Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12351-x

Investigating the effect of virtual laboratories on students’

academic performance and attitudes towards learning
biology

Céline Byukusenge1 · Florien Nsanganwimana2 · Albert Paulo Tarmo3

Received: 13 December 2022 / Accepted: 7 November 2023 / Published online: 30 November 2023
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
2023

Abstract
Research has revealed that learning, especially in the field of science, is strongly
affected by various factors. These factors include students’ attitudes towards the
subject matter, and the manner in which the subject is taught. Given their close link-
age to students’ achievement, attitudes are relevant component in science learning.
However, researchers have noticed a decline in students’ attitudes in pursuing sci-
ence. Thus, the aim of this research was to delve into the impact of virtual labora-
tories on students’ attitudes toward biology and their performance in biology topics
perceived as difficult. The research involved 168 Rwandan upper secondary school
students. The study used a survey research combined with a quasi-experimental
research design. The control group comprised 83 students and was taught with the
conventional teaching method, while the experimental group comprised 85 and was
treated under technology-based instruction using virtual laboratories. Furthermore,
a focus group interview was used to get qualitative data about attitudinal change
before and after the intervention. Concepts of nerve cells and identification of food
nutrients, and enzyme activities were the focus of this study. The results indicated
an important effect of an intervention to improve students’ attitudes toward the
learned topics (p value < 0.05) and performance in favor of the experimental group.
The focus group interviews revealed that prion to teaching interventions nerve cells
topic was abstract and daunting to students and the visualization exercises helped
them to understand while increasing their interest and engagement. However, a sig-
nificant effect of the treatment on gender was not identified. The study recommends
the use virtual laboratories for teaching difficult and abstract concepts to encourage
positive attitudes toward learning biology.

Keywords Biology science · Students’ attitude · Students’ performance · Virtual

laboratories · High school teaching

Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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1148 Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171

1 Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Biology offers valuable knowledge to students, and it benefits humanity by support-

ing several fields, such as agriculture, medicine, and pharmacy (Lang & Šorgo, 2022).
Undoubtedly, understanding biology is regarded as a requirement for resolving many
issues that pertain to everyday life (Acarlı & Acarlı, 2020). Therefore, students must
be interested in biology and acquire the knowledge it offers so that they can serve the
community. However, while some studies have revealed that students have an inter-
est in learning biology (Uitto, 2014), several researchers worldwide have reported
that students regard biology as a boring and difficult subject with some topics that
are quite hard and difficult to understand which in turn affects their performance and
attitudes towards the subject (Çimer, 2012; Zukswert et al., 2019),
Firstly, it is essential to define the concept of attitudes given its close connections
with other concepts in the affective domain such as values and motivation (Tytler,
2014). The literature indicates different views about the construct of attitude. For
instance, Oluwatelure and Oloruntegbe (2010) viewed attitude as a person’s judg-
ments about whether something is right or wrong, essential or not. Tytler (2014)
defined attitude as a positive or negative feeling about a person, object, or prob-
lem. However, research indicates that attitudes toward science is a multidimensional
concept which one of the significant dimensions is “interest in science and science-
related activities (Navarro et al., 2016). Interest in science is considered as the curios-
ity, enthusiasm, and engagement that students exhibit when encountering scientific
concepts, topics, or activities (Jirout & Klahr, 2012). This interest can change over
time, often in response to different experiences and interactions. However, a genuine
interest defines itself into positive attitudes which often lead to increased motivation,
improved learning outcomes, and a greater likelihood of pursuing science-related
careers (Drymiotou et al., 2021).
Researchers have investigated the factors contributing to students’ attitudes
towards science learning (Acarlı & Acarlı, 2020; Shamila & Yoon, 2018). These fac-
tors can be characterized as: classroom factors including teaching style, availability
of learning facilities, instructional methods, students’ interest and motivation, and
classroom environment (Musengimana, 2021; Mukagihana et al., 2021; Oser & Fra-
ser, 2015) and non-classroom factors, such as peer influence, family background,
and gender (Connie & Margaret, 2006). However, most studies have highlighted that
teaching and learning facilities and teacher-related factors, such as teaching strate-
gies and content mastery, are the most important factors that affect students’ attitudes
towards science (Burks, 2022; Osborne et al., 2003).
With regards to teaching and learning facilities, it has been revealed that labora-
tory experiments make a cornerstone of biology education and provide opportuni-
ties to engage students, enhance their understanding, and cultivate positive attitudes
towards the subject (Hawkins & Phelps, 2013; Hofstein & Mamlok-naaman, 2007).
However, challenges such as budget constraints, limited resources, and safety con-
cerns have led many schools to not providing laboratory experiments to their students
(De Jong et al., 2013a). Without the practical activities, students subsequently strug-

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gle to grasp the subject fully. As a result, their academic performance in biology suf-
fer. Furthermore, it has been indicated that students who don’t have the opportunity to
engage in hands-on activities may find biology less interesting and enjoyable (Çimer,
2012; Pavol Prokop, 2007). This can lead to a lack of enthusiasm and motivation for
the subject, resulting in negative attitudes. Thus, it is why researchers continually
advocate for the exploration of new teaching strategies within biology classrooms, all
with the ultimate aim of achieving desirable educational outcomes.
In that regards, the integration of educational technology including virtual labs
as alternative to physical labs has witnessed significant growth, to revolutionize the
methods of teaching and learnings biology subject (Dyrberg et al., 2017; Kiboss et
al., 2004; Muhamad et al., 2012). Virtual laboratories, also known as online or digital
laboratories, offer a unique opportunity for students to engage with and explore bio-
logical concepts through computer-based simulations (Martín-Gutiérrez et al., 2017).
Virtual laboratories in biology education offer students the convenience and safety of
real-world laboratory experiments, bridging the gap between theory and practice in
an accessible and cost-effective manner (Pearson & Kudzai, 2015).
Researchers have shown that the visualizations and flexibility of technology edu-
cational tools in general, induce students’ motivation and engagement in learning
activities, thereby improving their academic performance (Akhigbe & Ogufere, 2019;
Dyrberg et al., 2017; Njiku et al., 2019). While virtual laboratories offer advantages
in terms of accessibility and flexibility, concerns have been raised about their abil-
ity to replicate the tactile and sensory experiences of traditional, hands-on lab work
(Aljuhani et al., 2018; Ismail et al., 2016). Additionally, the potential effects of virtual
laboratories on students’ motivation, engagement, and overall attitudes towards biol-
ogy as a subject of study are of great interest to educators, researchers, and policy-
makers. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of virtual laboratories on
students’ academic performance and attitudes towards learning biology in Rwandan
secondary schools.

