Elizabethan Age. Seeley. 55. Guillemard, Magellan. Philip. 35. 6d. Hakluyt, Voyages of English Seamen. 8 vols. Dent.
is.
net each.
Heawood, Geographical Discovery Cambridge University Press.
in
ijth and iSth Centuries.
I2s. 6d. net.
is. net. Help, Columbus. Dent. Holdich, Tibet the Mysterious. Rivers. 75. 6d. Hughes, Livingstone. Macmillan. 2s. 6d. Hume, Ralegh. Macmillan. 2s. 6d. Oxford University Press. 2s. 6d. Irving, Columbus. Jenks, History of Australasian Colonies. Cambridge University
Press.
6s.
Johnston, Colonization of Africa.

8s. net.
Cambridge University
Press.
Johnston, Livingstone and Exploration of Central Africa.

35. 6d.
Philip.
Johnston, Nile Quest.
Lawrence and Bullen. 75. 6d. Home Univ. Lib. is. net. Africa. Opening up of Johnston, Johns ton, Tropical America, South Africa, West Africa, Canada,
India, Australasia. 6s. each.
"Pioneers of Empire Series/'
Blackie.
192
Keltie, Bruce
BOOKS FOR REFERENCE

and
the
Blue Nile.
Philip.
35. 6d.
Livingstone, First and Second Expeditions. 2 vols. 75. 6d. each. 2 vols. Livingstone, Lost Journals. Murray. 285.
Murray.
Lucas,
Historical Geography of the British Colonies. 8 vols. Oxford University Press. Various prices. Oxford UniLucas, Origin and Growth of the British Colonies.
versity Press.
25. 6d.
Markham, Franklin. Philip. 35. 6d. Markham, John Davis. Philip. 35. 6d.
Cambridge University Press, is. net. South Pole. Rivers. 75. 6d. Nansen, Farthest North. Constable. 2 vols. 425. Nansen, First Crossing of Greenland. Longmans. 35. 6d.
Mawer, Vikings.
Mill, Siege of the
Nordenskiold, Voyage of the Vega." Macmillan. Cassell. 6d. Parry, North-west Passage. Pinkerton, Australian Voyages. Cassell. 6d. Dent. 15. net. Prescott, Conquest of Mexico. Dent. is. net. Prescott, Conquest of Peru. Ralegh, Discovery of Guiana. Blackie. 6d.
"
65.
Ravenstein, Vasco da Gama.

Scott, Last Expedition.
425. 2 vols. Smith, Elder. Scott, Voyage of the "Discovery." 75. 6d. Shackleton, Heart of the Antarctic. Heinemann. 6s. net.
is. net. Speke, Dis'covery of the Nile Sources. Dent. I How Low. Livingstone. found Sampson 35. 6d. Stanley, Sampson Low. 55. Stanley, In Darkest Africa.
35. 6d. Philip. 2 vols. Smith, Elder.
Dark Continent. Sampson Low. 6s. net. Book Discovery. of Jack. Synge, Thynne, Story of Australian Exploration. Unwin. 55. Dent. is. net. Travels of Marco Polo.
Stanley, Through the
35. 6d.
Dent. Travels of Mungo Park. Voyages of Captain Cook. Dent.
is. net.
is. net.
Williams, Romance of Early Exploration. Seeley. 55. Williams, Romance of Modern Exploration. Seeley. 55. Oxford University Williamson, Maritime Enterprise.
145. net.
Press.
Woodward, Expansion
versity Press.
45.
of the British Empire.
Cambridge Uni-
INDEX
Abraham,
2
Abyssinia, 29, 113, 115 et seq., 125 Acadia, 102 Adelaide, 163, 168 Adowa, 117 Aegean Sea, 4 Africa early traders in, i et seq. Arab traders in, 15 Portuguese discoveries in, 21 et seq. slave trade in, 72, 73 exploration in interior of, 103139 African Exploration Association, 103 Alaska, 149, 170
:
Antarctica, 179, 185-190 Antarctic Circle, 149 Antilla, 33 Apes, Island of, 15 Arabia, 8, 32 Arabs, 15, 113, 122 et seq., 135 Archangel, 14 Arctic exploration, 82-92, 174-185 Arica, 80
Arnhem, Cape and Bay, 156

