Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering

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The typology of courtyard space in Najdi

Architecture, Saudi Arabia: a response to human
needs, culture, and the environment

Mohammed Mashary Alnaim

To cite this article: Mohammed Mashary Alnaim (2023): The typology of courtyard space in
Najdi Architecture, Saudi Arabia: a response to human needs, culture, and the environment,
Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, DOI: 10.1080/13467581.2023.2229399

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2229399

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa

UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group on behalf of the Architectural
Institute of Japan, Architectural Institute of
Korea and Architectural Society of China.

Published online: 29 Jun 2023.

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JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING
https://doi.org/10.1080/13467581.2023.2229399

ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING AND DESIGN

The typology of courtyard space in Najdi Architecture, Saudi Arabia: a

response to human needs, culture, and the environment
Mohammed Mashary Alnaim
Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study seeks to identify the significant characteristics of the traditional Najdi courtyard in Received 29 March 2023
Saudi Arabia in order to comprehend the typology and applicability of courtyard patterns in Accepted 21 June 2023
Najdi dense urban neighborhoods. The study includes a literature review that investigates the KEYWORDS
socio-cultural influences on courtyard typology and the typological implications of courtyard Najd; courtyard; typology;
residences at both the building and urban scales. The study also includes a case study of six Saudi Arabia; vernacular
Najdi courtyard residences in three settlements in the central region that analyzes the patterns, architecture
characteristics, and spatial qualities of these courtyards. The ethnographic approach is used to
observe and document a culture, society, or other phenomenon related to the study objectives
through participant observation and interviews, as well as making use of the Space Syntax
“justified access graphs” method to understand and examine the organization and spatial
order of the traditional dwelling. The study indicates that the courtyard acts as a holistic space
and place within the home; however, the features of individual courtyards may vary based on
geographical and environmental setting. The conclusion of the research is that courtyard
typologies have the capacity to satisfy the enduring cultural, social, and climatic demands of
residents and hence might be implemented in contemporary urban contexts. The findings of
this research suggest that courtyard typology has the potential to create an environment of
comfort, privacy, and special efficiency for modern urban households.

1. Introduction
element in the overall layout of a dwelling, allowing
The courtyard, derived from the Latin word “cohors,” for ventilation and light into the interior spaces while
which means “enclosure,” is an open space within a still maintaining visual privacy.
building or group of buildings (Nelson 2014). In hot, As an architectural element, the courtyard is often
dry climates such as the Middle East, North Africa, and seen as a transitional space between the public and
Southern Europe, the courtyard is an essential compo- private domain. It serves as a reflection of the cultural
nent of vernacular architecture (Hakim 1986). It is typi- traditions of inhabitants, providing a physical repre-
cally enclosed by walls or structures on all sides, which sentation of their values. However, defining traditions
creates a microclimate that can be managed to satisfy can be controversial, as cultural traditions description
the needs of its users in terms of both the environment is a bridge to set of various ideas that are constantly
and social interaction (Memarian and Brown 2003). evolving, and formally influence our daily decisions. It
Due to its multipurpose functions, which include pas- is controversial to the point of being critical to have a
sive cooling, natural ventilation, daylighting, and social definite concept as each discipline approaches the
interaction, the courtyard has become a popular fea- term from a different perspective. However, UNESCO
ture in both residential and public buildings (El- defines “intangible cultural heritage” as traditions
Shorbagy 2010). which are usually transmitted and expressed in physi-
Courtyard space has been an integral part of tradi- cal forms “the totality of tradition-based creations of a
tional dwellings for centuries. It is a place where families cultural community, expressed by a group or indivi-
can come together and enjoy the privacy of their own duals and recognized as reflecting the expectations of
home while still being connected to the outdoors. The a community in so far as they reflect its cultural and
layout of these spaces is designed in such a way that it social identity” (UNESCO 2001). It is critical as through
provides a sense of security and comfort to its inhabi- time, the traditions begin to evolve and take different
tants. Thus, courtyard spaces are often seen as an out- steps and merge with other traditions in a society to
door extension of the family’s home, providing them form a hybrid of different and newly introduced tradi-
with a place to relax and spend quality time with each tions. Therefore, traditions can be both diverse and
other. The courtyard also serves as an important dynamic, and thus it is important to understand how

CONTACT Mohammed Mashary Alnaim mm.alnaim@uoh.edu.sa Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of
Hail, Hail, Saudi Arabia
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group on behalf of the Architectural Institute of Japan, Architectural Institute of Korea and
Architectural Society of China.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which
permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been
published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 M. M. ALNAIM

this diversity contributes to the unique cultural identity family dwelling units into more “modern” built forms,
of a society. We can say that traditions are “dynamic” and (in sum) offering a more efficient and metropolitan
rather than steadfast and static, and by understanding way of life. Despite this rapid shift in urban planning,
this dynamism, it becomes crucial to the assessment much of old Riyadh was spared initially. Indeed, the
and development of the architecture of a given traditional architectural style of the residential districts
society. (inspired by the architecture of the traditional Nadji
Beyond the courtyard architectural advantages, this settlements) was kept far into the 1960s, and a few
space also offers a range of social and psychological winding streets lined with mud dwellings may still be
benefits that can enhance the quality of life for inha- seen today. Even so, the implementation of the new
bitants, these benefits may include privacy, social inter- master plan irrevocably changed the nature of Riyadh,
action, outdoor living, connection to nature, and modernizing the city and reducing or outright elimi-
cultural identity. According to Bekleyen and Dalkil nating much of its cultural (heritage) architecture that
(2011), the privacy of Turkey courtyards provided a had defined it for decades, if not centuries.
sense of enclosure for its inhabitants, separating the This study suggests that understanding the compo-
private realm of the home from the public realm of the sition of the traditional Saudi dwelling (overall) is a
street. This contributed to creating a sense of security prerequisite to studying the role and importance of
and comfort for occupants in the courtyard space, the courtyard space in the traditional Saudi dwelling’s
particularly in densely populated urban environments. formation. By understanding the composition of the
This led the space to serve as communal areas where traditional Saudi dwelling, we can gain insights into
residents can gather, socialize, and engage in various how the courtyard space contributes to the dwelling’s
activities (Lee and Park 2015). This fosters a sense of overall architectural design and spatial formation. This
community and social cohesion among neighbors, understanding is essential to modern Saudi architec-
promoting a sense of belonging and well-being. tural practice and urban design in the Kingdom in
To understand the role and importance of the pre- order to ensure that traditional elements of the Saudi
sence of the courtyard space in the traditional dwell- home, such as the courtyard, are not lost and are
ing, we need to look at both the tangible and instead incorporated into modern home design in
intangible dimensions in order to comprehend the both a functionally-efficacious and culturally-rele-
process of making the built environment. Also, we vant way.
need to evaluate the multiple layers of building pro- The placement of the courtyard is not spontaneous,
cesses that a built environment passed through to and its placement is not necessarily in the center of the
arrive at its current state. To appreciate a built environ- house. The courtyard’s placement incorporates several
ment’s final shape, we must appreciate the traditions considerations: the dwelling’s position within the sur-
of its inhabitants, as well as its inhabitants themselves. rounding built environment, the dwelling’s shape, its
Despite the use of modern building techniques, until spatial organization, its physical features, and (cru-
the year 1960 the central region, still relied on local cially) socio-cultural influences (Figure 1). Therefore,
materials in the traditional environment in its construc- this study examines the several factors that shaped
tion. This reliance was, in part, because of the eco- the traditional courtyard space in different traditional
nomic constraints that people faced and the need to settlements within the central region of Saudi Arabia; i.
rely on locally available resources. That is why the walls e., the “Najd” region’s traditional settlements. The
(in most floors and roofs) came to be solid and com- objective is to examine the physically (tangible) and
pact to preserve the privacy of its inhabitants and to culturally (intangible) significance of the courtyard
encompass the necessities of social and religious space in the Najdi traditional dwelling.
beliefs in the region. The courtyard, therefore, became
the central space that connected the solid structure of
2. Literature review
the dwelling to the surrounding environment and its
inhabitants. Traditional architecture refers to all buildings from
Due to a contract negotiated in 1968 with an inter- the past that have survived to the current day
national consulting firm to develop a master plan for (Oliver 1989). Traditional structures are those with
Riyadh City, the downfall of courtyard houses in the historical connections (Bourdier and Alsayyad 1989).
central region was a clear result. The master plan was They are considered to be a constructed representa-
implemented four years later, covering an area of 304 tion of heritage that is passed down from genera-
square kilometers. It radically altered the nature of the tion to generation, typically the work of ordinary
city and laid the groundwork for a new, modern Riyadh people without professional assistance (Edwards et
which intentionally eschewed the development of al. 2006; Noble 2007). As a result, traditional archi-
courtyard dwellings, among other aspects of the tecture provides us with an understanding of how
plan. The master plan proposed the segregation of past societies and cultures created a sense of iden-
the city into land use zones, redeveloping traditional tity and belonging.
 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 3