1.2 The theoretical context of the study

The current study drew upon the cognitive theory of multimedia learning as proposed
by Mayer (2003) and the theory of reasoned action developed by Ajzen and Fishbein
(1980). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning underscores the significance of
multimedia materials, such as virtual laboratories, in aiding learners in constructing
mental representations and comprehending scientific explanations. This theory posits
that students achieve a more effective and profound understanding when presented
with a combination of verbal and visual elements, as opposed to relying solely on
text (Mayer, 2003) .
The theory of reasoned action, on the other hand, centers on the link between
an individual’s attitudes and their behaviors or actions. It highlights that behavioral
intentions are influenced by attitudes, such as preferences or aversions, as well as
by an individual’s perception of the importance of a given behavior, which, in turn,
impacts their anticipated outcomes. Additionally, this theory suggests that people’s
behavior can be influenced by information that triggers changes in their likes and
dislikes (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). In accordance with Mayer’s theory, multime-

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dia facilitates meaningful learning and fosters positive attitudes toward the subject
matter, thereby enhancing students’ achievements both in classroom subjects and in
their everyday activities. Consequently, these theories hold relevance for the present
study, which seeks to assess changes in students’ attitudes toward learning biology
following an instructional intervention involving the use of virtual laboratories and
animations.

2 Review of related literature

2.1 Students ‘attitudes towards biology

For a very long time, attitudes have been acknowledged as the most determinants
of behaviours (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005). Previous researchers have pointed out that
having a positive attitude on a class subject facilitates learning and helps students to
succeed in school. Contrary, negative students’ attitudes towards a subject impede
their achievement (Acarlı & Acarlı, 2020). Researchers have found that students’
attitudes towards biology vary with grade and gender (Mehmood, 2020). In his study,
Uitto (2014) indicates that female students had positive attitudes towards biology
than boys and that they had different preferences in areas of biology. However, there
have always been contradictory findings regarding attitudes toward biology science
and gender. Sofiani et al. (2017), on the other hand, discovered no difference in stu-
dents’ attitudes toward and achievement in biology across gender.
In the context of schooling levels or grades, research indicated that students gen-
erally have good attitudes toward biology at lower education levels, but that these
opinions change as they advance to higher levels. For instance, Acarlı and Acarlı
(2020) found a decrease in attitude scores from 9th to 12th grade, he found that 9th
grade students were more enthusiastic and less anxious towards biology and biol-
ogy courses than students in 12th grade. Although females had positive attitudes
than males but both genders’ attitude points drop off as the level rises (Acarlı &
Acarlı, 2020). Research highlighted that the waning of attitudes towards biology in
upper level should be linked to factors like teaching practices, learning facilities and
environment among others. Additionally, the amount of content that may need to
be memorized increases in upper level which may have an impact on how students
feel about many biology subjects in secondary school which were previously learned
more superficially at lower level.
However, research asserts that attitudes can be changed over time since they are
not inherited. Researchers discovered that science students’ attitudes can be changed
through exposure to science lessons, science exhibitions, science teaching approaches
science outreach activities, and learning environments ( Shannon Barry & Stofer,
2022). Researchers have shown that attractive and active student-centred teaching
strategies, such as the use of labs lead to better performance and higher knowledge
than passive ones (Akani, 2015).

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2.2 Impact of teaching interventions on students’ attitudes towards science

In search of the solutions to the problem of the decline of students’ attitudes towards
science, a number of research projects emerged with a diagnostic purpose. For
instance, Sjøberg and Schreiner (2019) conducted a research project, the ROSE (the
Relevance of Science Education) that had an intention of quantifying students’ atti-
tudes towards Science in different countries and to relate that variable with the eco-
nomic development. The findings indicated that students in schools are generally
aware of the relevance of science in different sectors for countries development. In
this line, research indicates that students in many developing countries are encour-
aged and willing to study Science although some of them change their minds in
higher levels (Afful et al., 2020). It has been revealed that poor attitudes among stu-
dents may be related to activities, explanations, teacher-students interactions or other
aspects of science lessons that may not be particularly appealing to students (Mehm-
ood, 2020).
As solution, different teaching intervention programs were implemented at all
level of education to cater for the concern of students’ performance and attitudes
towards Science. Particularly in biology, the literature indicates many strategies that
have been used to improve student’s attitude towards that subject but we highlight
the ones that were broadly used and proven to be effective such as Project based
learning, Inquiry based learning, and computer assisted teaching which includes all
teaching innovations based technology like, simulations, animations, and virtual labs
the subject of the present study.
For instance, after implementing a Bioart model in introductory biology class,
Burks (2022) asserted that Project-based learning improve students attitudes towards
biology. This research indicated that students found the Project-Based Learning to be
engaging and created a positive attitude amongst the students who at the beginning
perceived introductory biology as irrelevant and boring (Burks, 2022). Manishimwe
et al. (2022) revealed that students who participated in inquiry-based learning showed
more engagement and participation in the microbiology class activities, in addition
mutual cooperation was encouraged, which in turn encouraged self-preparation and
self-study among the students.
Particularly, Several studies have shown that computer-assisted instructional tools
like virtual labs, animations, are effective for improving conceptual understanding of
various scientific concepts (Dyrberg et al., 2017; Pearson & Kudzai, 2015) and pro-
mote students enjoyments and attitudes towards science lessons. Computer assisted
teaching and learning decrease students work load and allow them time for reflection
(Abdulrasaq et al., 2017).