Asia
Chaldean traders of, 2 Alexander the Great in, 5 Roman knowledge of, 7 trade and travel in, 15-21, 45; Co:
Albany, 164, 166 Albert Edward Nyanza, 136 Albert Nyanza, 124 et seq. Albuquerque, 50 Albury, 159 Alexander the Great, 5 Alexandrina, L., 162 Alfred the Great, 8, 14 Algiers, 114 Algoa Bay, 29 Almagro, 62 Almeida, 50 America name of, 43 Vespucci in, 42, 43 Spanish in, 43, 56-66 America, North Northmen in, 13 re-discovery of, 46 et seq. east and north coasts of, 8297 west coast of, 149, 151 French pioneers in, 92, 98-103 English explorers in, 168-181 first seen, 41 America, South Drake in, Magellan in, 52 78-80 Amundsen, 188, 189 Andes, 65 Annapolis, 102 Antarctic, 182
:
lumbus and,
37, 41
routes to,
67-71, 82 et seq. Asia Minor, 2, 3, 5, 8, 22, 45 Assouan, 115 Atbara River, 125 Atlantic Ocean Vikings in, 1 1 Moslem idea of, 15 Toscanelli's map of, 34 Trade winds of, 42
:
Atlantis, 33 Australia, exploration of, Azores, 32, 38, 39
139168
Back, 177 et seq. Baffin, 91-92 Bay and Land, 92

;
"
Baghdad, 15 Bahamas, 37 Baker, 124-126

Balboa, 44, 61
Bangweolo, Lake, 131

Barker, 132, 135 Barrier Reef, Great, 148, 155 Bass, 151-153 Batuta, Ibn, 21 Baxter, 164166 Bering, 149; Strait, 175, 179, 182 Black Sea, 2, 4 Blanco, Cape, 25
A. E.
13
194
Blaxland, 157 Bojador, Cape, 24
INDEX
Dampier, 142143
Darien, 42, 44, 49, 61, 75, 80 Darkness, Sea of, 15 Darling River, 162 Davis, 49, 8790 Demba, 104, 108 Diaz, 28-29
Botany Bay,
145, 151-152, 155
Bowers, 189-190
Brazil, 42, 49, 72 visited by Pytheas, 4 ; Britain visited by Caesar, 6; visited
:
by Vikings, Bruce, 114-121 Burke, 168 Burton, 122-123 Bussa, 112 Bylot, 92
Cabot,
J.
J.,
Dominica, 40 Drake, 73-82, 92 Dutch, 140-142
4549;
S.,
S.,
4749, 67;
and
East Indies, 51, 139-140 Egypt, 2, 8, 113 El Dorado, 95 Encounter Bay, 154
Enterprise, Fort, 177178 Eric the Red, 12, 13
92, 98
Cabot
Strait,
101
Cabral, 42
Eskimos,
185
13, 90,
175,
180,
184-
Cadamosto, 26
Caesar, 6
California, 61
Europe
Roman knowledge
Cameron, 137 Canada, 98-103, 169-179 Canary Isles, 24, 36 Cao Diego, 28
Carpentaria, Gulf of, 140, 156 Carthage, 3 Carder, 98-101 Catastrophe, Cape, 154
barbarian migrations Vikings in, 10; other references, 16, 21, 22, 67 Commander, Evans, 57-158; 188; Seaman, 189, 190 Eyre, 163-167
of, 7 ; in, 8;
Faleme River, 105

Faroes,
Cathay, 48, 67, 70, 82, 85-87 Caxamalca, 65 Ceuta, 3, 23 Chaldea, 2 Chaleur Bay, 99 Champlain, 101103
Chancellor,
Ferdinand, 35
Fernando Po, 27
Fish River, 29, 31
Flinders, 151157 Florida, 49, 56, 73, 74
6770
102
Chaudiere
China,
6,
Falls, Chile, 66, 79

16,
18-21, 89, IQO-IOI Chipewyan, Fort, 169 et seq. Chobe River, 128 Cintra, P. de, 27 Clapperton, 112
Fowler's Bay, 164 Franklin, 174-181 Fraser River, 173174 in AusFrench, in Florida, 73 in Canada, 98-103 tralia, 155 Friar John, 16; Odoric, 21 Friendly Islands, 141 Frobisher, 82-86; Bay or Strait,
; ;
Columbia, British, 171 Columbus, 30, 3243, in
84-86 Fundy, Bay
of,
102
Congo River, 28, 112, 131, 136-139 Coppermine River, 175 et seq.
Cortes, 56-61
Gallo, Isle of, 63
Gambia
River, 26, 103, 104,
no
Gaspe Bay, 99
Gaul, 2, 6 Geelong, 159 Geesh, 120
Cook, 143-151, 171, 1 86; Strait, 145 Crusades, 22 Cuba, 37 et seq., 56 et seq. Cumberland Sound, 88 Cuzco, 66
Genoa,
19,
22, 33, 34
Genoese, 24 Georgian Bay, 103
Da Gama, 2932,
Germany,
50
Gibraltar,
6,
3,
INDEX
Sound, 88, 90 Gilbert, 82, 93-95 Goa, 29, 32 Gobi; 19 Godthaab, 88 Gold, River of, 25 Gomez, 26 Gondar, 117 et seq. Gondokoro, 121, 124-125
;
Jacky Jacky, 167