Figure 1. Factors shaping the courtyard space. Source: Author.

A “courtyard” is commonly defined as an area nature and local culture is encapsulated in Rapoport’s
enclosed on the sides and open on top that is located notion of regional architecture, which focuses on the
in the center of a structure or collection of structures. buildings’ integration with the landscape, their func-
In his book “Dwellings: The House Across the World,” tional appropriateness to the climate, and their harmo-
Paul Oliver reports that courtyard dwellings have deep nious relationship with existing structures. It is a form
roots in history, and examples have been unearthed in of architecture that is context-specific, emphasizing
Kahun, Egypt, that are thousands of years old, some as building techniques and materials derived from the
far back as 2000 B.C (Oliver 2007). As one of the oldest local environment, as well as considerations such as
architectural components, architects have shown an the use of space and scale in alignment with various
appreciation for courtyards for a variety of reasons. socio-cultural values (Sthapak and Bandyopadhyay
The courtyard plan provides inhabitants with an 2014).
important space solution, while it also provides a Courtyards are classified as “transitional space”,
sense of cultural continuity. which is a sort of architectural space which make
Therefore, the courtyard space is distinguished by them “in-between” spaces in the final formation of
its plan structure and the interaction of masses with the dwelling (Taleghani, Tenpierik, and van den
one another, and it is an important component of the Dobbelsteen 1986). These transitional spaces can be
spatial arrangement of a home that can be on the side, broadly classified based on the dwelling location
in the front, or ensconced centrally within the home within the built environment, where different types
(Erarslan 2020). This arrangement of masses plays a may emerge “in-between” to support courtyard func-
significant role in giving the courtyard its unique iden- tionality, such as serving as an arcade, patio, corridor,
tity and character, creating a sense of space and place etc., allowing them to provide a variety of functions
that determines how the user interacts with the space, that vary depending on the context in which they exist
making it both a public and private area, depending on (Al-Hafith et al. 2017). Thus, it is a meaningful space
the context (Zhang 2020). In essence, the courtyard is within dwellings that can bridge the gap between
more than just a physical space; it is an open environ- indoors and outdoors.
ment in which its users can interact, relax, and appreci-
ate their surroundings.
2.1. Courtyard space in the Saudi context
Rapoport characterizes regional architecture as
devoid of organizational or aesthetic sense of super- In Islamic society, the dwelling courtyard is a multi-
iority, in connection with the landscape and climate. functional place that caters to the many social and
Being in sync with other structures in terms of the cultural needs of the residence (Alnaim 2006). As the
respect shown to the surroundings as a whole and public and private worlds were intertwined in Islamic
being open to change within a specific framework culture, the courtyard allowed for a balance between
(Rapaport 2007; Rapoport 1969). This respect for privacy and socialization (Akbar 1982). Thus, it serves
4 M. M. ALNAIM

as the focal point of family gatherings that provides a providing privacy for the family, while also providing
link between the family and the community, function- shade, protection from dusty winds, as well as func-
ing as outdoor space while also allowing interaction tioning as a source of natural light and ventilation. This
with private visitors. These important functions led the makes the other functional components of the dwell-
courtyard to be a crucial part of Islamic family life and ing as supportive complements to reach the courtyard
culture. its main function within the house.
In general, traditional dwellings in Saudi Arabia in As a result, front, middle, and back are the three
the Nadji region form homes adjacent to one another sections that encompass the traditional house compo-
and are compacted, conveying a sense of housing nents (Alnaim 2021). The courtyard area is mostly
clusters, where the closeness is considered one of the located in the center (middle) of the dwelling and is
main characteristics of the traditional settlements in referred to as the “tummy” (Arabic: batn al-hawi) by
the desert environment. Cities usually consist of resi- Najdi locals. Residents set aside this area for their
dential blocks where each residential block consists of personal and family use. Locals referred to this area
several houses, and because the buildings are adjacent as the “core space” because of its central location and
in each block, the residents form a binding agreement primary purpose. One of the courtyard’s most essential
through common and shared walls and how these features is its capacity to naturally ventilate and cool
walls are used and built (Akbar 1998; Husin 2016). adjoining interior spaces while also providing natural
Thus, social factors played a prominent role in shaping lighting without the need for exterior openings (e.g.,
the dwelling and the built environment around it, as street-facing windows). This is especially important
the tribal social system led to the adhesion and dialo- since the length of “the typical dwelling” external
gue of the buildings and their convergence. Also, the façade is significantly constrained by the condensed
layout of each traditional dwelling was directed com- urban form. Windows to the outside are scarce in this
pletely inward, with the courtyard as the main inner situation, and where they do exist, inhabitants turn the
private space of the dwelling (Alnaim et al. 2023). windows away from one another to prevent any
The traditional dwelling in such a context is divided potential visual corridors (Ragette 2012). As a result,
into three main parts (private, semi-private, and semi- the courtyard acts as a hub that regulates and provides
public) in order to provide high levels of privacy for the adjacent interior spaces, satisfying social, cul-
among the various functional components of the tural, and environmental needs.
dwelling. Thus, the traditional Saudi dwelling often In addition to being used to support natural envir-
consists of the following elements: Firstly, the presence onmental factors, the courtyard is significant because
of an entrance corridor (threshold), which is a space it provides a space for a variety of family and social
that functions to link the semi-private and semi-public activities. As the courtyard is used for both public and
spaces of the dwelling to provide a certain degree of private social events, privacy is a crucial factor in the
privacy (which is expected in Saudi society) while design of traditional buildings.1 The family’s multifunc-
entering the dwelling. This space is often covered tional rooms are connected by a courtyard that con-
and connects several main spaces in the dwelling, trols the flow of individuals through the house during
such as the courtyard and the men’s guest room. the day and at night. As a result, by keeping the court-
Another architectural element is the men’s guest yard in the center and encircling it with various interior
room. Its location within the dwelling is very inten- spaces, the residents were able to determine the finest
tional: it’s often linked with the corridor and close to solutions for their family’s activities without interfering
the entrance of the dwelling to be closer to the outside with the outside world by retaining the courtyard in
realm to preserve the privacy of the dwelling and its the center and enclosing it with other interior “set-
occupants during male social activities. Therefore, the back” spaces. Because they offered a semi-private
entrance, the corridor and the men’s guest room are space where the entire family could congregate and
considered a semi-public zone in the traditional dwell- develop close bonds, courtyards are therefore inferred
ing because this part of the dwelling is more linked to to have served as a focal point of family life and unity.
the public realm and the outer built environment. Despite sharing roads, fields, and souq (market)
Through this configuration, the inner courtyard is the areas, Al-Hussayen observes that women are
heart of the traditional dwelling, where most of the “restricted from outside to within the home” in such
room openings open to it. The presence of the corridor a setting. Due to the restrictions placed on women that
element is intended to increase the depth of the court- are intended to preserve privacy, he notes that the
yard into the inner spaces of the house by segregating courtyard and the roof are the areas that women use
the courtyard from the entrance’s direct visual contact. the most (Al-Hussayen 1996). Therefore, the courtyard
This is due to the core function of the courtyard: serves as a place for maintaining the privacy standard