2.3 Virtual labs and students’ attitudes towards learning biology

Virtual laboratories, often referred to as computer-based simulations of traditional

laboratory experiments, represent a powerful tool for facilitating active student
engagement and participation in the learning process (De Jong et al., 2013b). They
provide students with the opportunity to immerse themselves in laboratory activities,
thereby enhancing their understanding of scientific concepts (Hawkins & Phelps,

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2013). The impact of virtual labs on biology education has been noted as significant,
as evidenced by research conducted by Alkhaldi in 2016.
Furthermore, it’s worth noting that the scope of instructional virtual lab technol-
ogy extends beyond mere simulations. It also encompasses other technological ele-
ments such as animations and visualizations (Maldarelli et al., 2009; Shelden et al.,
2019). These multimedia components play a crucial role in capturing students’ inter-
est and fostering motivation within the classroom setting (Aebersold et al., 2020). By
incorporating animations and visualizations into the learning experience, educators
can create dynamic and interactive lessons that not only engage students but also
ignite their enthusiasm for the subject matter. This, in turn, contributes to a more
vibrant and effective learning environment in which students are not only informed
but also inspired to explore and learn about biology.
Toth (2016) claims that virtual labs are very successful in sciences like biology,
engineering, and computer science when they are effectively used. In reference of his
study, Toth indicated that in MyDNA VL, which was designed to show the separation
of DNA fragments, the students enjoyed learning and efficiently conducted repeated
experiments and studied the effects of the variables.
It has been argued that virtual labs play a role in bridging the gap of the lack of
physical lab facilities that are essential to making science meaningful and enjoyable
for students (Aljuhani et al., 2018). Researchers showed that virtual labs facilitate
the formation of conceptual models through multiple processes that take advantage
of the technology to cultivate students’ interest in learning Science subjects. In their
review study, Ramli et al. (2019) found that virtual labs improve students’ motivation
and attitudes toward science. Kocijancic and Sullivan (2004) said that virtual labs
are effective as they simulate complicated, expensive, and/or inaccessible devices to
replace environmentally hazardous laboratory experiments, they added that virtual
labs stimulate students interest to learn and to participate in learning activities.
A comparative study between physical, virtual, and hybrid flipped labs conducted
by Son et al. (2016) indicated that students in virtual lab group improving their grades
compared to other lab instruction groups. Besides this study showed that students in
VL group reported significant increase in attitudes towards biology than students in
other groups. These researchers further compared the personnel costs in both labs
and found that in Virtual labs the cost is 34% less than in physical labs. Therefore,
the study concluded carefully planned virtual lab experiences can lead to improved
student performance and attitudes toward science.
Researchers have revealed that in virtual labs the students enjoy the interactivity
with the virtual objects and can actively and repeatedly manipulate the equipment
to perform experiments safely without putting their hands on materials (Hatherly,
2016). Virtual laboratories bridge the gap of lack of practical activities to concretize
the learned concepts (Reeves & Crippen, 2021; Rutten et al., 2012). Although there
are many relevant functions of using virtual laboratories in relation to students’ atti-
tudes and learning outcomes in general, research indicated some drawbacks regard-
ing the use of virtual laboratories in teaching and learning Biology. As with any
other educational technology, virtual labs present different criticisms. According to
Hawkins and Phelps (2013), using virtual labs does not adequately teach students
laboratory procedures and practical skills. Because students do not work with real

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materials and equipment, it can create in them an essence of lack responsibility, and
carefulness towards laboratory materials even the hazardous ones (Potkonjak et al.,
2016).

3 Research questions

The present study intended to respond to the following research questions:

1. What is the effect of using virtual labs in teaching on students’ attitudes toward
learning biology topics?
2. What is the effect of using virtual labs in teaching on academic performance for
both male and female students?

4 Research methodology

This section describes the methodology used to answer to the research questions,

4.1 Research design

This study adopted a pragmatism paradigm and used a mixed research approach
where both quantitative and qualitative methods were used sequentially. The choice
of this research approach was based on the assumption that collecting different types
of data leads to a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem than
using qualitative or quantitative only (Cresswell, 2014; Kaushik & Walsh, 2019;
Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017). Quantitative phase employed a quasi-experimental design
of pre-test and post-test where students making the sample were assigned into two
groups experimental and control group (Fraenkel et al., 2012). A quasi-experimental
design was used to determine whether there is a causal relationship between interven-
tion and outcomes. This means that design was chosen to test the impact of teaching
by use of virtual laboratories on students’ attitudes towards biology and therefore
their performance.

4.2 Sample size of the study and sampling techniques

The participants in this study were secondary school students from two districts of
the southern province of Rwanda. The study specifically involved senior six (grade
12 students) studying biology in their combinations. A purposive sampling was
employed to select the schools in two districts. First of all, the school should have a
combination where biology is studied as a major subject, having students in senior
six (grade 12). The choice of senior six classes was based on the fact that the topic
of this study is taught in senior six and is perceived as abstract, making it difficult to
teach and learn (see Byukusenge et al., 2022). Furthermore, the schools should be
should have a computer lab equipped with other teaching facilities. From the men-
tioned criteria two schools from each district making a total of four schools were

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selected to make the sample of this study. Therefore, a total of 168 students with 91
boys and 77 girls were involved in the study The schools were randomly assigned to
either the experimental group (two schools with a total number of students N = 85) or
the control group (two schools with a total number of students N = 83).

