Al-Andalus Exhibition: Exhibition Guide
Al-Andalus Exhibition: Exhibition Guide
Al-Andalus Exhibition: Exhibition Guide
CURRICULUM INTEGRADO
CONTENTS
AL-ANDALUS AND SCIENCE - STUDENT S GUIDE
WHAT ARE YOU GOING TO LEARN ABOUT? VISIT PLAN - SCHEDULE
STUDENT S GUIDE
FURTHER INFORMATION
REFERENCES AND WEBSITES VIDEOS
GLOSSARY
3. ALMORAVIDS AND ALMOHADS (1086-1232 AD/ 476-630 H.) To stop the advance of Christians, the Taifa Kingdoms asked for help to the Almoravids, a Bereber dynasty from the Sahara. They entered Al-Andalus, swept aside the Taifa Kingdoms and extended their empire throughout Al-Andalus. Later, Almohades took control of Al-Andalus, and established their capital in Seville. This dynasty went into decline from 1212 onwards after, and were defeated at Las Navas de Tolosa battle by Aragon and Castile Christian Kingdoms. 4. THE NASRID KINGDOM OF GRANADA (1232-1492 AD / 629-879H.) Ruled by the Nasrid dynasty, this was the last Muslim territory on the Iberian Peninsula and survive for 250 years despite of its political weakness. In 1492, after being conquered by Castile Kingdom the last Nasrid King, Boabdil (=Abu Abd Allah) left the Iberian Peninsula and settle in Northern Africa.
between the 8th and 15th centuries, and to underline significant scientific achievements in a variety of disciplines such us Astronomy, Agronomy, Mathematics, Pharmacology, Botany, Medicine and Navigation. A significant proportion of this knowledge clearly shows the extent of scientific collaboration between different communities, societies and religions, all of which were driven by a single purpose; the desire to discover and apply this knowledge for the benefit of mankind.
The 15th century Nasrid Granada (A Model): Knowing the Muslim city
Under the rule of Nasrids Granada was protected by a wall surrounding the city, with gates all around the medina (= Muslim city). The citadel of the Alhambra was on the top of a red hill (al-Hamra) protected by walls and towers. In Moorish Garnata (Granada) streets were narrow and winding. The heart of the city was the commercial area, around the Great Mosque, and featured the Alcaiceria, the old Arab bazaar where silk and other luxury goods were sold. There were too a large number of public baths and flour mills. Outside the city walls there were many almunias with gardens. At this time Granada had an estimated population of 70.000 people. The Medina was located in the centre of Garnata. This was a walled area including a wide variety of buildings such as the Great Mosque, other smaller mosques, souks or markets, the madrasa or former Islamic college, the Alcazar (governors residence) as well as baths. The medina was surrounded by suburbs called arrabales. The Arrabales sprung up outside the walled area when the city began to grow. They were sometimes given the name of the craftsmen community that inhabitated them. Each one had its own facilities and services (mosques, baths, souks...). The medina was surrounded and protected by walls. Walls were fortified by defensive towers and barbicans. Crossing the walls there were gateways with complex architectural structures featuring double doors or right angled bend. A city was as important as the number of gateways it had. Garnata had more than 30 of them; the finest were Puerta Elvira, Puerta de las Pesas and Puerta de Bibarrambla. As other Muslim big cities, Garnata had various cemeteries as well as one for Jews and another for Christians. Following Roman tradition, they were usually located outside the city walls, close to the main gates. Sometimes they were absorbed by growing cities. Granada had
six main cemeteries: the Puerta Elvira, Socaster, La Sabika, The Puerta de los Alfareros, Los Extranjeros y La Rauda. Mosques were religious buildings used by Muslims to worship. The quibla wall determines the direction in which mosques face and featured the mihrab, where the iman stand to lead prayers. A tower or minaret is the place used by muezzin (prayer caller) to call worshippers to prayer five times a day. Mosques also had a courtyard with a fountain for ablutions. The main mosque in the city or Aljama (in the same place of current Cathedral) was one of the over 200 mosques founded in Garnata. Public Baths were important buildings in Al-Andalus day-life; worshippers were required to wash themselves before praying. Public baths or hammam were similar to Roman hot baths and comprised four different rooms: a vestibule to put away the clothes, one cold bath room, one warm and the other hot. Granada should have many baths although only four have survived, the most important of these are The Bauelo. Houses were built in the Mediterranean style with an enclosed courtyard or patio. The exterior had usually few windows generally covered by lattice woodwork panels to prevent people looking from the outside. Water was supplied by several irrigation channels. The Aynadamar channel is believed to be the very first of them. They were also many aljibes, tanks used to store rainwater, in the city. Outskirts the city, there were the almunias, leisure estates with gardens and plantations. The finest of these estates belonged to the upper-class people. Almunias had an ornamental and aesthetic purpose as well as were farms to make money and trial grounds for the acclimatisation of seeds and crops from Middle East. The Maristan was a hospital used at first to treat all kind of illness, but at last used to care for the insane. In Granada, the maristan was founded in fourteenth century by the Nasrid sultan Muhammad V. It has many rooms, a spacious courtyard and stores. The madrasa was an Islamic college. Granadas madrasa was built in the middle of the fourteenth century by sultan Yusuf I. Here the most famous teachers and schoolmasters gave lessons on grammar, Arabic poetry, mathematics, astronomy, medicine and natural sciences. However, the most important were the study of the Koran. Subjects were taught orally and also involved the reading of core texts. Inside the medina the souk was the place for the economic activities (trade and craftsmanship). The Alcaicera was an enclosed area inside the souk, were goods were sold. During the Nasrids, the Alcaiceria in Granada was a commercial area dedicated to the trading of silk and other luxury goods. Alhondigas were used to store goods and provide lodges for merchants and traders. A fine example of them is the Corral del Carbn, which stands opposite the Alcaiceria and is the only surviving alhondiga in Spain.