1
In Najdi architecture, the courtyard is used for Eid festivities, weddings, family gatherings, playground activities, etc. Traditional courtyards derive their
significance from facilitating private social activities and serving as a hub for the family.
 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 5

of the living area inside the traditional dwelling. ethnographic approach is a valuable tool for architects
Although some privacy could be maintained through and designers who want to create more thoughtful
the use of the courtyard and roof, there was still a clear and responsive designs that are grounded in a knowl-
restriction placed on women. Therefore, Al-Hissayen edge of the people and communities they serve
was persistent and mentioned that residents could (Curran 2012; Foth and Tacchi 2004).
ensure that the house’s position and layout satisfied The ethnographic approach is used in this study to
the privacy concerns of the family and society by inform the design process by providing insight into
understanding how it related to other nearby how architectural design can accommodate and sup-
dwellings. port people’s needs and behaviors. To inform archi-
Studying internal threshold areas and their physical tects, how they can create more functional and
components in the traditional settlement communities meaningful designs that are tailored to the needs of
was crucial to developing a deeper understanding of
specific communities by understanding how people
the courtyard as an architectural element because it
use and perceive buildings and spaces.
showed that the inhabitants had already figured out
how to provide their homes with some degree of
seclusion. The “hidden meaning” of this space, which 3.1. Informal interviews
helped control the internal spatial order of the tradi-
tional home, kept the family’s seclusion from the (maj- It was critical for this study to collect data on the
lis) semi-private area (Mortada 2016; Rabbat 2010). characteristics of the Najd constructed courtyard envir-
Residents viewed the courtyard as an area that could onment, as well as how the built environment served
divide the semi-private areas from the house’s private the demands of prior residents. To support the ethno-
portions (family multipurpose rooms). The courtyard, graphic approach, the informal interview method is
in reality, functions as a “threshold” for female guests used to gather information and insights from indivi-
and family members. As previously mentioned, the duals in a non-structured, conversational manner
family utilized the adaptable/flexible rooms for a vari- (Ahmadi and Habibi 2023). Unlike other types of inter-
ety of activities both during the day when they were view’s methods, the informal one is a method to help
open and at night when they were quite limited researchers generate ideas and insights in combina-
spaces. As a result, the courtyard contributes to the tion with methods such as this study observation, and
control of this dynamic use while maintaining the high ethnography to provide the study with more compre-
adeptness of the nearby areas. Thus, the courtyard hensive understanding of related topics (Wimpenny
functions as a threshold for family and female guests and Gass 2000).
by providing a unique place that connects the house’s Therefore, the interviews were conducted with
semi-private spaces with private rooms. locals during the observation and fieldwork visits tar-
geting topics related to the study’s objectives. Six
open-ended questions the participants were asked
3. Materials and methods
informally to encourage them to talk about their
This study uses an ethnographic approach to better experiences, opinions, and perspectives, which were
understand the societal value of Najdi residents and as follows:
how they built their traditional dwellings.
Ethnographic is a type of social research method ● What are the benefits of having a courtyard space
used to observe and document a culture, society, or in the house, and how does it enhance the overall
other phenomena through participant observation living experience?
and interviews (Nurani 2008). In architectural studies, ● How is the courtyard space designed/placed to
the ethnographic approach entails investigating how maximize its potential and to create a functional
people use and interact with buildings and spaces, as and breathing outdoor area, especially in a com-
well as the cultural and social contexts in which these pacted and preserved environment such as Saudi
interactions occur. This approach is rooted in anthro- Arabia?
pology and entails using qualitative research methods ● What impact can a courtyard space have on the
such as participant observation, interviews, and focus environmental quality of the house, and how did
groups to gain a thorough understanding of people’s it contribute to the eco-friendly living
relationships with their built environments (Flynn environment?
2010). Furthermore, the ethnographic method can be ● What role does a courtyard space play in promot-
used to investigate the social and cultural significance ing social interactions and creating a sense of
of buildings and spaces. Examining the symbolic community within a household or neighborhood?
meanings attached to buildings and spaces, as well ● How did the courtyard space used for various
as the power dynamics and social relationships activities such as gardening, relaxation, entertain-
embedded in them, can be part of this. Overall, the ment, and outdoor family social gathering, and
6 M. M. ALNAIM