4.3 Research instruments

The present study employed three instruments: A survey questionnaire (Students’

attitudes scale for biology) for collecting data related to the first research question, a
biology achievement test (BAT for the second research question and a focus group
for collecting qualitative data that were used to complement quantitative data.

4.3.1 Students’ attitudes Scale for Biology

This survey questionnaire comprised 12 item questions organized in three catego-

ries: the first category comprises statements assessing students’ attitudes about biol-
ogy and its importance, the second category consists statements about biology topics
more specifically nervous system concepts and the third category involves state-
ments about biology learning practices related to laboratory activities. Its scale was
rated as follows: Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1, Disagree (D) = 2, Neutral (N) = 3 Agree
(A) = 4, and Strongly Agree (SA) = 1. Some questions of this survey were adapted
from the Test of Science-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) developed by (Fraser, 1981).
TOSRA was selected for adapting some questions of this study because some of its
scales were considered highly suitable for the investigation of how students’ attitudes
towards science changed as a result of using laboratories. However, before its use, the
face and content validity of the questions was checked (Taherdoost, 2018).
For content validity, the questionnaire was given to experts for validation. We
checked content validity from the reports of those validators who were tasked indi-
cate if the question is suitable for the test or not. We used Lawshe’s method to obtain
the Content Validity Ratio for each question item as follows CVR = 𝑛𝑒−(N/2 ) / N/2.
ne stands for number of the validators who ranking the question as essential and N is
the total number of validators (Gilbert & Prion, 2016). Afterwards, we calculated the
Content Validity Index (CVI) for the whole instrument which is the mean of CVRs of
all test items and we got an index of 0.83.
After instruments validation, we carried out a pilot study for checking their reli-
ability. The pilot study was done in one school that was not involved in the main
study but whose characteristics (see details in point 3.2) are similar to the ones of
schools involved in the main study. For checking reliability, we computed Cronbach
Alpha by using the data obtained from a pilot study and we found an index of 0.79.

4.3.2 Biology Achievement Test (BAT)

The second instrument Biology Achievement Test (BAT) containing 20 multiple-

choice questions related to Nerve cells (Neurones and Glial cells) was also used for
the study to test students’ performance before and after the intervention. Of the 20
items in the questionnaire, ten were related to neurons and the other ten were related

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to glial cells. By using the senior six biology syllabus, the researchers developed the
initial version of the instrument which consisted of 25 items. The instrument was then
validated both in terms of content and face. Two experts from the faculty of science
at the University of Rwanda, an expert from the University of Dar es Salaam and two
Rwandan in-service biology teachers validate the BAT to ensure both its appearance
and its substance. By using Lawshe’s method, we calculated the content validity ratio
(CVR) for each item. The validation process resulted in a test of 20 items as five
were found to be not valid. Then we computed the content validity index (CVI) of
the instrument and found to be 0.87. The reliability of this test was also calculated
from the pilot study data using Pearson’s product correlation methods and found to
be 0.74.

4.3.3 Focus Groups

This study also used a focus group discussion to gather qualitative data which were
used to complement the quantitative data. The rationale behind selecting this particu-
lar interview format was the belief that focus group discussions offer a comfortable
setting in which members can engage in meaningful dialogue (Cheng & Kai-Wen,
2014). The interviews focused on understanding students’ thoughts and views about
understanding concepts, and about biology teaching and learning before and after
research intervention. The interview was done face to face and involved a number of
members ranging from six to eight per each group. It was done in experimental group
with the intention to hear from respondents the role of intervention they received. The
interview guide comprised ten main questions and other questions were prompted by
students’ responses.

4.4 Research intervention material and topic

In this study, we comprehensively selected relevant resources to teach nerve cells as

well as enzymes as one of the topics perceived to be difficult and abstract see (Byu-
kusenge et al., 2022). We also taught topics that require practical activities whose
materials are not sufficient in some schools in this case “enzymes activities and food
tests. The selection of those topics was based on criteria like being a topic whose
lab activities could be difficult to be performed in a normal school laboratory and
whose materials might be very costly to afford for some schools in this case “nerve
cells”. Secondly, we chose topics whose lab activities could be performed in normal
school laboratories but are not performed due to the scarcity of physical laboratories
in Rwandan schools (enzyme activities and food tests). Therefore, for nerve cells, we
used a Virtual Neurophysiology Lab, which is freely available through the Howard
Hughes Medical Institute: Bio Interactive Lab Series (http://www.biointeractive.org).
We also used The Eureka’s product with a package of simulations and animations.
This product is developed by a designated company, which has a large collection of
digital units, animation, and simulations on various biological subjects. It was chosen
because it is suitable for explaining and concretizing concepts of nerve cells and it
is free to use.

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For the enzyme activity concerning different factors like temperature, and food
tests we used the idea of online virtual labs. These contain interactive experiments
where the students are first given the instructions and protocol of the experiment.
Before starting the virtual experiment, the students are given the background of the
activity, the material needed the aim of the experiment, risk assessment, and gener-
ally the method.
Additionally, we used other teaching and learning resources and objects as sup-
portive tools to assist students learning like computers and projectors.

4.5 Data collection procedure

During data collection, students in both the control and experimental group were
given the survey questionnaire assessing their attitudes and the BAT assessing their
understanding of nerve cells as a pre-test. The latter was followed by the intervention
period in which trained teachers from the experimental group were allowed to teach
nerve cells using a technology-enhanced instructional strategy involving virtual labs
and animations. Besides, virtual lab activities related to identification of food nutri-
ent and activity of enzymes were done. In other hand students in the control group
were taught similar topics using traditional ways of chalk, talk, and books. It should
be noted that after the intervention, students were given post-test, a survey to assess
attitudinal change, and focus group interview was used in experimental group for
getting more understanding of the impact of intervention on students’ attitudes and
feeling towards learning biology topics used in this study.