----------------
---
SCIENCE IN AL-ANDALUS
Al-Andalus Pavilion takes a look at Islamic scientific legacy. It deals with disciplines such as trigonometry, combinatorial analysis and algebra. Calculus, along with astronomy and its instruments, is subject of special analysis, along with physics and optics. Geography, cartography, navigation and travel are also a major source of information. Not forgetting medicine, so closely linked with pharmacology, botany, alchemy and chemistry. Other sciences such us veterinary science, zoology, geology and music are also present in this Pavilion. Agronomy, architecture and the decorative arts are closely linked to the history of Al-Andalus, and are also present in this scientific dimension. From the Orient to the Occident, in the Middle Ages the Arabic-Islamic World rediscovered the knowledge and wisdom of Classical Greece and Rome and of the Ancient Orient. This knowledge was transmitted in Arabic and came to Europe through Italy and the Ibherian Peninsula, and through other contacts such as those established through the Crusades, trading exchanges and travels. Human movement, pilgrimages, the export of works and knowledge, were all common practice in the Mediterranean, so there were a multitude of books and scientific learning brought from Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Tunisia . Contrary to the current concept of specialisation, the learned men of that age would be specialists in various fields of science at the same time. Many of them knew about medicine, pharmacology and botany. Meanwhile, knowledge of mathematics, astronomy, optics and philosophy often also existed in parallel. The Arabs distinguished between the sciences linked to Islam and their own tradition and those that originated in other civilizations, which they called sciences of the ancients. This term helps us to understand the contribution made by Arabic science, through its roots, on the one hand in the Mediterranean in Classical Greece and Rome and on the other hand in the Orient from Mesopotamia to India and China. The classical legacy entered Arabic science through Greek translations, commissioned especially from the year 750 AD. Onwards under the second Abbasid Caliph, al-Mansur, the builder of Baghdad (754-775), assimilation and development of the classical legacy continued for a further three centuries. The legacy of classical Greece and Rome came to Al-Andalus by three main routes: From the Arabic Orient, through the contacts the Andalusians had with the central core of the Arab-Islamic culture to which they belonged. From the native people of the Iberian Peninsula, who stayed in Al-Andalus and kept their Latin culture active until the 10 th century. Trough relations with Byzantium, which were decisive in the 10th century, when the Byzantine Emperor sent the caliph of Cordoba the Materia Medica by Dioscorids and the History by Paulus Orosius. In the 1 century Hegira (8th century AD.), a process of development of knowledge began that was to bear important fruits, especially in the followings fields:
st
1.- Essential wisdoms Religious sciences and jurisprudence Language and Literature Geography: Descriptive geography Physical geography Cartography Accounts of travels History: Universal and dynastic chronicles Biographies 2.- Rational Sciences Physical sciences: Medicine Zoology and Veterinary Agronomy Botany Pharmacology Physics Optics Chemistry and Alchemy Geology Meteorology Philosophy: Logic Metaphysics Mathematics and geometry: Numbers and calculus Algebra geometry Astronomy: Observation and planetary theories Trigonometry Astronomical instruments Music: Theory and practice Instruments 3.- Applied sciences Mechanics Hydraulics Mineralogy Metallurgy Navigation
Architecture and construction techniques Other technologies (ceramics, glass, paper, textiles and others)
ASTRONOMY
The Arabic legacy in astronomy was the fruit of the assimilation of previous traditions (Mesopotamian, Hellenistic, Greek and Indian-Iranian) and their own original ideas, and is one of the most brilliant examples of a shared Mediterranean scientific heritage. This heritage is both intangible, in that it deals with ideas and vocabulary, including technical terminology and the names of stars, and tangible in that it is made up of manuscripts and instruments, which as the faithful companions of the astronomer accompanied him on a roundabout journey through the great scientific centres of the medieval Arab world, from Baghdad to Cordoba and from al-Andalus to Samarkand. Astronomers and observatories had access to quadrants, armillary spheres, astrolabes and other sophisticated instruments that enabled them to observe the heavens, draft theories, calculate tables and measure the time and, also to pray, fast, make pilgrimages and bury their dead as required by Islamic tradition.
