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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 775

Hasan Ayaz
Lukasz Mazur Editors

Advances in
Neuroergonomics and
Cognitive Engineering
Proceedings of the AHFE 2018
International Conference on
Neuroergonomics and Cognitive
Engineering, July 21–25, 2018, Loews
Sapphire Falls Resort at Universal
Studios, Orlando, Florida USA
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 775

Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory,
applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all
disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics,
business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the
areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing
including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms,
social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuroscience, artificial life, virtual worlds and
society, cognitive science and systems, Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems,
self-organizing and adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric
computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics including
human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning paradigms, machine ethics, intelligent
data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent agents, intelligent decision making and support,
intelligent network security, trust management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia.
The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily proceedings
of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover significant recent developments in the
field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is
the short publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of
research results.

Advisory Board
Chairman
Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
e-mail: nikhil@isical.ac.in
Members
Rafael Bello Perez, Universidad Central “Marta Abreu” de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba
e-mail: rbellop@uclv.edu.cu
Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
e-mail: escorchado@usal.es
Hani Hagras, University of Essex, Colchester, UK
e-mail: hani@essex.ac.uk
László T. Kóczy, Széchenyi István University, Győr, Hungary
e-mail: koczy@sze.hu
Vladik Kreinovich, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, USA
e-mail: vladik@utep.edu
Chin-Teng Lin, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
e-mail: ctlin@mail.nctu.edu.tw
Jie Lu, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
e-mail: Jie.Lu@uts.edu.au
Patricia Melin, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico
e-mail: epmelin@hafsamx.org
Nadia Nedjah, State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
e-mail: nadia@eng.uerj.br
Ngoc Thanh Nguyen, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
e-mail: Ngoc-Thanh.Nguyen@pwr.edu.pl
Jun Wang, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
e-mail: jwang@mae.cuhk.edu.hk

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Hasan Ayaz Lukasz Mazur
•

Editors

Advances
in Neuroergonomics
and Cognitive Engineering
Proceedings of the AHFE 2018 International
Conference on Neuroergonomics
and Cognitive Engineering, July 21–25, 2018,
Loews Sapphire Falls Resort at Universal Studios,
Orlando, Florida USA

123
Editors
Hasan Ayaz Lukasz Mazur
Drexel University University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill
Philadelphia, PA, USA Chapel Hill, NC, USA

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
ISBN 978-3-319-94865-2 ISBN 978-3-319-94866-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94866-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018947370

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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Advances in Human Factors
and Ergonomics 2018

AHFE 2018 Series Editors

Tareq Z. Ahram, Florida, USA
Waldemar Karwowski, Florida, USA

9th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics

and the Affiliated Conferences

Proceedings of the AHFE 2018 International Conferences on Neuroergonomics,

Cognitive Engineering, Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things, held on
July 21–25, 2018, in Loews Sapphire Falls Resort at Universal Studios, Orlando,
Florida, USA

Advances in Affective and Pleasurable Design Shuichi Fukuda

Advances in Neuroergonomics Hasan Ayaz and Lukasz Mazur
and Cognitive Engineering
Advances in Design for Inclusion Giuseppe Di Bucchianico
Advances in Ergonomics in Design Francisco Rebelo and Marcelo M.
Soares
Advances in Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, Ronald L. Boring
and Performance
Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics in Nancy J. Lightner
Healthcare and Medical Devices
Advances in Human Factors in Simulation Daniel N. Cassenti
and Modeling
Advances in Human Factors and Systems Isabel L. Nunes
Interaction
Advances in Human Factors in Cybersecurity Tareq Z. Ahram and Denise Nicholson
Advances in Human Factors, Business Jussi Ilari Kantola, Salman Nazir
Management and Society and Tibor Barath
Advances in Human Factors in Robots Jessie Chen
and Unmanned Systems
Advances in Human Factors in Training, Salman Nazir, Anna-Maria Teperi
Education, and Learning Sciences and Aleksandra Polak-Sopińska
Advances in Human Aspects of Transportation Neville Stanton
(continued)

v
vi Advances in Human Factors and Ergonomics 2018

(continued)
Advances in Artificial Intelligence, Software Tareq Z. Ahram
and Systems Engineering
Advances in Human Factors, Sustainable Urban Jerzy Charytonowicz and Christianne
Planning and Infrastructure Falcão
Advances in Physical Ergonomics & Human Ravindra S. Goonetilleke and Waldemar
Factors Karwowski
Advances in Interdisciplinary Practice in WonJoon Chung and Cliff Sungsoo Shin
Industrial Design
Advances in Safety Management and Human Pedro Miguel Ferreira Martins Arezes
Factors
Advances in Social and Occupational Ergonomics Richard H. M. Goossens
Advances in Manufacturing, Production Waldemar Karwowski, Stefan
Management and Process Control Trzcielinski, Beata Mrugalska, Massimo
Di Nicolantonio and Emilio Rossi
Advances in Usability, User Experience Tareq Z. Ahram and Christianne Falcão
and Assistive Technology
Advances in Human Factors in Wearable Tareq Z. Ahram
Technologies and Game Design
Advances in Human Factors in Communication Amic G. Ho
of Design
Preface