4.6 Data Analysis

4.6.1 Quantitative analysis of students’ attitudes data

First of all, Attitudes statements were rearranged and put into three categories: the
first category comprised three statements related to attitudes toward biology and
its importance in general, the second comprised four statements related to attitudes
toward biology topics (nervous system in this case), and the third comprised five
statements related to attitudes toward biology teaching practices. The number of
answers for each statement were counted. Strongly disagree scored 1 while strongly
agree score 5. However, there are two statement to which scoring was different from
the others because they were formulated in a negative form. These are statement 4
and statement 5, during the analysis for these statements, strongly disagree was sored
5 while strongly agree was scored 1. Then, we calculated the mean score for each
statement in pre-test and post-test for both control and experimental groups.

4.6.2 Quantitative analysis of students’ achievement data

Quantitative data from achievement test (pre-test and post-test) in both control and
experimental groups were also first filtered and organized; correct answers were
scored 1 and incorrect 0. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used with aid
of Excel and SPSS v. 25, respectively. Gender variable was considered during the

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analysis. After checking for the assumption of ratio data, independent scores, and the
assumption of homogeneity of variance in both control and experimental groups and
for both male and female students we adopted using a parametric test for statistical
analysis (MANOVA) as none of the assumptions was violated.

4.6.3 Qualitative analysis of focus groups

Data derived from the focus group discussions (qualitative data) were analysed the-
matically. After transcribing the focus group interviews that were audio recorded, the
researcher used thematic analysis, which is a flexible and systematic way of iden-
tifying, organizing, and reporting themes to explore the experiences, opinions, or
perspectives of the respondents. It should be noted that the focus group discussions
were done to the experimental group where the innovative teaching techniques were
implemented. The transcripts were manually coded by the researcher with the assis-
tance of two peers (PhD students at African Centre of Excellence for Innovative
teaching and learning Mathematics and Science) who between them one was expert
in qualitative research. The purpose of coding was to break down the data into man-
ageable and meaningful units that can help to get the themes easily but without losing
the context of data.
During the process of making themes, note taking and mind map techniques were
used. After formulating the themes, a comprehensive review was done, the researcher
shared five generated themes to the above mentioned assistant and expert to ensure if
they are valid and to check if they are coherent and consistent with the research ques-
tion. From their feedback two themes were found to be not necessary and were then
removed. There remained three themes that reflected on students’ attitudes before
and after intervention. Some illustrative quotes of students were reported and for the
anonymity purpose, respondents were given alphabets names). Responses (quotes)
that were specific and based on experiences were given more weight than responses
that were vague.

5 Results and interpretation

In this section, we delve into the heart of our research work, where we present our
findings in response to the research questions that have guided our study. These
research questions were carefully made to explore specific aspects of our topic. To aid
in understanding, we have structured this section to align precisely with the sequence
of our research questions. Additionally, the qualitative results were presented after
quantitative ones to adhere to the design of the study.

5.1 What is the effect of using virtual labs in teaching on students’ attitudes
toward learning biology topics?

The descriptive statistics presented in Table 1 showed that students in both control
and experimental groups had an interest in biology and had a generally positive atti-
tude toward the importance of biology for their future carrier and for solving real-life

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Table 1 Descriptive analysis of attitudes survey in control and experimental at pre- and post-test
Attitude statements Control Experimental
Pre Post Pre Post
M SD M SD M SD M SD
1. Biology is an interesting school 3.63 1.31 3.77 1.29. 3.67 1.32 4.2 1.02
subject
Biology and 2. Knowledge gained from study- 4.20 1.07 4.29 1.01 4.17 1.03 4.33 0.93
its importance ing biology is important for my
future career
3 The concepts studied in biol- 3.98 1.21 4.14 0.97 3.93 1.27 3.96 1.3
ogy help me to solve a real-life
problem
4. Nervous system topic is very 3.21 1.41 3.11 1.37 3.22 1.49 2.37 1.36
difficult in biology
Biology topic 5. Nerve cells functioning is very 3.39 1.03 3.36 1.39 3.40 1.56 2.53 1,32
(Nerve cells) abstract to me
6. I like the topic of nerve system 2.63 1.52 2.94 1,40 2.46 1.47 3.09 1.38
7. Nervous system is the 2.19 1.49 2.24 1.51 2.14 1.49 2.74 1.55
easiest and most enjoyable topic
in biology
8. I would enjoy science more if 2.40 1.37 2.46 1.57 2.50 1.39 2.66 1.41
there were activities such as the
ones we do in studying Biology
Biology 9. My regular biology class is inte- 2.72 1.38 3.05 1.38 2.58 1.32 3.18 1.27
teaching grated with laboratory activities
practices
10. I carry out laboratory investi- 2.12 1.42 2.37 1.42 2.19 1.43 3.27 1.24
gations to understand concepts of
biology
11. The technology used in biology 2.54 1.23 2.63 1.39 2.53 1.42 3.54 1.34
activities makes the lesson more
comprehensible
12. The way used by our teacher 2.40 1.32 2.42 1.44 2.44 1.29 3.94 1.29
helps me to visualize organisms’
structures and functioning

problems even before teaching intervention. This is shown in statements 1, 2, and 3

where in the control group, those statements have the mean scores that range from
3.69 to 4.20 before intervention and from 3.77 to 4.29 after the intervention. Simi-
larly, in the experimental group, the statements related to students’ attitudes towards
biology and its importance had high mean scores ranging from 3.67 to 4.17 in the
pre-test and from 3.96 to 4.33 in post-test.
However, the results indicated that before teaching intervention (pre-test), students
in both control and experimental perceived the topic of the nerve system and related
concepts to be difficult and not enjoyable for them and had an attitude of dislike
towards that topic. For instance, the mean scores for the statement that the nervous
system is very difficult were 3.21 and 3.22 in the control and experimental groups,
respectively. While the mean scores for the statement “I like the topic of the nervous
system” were 2.63 and 2.47 in the control and experimental group, respectively. The
results also indicated students’ poor attitudes about biology teaching practices as the
majority in both control and experimental disagree with statements 8 up to statement

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Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171 1159

12 before teaching intervention. Interestingly, the results indicate that after teaching
intervention (Post-test) there was an improvement in students’ attitudes.