MATHEMATICS
Arabic mathematics is the result of a juxtaposition and subsequent synthesis of different ancient legacies that were significantly enriched during the period of innovation that extended from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Geometry and number theory came from Greece. The decimal positional system was recovered from India. The procedures of calculus, measurement, calculation and problem solving came from Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and probably from the Iberian Peninsula as well. From these theoretical and practical contributions, original contributions were devised over the centuries: obtaining new results in ancient disciplines (geometry, number theory); the study of new mathematical objects (plane and solid figures, number series); the development of approximation methods; the creation of new disciplines. Some of these, like algebra and trigonometry, became autonomous with respect to other older disciplines. Others, such as combinatorial analysis and the construction of magic squares, remained largely undeveloped.
Measuring Time
On the Arabian Peninsula, as in the rest of the Middle East, a long time before the arrival of Islam there were already empirical methods of observing the sky, so as to measure the passage of time. In Islam, the Muslim calendar was lunar and the civil day began at sunset, with the result that the night always preceded the day to which it belonged. The mawaqit are the five moments in the day set for holy prayers. If greater precision is not required, they are taken as a reference point to designate any phase of the day or night. During the expansion of the Islamic Empire through the Grecian-Roman world, the Arabs discovered the solar quadrant and Muslim astronomers, who were interested in measuring time, began developing sundials and similar devices.
During the Middle Ages there were a number of important changes in navigation techniques that affected technical aspects of the vessels, in particular the introduction of the stern rudder (maybe from China), the triangular sail (allows for sailing against the wind) and the use of navigation charts together with a compass. Treatises and diagrams showing tides, the lunar mansions, etc. appeared to help ships on the right course. Considerable impetus was given to astronomical navigation in Al-Andalus. They were able to navigate without following the coastline, calculating latitude by the meridian height of the sun or the polar star. Instruments such as the compass, nocturnal astrolabe and nautical quadrants allowed sailors to establish their position, direction and speed.
WATER SYSTEMS
The water required for the irrigation system characteristic of agriculture in Al-Andalus was obtained using a generalized hydraulic system, which has left its mark on the Spanish language which uses numerous terms derived from Arabic such as: acequia (irrigation channel), alberca (water tank), aljibe (cistern or well) amongst others. Written sources and archaeology have given us an insight into the water system in Al-Andalus, and the way water was collected, distributed and used. This system was the result of a synthesis of Yemeni and Berber elements combined with those found locally. One of the most interesting methods of obtaining water from underground was trough perforated galleries. Both water and wind power have been used since ancient times and appear in Greek treatises translated into Arabic. The practical applications of water-power for irrigation or for moving things were developed in the Middle Ages, and the important role played by Al-Andalus can be seen in the Arabic roots of Spanish words such as noria (waterwheel) and acea (watermill). Watermills with wheels and trip-hammers were used by the people from Al-Andalus to remove the husk from rice, grind cereals, etc., and also for making paper.
MECHANICS
Mechanics
Books on mechanics by Archimedes, Apollonius and others were translated from Greek into Arabic, and practical mechanical applications varied greatly across the expanse of the Muslim world, with the Roman tradition that was technically so important being particularly influential. The best-known Arabic treatises on mechanical matters appeared between the 9th and the 16th centuries, beginning with the works of Banu Musa (Book of Ingenious Devices), which were
followed by other scholars such as al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna, al-Saati (= the clockmaker), and above all al-Djazari (13th c.) with A compendium on the theory and practice of the mechanical arts. In Al-Andalus, the treatise on automata by al-Muradi is particularly worthy of note.
CHEMISTRY
The Still
The use of the still (al-anbiq) was typical. It had three parts: the pumpkin (qara), containing the material that was to be distilled, which was heated using water vapour or fire, and then passed on to the cold still, where distillation took place before reaching the container (qabila). Several stills could be mounted at the same time reaching over a metre high.
OPTICS
Foremost amongst the Greek treatises on Optics translated into Arabic were those by Euclid and Ptolemy, whose old Arabic version was translated into Latin in Sicily (13 th cent.). In the 9th century al-Kindi became the first scientist to prove that light travelled in a straight line and he also made contributions on perspective. His work was translated into Latin in the 12th century under the title De aspectibus. Notable Arabic works on theoretical and applied Optics continued to be produced over the next four centuries. These dealt with reflection and refraction, eclipses, rainbows, vision and the propagation of light. The Latin versions made in the Iberian Peninsula show that their originals in Arabic must also have passed through al-Andalus. Ibn al-Haytam of Basora (11th cent.) is an outstanding example of rationality who refuted the theory espoused by Greek philosophers of the Spirit of vision. He also presented other new theories about visual perception and the properties of light and colours, combining
Ibn al-Haytam
physics, maths, physiology and psychology in his Book of Optics translated into Latin. Cited by Roger Bacon and other European theorists, who adapted his name to Alhazen, his works were also discussed by Persians and Turks. His epistle on burning mirrors De speculis comburentibus was translated into Latin in Toledo in the 12th century.