Jamaica, 40, 57, 73 Bay, 91
apan (Cipango),
arra, 106,
21,
37,
47
109
ava, 82 James
Good Hope, Cape of, 29, 80, 82 Goree, in Grant, 123-125; Land, 185 Great Australian Bight, 153, 164 Greeks, 3, 4, 8, 113 Greenland, 13, 14, 83 et seq., 92, 182, 184 Grey, 168 Guayaquil, 64 Guiana, 95, 97 Guinea, 7, 27, 30, 72, 82
Hanno, 21
Hawaii, 149, 150 Hartog Island, 140 Hawkins, 72-74, 92 Hearne, 169, 175
113 Jidda, 116 Johnson, 104 Joseph, 2

Jesuits,
Kaarta, 106 Kalahari, 127
Kamurasi, 125, 126
Kangaroo Island, 154 Kano, 112

Kasson, 105, 106 Kaze, 122, 123 Kebrabasa Rapids, 130 Kennedy, 167, 168 Khan, The, 16, 18, 35, 37, King, 1 68 King George's Sound, 153 King William's Land, 180 Kioga Lake, 124 Koojar, 104 Kosseir, 115, 116 Kuruman, 127 Kwango River, 128
Labrador,
39,
56
Hebrews,
3i,
Henry the Navigator, 22
et seq.,
32 Henry VII, 35, 45 Hepburn, 177, 178 Hercules, Pillars of, 3, 4 Herodotus, 4, 113 Hispaniola (Hayti), 38, 40, 41, 44-56, 57, 72 Hochelaga, 100, 101 Homer, 4 Honduras, 42 Hood, 177; River, 178 Ho veil, 159 Hudson, 49, 90-91 Bay*, 91, 102; Strait, 86, 91 River, 90, 98 Bay Co., 169 Hume, 159
;
13, 83, 91, 98, 99,
100;
current, 93
Lachlan River, 158 Lachine Rapids, 101 Ladrones, 55 Lancaster Sound, 92, 175, 179, 180 Lander, 112 Lapland, 68, 71 Leeuwin Cape, 140 Leichardt, 167
Leif,
13
Levant, 24, 45 Lima, 79, 80 Liverpool Plains, 158

Livingstone, 126132, 159 Loanda, 128 Lofoden Islands, 68 Louis IX, 1 6 Lualaba River, 131, 136 Ludumar, 106, 108 Luama River, 136
Iceland, n, 91 Ilala, 131 Inca, 65 India, 5, 15, 21, 24, 31, 32, 50 Indian Ocean, 6 Indians, 13, 61 et seq., 99 et seq.,
170 Indo-China, 7
Ireland,
Isabella, 35, 42
Isangila Cataract, 138 Ishmaelites, 2
McClintock, 180 Mackenzie, 168174, 175; River, 170, 179 Macquarie River, 158, 159
196
Madeira, 24, 33 Magellan, 49-56, 139
INDEX
Norfolk Island, 149
8
Mahomet,
Mahommedanism, 8 Mahommedans, 15, 22,

Makololo, 127 et seq. Malindi, 31, 32 Maoris, -145 Marco Polo, 18-21, 33 Maroeco, 8, 26, 73, 77 Marqueza Islands, 140 Marseilles, 4 Massouah, 116 Medina, 104 Mediterranean Sea, i, 2,
22, 72,
Northmen, 9, n, 21 North Cape, 14 North Carolina, 95, 98

81
Nova Scotia, 14, 102 Novaya Zemlya, 68, 90, 182

Nyassa Lake, 130
Gates, 189-190 Oceanus, 4 Ohthere, 14 Orellana, 66 Orinoco, Gulf of, 41 97 Ottawa River, 102 Ouro, Rio d', 25 Oxley, 158
North-east Passage, 67-71, 90 North-west Passage, 49, 67, 87, 90, 174-180
7, g,
17,
U3
86, 91
River, 95
Melbourne, 155, 163, 168 Merchant Adventurers, 67
Meta Incognita,
Mexico, 5661 Moero, Lake, 131 Moluccas (see Spice Islands)
Mombasa, 31
Mongolia, 16
Pacific Ocean, 44, 50, 54, 71, 76, 79-81, 144, 151
Montezuma, 5760
Montreal, 100, 101 Moors, 23, 35, 39, 50 Moreton Bay, 146
Moscow, 70 Mountains of Moon, 113 Mozambique, 31 Falls Murchison (Nile),

