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THE PHOTOMULTIPLIER HANDBOOK
The Photomultiplier Handbook
A. G. Wright
1
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Tony Wright 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017933575
ISBN 978–0–19–956509–2
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199565092.001.0001
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Dedicated in memory of John Barton.
Contents
Preface xix
Figure credits xxi
1 Why photomultipliers? 1
1.1 Aspects of light detection 2
1.1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.2 Brief history of PMTs 3
1.1.3 The statistical case for PMTs 4
1.1.4 DC detection with a PMT 7
1.1.5 Detection of single photoelectrons 9
1.1.6 Detection of multi-photoelectron signals 10
1.1.7 Summary of PMT key attributes 11
1.2 Other light detectors 12
1.2.1 Silicon PIN diodes 12
1.2.2 APDs 12
1.2.3 SiPMs 14
1.2.4 Summary of silicon key attributes 16
1.2.5 Visible-light photon counters 17
1.2.6 CCDs 17
1.2.7 Hybrid photodetectors and APDs 17
1.3 Pulse height resolution 18
1.4 Position resolution 21
1.5 Signal-to-background considerations 21
2 Photocathodes 24
2.1 Introduction 25
2.1.1 Solid angles 26
2.2 Fundamentals of photosensitivity 27
2.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum 27
2.2.2 Photoelectric phenomena 28
2.2.3 Photoelectron energy distribution 29
2.3 Spectral radiation and photometric units 30
2.3.1 Spectral radiant energy 30
2.3.2 Photometric units and standards 30
2.3.3 Filter measurements 33
2.3.4 Calibration laboratories and absolute radiation standards 35
2.3.5 Trap detectors 35
viii Contents
Index 615
Preface
It is usual to indicate the type of reader the author has in mind. This book is aimed
primarily at those who use, or are about to use, vacuum photomultipliers (PMTs).
The aim is to provide a deeper understanding of PMT behaviour as a means for
optimizing performance. Wherever appropriate I have drawn on my experience as
a user and manufacturer of PMTs. My objective in writing this book is to fill
perceived gaps in the literature. For example, the important topic of the optical
interface to PMTs has hitherto received little attention.
Major manufacturers of light detectors, notably EMI, provided ‘Application
Notes’ covering a range of technical topics relating to PMTs. Also, PMT manu-
facturers’ handbooks, refreshingly unbiased by commercial considerations, have
been freely issued over the years, namely,
Philips marketed and branded products under different titles: Philips, Mullard,
Valvo, and Amperex. When a specific product type is mentioned in the present
text, the name of the manufacturer at the time of reporting is used.
This book should also be of interest to scientists and engineers involved in
PMT design and manufacture. I have held the opinion throughout my 40 years in
the industry that those who produce new or modified devices should critically
evaluate their performance. This also applies to designers of electronics, for whom
dealing with the equivalent circuit of a current generator may initially appear
xx Preface
Chapter 2
Fig. 2.10(a). Jones, D. P. (1976). Photomultiplier sensitivity variation with angle of incidence on the
photocathode. Appl. Opt., 15, No. 4, 910–14. 44
Fig. 2.10(b). Moorhead and Tanner (1996). Optical properties of an EMI K2CsSb bialkali photocathode.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 378, 162–70. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©1996. 44
Figs 2.11 to 2.14. Moorhead and Tanner (1996). Optical properties of an EMI K2CsSb bialkali photocathode.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 378, 162–70. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©1996. 46–8
Fig. 2.15. Hallensleben et al. (2000). Optical constants for the S20 photocathode, and their application to
increasing photomultiplier quantum efficiency. Optics Communications, 180, 89–102. Reprinted
from Elsevier Science ©2000. 49
Chapter 3
Figs 3.9 to 3.11. Welford, W. T. and Winston, R. (1978). The optics of non-imaging concentrators. Light and
solar energy. Academic Press, New York. Reprinted from Academic Press ©1978. 90–2
Fig. 3.26. Aota, S. et al. (1999). Mass production of tile/fibre units for the CDF plug upgrade
EM calorimeter. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A 420, 48–61. Reprinted from Elsevier
Science ©1999. 113
Fig. 3.27. Artikov, A. et al. (2006). New generation large area muon scintillation counters with wavelength
shifter fibre readout for CDF II. Physics of particles and nuclear letters, 3, Issue 3,
188–200. Reprinted from Springer ©2006. 114
Fig. 3.34. Gunter, W. D., Grant, G. R. and Shaw, S. A. (1970). Optical devices to increase photocathode
quantum efficiency. Appl. Opt., 9, No. 2, 251–7. Reprinted with permission from OSA ©1970. 122
Table 3.2. Courtesy of J Mc Millan, private communication. 83
Chapter 4
Figs 4.14 and 4.15. Wright A. G. (2005). The statistics of multi-photoelectron pulse height distributions.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A., 579, 96772. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©2005. 174, 177
Fig. 4.16. Arrival time statistics. Kelbert, M., Sazonov, I. and Wright, A. G. (2006). Exact expression
for the variance of the photon emission process in scintillation counters. Nucl. Instr. and
Meth. in Phys. Res. A., 564, 1859. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©2006. 179
Chapter 5
Fig. 5.10. Simon, R. E. and Williams, B. F. (1968). Secondary-electron emission. IEEE Trans NS15,
16670. Reprinted with permission from IEEE. ©1968. 215
xxii Figure credits
Fig. 5.12. Sommer, A. (1972). Bialkali (K2CsSb) photocathodes as a high gain secondary electron
emitter. J. Appl. Phys., 43, No. 5, 24792480. Reprinted with permission from AIP© (1972). 217
Fig. 5.23. Kuroda, K., Sillou, D., and Takeutchi, F. (1981). New type of position sensitive photomultiplier.