from the 16th century onwards to the rest of the Iberian Peninsula. Perhaps the most striking feature of this applied agronomy was the introduction of an irrigation-based system of agriculture and more specifically of intensive field production, which was something completely new and in marked contrast with what had existed hitherto. The improvements brought by irrigation were complemented with the introduction of new crops and the reintroduction of others that had been abandoned or forgotten, together with a more intensive use of land by reducing and at times eliminating fallow lands, with the result that in many areas there was now for the first time a summer harvest.
Species Cultivated
Country landscapes were greatly enriched with the introduction and acclimatization of new species from different parts of the Islamic world and the improvement and diversification of existing species. The first group included several species of particular interest: citric fruits (bitter orange, lemons, limes, citron fruit or a variety of grapefruit); some species for industrial use (mulberry, sugar cane, cotton, henna), fruit and vegetables (aubergines, artichokes, melons, water-melons) and others such as rice, pistachio nuts or date palms. In the second group there was an increase in the varieties of cereals (specifically wheat and millet) and fruit trees (apples, figs, pears, peaches, quinces, plums). Special attention was given to certain tree species (jujube trees- azufaifos) which are now relatively uncommon, but still form a traditional part of the landscape and culture of Granada.
Agricultural Techniques
Many techniques were proposed in these treatises for the different phases of the agricultural cycle, some of which could still be applied today: Preparation work: this involved levelling the land to prepare the ground and make it easier to irrigate and cultivate. This was followed by the fertilization of the soil by breaking it up, ploughing it and turning it over. Cultivation: grafting techniques highly developed in al-Andalus and with some surprising combinations, demonstrate that these agronomists had a profound knowledge of botany. These techniques had an obvious application in the improvement and the diversity of the species cultivated. The idea of pollination as a technique of sexual propagation was equally interesting. Fertilisers: the most commonly used fertilisers were of animal origin, including pigeon manure. As the agronomists themselves pointed out, the use of fertilisers from birds, rich in nitrates, or from young plant humus and manure, can transmit illnesses. They also recommended composts made with straw, manure and ash. Irrigation: The advances achieved in water collection and distribution were essential for the development of the new agriculture of al-Andalus, as they enabled a rationalization of what was highly-prized resource.
Pest/Weed control: certain techniques used for weed control based on competition
between species are most interesting and highly topical. Examples include the sowing of lupins which were later buried as a part of the fight against grama grass and other harmful weeds, the basis for modern weed control studies. Other techniques which were then considered to be of a magical nature are known today to have a rational explanation.
Medicine
There is a traditional form of medicine known as the Medicine of the Prophet. Arabic medical studies began around the end of the 8 th century, using the traditions of the Ancients, above all Galen and Hippocrates, as a base. The first medical texts in Arabic were written in the 9th century and their theoretical and experimental creativity continued for a further six centuries, as can be seen in a multitude of different works. Together with Mathematics and Astronomy, Medicine formed part of the triad of great Arabic contributions to Science, because of its philosophy, its advances in diet, hygiene and illness prevention, surgery, ophthalmology, drugs and hospital treatment. Experimentation was fundamental to these advances and for example, 14th century doctors from Granada faced with a number of serious epidemics came up with the theory of contagion. Al-Kindi anticipated the Law proposed by Weber (d. 1878) on the relationship between the dose of medicine and its effect. Ibn al-Nafis (13th c.) described pulmonary circulation, in a similar way to that proposed by Servet three centuries later. Arab contributions to medicine were extended and prolonged through translations into Latin, Hebrew and Romance languages.
Surgery
Surgery was a branch of medicine that flourished under the Arabs. Leading figures included Abu I-Qasim al-Zahrawi, or Abulcasis (in the Latinized form of his name) who lived in Madinat al-Zahra and Cordoba in the 10th 11th centuries. His Book for practising
(medicine) without having to consult any other texts has 30 volumes, and deals particularly with Pathology, Hygiene and Pharmacology. Volume XXX discusses cauterization, surgery and bone fractures and described the instruments used, some of which such as forceps were new.