how the space was contained to ensure comfort including archival data, images, and architectural plans
living experience? and sections.
● What are the cultural and historical significance of
courtyard spaces, and how did it contribute to the
overall typology of Najdi dwellings? 3.3. The justified access graph technique (space
syntax)
As the informal method is more of a non-structured Hillier and Hanson developed several analytical tools
conversation type of interview, summarizing the inter- that can be used to analyze various architectural qua-
viewees’ opinions, thoughts, knowledge, experiences, lities (Hillier and Hanson 1988). Space syntax methods
and values regarding the courtyard space is essential. commonly convert or abstract specific features of spa-
Therefore, a keyword interview-based word cloud tial arrangement into syntactic characteristics and dis-
graph was generated to formulate relevant ideas dur- crete models to understand architectural space (Bafna
ing the study observation and site visits with locals. 2003). Hillier and his colleagues defined several funda-
The word cloud seen in (Figure 2) identifies the numer- mental concepts of space syntax analysis, one of which
ous sub-areas of interest in the courtyard, where the is used in this study: the “justified access graph,” which
size of a word indicates the number of consistency and is a technique to identify the hidden patterns topology
repeatability. of a building floor plan as a depth diagram from any
chosen point such as from the main building entrance
or from an inner room (Hillier et al., 1976; Turner et al.
3.2. Observation
2001). Overall, space syntax techniques have been
Observation is a research method used in academic widely adopted to comprehend the relationship
research to collect data about a particular phenom- between spatial configuration and human behavior,
enon or behavior (Urquhart 2015). In this method, the such as pedestrian mobility and social interaction.
researcher systematically observes and records beha- The first stage in creating a justified access graph is
viors, events, or interactions that occur in a natural observing and comprehending the spatial relation-
setting. According to Ciesielska, Boström, and ships of the given spatial arrangement (Ostwald
Öhlander (2018), fieldwork entails active looking, 2011). The spatial arrangement is then translated into
enhancing memory, informal interviewing, creating linkage graphs, which explain the relationship
extensive field notes, and, most significantly, patience. between spatial hierarchy, permeability, and integra-
Therefore, during an interval in 2021–2022, we con- tion/segregation. The justified access graph approach
ducted a dwelling observation in three traditional is used in the study to represent these linking syntactic
Najdi settlements (Diriya, AlGhat, and Hail) (Figure 3). graphs. Thus, the use of justified access graphing ana-
Participant observation is the method deployed where lysis allows the researchers to use an analytical com-
the researcher became part of the group being parison technique to not only detect the similarities
observed to observes their behaviors, events, or inter- and differences of architectural aspects, but also to
actions from the inside. This approach led the study to comprehend the social behavior and meanings under-
focus on practices related to the use of the courtyard, lying these various layouts and space linkages (See
as well as the meaning-making of the courtyard as a Elizondo 2022; Mustafa, Hassan, and Baper 2010).
family gathering area in relation to the dwelling loca- As a result, this study uses justified access graph
tion within the built environment. We used a variety of analysis to produce a graph or several graphs for a
methods to collect data, as is common in this type of certain spatial configuration analysis. This techni-
method, such as conducting observations (three hours, que’s graphs aid in understanding spatial hierarchy,
once a week) for each case, recording them as field permeability (interconnections between areas),
notes, conducting informal interviews with the elderly depth, and integration/segregation. These variable
and residents, and gathering a variety of documents, depth graphs are essential because they are used as

Figure 2. Keyword map of significant ideas related to Najdi courtyard. Source: Author.
 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 7

Settlement Locations within the Saudi Arabian Central Region

Diriyah AlGhat Hail

Dwelling Examples

Figure 3. Traditional dwelling case studies and their geographical location. Source: Author.

a presentation tool to examine the depth and con- spatial links and accessibility above spatial shape,
nectedness of distinct patterns among different size, or form.
houses. Through deploying this technique, space
configuration can provide a framework for under-
4. Results: Examining the Najdi courtyard
standing how people interact with the built envir-
space
onment by examining the correlation of different
spaces using the justified access graph. The techni- This part of the analysis is divided into four stages in
que is effective for abstractly capturing the topolo- order to properly understand the courtyard space and
gical description of any spatial layout, emphasizing its critical functional role in structuring the internal
8 M. M. ALNAIM

spaces’ spatial order and increasing the degree of the family’s privacy, and on the other, it created a semi-
solitude in innately private areas. The four stages are private intimate space for the family.
interconnected, focusing on examining the courtyard Due to the creation of threshold space and its stag-
dynamic, its significance, its environmental aspect, and gered formation, it segregated the dwelling entry from
its role within the dwelling and the surrounding built the courtyard space; thus, the space is not immediately
environment in fostering relationships of inhabitants. accessible when approaching the house from the entry
This analysis is conducted by observing where the which creates a dynamic spatial order zone. This
courtyard is located in various traditional homes and threshold zone is changeable in traditional houses
how it connects to other inner rooms. Also, using based on from which part the courtyard is approached
building sections to study a number of nearby court- (urban part or building part) and acts as an ideal buffer
yards to see how each residence preserved its own between the outdoor and interior spaces, adding
courtyard’s seclusion with respect to that of its neigh- depth to the family’s space and separating them from
bors. These four stages revealed how the courtyard the semi-public zone (guest space) (Figure 4: 1). The
satisfied the family’s need for privacy and highlighted threshold area, for example, accommodates the guest
that the courtyard is an important factor in determin- room (majlis) or a small shop, which is crucial since it
ing the spatial order of a traditional home’s inner separates the family members and their related private
spaces, as it functions to create a connection between inner areas from such public spaces throughout the
the semi-public areas of the home and its more private day. This provided the family with privacy while also
spaces. allowing the courtyard area to function as an inter-
mediary space between their home and public life
outside. Thus, the courtyard’s dynamic character dis-
4.1. The dynamism of courtyard space
tinguished it from other types of buildings by utilizing
The courtyard in the center of the dwelling generates the threshold area as a regulated mechanism between
an introverted situation that is shielded from outsiders’ semi-public and semi-private zones (Figure 4: 2). This is
visual encounters, making it a suitable location to open similar to what Nibedita Das et al., (2006) noticed in
to the sky and entertain the family. This allowed the North African courtyard homes, where a wide range of
family’s domain to engage with the guest area while daily activities, from food preparation, sleeping, work-
also allowing the courtyard to play an essential role in ing, playing, entertaining guests, and even keeping
carefully managing entrance to the house. This obser- animals, were traditionally carried out in the courtyard.
vation aligns with Roderick Lawrence (1987) and After passing through the entry threshold going
Mohammed Alnaim’s (2021) findings when they exam- through the deep private areas, a second spatial
ined the hierarchy of the physical arrangement of the arrangement is provided where the user must first
traditional house’s internal spaces. Both noted that in reach and go through the courtyard space. As a result,
traditional houses, the family courtyard served as a the courtyard serves as a gathering place for the family,
physical buffer between guest spaces and private connecting various private internal sections of the
family areas. Therefore, the courtyard’s introverted nat- dwelling. Because it is located in the midst of the
ure gave it a unique dynamic in traditional houses: on semi-private and private areas, the courtyard space
the one hand, it provided a semi-public area “thresh- integrates various family shared activities (such as
old” for entertaining guests without infringing upon family meetings, children’s play, cooking, etc.) while

Figure 4. The dynamic of courtyard space. Source: Author.