5.1.1 Attitude gain and inferential statistics

We computed the attitude gain from pre-test to post-test in attitude categories (Biol-
ogy and its importance, Biology topics (nervous system), and teaching practices in
Biology. To calculate the gain, we first calculated the average scores in pre-test and
post-test for each category. Then, the difference of mean scores from post-test to
pre-test was divided by the difference from the highest score (5) to pre-test. This is
< a>= (post-pre) / (5-pre)]. Then, we computed average attitude gain percent as fol-
lows: <a> = ((post-pre) / (5-pre)) *100]. The gain was calculated to show the impact
of teaching intervention on students’ attitudes. Besides, all attitude variables were
subjected to a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to demonstrate the impact of
the intervention at the post-test.
The results in Fig. 1 indicate students’ attitudes gain as a result of teaching inter-
vention. Students’ attitudes in both experimental and control group improved. How-
ever, the improvement in control group was low compared to the improvement in
experimental group. Generally, the group that learned with virtual labs raised their
attitudes more than the group that learned with traditional ways. However, regarding
students’ attitudes towards biology and its importance the difference in attitude gain
was not significant as the attitude gain was 13% and 17% in control and experimental
group respectively. This non-significant difference in attitude gain is visually shown
by the overlapping errors bars in the Fig. 1. More, importantly, attitude gain was
increased in attitude towards learning the topic of nerve cells and biology teach-
ing practices. This means that the experimental group gained 23% while the control
group gained 7% of a positive attitude toward nerve cells topic. Besides, the exper-
imental group gained 34% of positive attitudes towards biology teaching practice
while control group gained 6% (see Fig. 1).
Besides, a one- way analysis of variance at post-test indicate that there is no statis-
tical significant difference with a p value of 0.061 (see Table 1). The results presented
in Table 2 indicate that there was no statistically significant difference of students’

Fig. 1 Selected illustrations from myIdea virtual labs

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1160 Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171

Table 2  A one-way ANOVA (A Tukey post-hoc test) for attitude factors at pre-and post-test
Attitudes factors Analysis Pre-test Post-test
df F P-value df F P-value
Biology and its importance Between group 1 8.92 0.059 1 8.81 0.61
Within group 168 168
The topic of Biology (nerve cells) Between group 1 14.3 0.054 1 13.74 < 0.001
Within group 168 168
Biology teaching Between group 1 19.27 0.053 1 22.01 < 0.001
Within group 168 168

attitudes between control and experimental group before teaching intervention (at
pre-test) where a p-value is > 0.05 in all attitudes factors. However, the results show
that after treatments (teaching with technology enhanced instruction involving vir-
tual labs and teaching by use of traditional ways of chalks and books), the students’
improved their attitudes significantly in favor of experimental. However, for the fac-
tor of importance of biology, the difference was not statistically significant (df = 1,
p > .05) compared to students’ attitudes towards nerve cells topic where the difference
was highly statistically significant (df = 1, p < .001) and to students’ attitudes towards
biology teaching practices with (df = 1, p < .001) (see Table 2).

5.2 What is the effect of using virtual labs in teaching on academic performance
for both male and female students?

The students’ dislike and lack of understanding of nerve cells can be detected even in
their performance scores before intervention (pre-test). Students in both control and
experimental groups failed the test as both males and females scored less than 50%
(see Table 3).
After the interventions (being taught by us through virtual labs and animations and
being exposed to a series of virtual laboratory activities) students in the experimental
group avowed an increased interest and engagement and understanding in the sub-
ject. The increased interest also resulted in a better understanding of concepts learned
previously in class. The Fig. 2 shows the improved performance, particularly in the
experimental group and a slight improvement in the mean scores in control. The
inferential results indicated a very high statistically significant difference between the
pre-test and post-test in the control and experimental group in favor of experimental
group (F: 4586.2252; df = 2; p < .001; η2 = 0.982).

Table 3 Students’ performance Group Test Gender N Mean Std. D

(mean scores) before the
Control Pre-test Female 49 46.93 13.18
intervention
Male 34 40.88 12.15
Total 83 43.90 12.66
Experimental Pre-test Female 57 35.35 11.60
Male 28 41.07 12.19
Total 85 38.21 11.89

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Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171 1161

Fig. 2 Estimated marginal means of performance for control and experimental in pre-and post-test

Fig. 3 Estimated marginal means of performance for males and females in the experimental group

In the experimental group, the performance for both male and female students
has been expressively improved with no statistically significant difference (F = 0.741,
df = 1, p > .05(.323), η2 = 0.006). This means that both males and females improved
almost similarly (see Fig. 3).
The teaching intervention improved students’ interest and engagement in the
course sessions and gave rise to an improved attitude and achievement due to better

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1162 Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171

understanding of the concepts. The figures below indicate the number of students
in the experimental and control groups who could perform well on the questions of
the test. The results show that before intervention (pre-test), many questions were
difficult for students in both experimental and control groups and were performed
by less than 50% of students with the exception of few questions like Q7, Q10, Q20
which were performed by more 50% in both control and experimental groups. Inter-
estingly, the Fig. 4 indicates that with an exception of three question (Q1, Q3, Q6),
other questions seemed very comprehensible after teaching intervention especially in
experimental group where all 17 questions were well performed by more than 50%
and among them, 15 questions were well performed by more than 70%. However, the
post test results show that in control group, 12 questions were performed by less than
50%, no question was performed by more than 70%, and 8 questions were performed
by the students ranging from 51 to 63% (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 4 Students’ performance per question in Experimental

Fig. 5 Students’ performance per question in Control

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Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171 1163

Generally, students in experimental group performed better the questions of post-

test than students in control group. The overall performance in post-test for all ques-
tion showed that the average performance of students in the experimental group was
80% while in control group was 47%. It was found that the average performance of
students in the experimental group was increased by 43% from pre- to post-test. on
the other side, the average score of students of control group was increased by 3%
from pre-to post-test. This shows that the teaching intervention used in experimental
group promoted understanding better than the instructional ways used in control.