th
Ophthalmology
From the 11 century onwards, Arabic ophthalmology, with Ali b Isa, a Christian from Baghdad, and Ammar de Mosul, offered a variety of new ideas (for example, suction of cataracts). His treatises were translated into Latin with contributions that have been essential for modern ocular pathology since the 18th century. The classification of materials into a basic Guide such as that produced by al-Gafiqi (12th c.) from Cordoba were precursors of those produced by modern ophthalmology,
th
Eminent Physicians
Al-Razi (10 c.), author of about 200 works, half of which were on medicine including his al-Hawi, an extensive work in 25 volumes, refers to the medical knowledge of the Greeks, Syrians, Arabs, Persians and Indians and adds his own shrewd observations and experiences. His work was translated into Latin by the Jewish doctor Farragut in 1279, and was printed on numerous occasions in Europe after 1486, Al-Razi also wrote essays on the doctorpatient relationship, hospitals, calculations etc. His study of small-pox and measles was the first written work on these illnesses, and was translated into Latin and other languages and printed about 40 times between 1498 and 1866. Many other physicians are mentioned in books entitled Categories of doctors such as that written by the Andalusian Ibn Djuldjul. We should also remember Avicena with his lengthy Canon of Medicine, that spread in Latin and Hebrew versions the Andalusian physicians Avenzoar and Averroes Eminent Jewish physicians such as Maimonides also wrote in Arabic.
Hospitals
Hospitals treatment, promoted by the Government, was an integral part of Arabic medicine, from the 8th century onwards. There are records of eight hospitals in mediaeval Baghdad; three in Damascus, and three more in Aleppo; five in Cairo, at least one in Mosul, Jerusalem, Gaza, Mecca, Medina, Alexandria, Tunis, Fez, Marrakech and Granada. Many eminent physicians had links with these hospitals or maristanes.
ZOOLOGY
The Arabs knowledge of zoology and veterinary science also included some basic concepts of Greek and Roman origin among others. They also made their own discoveries which they then passed on: a good example is the zoological part of the voluminous
encyclopaedia by Avicena, al-Sif, which was translated for King Frederick II of Sicily (approx. 1230) by Michael Scot under the Latin title of Abbreviatio Avicennae de animalibus. There were plenty of Books on animals in Arabic and more practical references could be found in agricultural treatises on the productivity and care of domestic animals. All of these writings contain a large variety and amount of real and symbolic zoological information, which was also presented in the images of animal frequently portrayed in different art forms and works.
ARCHITECTURE
Around the mosque lay commercial areas or zocos, this extended down the main thoroughfares and linked the aljama to the city gates. Shops and workshops were grouped by activity, with some located on the periphery for health reasons. With direct access to the area outside the city, there might be walled enclosures or fortresses (alcazaba), where the local power resided. At times, neighbourhoods or shantytowns developed with their own structures like those in the medina mosques, neighbourhood markets, baths, etc., all protected by successive rows of walls. In the earliest phases of its development, the city would have wide open spaces which, as the population grew, were filled with the production of craftwork and buildings. The cities had different systems for supplying water, at time using irrigation ditches and channels from outside the city. In most cases, water was obtained from wells or cisterns inside the cities. When the supply was sufficient, the city had a sewer system.
Construction techniques
Muslim civilization took advantage of construction techniques and forms of different origins. In al-Andalus, Roman and even earlier forms of construction were still in use, along with new arrivals from the East, some of which underwent important subsequent development. Of the pre-existing techniques, some like stonecutting were only in limited use at the time, becoming less common in the 11th century, despite its widespread use in the 10 th century, especially in Cordoba. Constructions with brick and adobe (uncooked bricks) were among those most used in public and domestic architecture. Of the traditional techniques in the Mediterranean that were most widely developed in al-Andalus and northern Africa, doubtless the most important was the technique of rammed earth (in Spanish, tapial), which consisted of using moulds or wooden frames to make walls of rammed earth, a mixture of earth, aggregates and other stabilisers like calcium or gypsum, creating a real concrete. Innovative techniques reached al-Anadlus from Persia and Iraq, usually related to the use of a material that was very abundant both here and there, but that had not been taken advantage of before: plaster. Its use for finishing surfaces and embellishment was widespread, taken advantage of its easy carving, and it was also used as a conglomerate in stone, brick and rammed earth constructions. Some exceptional techniques reduced or eliminated the use of auxiliary structures like formwork and moulds to hold up arches and vaults during the construction process, common in areas that were low on wood. This led to the development of ribbed brick vaults with plaster mortar, a technique already known in Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia, and timber vaults in al-Andalus, starting in at least the 12th century and widely used even today. Without a doubt, the shining example of the synthesis of European structural influences and Islamic decorative influences is found in woodwork. Designed to build cover structures
that would be visible from inside, this technique was developed in the Christian areas on the Peninsula with spectacular results for several centuries after al-Andalus. It required the extensive application of geometry, using simple formulas to design structures and yet was easy to do, despite the spectacular and complex results. In addition to woodwork, ornamental architecture also featured the use of carved plaster in different compositions (geometric, floral and epigraphic) and the use of glazed pottery, applied in pieces that were cut to form mosaics with compositions that were largely geometric, simulating intertwined bows and creating works of exquisite beauty.