 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 9

protecting the privacy of surrounding inner spaces. environment. Because of their socio-cultural and land
The inhabitants established dynamic spatial ordering space constraints, Najdi residents were forced to rely
to assist the activities of the two realms (public and on the courtyard as the only location that provided
private) within their dwellings. Therefore, the family’s access to the vast majority of the house’s components.
social and religious needs had an impact and contrib- To keep the courtyard hidden from neighbors, they
uted to the development of the two spatial orders to also enclosed it with “setback” private internal rooms.
assess various cultural constraints in the traditional This resulted in generating a multi-layered and
dwelling. The desire to keep men’s activities outside dynamic space that served different functions for the
of the home and the activities of the family’s within led occupants and as a depth space to control and regu-
to the creation of a number of supportive architectural late the house’s spatial order. To put this observation
components. These components made sure that the to the test, the study’s second stage is focused on
organization of the spatial layout is to separate the understanding the location of various components
many activities inside the Najdi traditional house, to that improved the courtyard space’s solitude.
work and enhance its physical formation. This separa-
tion was based on the dichotomy between the public
and private, masculine and feminine realms. Thus, this 4.2. Courtyard’s significance
dichotomy between the public and private spheres To comprehend the significance of the courtyard pla-
was an essential part of traditional Najdi culture, as it cement, Mohammed Alnaim (2020a) contends that a
enabled both sexes to be able to maintain their own threshold space typically exists in most traditional
distinct roles within the household. Saudi dwellings, revealing that this space offered the
Therefore, this study needed to grasp the impor- appropriate distance for the courtyard to be separated
tance of the spatial arrangement of inner areas in a from the dwelling entry and visually hidden from the
typical Najdi dwelling in order to appreciate the impli- public domain. The courtyard in this case is situated
cit function of the courtyard space. Examining the between the threshold space and the house’s inner
courtyard location, two hidden spatial mechanisms isolated zones. The position is crucial since it sur-
were observed, and they appear to strengthen the rounded the courtyard with its identifiable private
link between spatial hierarchy and the physical order inner rooms (Figure 5: 1). Since all rooms opened to
of internal space placement within the house. As a the courtyard, inner private spaces had to operate as a
result, rather than existing as a physical form within cover from all sides to offer the courtyard’s need for
the built environment by itself, the dwelling (physical solitude (Figure 5: 2). This was an essential factor for
form) exists as a component that promotes spatial the well-being of a family living in these dwellings, as it
integration to formulate the Najdi urban masses. This ensured that they had their own personal space to
was observed in the study when traditional house which they could retreat.
occupants established a method of interacting with The study looked at various dwellings from the three
the public sphere by maintaining the seclusion of the communities’ courtyard locations to further test this
interior spaces while having a semi-public “threshold” study’s premise. Viewing the floor plan (Figure 6: A) we
space between the entrance and the courtyard inside were able to separately comprehend the hidden
the house. mechanisms that were implemented in the courtyard
By delving deeper into the role of physical form to control the central portion of the dwelling. Two
within urban mass, it is possible to draw conclusions mechanisms were identified. The first mechanism
about how traditional houses interact with their sur- entails comprehending three phenomena: (1) how the
roundings and influence social dynamics within a built courtyard location is used as an indoor-outdoor

Figure 5. Understanding the courtyard positioning within the traditional dwelling. Source: Author.
10 M. M. ALNAIM

Diriya AlGhat Hail

Figure 6. The spatial behavior of the courtyard location. Source: Author.

environment, (2) how it added depth to the spatial hub that links various rooms inside it, ranging from
arrangement of internal rooms, and (3) how it controlled semi-public to private spaces (Figure 7). As previously
the accessibility of various portions of the building. The noted, the location is crucial and related to the socio-
second mechanism relates to comprehending how the cultural requirement for household members to parti-
interior private areas of the house served as a cover to cipate in their everyday social activities without worry-
safeguard and enhance the courtyard’s privacy from its ing about invasions of privacy. This is accomplished so
surrounding neighboring courtyards. The spatial orga- that the courtyard space can be physically confined
nization of internal spaces was examined by making use within the very safe internal private spaces. Care is
of the Space Syntax “justified access graph” approach. taken to prevent neighboring roofs from making visi-
The positioning of the courtyard in the hierarchy of ble contact. Several architectural features were pro-
indoor spaces may be understood and appreciated duced and installed to help preserve and heighten
thanks to this analytical technique (Figure 6: B). the courtyard’s level of privacy. In order to further
It is possible to obtain an understanding of and insight maximize the courtyard’s privacy, several elements of
into the courtyard placement inside the traditional house design were implemented to enhance the courtyard’s
design, as well as the different linkages of the courtyard functionality and respond to several socio-cultural con-
space inside the house, by analyzing the house layouts cerns, which will be further examined in the following
and using the created justified access graph analysis. The sections.
graphs illustrate that the courtyard is typically located The findings of these elements were aided by sev-
between two significant spaces (the house threshold eral non-continuous site visits between 2021 and 2022
entrance and the inner private space) (Figure 6: B). This and interviews with residents of Diriya, AlGhat, and
means that the courtyard is always surrounded by two Hail. Participants in the AlGhat and Hail interviews
layers of depth spaces to maintain privacy from both the recounted their experiences and explained how the
outside and the inside of the house. As a result, the courtyard’s central location met the daily requirements
internal private areas are always reached from the court- of the residents. The courtyard is the busiest area in the
yard, according to the graphs, and in some cases, the house because all private rooms can be accessed from
study revealed another transitional space (the threshold), one location thanks to its central location. Interview
which served to raise the depth even further. By under- participants concluded that because internal areas
standing the spatial relationship between the courtyard have diverse functions throughout the day and at
and other indoor spaces, one can appreciate how it night, the positioning of the courtyard made it easier
creates a sense of privacy from its neighboring court- to accommodate different activities in these spaces.
yards, as well as its accessibility. This may also explain why the study discovered that
Therefore, the justified access graph analysis sup- traditional houses come in different sizes, as the locals
ports previous statements that the courtyard is usually developed a creative way to make the most of their
located in the center of the home and functions as a small inside areas.
 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 11

Diriya AlGhat Hail

Figure 7. The spatial behavior of the courtyard location. Source: Author.

Similarly, when locals from Diriya who had firsthand climates and symbolize rigorous territoriality as well as
experience with the traditionally built environment were attempts to provide private space for introversion
questioned, they claimed that the elements attached to (Bekleyen and Dalkil 2011). While both Al-Mohannadi
the courtyard had been added to boost the space’s level and Bekleyen & Dalkil point to hospitality and territoriality
of solitude. These elements were primarily found in court- as factors impacting the spatial form of Arab dwellings, it
yard walls and building roofs, according to the study. is also possible that these courtyards reflect an increased
They claimed that although these components weren’t level of social organization and status. This idea of hospi-
necessary, locals created them to achieve privacy and tality and the formation of private space is echoed in
address the spatial order of the various components of traditional Arab dwellings, with many believing that the
the dwelling (Figure 8).2 Therefore, the study highlighted traditional courtyard serves as a testament to this. Thus,
how various elements were implemented by inhabitants both the observations of Al-Mohannadi and Bekleyen &
to improve privacy, as the walls increased the height of a Dalkil support the study’s findings in that there are similar
property, and the building roofs created an additional trends in the formation of traditional courtyards in such
layer between neighbors. This was especially true for regions as Qatar and Turkey.
female occupants, as the extra privacy meant that they The courtyard, in addition to serving a vital function in
could enjoy more open-air activities, such as hosting managing the spatial order of inner spaces, offers a layer
social gatherings in the courtyard or spending time out- of depth to regulate accessibility (Alnaim 2020b). This is
side. Through observation, it was found that these ele- consistent with what was described earlier: locals posi-
ments were able to be implemented after addressing the tioned the courtyard in the center of the house to reg-
spatial order of the dwelling components; thus, the order ulate the use of other interior spaces. As a result, women
provided improved safety and security for both male and who frequent the courtyard and spend the day inside
female occupants. have a very clear view of all of the other private places in
Al-Mohannadi studied the courtyard in Qatar’s tradi- the home from this one location. Although it cannot be
tional built environment and claimed that it “physically” said that this was the only motivation for the courtyard, it
and “socially” resembled the housing unit’s nucleus. The can be said that this was one of its primary objectives. By
researcher observed that the spatial inner layout of the being able to see who was coming and going in the
Qatari house is influenced by the hospitality factor, reflect- household, women could have a greater sense of auton-
ing the social divisions of family members and their dee- omy, control, and privacy.3 Thus, the courtyard created an
ply embedded way of life in Arab culture (Al-Mohannadi ideal balance between privacy and visibility that allowed
2019). According to Bekleyen and Dalkil, traditional women to protect themselves while being able to move
Turkish courtyards are widespread in hot and arid freely throughout the home.