Rev. Sci. Instrum., 52(3), 337346. Reprinted with permission from AIP© (1981). 229
Fig. 5.24. Agoritsas, V., Kuroda., K. and Nemoz, Ch. (1989). A new type of position-sensitive electron
multiplier. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 277, 237241. Order number 3620250895810.
Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©1989. 229
Fig. 5.26. Chirikov-Zorin, I., Fedorko, I., Menzione, A., Pikna, M., Sỷkora, I., and Tokảr, S. (2001).
Method for precise analysis of the metal package photomultiplier single photoelectron spectra.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 456, 310324. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©2001. 231
Chapter 6
Table 6.1. Viehmann, W, et al. (1975). Photomultiplier window materials under electron irradiation:
fluorescence and phosphorescence. Appl. Opt., 14, No. 9. 2104–15. Reprinted with
permission from OSA ©1975. 271
Chapter 10
Figs 10.5 to 10.11 and equations (10.6) and (10.7). Wright, A. G. (2010). Method for the determination
of photomultiplier collection efficiency, F. Appl. Opt., 49, 2059–65. Reprinted with
permission from OSA ©1970. 419–23
Chapter 14
Fig. 14.24. Blanch, O. et al. (1999). Performance of a fast low noise front-end preamplifier for
the MAGIC imaging Cerenkov telescope. IEEE Trans. NS. 46, 800–5. Reprinted with
permission from IEEE. ©1968. 565
Fig. 14.25, Fig. 14.26, and Fig. 14.27. Giachero, A., Gotti, C., Maino, M., and Pessina, G. (2011).
Current feedback operational amplifiers as fast charge sensitive preamplifiers for
photomultiplier read out. J Inst. 6, P05004, 1–19. Reprinted with permission from
IOP ©2011. 567, 568, 570
1
Why photomultipliers?
1 2 Why photomultipliers?
Throughout this book background and noise will always refer to different aspects
of performance, as described here.
Light detectors may be divided into two broad categories: those that provide an
image and those that are non-imaging. Further subcategories are:
Throughout the book, the acronym PMT refers to traditional vacuum PMTs.
versions but totally different in performance. The introduction of the S20 R928 in
the 1970s signalled a significant advance with infrared sensitivity of two to three
times that offered by the competitors, who to date have yet to find the key to
manufacturing this outstanding side window PMT type. Hamamatsu produce
both the world’s smallest vacuum PMT, the µPMT®, which is about the size of a
thumbnail, and the biggest, which is a hemispherical tube with a diameter of 2000 ;
they are the leaders of the PMT market with a share in excess of 90 %. Hamamatsu
also have the leading position in the silicon detector market. RCA, Photonis, and
Hamamatsu handbooks are available, all of which include a detailed historical
sketch of PMT development (Engstrom 1980; Flyckt and Marmonier 2002;
Hamamatsu 2007). Hamamatsu has set overall standards for consistency of
performance, particularly with respect to gain and sensitivity, and nowadays it is
unnecessary to allow a run-in period. Forty years ago the advice from experienced
users was to switch on a week in advance of intended use. This has long been
unacceptable as customers expect immediate stability of performance.