This book brings together a wide-ranging set of contributed articles that address
emerging practices and future trends in cognitive engineering and neuroergonomics
—both aim to harmoniously integrate human operator and computational system,
the former through a tighter cognitive fit and the latter a more effective neural fit
with the system. The chapters in this book uncover novel discoveries and com-
municate new understanding and the most recent advances in the areas of workload
and stress, activity theory, human error and risk, and neuroergonomic measures,
cognitive computing as well as associated applications.
The book is organized into six main sections:
Section 1: Cognition and Performance
Section 2: Neurophysiological Sensing
Section 3: Brain—Computer Interfaces
Section 4: Systemic-Structural Activity Theory
Section 5: Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things
Section 6: Cognitive Design
Collectively, the chapters in this book have an overall goal of developing a
deeper understanding of the couplings between external behavioral and internal
mental actions, which can be used to design harmonious work and play environ-
ments that seamlessly integrate human, technical, and social systems.
Each chapter of this book was either reviewed or contributed by members of the
Cognitive and Neuroergonomics Board. For this, our sincere thanks and appreci-
ation to the board members listed below:

Neuroergonomics, Cognitive Engineering

H. Adeli, USA
Carryl Baldwin, USA
Gregory Bedny, USA

vii
viii Preface

Winston “Wink” Bennett, USA

Alexander Burov, Ukraine
P. Choe, Qatar
M. Cummings, USA
Frederic Dehais, France
X. Fang, USA
Chris Forsythe, USA
Qin Gao, China
Klaus Gramann, Germany
Y. Guo, USA
Peter Hancock, USA
David Kaber, USA
Kentaro Kotani, Japan
Ben Lawson, USA
S.-Y. Lee, Korea
Harry Liao, USA
Y. Liu, USA
Ryan McKendrick, USA
John Murray, USA
A. Ozok, USA
O. Parlangeli, Italy
Stephane Perrey, France
Robert Proctor, USA
A. Savoy, USA
K. Vu, USA
Thomas Waldmann, Ireland
Tomas Ward, Ireland
Brent Winslow, USA
G. Zacharias, USA
L. Zeng, USA
Matthias Ziegler, USA

Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things

Hanan A. Alnizami, USA

Thomas Alexander, Germany
Carryl Baldwin, USA
O. Bouhali, Qatar
Henry Broodney, Israel
Frederic Dehais, France
Klaus Gramann, Germany
Ryan McKendrick, USA
Stephane Perrey, France
Preface ix

Stefan Pickl, Germany

S. Ramakrishnan, USA
Duncan Speight, UK
Martin Stenkilde, Sweden
Ari Visa, Finland
Tomas Ward, Ireland
Matthias Ziegler, USA
It is our hope that professionals, researchers, and students alike find the book to
be an informative and valuable resource—one that helps them to better understand
important concepts, theories, and applications in the areas of cognitive engineering
and neuroergonomics. Beyond basic understanding, the contributions are meant to
inspire critical insights and thought-provoking lines of follow on research that
further establish the fledgling field of neuroergonomics and sharpen the more
seasoned practice of cognitive engineering. While we don’t know where the con-
fluence of these two fields will lead, they are certain to transform the very nature of
human-systems interaction, resulting in yet to be envisioned designs that improve
form, function, efficiency, and the overall user experience for all.

July 2018 Hasan Ayaz

Lukasz Mazur
Contents

Cognition and Performance

Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance: Human Factors and Cognitive
Loading Issues for Commercial and General Aviation Pilots . . . . . . . . . 3
Mark Miller and Sam Holley
Use of Dry Electrode Electroencephalography (EEG) to Monitor
Pilot Workload and Distraction Based on P300 Responses
to an Auditory Oddball Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Zara Gibson, Joseph Butterfield, Matthew Rodger, Brian Murphy,
and Adelaide Marzano
Analysis of Alternatives for Neural Network Training Techniques
in Assessing Cognitive Workload . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Colin Elkin and Vijay Devabhaktuni
Changes in Physiological Condition in Open Versus Closed Eyes . . . . . 38
Kazuya Onishi and Hiroshi Hagiwara
The Effect of Mental Fatigue on Response Processes: An ERP
Study in Go/NoGo Task . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Xiaoli Fan, Chaoyi Zhao, Hong Luo, and Wei Zhang
Cognitive Function Evaluation of Dementia Patients
Using P300 Speller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Ryo Morooka, Hisaya Tanaka, Takahiko Umahara, Akito Tsugawa,
and Haruo Hanyu

Neurophysiological Sensing
The Relationship Between Aesthetic Choices, Ratings,
and Eye-Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Elif Celikors and Chris R. Sims