(Shire),
126;
Palmas, Cape, 26 Panama, 76 (see Darien) Park, 103-112 Parry, 175, 179 Parsnip River, 172 Patagonia, 54, 76 Peace River, 171, 172, 174 Peary, 182, 184, 185 Peru", 61-66, 75, 95
Persia,
18,
130
21
Murray River, 159, 160 Murrumbidgee River, 158 et seq.

Nansen, Dr, 182 Natal, 31 New Albion, 81, 149 New Amsterdam, 90 New Brunswick, 99, 102 New Caledonia, 149 New England, 98
Philippines, 55, 81, 144
Phoenicians, Pinzon, 38
Newfoundland, 98-99
13,
73,
9*-93,
New New New New New New
Pisania, Pizarro, 61-66 Plata, Rio de la, 52, 78 Plato, 33 Pococke Brothers, 132-138 Pole, North, 174, 181-185 Pole, South, 185-191 Pope, and Tartars, 16, 18; bull of, 1493, 39, 42, 51
24 104, no
and
France, 98 Guinea, 140, 142, 143, 148 Hebrides, 140 Holland, 142 South Wales, 148, 152, 155 Zealand, 141, 144-145 Ngami Lake, 127 Niger River, 103112 Nile, 2, 25-26, 113-126 Nombre de Dios, 75-76 Nootka Sound, 149
Popocatepetl, 59 Port Essington, 167 Port Jackson, 146, 151 Port Phillip, 155, 159
Portugal, 22 et seq., 33, 35, 38-42,
50, 98, 113,
139
Poverty Bay, 144 Prescott, 60

Prester, John, 17, 24, 28, 29, 35 Prince Edward Island, 99 Providence, Fort, 177
INDEX
Ptolemy, 6, 113 Puerto Rico, 57 Pytheas, 4
Quebec, 99 et seq.
147, 153
197
Southern Continent, 6, 139 et seq., 144, 186 South Seas, 54, 79, 91, M3. 144
Spain, 98;
6, 9,
35 et seq., 51, 73~75>
New, 61
Spencer Gulf, 154

Speke, 122126; Gulf, 133 Spice Islands (Moluccas), 32, 50, 51, 55, 80, 81, 140 Spitsbergen, 90, 174, 175, 182 Stadacona, 101
Stanley, 131-139
;
uilimane, 31 eueensland, Quiros, de, 140
Ralegh, 93, 95-97 Sea, 31 Richelieu River, 102 Ripon Falls, 124, 134
Red
Pool,
and
Falls,
Rocky Mountains,
Romans, 6-8
170, 172, 174
Ross, 175, 179, 182 Rubruquis, 16 Russia, 1 6, 18, 69-71

Sagres, 24
138 Storms, Cape of, 29 Stuart, 1 68 Stiirt, 159-163 Sudan, 112 Susi, 131
Sydney, 146, 151

Sahara, 112 St John, 102 St John's, 93, 94 St Julian, Bay of, 52, 54, 78 St Lawrence, Gulf of, 46, 99, 144; River, 99, 101, 141, 169 St Vincent, Gulf of, 154, 161 San Francisco, 81 San Juan de Ullua, 57, 73, 75 San Salvador, 37 Sanderson, 87 Cape, 92 Sandwich Islands, 149, 150 Sargasso Sea, 36 Scilly Islands, 3, 87
;
Syene, 115, 121 Syria, 2, 8, 18, 22, 26, 45