2
Focus groups were held in Hail and AlGhat between 2021 and 2022.
3
Focus groups were held in Hail, Diriya between 2021 and 2022.
12 M. M. ALNAIM

The spatial order repetitive pattern in the Najdi dwelling using justified access graph

The staggered threshold space near the

The courtyard space
entrance

Figure 8. The internal spatial order of the Najdi traditional dwellings. Source: Author.

4.3. The courtyard’s relationships spaces in general. The investigation examined two or
three adjoining houses to see what features of the
In order to understand how a particular courtyard
house physical form guaranteed that each courtyard
interacts with other indoor areas in the home in
was isolated from its neighbors. Also, the study analyzed
terms of connectedness and visual disengagement, it
the existence of several architectural components and
was important to look at individual courtyards. The
their socio-cultural role in maintaining house privacy.
closeness of the Najdi towns affected the development
of some components to guarantee the fulfillment of Three elements struck out when studying the court-
particular requirements connected to neighborly yard through the section view: the roof walls (parapet),
seclusion. Because of this, it was previously considered the high walls, and the variety of shapes connecting to
that certain courtyard features were created by locals inner rooms comprising the courtyard space (Figure 9).
to meet specific needs. It is worth noting that it has To maintain solitude, each component within the
been found that many of the components found in house has a specific position and purpose. This obser-
Najdi courtyards are found in other courtyard designs vation is related to Ali Bahamman’s explanation of
throughout the world (Al-Hussayen 2015; Baiz and Saudi Arabian home architectural plans for privacy.
Fathulla 2016; Gupta and Joshi 2021; Markus 2016). The courtyard, according to Bahamman, is more than
Although these similarities have been observed, it is simply a climatic and cost-effective architectural solu-
still possible that the closeness of the towns and their tion; it is also an architectural device for producing
cultural proximity to one another played a role in the isolation and a pleasant semi-outdoor extension of
development of similar courtyard features. the home (Bahammam 1987). For decades, the con-
The study attempted to assess surrounding court- cept of utilizing architecture to control privacy has
yards in neighboring houses using architectural section been an important aspect of Saudi culture.
views in order to determine what sorts of architectural For instance, it is noticed that tall walls in the court-
components and spaces are related within the house in yard serve to obscure views of rooms on the roofs of
order to maintain the courtyard’s isolation and inner the buildings, as well as roof parapets among two

3
Focus groups were held in Hail, Diriya between 2021 and 2022.
 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 13

Courtyard space behavior in compacted dwelling fabric

Setback ‘private space’ among different courtyard Opportunity for socializing in the roof parapet
locations to prevent privacy conflict among neighbors without privacy conflict

Shuraf Element Alrewaq Element

Figure 9. Courtyard space behavior among compacted dwelling fabric. Source: Author.

nearby residences that serve a similar objective. The heighten the physical enclosure of the courtyard. On
roof parapet is used to mark the boundaries of a the other hand, private rooms and their exterior walls
house’s roof. The parapet can be tall to provide more are used to fence the courtyard by expanding the
seclusion or short to offer visibility across bordering depth among to bordering house roofs, incorporating
roofs, allowing women living next door to speak and architectural features (e.g., a roof parapet, called
socialize with their neighbors. Roof parapets and high shuraf), or positioning them such that the view is
walls function as cohesive components since they both restricted or increased (e.g., (an arcade, called
14 M. M. ALNAIM

alrewaq)).4 All of these components developed to play 4.4. The courtyard’s environmental aspects
a role in shaping the social experience and physical
In hot, dry countries like Saudi Arabia, the requirement
environment in which women interact with each other.
for sustainable building design solutions that improve
As previously discussed, the courtyard is positioned
climatic conditions is critical. As previously noted,
in the center of the house. However, some houses may
courtyards have long been an important aspect of
be unable to situate their courtyards between private
space owing to space constraints (for example, the vernacular design in such conditions, bringing several
house’s plot size). In this approach, courtyard-related environmental and social benefits. Consequently,
features produced to enhance the effect of privacy and courtyard spaces have long been incorporated into
to get around the inevitable circumstances. For traditional building methods in this region as a
instance, the houses in AlGhat and Hail have this ines- means of moderating the harsh environmental condi-
capable circumstance. The home’s courtyard is in the tions, giving residents with a comfortable microclimate
middle of the structure, but with no private spaces, and and a variety of social and psychological benefits
it is attached to a neighbor’s home. To ensure that the (Rashid and Ara 2020).
courtyard and roof of these homes were never One of the key advantages of courtyard spaces is
exposed to the second house, the first house had to their capacity to improve building thermal efficiency,
implement a number of architectural features pre- decreasing the demand for mechanical cooling sys-
sented earlier.5 These components, even though they tems and, as a result, cutting energy consumption.
have aesthetic features, have as their main objective to Courtyard spaces achieved this through a variety of
improve the seclusion of each house and safeguard the methods, including shading, ventilation, thermal
courtyards of both neighbors, which had an impact on mass, and evaporative cooling, as demonstrated and
the privacy of attached homes. As a consequence, observed in three study cases (Table 1).
inhabitants developed and implemented these com- As we have showcased earlier, the placement
ponents not just to benefit the courtyard specifically, and layout of a courtyard play a crucial role in
but also as architectural components that establish an optimizing its passive cooling potential. That is
interaction with nearby buildings. This connection pro- why we noticed that adjacent courtyards are rarely
cess shaped the physical form of the house and influ- observed as this due to design principle to mini-
enced the building masses of surrounding homes. mize direct solar exposure and maximize natural
As seen in (Figure 10), the Najdi built form’s compact- ventilation through having the courtyard contained
ness strengthened the physical form’s homogeneity. Even between inner private structures (Table 2: A).
if there are two to three compacted houses visible in the Even though the courtyard should be oriented to
architectural section views, their land borders are still face the prevailing winds, which promotes air move-
unclear, and they are physically indistinguishable. This is ment and enhances natural ventilation. Not all Najdi
significant because the argument makes the point that dwellings have this capability due to the compacted
these three architectural components are not intended to urban form and high restriction on privacy issues.
separate different houses but rather to protect the privacy Therefore, inner private structures contain and sur-
of inhabitants and improve the compactness and con- round the courtyard and to be arranged in a staggered
nectivity of various physical forms. As a result, female manner, with openings carefully positioned to create a
inhabitants can interact more closely and more efficiently, wind tunnel effect, thus increasing air movement
even though the Najdi house’s characteristics are meant through the space (Table 2: B). Such a solution is
to provide them with high privacy space. developed to overcome the several socio-cultural con-
In fact, this is the result of the spatial order developed straints deployed on how dwellings are shaped and
by inhabitants that led the Najdi built environment to positioned.
build cohesive urban masses that allowed for household While examining the courtyard spaces in Riyadh,
separation and joining based on religious principles (e. Faisal Mubarak (2007) asserts that the size and pro-
g., the Islamic principles of “neighbors” rights’ and “ease- portion of the courtyard have a significant impact
ment rights” (see Al-Hathloul 2010) and the Islamic on the space passive cooling performance. He con-
principle of “do no harm” (see Alnaim 2021)). The sig- cluded that larger courtyard allows for more air
nificance of the developed spatial order is to give the movement and better ventilation, while a smaller
female inhabitants the ability to create a strong sense of courtyard can trap heat and become uncomfortable.
community and interaction. Therefore, any new compo- Observing the study cases, it is found that the
nents produced by locals were derived from the spatial courtyard space proportion always depends on the
order, which aimed to preserve the built environment’s size of dwelling, which means that locals under-
uniformity and meet socio-cultural demands. stood this principle and tried to accommodate the