xi
xii Contents

Does Comfort with Technology Affect Use of Wealth Management

Platforms? Usability Testing with fNIRS and Eye-Tracking . . . . . . . . . 83
Siddharth Bhatt, Atahan Agrali, Rajneesh Suri, and Hasan Ayaz
Gaze Strategies Can Reveal the Impact of Source Code Features
on the Cognitive Load of Novice Programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Andreas Wulff-Jensen, Kevin Ruder, Evangelia Triantafyllou,
and Luis Emilio Bruni
Computational Methods for Analyzing Functional and Effective
Brain Network Connectivity Using fMRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Farzad Vasheghani Farahani and Waldemar Karwowski
The Effect of Alcohol-Use and Sleep Deprivation on Quantitative
Changes in EEG for Normal Young Adults During
Multitasking Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Young-A Suh, Jung Hwan Kim, and Man-Sung Yim
Comparison of Machine Learning Approaches for Motor Imagery
Based Optical Brain Computer Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Lei Wang, Adrian Curtin, and Hasan Ayaz
Autonomic Nervous System Approach to Measure Physiological
Arousal and Scenario Difficulty in Simulation-Based
Training Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Sinh Bui, Brian Veitch, and Sarah Power
An Investigation of Human Error Identification Based
on Bio-monitoring System (EEG and ECG Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Jung Hwan Kim, Young-A Suh, and Man-Sung Yim
Neural Correlates of Math Anxiety of Consumer Choices
on Price Promotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Amanda Sargent, Atahan Agrali, Siddharth Bhatt, Hongjun Ye,
Kurtulus Izzetoglu, Banu Onaral, Hasan Ayaz, and Rajneesh Suri
Research on Visual Sensing Capability Difference Between
Designers and Non-designers Based on Difference Threshold
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Sha Liu, Runqi Li, and Jiaxin Dai
Auditory Evoked Potentials and PET-Scan: Early
and Late Mechanisms of Selective Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Sergey Lytaev, Mikhail Aleksandrov, Tatjana Popovich,
and Mikhail Lytaev
Contents xiii

Brain-Computer Interfaces
A Proof of Concept that Stroke Patients Can Steer a Robotic
System at Paretic Side with Myo-Electric Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Stijn Verwulgen, Wim Saeys, Lex Biemans, Annelies Goossens,
Gido Grooten, Joris Ketting, Aurélie Van Iseghem, Brecht Vermeesch,
Erik Haring, Kristof Vaes, and Steven Truijen
Implementing the Horizontal Vestibular Ocular Reflex Test While
Using an Eye-Tracker as an Assessment Tool
for Concussions Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Atefeh Katrahmani and Matthew Romoser
Research on the Brain Mechanism of Visual-Audio Interface
Channel Modes Affecting User Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Wenqing Xi, Lei Zhou, Huijuan Chen, Jian Ma, and Yueting Chen
How Does the Mobile Phone PPI Design Affect the Visual Acuity
with the Change of Viewing Distance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Yunhong Zhang, Wei Li, Jinhong Ding, Anqi Jiao, Hongqing Cui,
and Yilin Chen

Systemic-Structural Activity Theory

Time Study in Ergonomics and Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Gregory Bedny, Inna Bedny, and Waldemar Karwowski
Decision Support of Mental Model Formation in the Self-regulation
Process of Goal-Directed Decision-Making Under
Risk and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Alexander Yemelyanov
A Systemic Approach to Implementing Psychological Factors
in Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Fred Voskoboynikov
Approach to Safety Analysis in the Framework
of the Systemic-Structural Activity Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Gregory Bedny and Inna Bedny
Express Decision – Mobile Application for Quick Decisions:
An Overview of Implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Alexander Yemelyanov, Simon Baev, and Alla Yemelyanov
Dichotomy of Historicity and Subjective Perception of Complexity
in Individuals’ Activity Goal Formation and Decision Outcomes . . . . . . 265
Mohammed-Aminu Sanda
xiv Contents

Diagnosing a Concussion by Testing Horizontal Saccades Using

an Eye-Tracker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Atefeh Katrahmani and Matthew Romoser

Cognitive Computing and Internet of Things

Runtime Generation and Delivery of Guidance for Smart
Object Ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Daniel Burmeister and Andreas Schrader
Holistic Scenarios by Using Platform Technologies for
Small Batch-Sized Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Yübo Wang, Michaela Dittmann, and Reiner Anderl
Internet of Things - New Paradigm of Learning. Challenges
for Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Łukasz Sułkowski and Dominika Kaczorowska-Spychalska
Inferring a User’s Propensity for Elaborative Thinking Based
on Natural Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Veena Chattaraman, Wi-Suk Kwon, Alexandra Green,
and Juan E. Gilbert
Building Consumer Trust to Improve Internet of Things (IoT)
Technology Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Areej AlHogail and Mona AlShahrani

Cognitive Design
EEG Technology for UX Evaluation: A Multisensory Perspective . . . . . 337
Marieke Van Camp, Muriel De Boeck, Stijn Verwulgen,
and Guido De Bruyne
Study on the Influence Mechanism Between Ordinal Factors
and Cognitive Resource Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Wenqing Xi, Lei Zhou, Xingyuan Ma, Yuqi Liu, and Huijuan Chen
Wellness in Cognitive Workload - A Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . 353
Eduarda Pereira, Susana Costa, Nelson Costa, and Pedro Arezes
Supervising SSSEP Experiments with a Bluetooth Android Remote
Control Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
José Rouillard, François Cabestaing, Jean-Marc Vannobel,
and Marie-Hélène Bekaert
Machine Usability Effects on Preferences for Hot Drinks . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Hongjun Ye, Jan Watson, Amanda Sargent, Hasan Ayaz,
and Rajneesh Suri
Contents xv

Cognitive Architecture Based Simulation of Perception

and Behavior Controls for Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Yanfei Liu, Zhiqiang Tian, Yuzhou Liu, Jusong Li, and Feng Fu
Socio-Technical Health and Usage Monitoring Systems (HUMS) . . . . . . 394
Johan de Heer and Paul Porskamp
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Cognition and Performance
 Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance: Human
Factors and Cognitive Loading Issues
for Commercial and General Aviation Pilots