4kT Δf 1=2
‹ij2 ›1=2 ¼ ; ð1:2Þ
R
where k = 1.38 1023 J/K is the Boltzmann constant, and T the absolute
temperature, usually taken as 300 K. The thermal noise expression in terms of
voltage follows from (1.2) as
and it appears to predict an EMF with infinite noise for an open circuit (infinite
resistance). However, the inescapable presence of stray capacitance, in addition to
any deliberately added for bandwidth control, presents finite impedance to the
signal. It is appropriate at this juncture to stress that, wherever noise is under
consideration, the appropriate bandwidth is Δf = 1/(4RC), and not the more
familiar signal bandwidth, 1/(2πRC), although the numerical difference is small.
Equation (1.3) then reduces to ‹νj2› = kT/C. It is useful to compare the relative
contributions to noise from these two major sources, assuming typical values for
the parameters involved.
Consider a photocurrent Ik = 1015 A, for example, which corresponds to an
average flow of 6300 photoelectrons (pe)/s. This is a weak, but not ultra-weak
signal, in PMT terms. Bandwidth, Δf, appears in both noise expressions, and for
the present ratio metric analysis we take Δf = 1, R = 1, T = 300, and ‹g› = 106 in
equations (1.4)–(1.6), which follow. There is no loss in generality because the
formulae readily scale. The mean gain, ‹g›, of the multiplier, is enclosed in chevrons
to emphasize its statistical nature. Shot noise originates from the current flow in the
photocathode but it is enhanced by the multiplier gain, ‹g›, when observed at the
anode. On the other hand, Johnson noise is outside the influence of the PMT, since
its source lies in an added load resistor. The contributions, taking Δf and R equal to
unity, from shot and Johnson noise at the anode are
‹is2 ›1=2 ¼ ð2eIk Þ1=2 ‹g› ¼ ð2 1:6 1019 1015 Þ1=2 106 ¼ 18 pA; ð1:4Þ
‹ij2 ›1=2 ¼ ð4kT =RÞ1=2 ¼ ð4 1:38 1023 300Þ1=2 ¼ 129 pA: ð1:5Þ
‹iðsþjÞ2 ›1=2 ¼ ð‹is2 ›2 þ ‹ij2 ›2 Þ1=2 ¼ ð182 1292 Þ1=2 ¼ 130 pA: ð1:6Þ
Equations (1.1), (1.2), and (1.6) are plotted in Fig. 1.1 as a function of R by
adopting unit bandwidth, as is standard practice. Note how the procedure of adding
in quadrature makes the net effect of the shot contribution negligible, in this case.
The two contributions are equal when
‹is2 ›1=2 2eIk R
¼ ‹g› ¼ 1: ð1:7Þ
‹ij2 ›1=2 4kT
1 6 Why photomultipliers?
1000
Combined noise
100
‹ia›1/2 (pA/√Hz)
Shot noise
10
Johnson noise
1
1 10 100 1000 10000
R (Ω)
Fig. 1.1. Comparison of the magnitudes of shot and Johnson noise, at the anode, for an
assumed cathode current of 1015 A, and a multiplier gain of 106. Note that the two noise
sources are the same in magnitude for a load resistance of 50 Ω—a value favoured for signal
transmission via matched coaxial cable. The combined noise is the sum of the two sources
taken in quadrature.
It follows from (1.7) for Ik = 1015 A, and ‹g› = 106, that R is 50 Ω, and
independent of Δf. The smallest measurable cathode current is determined by
the Johnson noise in the load resistor. The principal attribute of an electron multiplier
is that it gives current amplification without a resistor.
Handling fast, nanosecond rise time, output pulses from a detector demands a
bandwidth in the region of 100 MHz and preferably a load resistor of 50 Ω, for the
reasons previously given. The combined noise is
0 11=2
4kT
‹iðsþjÞ 2 ›1=2 ¼@ þ 2eIk ‹g›2 A Δf 1=2 ð1:8Þ
R
11
¼ 2:56 10 √10 ¼ 0:256 μA rms:
8
With, in this example, equal contributions derive from the two noise sources.
The effect of the wide bandwidth is to increase the noise from 25.6 pA rms, at
unity bandwidth, to 0.256 μA rms at 100 MHz bandwidth.
The gain required, such that multiplier noise will exceed Johnson noise is
given by
1=2
4kT 0:052 1=2 0:052 1=2
‹g› ¼ ¼ ; ‹g› 7000: ð1:9Þ
2eIk R Ik R 109
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