4
An interview with Hail’s elderly community between 2021 and 2022.
5
Focus groups were held in Hail and AlGhat between 2021 and 2022.
 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 15

Contained Courtyard through private Parapet with Shuraf Alrewaq (arcade) to increase distance
spaces from all sides element between two attached courtyards

Figure 10. Architectural section view for a variety of Najdi dwellings. Source: Author.

courtyard in their dwellings to reach maximum effi- enhancing the quality of life in Najdi residents.
ciency (Table 2: C). However, to reach the optimum The architectural features of these spaces, such as
size of a courtyard depends on various factors, and their orientation, layout, and materials, contribute
not always feasible including the surrounding build- to their passive cooling benefits by promoting nat-
ings’ height, and the occupants’ needs. In general, ural ventilation, reducing heat gain, and maintain-
we could say that the three cases had their court- ing comfortable indoor temperatures. By better
yard’s width between one to two times the height understanding these features and strategies, archi-
of the surrounding walls to balance shade provision tects and urban planners can incorporate court-
and air movement. yards into modern building design to create more
Overall, courtyard spaces have played a signifi- sustainable and energy-efficient environments in
cant role in providing thermal comfort and hot dry climates.
16 M. M. ALNAIM

Table 1. Summary of significant design method related to courtyard environmental factors.

Methods Brief Description
Shading Achieved by providing shade from the intense sun, reducing the amount of solar radiation that reaches building facades through
compacted urban form and interiors through having arcade element. This design process helped to moderated temperatures
within the building envelope and minimize the risk of overheating (See Diz-Mellado et al. 2021; Raof 2018).
Ventilation Achieved through the arrangement of openings around the courtyard allowing for effective cross-ventilation, promoting the
exchange of air between the interior and exterior courtyard space. This design process helped to dissipate heat and improve
comfort levels for occupants (See Izadpanahi, Farahani, and Nikpey 2021; Raof 2018; Soflaei, Shokouhian, and Shemirani 2016).
Thermal mass Through the usage of building materials with high thermal mass, such as adobe, stone, etc., in the construction of courtyard walls.
These materials can absorb heat during the day and release it at night, helping to stabilize indoor temperatures and reduce the
need for mechanical cooling (See Abdulkareem 2016; Sthapak and Bandyopadhyay 2014).
Evaporative Through sprinkling the soil with water within the courtyard which contributed to cooling through the process of evaporation. As
cooling water evaporates, it absorbs heat from the surrounding air, lowering the temperature and increasing the relative humidity (See
Bagasi and Calautit 2020; Zamani, Heidari, and Hanachi 2018).

Table 2. Summary of the Najdi courtyard environmental design principles.

A Shading and Daylight as an essential passive cooling strategy
that helped to reduce solar heat gain and maintain comfortable
temperatures in the courtyard. Shading achieved through
various means, including the use of vegetation and making use
of the inner private walls.

B To optimize natural ventilation, the openings of the

surrounding inner rooms were carefully placed and positioned
to create a wind tunnel effect, which increased air movement
through the space. Additionally, the use of high-level openings
or vents helped to exhaust hot air, which rises due to its lower
density, further enhancing the ventilation effect.

C The courtyard’s size and proportions allow for increased air

movement and improved ventilation, providing appropriate
shade and comfort. To balance shade provision and air
movement, the three cases’ courtyards were one to two times
the height of the surrounding walls.

5. Discussion
privacy organically and contributed to accommodat-
Najdi architecture is a type of traditional Saudi Arabian ing and adapting the backyard in a way that does not
architecture that developed in the Najd region of the greatly infringe upon the privacy of the adjacent
Arabian Peninsula. This style is characterized by its use neighbors. As for the courtyard, other openings and
of the courtyard space, which was used to create inti- windows open towards it is mostly from the family
mate and cool spaces in the hot desert climate. The one. The courtyard space contributed to raising the
traditional compact planning system contributed to efficiency of the thermal performance of the residential
enhancing the productivity of the Najdi dwelling by unit due to the desire for the natural cooling process
covering two sides of the residential unit to provide resulting from protection/isolation from direct
 JOURNAL OF ASIAN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING ENGINEERING 17

sunlight. Protection from direct sunlight in hot areas is through the threshold area, adding depth to the
a design principle enabled by adopting a compact home’s entry. Second, to assure solitude from all
solution as well as isolation. Isolation is accomplished sides and to be surrounded by private interior spaces,
by increasing the distance between two courtyard the courtyard is situated in the center of the house or
spaces through having an arcade element within the on one of its sides. Third, the study observed that, in
house. Such design principles contributed to creating most cases, if the house only has one floor, the outer
an opportunity for the application of ventilation open- partition walls are located above eye level on the roof
ings overlooking the inner courtyard, an important to safeguard the interruption of visual corridors among
tool for the provision of natural ventilation and direct neighbors’ while on the roof. Fourth, it is important to
cooling to other rooms of the dwelling without breach- avoid placing two courtyards from different houses
ing privacy requirements. next to one another. Instead, inhabitants of traditional
As we have showcased in this study, courtyard settlements created a barrier between the two court-
spaces have played a significant role in the social and yards by adding courtyard components or interior pri-
cultural life of communities. They served as a nexus for vate spaces. These guidelines ensured that the cultural
social interaction, community identity, and cultural setting of the inhabitants of traditional settlements
expression. The space became a common space for was preserved, governing the use of the courtyard in
residents to interact with one another. This interaction such a context, and established an agreed upon
took various forms, such as communal meals, or shared arrangement of the dwelling inner spaces’ spatial
activities like informal gatherings. The courtyard thus order. As a result, by understanding these courtyard
becomes a focal point for social life, fostering a sense design guidelines used by traditional settlement inha-
of community and belonging among its users. bitants, it is possible to create spaces in new develop-
The shared nature of courtyard spaces was identi- ments that not only ensure privacy, but also promote
fied to encourage cooperation and collaboration social interaction between neighbors. It is also impor-
among community members. This is evident in the tant to consider the contextual information of a parti-
collaborative design processes that encouraged the cular location when designing courtyards.
organization of courtyard-based events and activities, Therefore, (Table 3) presents the typological and
which influenced how to implement and place the socio-cultural of the courtyard space in traditional
courtyard space in the traditional dwelling. As a result, Najdi architecture is based on a number of aspects,
the courtyard served as a platform for community including:
building and social bonding. Therefore, understand- It is recommended that in order to develop the
ing the social and cultural implications of these spaces Najdi courtyard home in contemporary architecture
can provide insights into the importance of preserving in Saudi Arabia, it is necessary to use new materials
and reintegrating courtyard design into modern and technology while retaining the influence of the
architecture. traditional building’s basic shape and character. The
The traditional courtyard generally adheres to four Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs (MMRA) enacted
key criteria that guarantee user privacy and affect the a partial building control regarding the home size and
spatial arrangement of the home. First, residents plot, which unquestionably have affected the shape of
always moved the courtyard back and entered it the residential fabric and limited the possibility of