Mark Miller and Sam Holley(&)

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Worldwide College of Aeronautics,

Daytona Beach, FL, USA
{millmark,Sam.Holley}@erau.edu

Abstract. As previously identified by the authors, digitized flight decks have

realigned SHELL model components and introduced cognitive overload con-
cerns. Considering changes from implementing Next Generation air traffic
management requirements in 2020, the authors assess digitized interfaces
associated with cockpit displays of information integral to performance based
navigation and similar operations. Focus is placed on Automatic Dependent
Surveillance Broadcast, digitized communications, and expanded electronic
flight bags. The ADSB (In) cockpit display will enable pilots to have flight
visual awareness on aircraft, terrain, weather and hazards to flight through live
satellite updates every second. Increased optical demands and cognitive loading
are anticipated for general aviation and commercial pilots, beyond operational
levels for those currently using advanced technologies. With nearly continuous
cognitive processing and embedded information in the enhanced SHELL model
by the authors, potential overload and concerns of situational awareness become
likely candidates for human factors problems. Addressing these concerns, areas
of emphasis for transition to NextGen 2020 operations are delineated, potential
risks among increased cognitive disparities identified, and suggested foci
recommended.

Keywords: SHELL
Digitized flight deck
Human factors
Working memory

Crew resource management

1 Introduction

The next generation of Air Traffic Control (ATC) technological is slowly becoming a
reality for controlling the airspace over the United States (U.S.). NextGen as it is called
will modernize the old ATC system in the U.S. by switching it from land-based
technologies to satellite based technologies. The increased gains in efficiency and
safety have tremendous potential. NextGen aircraft technologies will not be interrupted
by signal intervals like previous equipment, but instead will be constant. Pilots will
now receive continuous output on other aircraft, terrain and weather from the more
accurate satellite fed devices. They will be able to fly more direct and efficient routes by
using Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) data from the satellites and will no longer
have to rely on a ground system of antiquated Navigation Aides to keep them on

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2019

H. Ayaz and L. Mazur (Eds.): AHFE 2018, AISC 775, pp. 3–13, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94866-9_1
4 M. Miller and S. Holley

highways in the sky. NextGen will also boast of a better way of keeping track of all
aircraft in airspace through ADSB (Out) technology that continuously puts out the
aircrafts position every second through the use of satellites. This will act as a new form
of transponder to let air traffic controllers and pilots know exactly where other aircraft
are. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has now mandated that all aircraft
flying in the U.S. be equipped with ADSB (Out) equipment by 2020. The goal of this
mandate is make the NextGen system fully functional. In the process of NextGen
becoming fully functional, pilots will have options to use ADSB (In) and Datalink
technologies to enhance their information. ADSB (In) will allow pilots to actually
know where the other participating aircraft are along with being made aware of where
the closest terrain is and how the weather will affect the flight. In addition, Datalink will
allow digitalized text communication in flight. With NextGen imminent starting in
2020, there is currently only an outlook of relief as the skies over the United States are
forecasted to get more crowded over the next 20 years and the current system cannot
handle that forecasted growth. While NextGen is the long awaited ATC infrastructure
for US airspace moving into the future, it is not without some serious questions to be
answered in the area of computer information and automation concerning Nextgen
cockpit technologies. How will these technologies affect both General Aviation and
Commercial pilots flying in the future US airspace?

2 Analyzing the Increase of Computer Usage on Human

Factors and Potential Human Error

The increase of computer information and automation in U.S. Commercial Cockpits

has been well documented over the last 30 years. What started with automated flight
controls, auto throttle and flight management systems designed to gain maximum fuel
efficiency in flight soon shifted to improved flight navigation flight navigation systems
and safety devices like Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS), Traffic Collision
Avoidance Systems (TCAS), and Onboard Weather Radar. All these technologies
related to computer information and automation have greatly increased fuel efficiency,
flight navigation, while at the same time greatly enhancing aviation safety. However,
with the introduction of Electronic Flight Bags along with NextGen specific ADSB
(In) and Datalink communications devices working their way into the cockpit, there has
been a serious shift in how much computer information and automation is now
available to pilots. All this addition of technology sounds good until it can have
potential negative effects on the human performance in flight. Analysis of aviation
accident reports that involved some kind of computer information and automation in
the past 20 years indicates that the effects the computer information and automation on
pilots show potential deficiencies in the four following areas: (1) Complacency in
relying on computers, (2) Confusion and not understanding the computers,
(3) Becoming overly focused on a computer and distracted from flying, and (4) Using
the computer as optical inside only with little outward scanning. In Fig. 1, the SHELL
diagram for human factors analysis was updated in 2017 [1] to take into account the
increase of computer information and automation in the cockpit while including
NextGen technologies. In this SHELL 2017 model, the potential for possible human
 Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance 5