Mining Centres
Metallurgy developed near miming centres. Metals and alloys were produced, the main ones being silver, copper, lead, mercury and, specially, iron. At the mine al Almaden, so-called xabeca, ovens (for reducing cinnabar to mercury) were manufactured and in use until almost the end of the 16th century. The iron mines were concentrated in the mountain ranges of Seville and Cordoba and to a lesser extent in the Sierra Menera (Teruel), Zenete (Granada), the Montes de Toledo and Castelln. Copper came from Granada, Almeria, Toledo and Huelva (Rio Tinto and Tarsis) and Ajustrel (Portugal). The mine at Almaden was the principal source of cinnabar and mercury. Lead and silver mining was concentrated in the mountain ranges of Cordoba and Cartagena, the Montes de Toledo, Granada and Almeria. Alum mines for the textile and leather industries were located above all at Cabo de Gata
(Almeria), Mazarrn (Murcia) and Rio Tinto (Huelva). The minting of coins was very important and fine metallurgy techniques for gold and silver developed to that end. The main gold mining centres in al-Andalus were at the Darro and Genil Rivers (Granada) and the Segre River (Lerida). Quarries with clay, gypsum, lime and decorative rocks were spread across the area, but the most important were found in Constantina (Seville), Macael (Almera), Montemayor (Malaga), Los Almadenes (Murcia) and Tarragona. Salt mines, such as those at Cadiz, Saragossa and La Malaha, were also quite important. The geographer al-Idrisi -12th c.- describes the mercury and cinnabar mines (about 400 metres deep), he visited in Obejo, a days journey north of Cordoba, [whose products] are exported all over the world. Over a thousand men work here, some going down the shafts to cut the stone, others transporting wood for the combustion of the mineral, others with the vessels in wich the mercury is melted and sublimed, and others with the furnaces and the fire.
Coin Making
Another important side of the material industry was coin making. Coins were an instrument of fiscal authority, issued under a monopoly system and in large quantities by almost all the successive States of al-Andalus, and represented their power. In general, they coined gold dinars and silver dirhams, with occasional fall-backs into low alloys and copper coins (felus). The coining process was carried out in the Royal Mint (dar aikka: from which Spanish word ceca is derived), and the various workmen involved included an engraver (naqqas), as the coins were adorned with expressive lettering and decorations.
Military Technology
War played a central part in medieval society in the Iberian Peninsula. As a result, there were great developments in armaments, which were put to use by Christians and Muslims alike. There were various types of arms, offensive ones such as swords, lances, bows and crossbows, as well as defensive weaponry such as shields and helmets. Siege machines were also produced and included wooden towers, catapults and gunpowder weapons including muskets, large-bore cannons and smaller cannons.
Weapons
The Arabs used a variety of metal-based offensive and defensive weapons (swords, lances and spears, maces, bows and cross-bows, arrows, shields, helmets and chain mail). These came in different shapes,
types and qualities and the way they were forged was highly valued. In his Epistle on Swords, the 9th century philosopher al-Kindi describes two kinds of iron, natural and manufactured. He divides the first kind into hard and light, plus the combination of the two forged together. The manufactured kind, he says, is steel; it is manufactured with iron; and during casting a purifier is added which tempers it until it becomes hard and flexible, and can be worked in the fire.
Gunpowder
A variety of projectiles were shot with catapults (mandjaniq). In the Nasrid Emirate of Granada they used primitive cannons known in Arabic as naphtha devices which were fired with gunpowder (barud): Emir Ismail I besieged the frontier town of Huscar in 1324 A.D./724 H., as recounted by the Vizier Ibn al-Khatib: he surrounded the town completely, lined up his troops for the attack and fired with a powerful device that worked with naphtha throwing flaming balls at a small window of an inaccessible tower in the fort and produced effects like those produced by rays of lightning that fall from the sky.
Pottery
There must have been a significant amount of production in al-Andalus, judging from the archaeological, artistic and monumental remains, producing notable techniques, pieces and styles which evolved with great personality, and products for export. The techniques and features would live on in Mudejar and Moorish pottery and extend across the Peninsula, especially green-and-brown ware (in Teruel, Peterna, Manresa) and blue ware (in Teruel, Calatayud, Paterna, Manises, Barcelona, Fajalauza and more). Al-Andalus brought together eastern and indigenous ceramic traditions. The most significant innovation in al-Anadalus was glazing. Known in Roman times, it came to alAnadalus from Persia and required the application of techniques like lead- and tin-glazing, wall tiling, the dry line or cuerda seca technique and lusterware. The green-and-brown technique, characteristic of the pottery from the Omeya Caliphate, was tin-glazed. Dry line began to be used in al-Andalus in the 10th century: the design was outlines with a line of manganese and oil, separating the pigments, and then glazed in a second firing. The prestigious lusterware or loza dorada arrived in al-Andalus from the East in the th 10 century. During the Nasrid Emirate, Malaga (which gave its name to this pottery, Malicha or Malica) produced magnificent examples (like the famous Alhambra vases). The piece, fired one, was submerged in lead and tin sulphide and then decorated with cobalt oxide (which produced blue over the tin glazing). The lustre was the result of applying silver, copper and mercury sulphides and iron and alum oxides before firing the piece a third time (at 650). From the 14th century on, these techniques was exported to Manises and Paterna and spread across Aragon, Catalonia and Murcia.
about the origin of this enormous production of everyday and luxury crockery by analysing the components. Two types of kiln: single-chamber with kiln bars; double-chamber with vertical flue.