5.2.1 Focus group results

For a deep understanding the impact of teaching intervention (teaching with virtual
labs) on the improvement of attitudes and performance, students from the experi-
mental group were gathered for focused group interview. The participants were asked
about their perceptions of biology before and after being taught by the use of tech-
nology based-on virtual labs and after participating in a series of virtual lab practical
activities. Three main themes were revealed from their responses and some illustra-
tive quotes are presented.

5.2.2 Theme 1# Before being taught with virtual labs and animations students
considered nerve cells and enzymes as abstract topics and hard to grasp

In their discussion, students declared that the topics were too abstract and that they
felt bored when the teachers asked some questions about the topics. Some students
avowed that they could even prefer not to attend class because the sessions, espe-
cially the nervous system sessions were obscure for them. Some of the students’
comments were captured and presented below:

“This lesson is not new to me, I learned it at an ordinary level, but it was hard
to understand how these cells work. I remember my teacher in senior three used
to tell us that if we didn’t know how to draw the neuron, we cannot even under-
stand how it worked, and I was really bad at drawing. From that time on I felt
like I was not part of the class when it was time to study this topic.” (Student B).
“Some biology topics are exceptionally intimidating for me, for instance, I
can’t understand how numerous organelles as we are always told operate within
a small cell. We are always presented with drawings, I can’t imagine how a
special cell like a neuron contains other organelles, where? Does it possess a
cytoplasm like other cells? How does it eat? I feel like I have many misconcep-
tions about this topic and I feel discomfort.” (Student E).

Students went further to cite the disjuncture between the images presented and verbal
explanation in class as a major contributor to their confusion and inability to under-
stand the concepts. One student said:

“I don’t understand how a cell comes to be a part of another cell. It confuses

me a lot, the drawing of a neuron shows that it has a part called the Schwan

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1164 Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171

cell, but I did not receive deep explanations about this. Hence I have to take it
as given.” (Student C).

5.2.3 Theme two# Before interventions students found biology topics boring due to
a lack of laboratory practices and visualizing exercises

Some biology topics become hard and boring due to how they are taught. Students in
this study indicated that they rarely carry laboratory practices in their lessons. They
further stated that technology means are not often used which results in the abstract-
ness and boring of the concept.
Some students pointed out:

“Sometimes I fail in biology not because I am weak but because I am not good
at memorization. If we could get laboratory activities or other concepts applica-
tions in our learning, it could help me to remember well during the exam. Here
at our school, students heavily rely on memorization. Students who are good at
memorization perform better. The fact that we are only taught via pictures and
text did not help me because it requires memorizing the processes step by step.
Hence I usually fail” (Student D).
“Though I like biology as a science of life, I think I will not continue to study
it at University because it makes me feel strained. In some biology topics, I
got lost and feel sad. I wish I could see how things happen instead of being
told. Unfortunately, we do not lab activities and we don’t have access to other
resources that could help.” (Student A).
“……. For instance, I have struggled a lot to discern reagents that are used in
testing foods, we have learned this topic theoretically and we were required to
answer the related questions as if we did practices, it was hard for me to remem-
ber what change will take place once, for instance, Benedict’s solution is added
to a given substance, I hate this concept….” (Student F).

5.2.4 Theme three# The use of virtual laboratories and animations improved
students’ attitudes and performance

After the interventions (being taught by us through virtual labs and animations and
being exposed to a series of virtual laboratory activities) students in the experimental
group avowed an increased interest and engagement and understanding in the subject.
Students in the experimental group confirmed that they enjoyed the session of
learning nerve cells through virtual labs and animations and also enjoyed virtual
lab activities about enzymes and food test practices. Below are some of illustrative
quotes which reflect their satisfactions:

“I liked studying this lesson through visualizations, it made me feel like oohh…
it’s clear. Previously I thought that this concept of nerve cells and their func-
tioning is daunting and too abstract. But I came to know that there are other

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Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171 1165

cells called glial cells that are in the nervous system which are much more
important. The session we had, was very interesting and helped me to increase
my love of the nervous system.” (Student C).
“I enjoyed how we studied by using visualizations, 3Dynamic animations also
used to help me to see well different types of glial cells. I enjoyed this lesson
to the extent I cannot tell. It captivated my interest and made me feel curious to
continue searching and learning more about nerve cells.” (Student A).
“The ways used to study this lesson helped me to grasp various concepts in
nerve cells functioning, I enjoyed learning about the brain-blood barrier. I did
not know that Schwan cells are an important type of cells in the nervous system
apart from being simply parts of a neuron, I am happy to study this lesson.”
(Student G).

6 Discussion

Maintaining students’ interest and cultivating a positive attitude toward science

subjects are pivotal factors in their sustained engagement and achievement in the
classroom practices (Drymiotou et al., 2021). The present study aimed to explore
the influence of technology-based teaching, specifically incorporating virtual labo-
ratories resources, on students’ attitudes towards the subject of biology and their
academic performance in upper secondary school students in Rwanda,