factors issues that could lead to human error can be seen more clearly. The Hardware
(H)-Liveware (L) and the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) linkages show the original
areas of the computer being introduced in the cockpit. The Software (S)-Liveware (L),
the Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) along with the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) show the
new areas that computers have been introduced into the cockpit in the form of EFB,
Datalink digitalized texting and ADSB (In) communications. The first important
observation made clearly visible in this model is that the computer information and
automation have become interfaces between what used to be direct linkages. In the
evolution of flight, the SHELL interfaces were originally direct linkages to the human
(Liveware (L)) at the center of the SHELL. However, in 2017 version of the SHELL,
the evolution of infused computer technologies in aircraft cockpits has created clear
computer interfaces in each linkage. Another important issue that is seen in the SHELL
Model 2017 is that the new computers (EFB and Datalink) added in the Software (S)-
Liveware (L) and Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) interfaces introduced in the last 15 years
have now made every computer interface concatenated so that they can potentially
overlap with one another. The most important observation in the SHELL Model 2017
is that those interface areas that have been newly created computer interfaces will grow
in use in the Software (S)-Liveware (L)-Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) and the Environ-
ment (E)-Liveware (L) as NextGen becomes more functional in 2020 and beyond.

Fig. 1. The SHELL model 2017 and computer/human factors analysis [1]

3 NextGen Cockpit Equipment and the Effect

of the Computer in the Cockpit in 2020 and Beyond

As shown in red in Fig. 1, within the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) linkage, the
ADSB (In) will become a much greater tool for pilots in the cockpit as it will give
constant visual updates to the pilots of the whereabouts of other terrain, other aircraft,
6 M. Miller and S. Holley

and weather, all on a small screen built into the ADSB- (In) equipment. With that,
navigation equipment will be linked to continuously updated satellite data to fly precise
inputted automated routes that can also fly around updated weather. To support this the
Software (S)-Liveware (L) linkage will continue to grow in use of the EFB. It is
assumed at this juncture of the FAA’s ADSB (Out) mandate by 2020 that the vast
majority of U.S. pilots both Commercial and in General Aviation will switch to the
efficiency gained from carrying an aviation oriented computerized tablet loaded with
pubs, maps and procedures that will update electronically. As this trend continues to
grow, there will also be another trend of EFBs and similar cockpit computer devices
directly hooking up to cockpit displays in 2020 and beyond. Pilots of NextGen will use
ADSB (In) data along with precision satellite navigation automation to fly with maps
and instrument approach plates that are computer generated from their EFB. Where the
NextGen equipment radically departs from normal aviation operations is in the area of
communications. Where once pilots observed gauges together and discussed the
readings with each other and the crew over cockpit radio, they have slowly changed to
observing digital readouts of similar information over the computer screen. Pilots who
once spoke to maintenance personnel or dispatchers via radio can now communicate
with them via a digitized electronic text format. NextGen in 2020 and beyond will also
favor more communications with ATC through a digitized text format called Datalink.
Although there are many pros and cons as to how much and when Datalink will be
ultimately used in the new ATC system, it has certainly already shown great promise
by being used at selected over-crowded airports in the U.S. for Standardized Departures
and Routing along with IFR Departure Clearances. Regardless of how digitalized
communication evolves in flight within the cockpit or with communications from the
cockpit to the ground, it will surely continue to grow. The growing use of computer
information and automation in U.S. cockpits directly related to NextGen will be
enormous in 2020 and beyond, but it is important at this juncture to note that it will
affect the majority of the U.S. Commercial pilots much differently from their General
Aviation counterparts.

4 The Influence of Computer Information and Automation

from Nextgen Cockpit Equipment on U.S. Commercial
Pilots in 2020 and Beyond

From a U.S. Commercial Pilot’s perspective, the advent of NextGen equipment or

related equipment like the EFB is inevitable and in many cases already happening. In
the case of the ADSB (In) technology, it is presumed that all the Major Commercial
Operators will be eventually equipped and gain the extra benefits for pilots that the
ADSB (In) gives in the form of a visual display for the aircraft’s relation to terrain,
other aircraft and updated weather. The human factors ergonomic issue related to this is
that U.S. CFR Part 121 carriers already have these three benefits in their cockpit layouts
in the form of GPWS, TCAS and Onboard Weather Radar. In fact, the integration and
improvement of these technologies over the last 30 years has brought the U.S. Com-
mercial Industry to its highest levels of safe operations in the last decade. The problem
 Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance 7

with the addition of ADSB (In) for U.S. Commercial pilots is how to integrate the
ADSB (In) visual display of terrain to work with the GPWS. Similarly, how to inte-
grate the ADSB visual display of other aircraft into using the current TCAS system.
Also important is how to use the ADSB (In) live weather display with the Onboard
Weather Radar system. While the ADSB (In) seems like an immediate great addition of
redundant systems in a visual form to boost safety margins in aviation, at the same time
the three major technologies that ADSB (In) will support take a great deal of training
and crew coordination to use properly. With ADSB (In), new human factors guidelines
will need to be determined for the appropriate use of the ADSB (In) in U.S. commercial
cockpits. In particular how to use ADSB (In) with each system optimally will also need
to be determined. Will a priority still be given to respond to a TCAS alert if there is no
threat observed on the ADSB-in or vice versa? Along with new human factors
guidelines, training will also be imperative to integrate the use of ADSB (In) in sim-
ulators and Crew Resource Management. In the cases of the Software (S)-Liveware
(L) linkage of the SHELL 2017, many companies have already been standardizing and
upgrading their EFB devices for years. Though EFB and its informational software like
maps and approach plates are not FAA mandated NextGen cockpit devices, they are
certainly technologies that have been developing as strong supportive devices for
NextGen flight. As these EFB devices become more powerful and integrate more into
the cockpit displays, they will also call for more standardization and more training from
each U.S. Commercial carrier. The last perspective from Liveware (L)-Liveware
(L) linkage of the SHELL 2017 Model is related to communications and in the increase
use of digitized texting in the cockpit. Many U.S. carriers have already installed
Datalink and have capabilities of digitized texting in the cockpit. For the U.S. Com-
mercial industry this will mean finding a consensus on when and where to use such
digitized texting to communicate safely while at the same time finding where effi-
ciencies and safer operations can be gained without jeopardizing efficient radio com-
munications that already exist. The U.S. Commercial industry and their pilots should be
the benefactor of the NextGen related computer technologies in the cockpit as long as
the appropriate human factors guidelines are set along with the appropriate training for
their integration to avoid human error.