Glasswork in al-Andalus
Arabic writers describe glass as one of the most outstanding products of al-Andalus in the Middle Ages. Ibn Sad al-Mafribi (13th century), for example referred to glass producers in Malalga and Almeria, and said that Murcia was renowned for the manufacture of glass and ceramics; from both materials they make large vessels in the most elegant and exquisite shapes. In spite of these references showing glass objects, until recently very few glass pieces from the alAndalus period had been discovered, apart from a few fragments found in excavations such as those carried out at the beginning of the 20th century in Madinat al-Zahra. This began to change with the increase in mediaeval archaeology, although our knowledge of this particular field is still very limited in comparison with what we know about other art forms produced in al-Andalus.
FABRICS
Fabrics
The rich fabrics of Tiraz, which were used for ceremonial occasions, were first brought to Cordoba by the Emir Abd al-Rahman II (822-852). During the Ummayad and subsequent
periods, the production of Tiraz in the palace workshops became very important as did other luxury industries. The veil of Hisham II, Caliph of Cordoba, survives today. The fabrics were either simple or compound, depending on the number of wefts or warps. Simple fabrics included taffeta, serge and satin. Fabric manufacturing was very important in the mediaeval Islamic world, and fabric production and trade was a great source of employment and wealth. The geographer al-Idrisi -12th c.- praised the 800 workshops in Almeria which had a highly varied production. The high esteem in which the textile industry was held is shown by the large number of al-Andalus fabrics mentioned or conserved in different parts of mediaeval Europe, some of which survive to this day, such as those kept in the Museum of Las Huelgas (Burgos). Another significant fact is the number of Spanish words derived from Arabic that are used to describe fabrics such as: algodn (cotton), alvex, balda quino (baldachin), cendal (sandal), cenefa (stripe, trimming), damasquino (damask), gasa (gauze)
Silk
Silk, which original in China and was known in both Rome and Byzantium, was also made in different parts of al-Andalus, becoming one of its most important products nad reaching its peak in the Nasrid Emirate of Granada. At the time of expansion of Islam, the use of cotton (al-qutn) already stretched from India to Persia and it soon became a material characteristic of al-Andalus. Fine strips of gold (or gilded silver) were entwined with silk threads, forming the highly prized oropel fabric.
WRITING (For Writing Down and Transmitting Information: Papyrus, Parchment and Paper)
Parchment
Ancient scribes wrote on a variety of different materials until papyrus, and above all parchment came to the fore. Ibn al-Nadim (10thc.) explained the very ancient technique of tanning animal hides until surfaces suitable for writing were obtained. These were used in Arabic from the 7th century onwards and survived to some extent right up until the 16 th century. Sometimes the hides were dyed to enhance them, as happened with the blue parchment kept in Qayrawan. Once the parchments were cut and sewn together, they could form a book.
Paper
The great Chinese invention of paper spread across the territories of Islam and reached Tunis from Samarkand at the end of the 9th century. It was of enormous importance as it
reduced the cost of writing materials and so a huge scale as shown by the millions of manuscripts produced since. The paste used by the Arabs as a base for paper was above all made of flax and cloth. The bibliophile Caliph al-Hakam II promoted the use of paper in al-Andalus, and sheet of paper from the end of the 10th century is still kept in great library in the Qarawiyyin of Fez. Although paper was manufactured in many different places, the paper mad in Xtiva (which used rice or wheat starch and very slight watermark lines) was particularly admired. From alAndalus and Sicily, the use and manufacture of paper spread across Europe. This enabled book production to multiply and was an essential cultural motor, a cultural revolution, in a similar way to printing centuries later and electronics today.
MUSIC
The Moors introduced the following musical instruments into Europe: the lute (ud), psaltery (qanun), viol (rabab), flute (nai), horn or trumpet (nafir), tambourine (duff) and the kettledrum or drum (tabl), etc. The most popular and original musician in al-Andalus was Ziryab (c. 9th). He was responsible for adding the fifth string to the classical lute. Musical instruments were made by specialist carpenters.
Musical Theories
The flourishing of music was another important aspect of the culture of al-Andalus with local traditions being merged with Arabic or Oriental styles as a result of the arrival in the area of musicians and slave singers. There are a variety of documentary sources about music and musicians, with treatises by al-Andalus academics (9th15th centuries) describing both theoretical and practical aspects. Iconographic images and musical instruments recovered from archaeological excavations show the wide variety of instruments and the way they were played.
Musical theorists from al-Andalus knew and referred to musical works by Orientals such as al-Kindi, al-Farabi, ikhwan al-Safa, Avicena with all their variants, profane music of a classical nature (nawba), popular music and Sufi music, which show musics recreational, aesthetic and functional facets and its relationship with poetry. The spread of Andalusi music throughout the Maghreb has ensured its survival to this day.