Table 3. Summary of the study typological and socio-cultural aspects of the Najdi courtyard.
Typological Aspects Socio-cultural Aspects
The courtyards are enclosed with thick walls constructed of local materials Provide a sense of community. The shared space of a courtyard can be a
such as mud brick, stone, or gypsum block. These walls provide place for residents to gather and socialize. This helped to build a sense
insulation from both heat and noise. of community and belonging among residents.
The courtyard is often divided into two parts, an outer area (near the Promote social interaction. The open and accessible nature of a courtyard
entrance) and an inner area (arcade, or Alrewaq) that is more private and encouraged family members to interact with each other. This is
sheltered from the guest space (Majlis). especially beneficial for women’s who have limited social interaction
outside of their home.
The courtyard in some cases contains a central well, surrounded by palms Used for a variety of activities, such as gardening, dining, entertaining, and
trees for shading and decoration. relaxing. This led the space to be point of focal life for its versatile and
valuable addition to the dwelling.
The roof is typically flat or pitched, made from palm wood supported by Used to reflect the cultural values of the residents through implementing
columns or beams carved, in some cases, with intricate designs. several architectural features to respond and represent the socio-
cultural values of its inhabitants.
Windows or openings are often placed high up on the walls to allow light Used to improve the quality of life for everyone who lives in a
into the courtyard while maintaining privacy. neighborhood as they provide a safe, healthy, and enjoyable space to
mitigate the compacted nature of the urban form.
Doors are usually placed at each end of the courtyard to provide access to Encourage security and control through the space ability to visually
different parts of the dwelling as well as ventilation when needed. observe all other spaces inside the house.
Decorative features such as wooden latticework, decorative plaster, Used to overcome the restricted openings in the exterior façade. This led
painted ceilings and a parapet (Shuraf) add to the beauty of these the inner private structures to have the ability to open to the courtyard
spaces while providing shade from direct sunlight in some cases. space to circulate airflow and provide daylight.
18 M. M. ALNAIM

implementing courtyard spaces as a result of setback whether these recently constructed residences should
policies between neighbors. Therefore, the use of con- be so Westernized, and, more crucially, how contempor-
crete and steel can offer a structural underpinning for ary architecture might retain the subtle characteristics of
the construction of new extensions and additions the old mud houses they left behind. Understanding the
while retaining the home’s original features. importance of courtyards in architecture in the Saudi
Additionally, shading strategies should be carefully context or in other places around the world can provide
considered and further developed to ensure an envir- insights into how such a space can be used to create
onmentally friendly and cost-effective way to cool the meaningful transitions between public and private areas
dwelling. This ensures that modern dwellings meet in the modern era. Architects can use this cultural knowl-
current comfort and energy efficiency standards edge to create modern courtyards that are both aesthe-
while retaining the traditional appearance. tically pleasing and socially meaningful. Therefore, we
Incorporating basic tools and natural components into must ask: can new architectural projects absorb tradi-
the design process enables a courtyard space in contem- tional ideas? Does the literal transfer of traditional ideas
porary homes to be achieved while preserving traditional express originality and local identity in modern projects?
concepts. Using an open-air courtyard instead of an A question to be answered for future studies is how
enclosed one, for instance, provides much-needed nat- understanding the embedded meanings of several tradi-
ural ventilation and a sense of connection with nature in tional concepts may enhance the quality of local archi-
the living areas. In addition, wood, stone, and even clay tectural identity.
can be utilized to produce a classic appearance and feel.
These materials should also be supplemented with plants
and foliage to create an ambiance characteristic of a Acknowledgements
traditional courtyard. By designing a place that is both The author is grateful to the study settlements who were
aesthetically pleasing and functional, homeowners may willing to be interviewed and observe their houses to inform
enjoy their courtyard without compromising privacy. this paper. We also appreciate individuals for their help in
conducting the field research.

6. Conclusion
In addition to its architectural merit, the traditional
Disclosure statement
courtyard dwelling formation is an efficient way of com- No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
bining indoor living space with outdoor access while
providing privacy and protection from outside ele-
ments. It also allows for a communal area where family Notes on contributor
members can spend time together or entertain guests
Mohammed Mashary Alnaim, Architect and academic (assis-
while taking advantage of natural ventilation and light tant professor) of engineering at the University of Hail.
that would otherwise be difficult to achieve in more Architectural/cultural heritage and social studies are areas
traditional building types. This is particularly significant of expertise. Holds a Ph.D. in Design and Planning from the
in cultures where family privacy is strongly valued, as it is University of Colorado at Denver, focusing on vernacular
architecture & sociocultural theories and practices with a
in Saudi Arabia. Although this study highlights the rec-
minor focus on urban morphology. The topics of research
tangular and square shapes of the courtyard, alternative include cultural heritage, urban morphology, vernacular stu-
formations such as the U and L shape may emerge on dies, sociocultural studies, and urban design. As a practi-
rare occasions to overcome constraints such as site tioner, I worked in several roles, including designer, data
restrictions, building orientation, building size or to facil- analyst, design & technical reviewer, documentation & report
itate certain functions within the dwelling. However, it writer, QA (quality assurance) & QC (quality control), and lead
consultant on various projects. With theoretical knowledge
has become clear that courtyards in the Najdi region are
and practical experience in hand, I am able to provide more
a form of vernacular architecture that follows a certain robust best practices and strategies in the academic and
set of regulating principles and socio-cultural standard professional fields.
features, despite slight variations due to local customs
or context. The study’s results demonstrate that, no
matter where the courtyard was located, many of the Date Availability
same architectural features were used to keep the inside
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of
and outside worlds separate. Regardless of the config- this study are available within reasonable request.
uration, the main goal was to keep the family’s privacy
contained, which resulted in the overall shape of the
traditional Najdi dwelling’s characteristics. References
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