5 The Influence of Computer Information and Automation

from NextGen Cockpit Equipment on U.S. General
Aviation Pilots in 2020 and Beyond

The General Aviator in the U.S. will be affected much differently through the imple-
mentation of NextGen cockpit technologies. Assuming that the ADSB (In) technology
will someday be reasonably affordable, General Aviation enthusiasts will welcome the
safety gains immediately attained by installing the ADSB (In) component in their
cockpit to go with the mandatory ADSB-out component. Unlike their Commercial
Airline counterparts, the vast majority of General Aviation enthusiasts do not have
extra safety equipment in the cockpit to help them with deal with the Environment (E)-
Liveware (L) linkage in the SHELL 2017 Model. In fact, very few General Aviation
8 M. Miller and S. Holley

aircraft in the United States have GPWS, TCAS or Onboard Weather Radar in their
cockpits. Most General Aviators simply are made aware of the terrain by looking at it
or using maps. They keep separation from other aircraft by scanning more outward,
while sometimes working with ATC. For in flight weather, General Aviators use the
forecast and then are expected to use good judgement should the weather deteriorate.
Coming from a standpoint of having nothing to enhance safety, to now having
something that covers all three of the most dangerous parts of the aviation environment
is certainly a great boost for the General Aviator, but this upwelling of new tools for the
General Aviator could come with a human factors penalty. The penalty stems from the
fact that most General Aviators fly single piloted and are not in team trained crews like
their Commercial counterparts. Suddenly installing a magic video box in the form of
ADSB (in) within a General Aviation cockpit will give pilots the visual tools imme-
diately to help them avoid terrain, see other aircraft and work better with the weather,
but this will come at a cost of looking visually more inside instead of having a primary
scan outside. Experienced pilots with terrific scans could become overly focused while
looking at the smaller ADSB (In) screen and less outside the cockpit where their eyes
belong. Training General Aviators on how to integrate the ADSB (In) information into
their flying properly will be ongoing in 2020 and beyond. In the Software (S)-Hard-
ware (H) linkage in the SHELL 2017, General Aviators are not far behind their
commercial counterparts when it comes to EFBs. In fact, companies like Jeppesen have
come up with excellent EFB equipment for General Aviators that is far superior to the
former method of carrying maps and approach plates. This has been a major
enhancement for General Aviators over the past decade. This technology of cockpit
computer information is a tremendous help as long as the General Aviator is able to
operate the EFB device efficiently and not becoming overly focused on it while flying.
Efficient ways of using such EFBs for General Aviators will be the key if they are also
operating ADSB (In) equipment simultaneously. In the Liveware-Liveware (L) linkage
of the SHELL 2017, the General Aviator will be at a disadvantage of being single
piloted and trying to communicate through digitized text messaging while flying at the
same time. Although some advantages could be gained in the form of using digitalized
texting communications for copying taxi instructions, Standard Departures or copying
IFR clearances, the General Aviator will have to exercise extreme caution while
attempting to communicate digitally while taxing or in flight as the same human factors
that have deemed texting dangerous while driving a car could also be at work in a
single piloted aircraft as well. Although the General Aviation pilot will realize gains in
safety and efficiency through NextGen cockpit equipment, without proper human
factors standards and training, the General Aviator being often single piloted could fall
prey to human error caused by NextGen cockpit equipment.

6 NextGen Computer Technology in the Cockpit Could Lead

to Declines in Situational Awareness

The most important thing any pilot will learn related to situational awareness is to
prioritize to fly the aircraft in safe parameters first, navigate the aircraft second and then
communicate last. Aviate, navigate, communicate is an age old aviation adage that
 Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance 9