Tahiti, 144, 145, 149 Tanganyika Lake, 122, 131, 136
Taranta, Mt, 117

Tartars, 16, 18, 20, 83 141, 144 Trfule, 4 Tibet, 2*1 Tierra del Fuego, 54, 79
Tasmanj
Timbuktu, 112
Tippu-Tib, 137, 138 Torrens, Lake, 164 Torres, 140, 142; Strait, 141, 148, 156 Toscanelli, 33 Tribulation, Cape, 147 Trinidad, 41, 96, 97 Turnagain, Cape, 144; Point, 178 Tyre, 2
Scott, 186-190 Sebituane, 127, 128 Sechele, 127
Sego, Sekeletu, 128, 129 Senegal River, 26, 103, 105 Sennar, 121 Serrao, 54 Shackleton, 186, 187 Shark's Bay, 143 Shire River, 130 Shirwa, Lake, 130 Sicily, 4 Sidon, 2 Sierra Leone, 26, 27
no
Uganda,
et seq.
124, 134;
King
of,
134
Ugogb, 133
Ujiji,
131, 136
73, 92
United States, 42,
Unyamwezi, 122
Unyoro, 125
Valparaiso, 79
Sindbad, 15 Slave River, 170, 177; Lake, 170, 177 vSmith Sound, 92, 175 Society Islands, 144 Sokoto, 112 Somaliland, 122
Vancouver, 171, 173; Island, 149 Van Diemen, Cape Maria, 141 Land, 141, Gulf, 167, 168; 152, 153, 179 Vardos, 68
;
Venice, 17, 19, 21, 22, 45
198
INDEX
Whales, Bay
of,
Venezuela, 73 Vera Cruz, 58, 59 Verde, Cape, 26; Islands, 39, 56, 77 Verrazano, 98 Vespucci, 42, 43 Victoria, 163; Falls, 129; Land, 186; Nyanza, 122 et seq., 133,
189
White
Sea, 14, 68, 69
Willoughby, 6771, 82 Wills, 1 68 Wilson, Dr, 189, 190 Winnipeg, Lake, 177 World, New, 42, 43, 57, 61, 72,
74, 98; Old, 33, 36, 71 Wylie, 165
135-136
Vikings. 9 et seq., 47 Vinland, 13 Virginia, 49, 95 Volga River, 16
York, Cape, 148, 167;

177, 178;
Factory, Peninsula, 168
Yucatan, 56-58
Yukon
River, 171
Waalvisch Bay,
13,
28
West
Indies, 42, 44, 49, 72, 92, 101
Zambesi, 127 et seq.

Zanzibar,
3,
7,
Western Port, 152
122, 132
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY,
M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE TRAVEL BOOKS

Edited by P. F. ALEXANDER, M.A.
The aim of this new series is to illustrate the history of geographical discovery by means of select voyages and travels. They are usually written by the discoverer himself, or by an eye-witness who accompanied him on his journey. Apart from the results
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Exploration and Discovery

GIFT OF JANE K.SATHER

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

CLAY, MANAGER FETTER LANE, E.G. 100 PRINCES STREET

efo loth: G. P. Bombag, Calcutta anU JKafcras:

MACMILLAN AND DENT AND SONS, LTD.

All rights reserved

PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.

THIS experience in the teaching of an original

the outcome of several years' course on

World History and Geography, from a

fresh point of view,

books appended to of such reading.

The aim has

series of disconnected biographies,

are intended to supplement a

physical atlas, which

indispensable for this subject. have been drawn by Miss A. M. Gillett, to

very grateful acknowledgments are due.

of Liverpool University, kindly

based on a portolano in his care.

sketch-map, which is The author also desires

express his gratitude to

THE ANCIENT WORLD

THE DARK AGES AND THE VIKINGS

PRINCE HENRY THE NAVIGATOR

DA GAMA, AND THE ROUNDING

COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE

VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. VESPUCCI, . .. CABRAL, AND BALBOA

FERDINAND MAGELLAN AND THE FIRST VOYAGE ROUNP THE WORLD

THE NORTH-EAST PASSAGE.

JOHN HAWKINS AND THE EARLY VOYAGES OF

DRAKE'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD

THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. AND BAFFIN

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

VIKING SHIP (Bayeux Tapestry) JOURNEYS OF THE NORSEMEN. EIGHTH CENTURY .

MARCO POLO IN ASIA . THE CAPE ROUTE TO INDIA

between pp. 82 and 83

AUSTRALIAN EXPLORERS . . ROUTES OF MACKENZIE AND FRANKLIN

TABLE OF THE MORE IMPORTANT EVENTS TO WHICH REFERENCE IS MADE

Foundation of Carthage. Alexander the Great in Asia. 554. Caesar in Britain.

Friar Odoric in Asia.

Diaz rounds the Cape.

reaches India. Cabral reaches Brazil. Balboa views Pacific Ocean.

TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS

Dutch voyages on North, West, and South

Bruce discovers source of Blue

Outline sketch based on a Spanish portolano of the early Sixteenth Century

THE ANCIENT WORLD

look at an old map,. like the one opposite,

THE ANCIENT WORLD

Eventually, however, internations, a fact which

along the coasts of their country, but probably the

was bounded on the

the Phoenicians soon showed themselves to be able and venturesome.

from about 1500

THE ANCIENT WORLD

the Persian Gulf and south to Zanzibar.