Chapter 15 Modulus of Elasticity

15. MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

The modulus of elasticity (= Youngs modulus) E is a material property, that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of the most important properties of solid materials. Mechanical deformation puts energy into a material. The energy is stored elastically or dissipated plastically. The way a material stores this energy is summarized in stress-strain curves. Stress is defined as force per unit area and strain as elongation or contraction per unit length When a material deforms elastically, the amount of deformation likewise depends on the size of the material, but the strain for a given stress is always the same and the two are related by Hookes Law (stress is directly proportional to strain):

=E.
where

is stress [ MPa ] modulus of elasticity [MPa] strain [unitless or %]

From the Hooks law the modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of the stress to the strain :

E=

[MPa]

Stress is not directly measurable. We can calculate it from different formulas for different types of the loading (tension, flexural stress,) Strain is defined as the change of the length divided by the original (initial) length (see Fig.:38) :

l l1 - l0 = l0 l0

[unitless or

%]

where

l is change of the length [m] l1 l0

length after elongation [m] original (initial) length [m]

Fig.:38 Determination of the strain

l0
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Building Materials 10- Testing Methods

15.1 Graphical Determination of Modulus of Elasticity

Graphically we can define modulus of elasticity as a slope of the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram (see Fig.:39) Fig.:39 Graphical relationship between total strain, permanent strain and elastic strain

2
Load

E = tg

p permanent strain el
..elastic strain

Unload
part 0-1 : linear portion of stressstrain diagram

0 p

1 2 total

el

E = E1 =

2
part 1-2 : material

1 1

plastic regime of the

E = E2 =

2 2 2

The line, describing unloading process of material is parallel with the linear part of stress-strain diagram. It is evident from this, that we are able to determine modulus of elasticity even if the loading is in the unlinear part of the stress-strain diagram. In this case we cannot calculate with whole measured deformation (because part of the deformation is permanent), but we have to unload the material, measure the deformation after unloading and calculate with the difference between deformation in loaded and unloaded stage of material. Usually we dont know the exact shape of the stress-strain diagram of tested material before measuring and we dont know if the loading is in the linear or unlinear part of the stress-strain diagram. From this reason the process of the test consists of measuring in several loaded and unloaded stages.

15.2 Determination of Modulus of Elasticity

The method that have been used to measure modulus of elasticity are following: tension (or compression) test, bending test and natural frequency vibration test. The tension and bending test are based on the principle of Hooks law and they are called static methods. Measuring of the natural frequency of vibration gives dynamic modulus of elasticity. At our laboratory lesson we will determine static modulus of elasticity. The static method is based on pulling or bending a sample of the material in an instrument which measures force and measuring the changes of the length. The change of the length is usually very small (tenths hundredths of mm) and it is impossible to measure it by normal rules. For measuring are used special devices extensometers. There are several types of extensometers as mechanical or electrical strain gauges. page 80

Chapter 15 Modulus of Elasticity 15.2.1 Modulus of Elasticity in Tension The test piece is mounted in the tensile testing machine which allows measurable forces to be applied. As extensometer is used mechanical strain gauge. Tensile stress is counted from:

=
where F is A

F A

[MPa]

applied force [N] 2 cross sectional area [m ]

Mechanical strain gauge (see Fig.:40) has two contacting point. One point is firm and the second is movable. The distance between points is called gauge (or original) length. between points is device which measures spacing between them. This device should be a dial where the small straight motion of the point is transmitted into bigger rotary motion of the hand. usually there are two hands big hand showing divisions on main scale (centesimal or millesimal) and small hand, showing whole millimetres on auxiliary scale. The change of the length is count as difference between gauge reading in the state of loading and gauge reading in unloaded state. Fig.:40 Mechanical strain gauge

firm point

test piece dial gauge (original) length l0 movable point

15.2.2 Modulus of Elasticity in Flexural Stress The test piece is supported at either end and load (in a form of weights) is applied in the middle between the supports . As extensometer is used electrical resistance gauge. Flexural stress is counted from:

M W
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Building Materials 10- Testing Methods where M is W bending moment [ N. mm ] section modulus [ mm ]
3 2

Some basic examples of loading and appropriate formulas for bending moment and section modulus are given in tab.3 ( in chapter 3 ). The principal of electrical resistance gauge is based on the fact that a change in electrical resistance is proportional to the strain, i.e. R/R is function of . Electrical resistance gauge consists of a thin wire grid, fixed on foil (usually paper). The gauge is bonded to the strained surface of measured material by a thin layer of a special glue. (see Fig.:41). Fig.:41 Electrical resistance gauge