keeps pilots safe and alive by prioritizing situational awareness while flying. The first
computers in aircraft aimed to increase situational awareness by helping keep that
‘aviate’ a priority by being directly integrated with the flight controls as depicted in the
SHELL Model 2017 under the Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) linkage. Computers were
added to the Liveware (L)-Environment (E) to help pilots improve their situational
awareness to navigate better, avoid terrain, other aircraft and bad weather in the pro-
cess. This was the older paradigm of using computers inflight to enhance efficiency in
the cockpit and increase situational awareness around the “aviate and navigate’ priority.
The new paradigm introduces more efficient ways to communicate through computer
technologies. In the new millennium cockpit, computer technologies have been
introduced: in the Environment (E)-Liveware (L) linkage though ADSB (In) to com-
municate visually to pilots about terrain, other aircraft and weather, in the Software (S)-
Liveware (L) linkage using EFB to communicate information visually to fly with and in
Liveware (L)-Liveware (L) using Datalink and texting to communicate visually with
digitized written language to others. This new paradigm of computers in the cockpit is
about communicating visually with pilots. Referring back to the old adage of ‘Aviate,
Navigate and Communicate’, the prioritizing situational awareness word of ‘Com-
municate’ was deemed the last priority in keeping overall situational awareness, but
now could suddenly become a higher priority with these new NextGen cockpit com-
puter technologies. Is it possible that ‘Aviate and Navigate” could be affected by these
new paradigm visual communication devices? Could these devices cause visual
communications to sometimes interfere and overwhelm the ‘Aviate and Navigate’
situational awareness priorities?
Figure 2 is a simple Risk Assessment Matrix [2] that exposes the potential for
problems with NextGen computer technologies in U.S. cockpits in 2020 and beyond.
Across the top of the Matrix from right to left shows the slow increase of usage of
computer information and automation in cockpits from 1980 to the 2020 FAA NextGen
mandate and beyond. Once 2020 occurs, so begins the common use of all the new
computer communications devices (ADSB (In), EFB and Datalink) in the cockpit. Due
to cost affordability, the fast growth in these NextGen cockpit technologies will not
happen immediately, but these communications computer tools for the cockpit will
increase in usage beyond 2020 and eventually the sheer numbers of this growth will
increase the probability of the occurrence of a loss of situational awareness related to
Aviate, Navigate and Communicate; especially if human factors standards and training
are not addressed. However, even with a herculean effort of human factors training and
safety campaigning by the FAA, the most critical area of ‘Aviate’ (flying the aircraft
safely) related to situational awareness could be left vulnerable on the left ‘Severity’
side of the Risk Assessment Matrix. This is because the lower priority of ‘Commu-
nicate’ in terms of the NextGen equipment could become visually overwhelming. The
main reason why this should be concerning is because we are at a juncture in using all
these new computerized cockpit tools together while having very little understanding of
how they work with the human mind in flight cognitively.
10 M. Miller and S. Holley

Fig. 2. Risk Assessment Matrix of the loss of situational awareness from the increased use of
computer information and automation in modern cockpits versus (Aviate, Navigate and
Communicate) [2]

7 NextGen 2020 Cognitive Processing Challenges

Previously discussed was the aspect that text information will replace audio, and that
digitized information will require looking down (inviting other issues), including the
tendency to turn off information feeds to reduce confusion and overload. Some
potential deficiencies in cognitive processing that pilots are likely to encounter when
adopting the new technology and procedures include confusion when interpreting the
digital output, distraction and excessive loading in working memory, and reduced
outward scanning for situational awareness. Since ADSB (Out) will be required in
Airspace Classes A, B, C, and E (above 10,000 feet), services like TIS-B (traffic
information) and FIS-B (flight information) will add to the cognitive processing
requirements for pilots, some of whom may not be familiar with these flight demands.
With regard to ADSB requirements now in effect in Europe, and required in 2020
within the U.S., potential cognitive differences may include latency in communications,
alerts, symbology, colors, selection of traffic by crew, and integrating TCAS alert
symbology. Other concerns [3] illuminate variations in electronic charting, e.g., terrain,
airspace, approach paths, and landing systems. With requirements for digitized infor-
mation and display increasingly mandatory in aircraft, the ability to discern similarities
and differences accurately could present a challenge for some general aviation pilots.
With standardization of display information elusive among manufacturers, this could
well present a problem into the foreseeable future.
 Beyond 2020 NextGen Compliance 11

An earlier convention was that humans process information at a set rate, although
later evidence showed the rate varies based on individual skills and type of information
involved. Limited capacity theory suggests a limit to how much information can be
allocated to performance, influenced by task complexity, and the allocation for primary
and secondary tasks. The serial process is sequential, the parallel process provides for
two or more channels operating simultaneously (although independently), and a hybrid
variant that may process serially and in parallel with convergence, but can produce
bottlenecks. In naturally occurring channels for vision or symbols these flow smoothly
in parallel channels. However, where multiple visual signals are moving in the same
channel, capacity is reached more readily and cognitive slowing may result [4]. This
suggests that working memory might take a parallel processing track as opposed to
sequential, which doubles the neural resources required and accelerates onset of
compromised cognitive processing. As the growth in visualized digital data increases
on the flight deck and in cockpits, the susceptibility for such delay in cognitive pro-
cessing increases.
The term multitasking describes performing multiple tasks at once, although the
evidence does not address adequately the issue of how people designate primary and
secondary tasks. This has prompted a concept of task-switching to explain how mul-
titasking is effective. Wickens [5] has determined that performance decrement rests on
whether more than one task is performed simultaneously calling upon the same per-
ceptual, cognitive, and psychomotor resources. Since most tasks are performed in
stages, resources are adequate for demands made, however, an individual’s load
capacity may be reached where a single, large task becomes paramount. This might be
the case where deconfliction decision making takes precedence with a less experienced
operator in the NextGen 2020 environment.