6.1 Effect of using virtual labs on students’ attitudes toward learning biology
topics

The study’s findings revealed a noteworthy enhancement in students’ attitudes

towards biology when exposed to teaching methods involving virtual laboratories.
This effect was particularly pronounced in subjects that were perceived as challeng-
ing and requiring consistent practice to grasp fully, such as the nervous system and
enzymes (Byukusenge et al., 2022).
The present study showed that before teaching intervention, students had gener-
ally positive attitudes towards biology as a subject. However, they had negative atti-
tude when learning some biological topics, especially the nervous system, which they
perceive as abstract and difficult to learn. For example, while the score range for the
positive attitude was between 3 to 5, the mean score of the statement” I like the topic
of the nervous system” was less than 3 in both control and experimental group (see
Table 1). Also, students were dissatisfied with the teaching strategies commonly use d
for biology teaching. In his study, Prokop et al. (2007) also pointed out that although
students have a great interest in biology, they experience difficulties and boredom
when learning some topics like botany. Ranaweera and Montplaisir (2010) noted that
the difficulty of some biology subjects and how they are taught makes students feel
less interested.
However, the findings of the present study indicated that after the teaching inter-
vention, the students improved their interest and attitude toward biology topics (see

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1166 Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171

Table 1). Besides in their responses students confirmed that they enjoyed the lessons.
For instance, one student said “I think I can never get bored with this way of teaching.
I wish it could be used continuously so that we understand more about the concepts”.
The results are consistent with various previous studies interested in the impact of
instructional strategy on students’ interest in biology (Acarlı & Acarlı, 2020; Mukagi-
hana et al., 2021; Oser & Fraser, 2015). Mukagihana et al. (2021), for example, indi-
cated that animation-based instruction improved students’ attitudes toward biology in
both private and public colleges.
The results of this study provided valuable insights into the potential of these
innovative teaching tools to positively influence students’ attitudes and engagement
in the realm of biology education.

6.2 Effect of using virtual labs in teaching on academic performance

This study showed the significant improvement in students’ understanding and mas-
tery of scientific concepts when exposed to virtual labs. The interactive nature of
virtual experiments, which closely mimic real-world laboratory experiences, appears
to contribute to deeper comprehension (Udin et al., 2020). This aligns with previous
research indicating that virtual labs promotes better understanding and concept reten-
tion (Maldarelli et al., 2009; Pearson & Kudzai, 2015). The virtual labs used in this
study were selected based on their relevance to the major topics and then organized
and integrated into the teaching. Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia emphasizes
that the appropriate selection and use of teaching materials create logical mental con-
structs and positive attitudes about the subject, which in turn lead to better academic
performance (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Although the VLs used could provide stu-
dents with an environment in which to develop hands-on skills and their awareness
of laboratory setups, the results of this research also indicated that some experimental
steps were automated, not allowing students to apply trial and error. For example, one
student mentioned: “These virtual labs used to study the effects of various factors
such as temperature and substrate concentration on enzyme activity and food testing
were very interesting, they improved my ability to manipulate and become familiar
with some lab objects, but some steps were kind of automatic, there I clicked on a test
tube, and it moves to a convenient place that wasn’t my initial choice.”
Nevertheless, Sun et al. (2007) describe the automatic characteristic of VLs as
being user-friendly (usability) and a significant prerequisite for the motivation and
interest of students in a subject since they reduce their cognitive load by teaching
them the essentials. Along this line, researchers indicated VLs provide a set of learn-
ing tasks that learners find useful and easy to use which in turn, improves student
learning outcomes (Lee et al., 2010). To this end, the results of the present study
support what other previous researchers have argued since students’ performance in
the experimental group improved very significantly for both males and females at
post-test (post-intervention). However, the study indicated no statistically significant
difference (p-value of 0.32, which is > 0.05) in the improved performance of male and
female students. It means that the teaching intervention helped both students almost
equally.

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Education and Information Technologies (2024) 29:1147–1171 1167

This study confirms that virtual labs, appropriately selected and aligned to learn-
ing objectives, are potential tools to improve students’ attitudes and interest in biol-
ogy topics, thereby improving their academic performance.

7 Conclusion and research implication

The finding of this study has demonstrated improvement in students’ attitudes towards
biology and biology due to the use of technology-enhanced instruction involving vir-
tual laboratories and animations. This research makes a significant contribution since
it helps to understand the potential of virtual labs and animations-based instruction to
enhance interest in learning and understanding biology topics. The potentiality of vir-
tual labs can also be acknowledged by schools and institutions which are constrained
by financial means to establish physical science laboratories. The findings have
important implications for instructional designers, virtual lab developers, and educa-
tors in general. For educators in biology and science in general, the study has shown
that virtual labs and animations are essential to concretize some topics that seemed
difficult and abstract. Therefore, educators may use them to bring about meaningful
learning to their students and maintain a positive student attitude towards the lesson.
For virtual labs developers and instructional designers, this study would help them
enhance virtual labs features by making them more interactive with rooms for stu-
dents to make errors and correct them to increase their critical thinking capabilities. An
appropriate and well-organized set of learning tasks and activities aligned with learn-
ing objectives and students’ level of understanding should be availed in virtual labs to
enhance the desired learning experiences that significantly improve learning outcomes.

Acknowledgements Our sincere thanks go to the directorate of research and innovation unit at the Uni-
versity of Rwanda College of Education (UR-CE) for granting ethical clearance and permission to con-
duct this study. We also thank the African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning
Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) for providing us with financial support to successfully conduct
this study.

Funding Corresponding author received the support from the African Centre of Excellence for Innovative
Teaching and Leaning Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS).

Data availability Data will be made available on a reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests The authors have no conflict of interest.

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Authors and Affiliations

Céline Byukusenge1 · Florien Nsanganwimana2 · Albert Paulo Tarmo3

Céline Byukusenge
celinebyukusenge@gmail.com
Florien Nsanganwimana
florisanga@gmail.com
Albert Paulo Tarmo
Paulo.albert@yahoo.com

1
African Centre of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning Mathematics and
Science (ACEITLMS), University of Rwanda College of Education (UR-CE), PO BOX 55,
Rwamagana, Rwanda
2
University of Rwanda College of Education (UR-CE), PO BOX 55, Rwamagana, Rwanda
3
University of Dar es Salaam-School of Education (UDSM- SoED), PO BOX 35048, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania

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