FURTHER INFORMATION
REFERENCES AND WEBSITES
http://www.alandalusylaciencia.es/visita-al-pabellon/ http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/scienceislam/legacy.php http://www.islamawareness.net/Maths/science_and_math.html
VIDEOS
1001 Inventions and The Library of Secrets - starring Sir Ben Kingsley as Al-Jazari Presentacin de 1001 inventos islmicos que cambian el mundo, en ingls, dificultad mediaalta. En plan peliculita. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZDe9DCx7Wk&feature=related 1001 Inventions: Pioneers of Science and Technology Otra presentacin de la misma exposicin: algunos ejemplos, espectacular. El ingls es muncho ms clarito... y explica las norias. Muy recomendable! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vtgkcz87XbA&feature=related Discovering Maths at The Alhambra in Al-Andalusia / 2 bueno como presentacin y fcil de seguir. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8amCqoOye4 [1/7] What The Muslims Did For Us Bastante bien, es una serie seria de la BBC. Diccin impecable y relativamente fcil de entender. Este es el primer captulo, pero te proporciona los enlaces para poder continuar con
los otros 7. Merece la pena! http://www.youtube.com/watch?annotation_id=annotation_49049&v=eYdFdjPUq6s&feature=i v When the Moors (Muslims) Ruled Europe: Documentary (full) Fcil comprensin, interesante, pero a veces cae en tpicos, para ver en partes (dura 1h 42). Del 412 al 1232: muy interesante explicacin de la armona constructiva en la Alhambra a partir de series de rectngulos proporcionales. Through interviews with noted scholars, youll see how Moorish advances in mathematics, astronomy, art, and agriculture helped propel the West out of the Dark Ages and into the Renaissance. Conduced by Bettany Hughes (born 1968), an English historian, broadcaster and writer. http://www.youtube.com//watch?v=PM8HnvuKbAo [5/11] When Muslims Ruled in Spain (Astronoma = astrolabio) Del comentado ms arriba, slo la parte dedicada al astrolabio. El ingls resulta fcil de seguir. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2sve8x8eQAw&feature=related
--------
VIDEOS in SPANISH
--------
+x-.Arte Geomtrica en espaol buena introduccin a las cuestiones de matemticas, geometrra y arte islmico. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ls53O75VVH8&feature=related +x- 3. La geometra se hace arte (a-b).f4v la geometra en la Alhambra, muy interesante, este es ms bien una introduccin. Espaol. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0DP_kH2S0TI&feature=related +x- 3. La geometra se hace arte (b-b).f4v En espaol. Los 17 grupos cristalogrficos del plano y particin peridica del plano: no os desanimis, es muy fcil http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJhR6A_D9Yg +x- 13. Matemticas y realidad.avi en espaol interesante aplicacin de los grupos geomtricos de la alhambra a proyectos de estudiantes de arquitectura http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QS_jw5rwvhM
NEW WORD.... ACHIEVEMENT BRICK CARVED CHESS COTTON CRAFTSMAN CRAFTSMANSHIP DEVICE DRAFT ENABLED FABRICS GLASS GRID GUNPOWDER HARBOUR HEGIRA HEIGHT HERITAGE HOUSEWARE LUSTERWARE MEASURE
GLOSSARY
ITS MEANING.... IT SOUNDS LIKE....
logros, avances ladrillo Tallado, modelado ajedrez algodn artesano artesana Instrumento, aparato, borrador capacit, permiti tejido vidrio, cristal cuadricula , rejilla, red plvora puerto HEGIRA altura legado, herencia ajuar domstico cermica de brillo metlico medida
NEW WORD.... MEASUREMENT NOTEWORTHY OVEN PATTERN PILGRIM PILGRIMAGE PORTOLAN CHARTS POTTERY POWDER RANGE RAW MATERIALS SALT SHAPE SILK STERN-POST STILL SUNDIAL TILE TO ACHIEVE TO ALLOY TO COAT TO COVER TO DISPLAY TO DYE TO GRAFT TO LEVEL TO MEASURE TO MELT TO MINT TREATISE VAULT
ITS MEANING.... medicin notable horno patrn (~ modelo) peregrino peregrinacin PORTULANO cermica polvo cordillera / rango (intervalo) materias primas sal forma seda mstil alambique reloj de sol azulejo, baldosa lograr, conseguir alear revestir cubrir, forrar desplegar, exhibir teir, tintar injertar nivelar medir fundir, derretir acuar tratado bveda
IT SOUNDS LIKE....
NEW WORD.... VESSEL WATER SYSTEM WATERWHEEL WEAPONS WISDOM WOODWORK WORSHIP
ITS MEANING.... nave, navo / vasija hidralica noria armas sabidura ebanistera , carpintera culto, adoracin
IT SOUNDS LIKE....
IES ALBAYZN