B C

A B C

tested material wire grid connected leads

D E

basic foil glue layer

The change of resistance is proportional to strain according formula: where l is R K length of the wire electrical resistance gauge factor

l 1 R = l K R

The ideal strain gauge would change resistance only due to the deformations of the surface to which the gauge is attached. However, in real applications, temperature, material properties, the adhesive affect the detected resistance. Internal influences (as materials properties of wire, type of used glue, size of the wire and the shape of the wire grid) are considered in gauge factor K. The external influences (the changes of the temperature and moisture) have to be considered in a type of measuring circuit. In order to measure strain with a bonded resistance strain gauge, it must be connected to an electric circuit that is capable of measuring the small changes in resistance corresponding to strain. Usually the Wheatstone bridge is used, this circuit is also well suited for temperature compensation. Wheatstone bridge is a four arm, four-terminal resistance measuring network.( see Fig.:42 ) page 82

Chapter 15 Modulus of Elasticity Fig.:42 Scheme of Wheatstone bridge

C R1 R2 Vin
If the formula:

R1 R3 = is valid and voltage R 2 R4

B Vout R3

Vin is applied between points A and C, then the output between B and D will show no potential difference = the Wheatstone bridge is balanced (the galvanometer between B and D shows zero). If R1 is changed to some value which does not equal R2, R3, R4, the bridge will become unbalanced and a voltage will exist at the output terminals.

R4

A
Measuring scheme by apparatus TSA is given in Fig.:43. Resistance R1 is a measuring gauge, bonded on tested material in the place of measured deformations. Resistance R2 is compensating gauge. It is the same type of gauge as R1, but bonded on non-loaded piece of material. It is used for temperature compensation, but not for strain measurement. The resistance changes due the temperature will have the same value for R1 and R2. This changes will cancel, because in the formula for balanced bridge resistances R1 and R2 are in ratio. Unbalance of the bridge will than caused only changes of R1 from deformations. Fig.:43 Measuring of modulus of elasticity by the electrical resistant gauge

Fi
compensating gauge

R1
measuring gauge

R2

R3

R4

0.057

variable resistance for balancing of the bridge

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Building Materials 10- Testing Methods Resistances R3 and R4 are the components of tensometric apparatus. R3 is adjustable and serves for nullification of gauge factor. Value of R3 can be set up in advance. Resistance R4 is a potentiometer (variable resistance), by it the bridge can be balanced again. The dial of the potentiometer has scale division straight in values of the strain.

15.2.3 Determining of the Basic Strain at Basic Loading From several reasons it is impossible to measure stress and strain in the low loading range (close to zero loading). Mechanical and electrical machines have lost motions (motion is initiated, but you dont see any results for some time), or there is a risk of the specimens falling-out from jaws. If we determine initial modulus of elasticity (i.e. from zero loading to the appropriate loading), we cannot measure deformations straight from zero loading, we begin to measure from some basic loading F0. We are able to determine basic part of deformations 0 (from zero to F1) from linear part of the stress-strain diagram (see Fig.:44 ) by calculation or graphically from similarity of triangles. Fig.:44 Extrapolation of stress-strain curve in the low loading range

i 1

1
1 i

0 1 1 0

basic stress (at F0 ) stress at loading F 1 strain at loading F 1 basic strain (from 0 to F 1 )

From sim ilarity of triangles:

0 = 1
0 1 i

F0 F1 - F0

Total strain at loading Fi is than :

i = 0 + i
where i is i 0 total strain from zero to appropriate loading Fi strain from F1 to appropriate loading Fi basic strain from zero to F1

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Chapter 15 Modulus of Elasticity

Tab.:36 Value of modulus of elasticity for some materials Material aluminium and its alloys ceramics concrete copper diamond lightweight concrete low alloy steels polystyrene silica glass wood Modulus of elasticity 65 - 73 8 - 12 15 - 40 125 1000 0,8 - 2 200 - 210 3,2 - 3,5 60 - 90 11-16 [GPa]

Vocabulary
balanced Wheatstone bridge compensating gauge dial strain gauge elastic strain electrical resistance strain gauge gauge factor initial modulus of elasticity lost motion measuring gauge mechanical strain gauge permanent strain slope stiffness strain strain gauge stress stress-strain diagram total strain Wheatstone bridge Wheatstonev mstek v rovnovze kompenzan tenzometr selnkov chylkomr prun (elastick) deformace elektrick odporov tenzometr konstanta tenzometru poten modul prunosti mrtv chod mc tenzometr mechanick tenzometr trval (plastick) deformace smrnice tuhost deformace tenzometr napt pracovn diagram celkov deformace Wheatstonev mstek page 85

Building Materials 10- Testing Methods

Fig.:45 Example of calculation of modulus of elasticity

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