8 Cognitive Loading and NextGen 2020

Cain [4] defined mental workload as measures that characterize task performance
relative to operator capability. Earlier views that workload was principally additive,
with demands on undifferentiated resources, has been replaced by the perspective that
information processing comprises multiple resources operating differentially according
to task complexities. The inference of cognitive loading initially was measured by
direct observation of performance and use of rating scales and similar instruments to
gauge decrements in task execution. As psychophysiological measures have entered the
literature in greater emphasis, the point has been made that physiological methods do
not measure imposed load, and instead provide information of individual responses to
load. With less experienced operators entering the ADS-B environment, unaccustomed
cognitive loading may tax some pilots and crewmembers.
Variable capacity theory [6] provides for operator intentions in setting task prior-
ities and expanded channel capacity as workload increases, although fixed limits do not
appear to be reliably predictable. Coping and resilience have been suggested as
explanations for variable capacity and, along with several other proposed explanations
for adaptive responses, have opened the investigation into variable capacities subject to
Another random document with
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hellä ja liikuttava teidän keskinäinen suhteenne oli, ja kun toiselta
puolen teidän omat lausuntonnekin monasti kuvastavat enemmän
kuohuvaa mielen tilaa kuin malttia ja tyyntä mietiskelemistä. Kukapa
ei huomaisi, että harkittu perustelu vähemmän kuin aikaisempi
ennakkoluulo sai teidät niin väärin tuomitsemaan tytärtänne ja heitti
teidät oman mielikuvituksenne suruihin? Huuto käy idästä länteen, ja
se huuto oli tunkeutunut teidänkin korviinne. Lahkolaisuuden ja
eksymyksen henki on irroillaan ja levittää ruttoaan, minne vain tulee
— niin huudetaan, ja kaikki kauhistuvat ja vapisevat ja rakentavat
suoja-aitaa, minkä suinkin voivat, itselleen ja omaisilleen. Mutta se ei
auta: "tuuli käy kussa hän tahtoo"; ja heidänkin joukostaan voi löytyä
joku, joka ei paaduta itseään kuulemasta kehoittavaa ääntä,
Jumalan herättävää ääntä hänen sisimmässään. Hän tunsi kauvan
kaihoa, jota hän itse ei ymmärtänyt; ehkä hän sattumalta tapaa
jonkun, joka on kokenut samaa, mutta on löytänyt rauhan, löytänyt
sen kalliin helmen, ja on Jumalan vahvalla perustuksella; totuuden,
lohdutuksen ja rauhan sanat voittavat jalansijaa kaihoavan
sydämessä, ja hän iloitsee siitä, että hänellekin on koittanut valkeus.
Niin herää hän uuteen elämään, tulee uudeksi ihmiseksi ja lausuu
lähimmälle ystävälleen toisellaisia sanoja kuin koskaan ennen — ja
heti hän on saastutettu, kadotettu, pois sysätty ja häntä surraan kuin
kuollutta! Ettekö tästä tunne itseänne, ystäväni, tai eikö monen täydy
tuntea itseään tästä, monen, joka, tuntematta asian sisällistä laatua,
muutamista heille vastenmielisistä ilmauksista, tai kenties jostain
tilapäisestä erehdyksestä tuomitsee koko jumalallisen asian
hyljättäväksi ja vahingolliseksi, eikä tässä varmassa vakaumuksessa
emmi turvautua mitä mustimpiin ja luonnottomimpiin valheisiinkin
tehdäkseen asian vielä vihattavammaksi!

Myöskin näytte te toden teolla pysyvän siinä mielipiteessä, että

teidän tyttärenne kuihtuminen ja kuolema oli välttämätön seuraus
hänen hengellisistä suruistaan — mielipide, jonka olen kuullut
sanottavan myöskin muista, mutta jota en ole voinut hymyilemättä
kuunnella. Vaikka olisi sattunutkin, että joku ihminen heti
käännyttyään olisi kuollut — ja miksi ei sitä olisi voinut sattua silloin,
samoin kuin muulloinkin? — niin tahdotaan erittäin mieluusti pitää
aivan varmana sitä, että "surulliset ajatukset ovat hänet tappaneet",
niin joudutaan siihen ja pidetään varmana, että hengelliset surut ovat
syynä hänen kuolemaansa, mutta ei ajatella, että mahdollisesti olisi
päinvastoin, että juuri hänen pikainen kuolemansa olisi voinut
myöskin olla syynä heränneeseen huoleen, ja että Jumala sitä
enemmän ja voimakkaammin olisi koettanut herättää häntä, koska
hän näki, että hänellä ei ollut pitkää aikaa jäljellä. — Mutta mitä?
vaikka minä kirjoittaisinkin kaikki ja niin paljon kuin tahtoisin, niin
tiedän kyllä, että minun sanani eivät teissä voi mitään vaikuttaa, eivät
voi teitä saada luopumaan ajatuksestanne ja vakaumuksestanne
muuten, kuin että säde Jumalan taivaallisesta valosta tunkee
sieluunne ja avaa sen totuudelle. Näitä asioita ei voida niinkuin
esimerkiksi muutamia filosofisia totuuksia ottaa, hyväksyä ja hyljätä;
valon täytyy tulla Jumalasta, ja ainoastaan nöyrä ja totuudelle avoin
mieli voi käsittää ja vastaanottaa sen. — Kohta on kuitenkin tämä
lyhyt, katoava elämä lopussa, ja silloin kai me saamme kaikki nähdä,
kuka on paremman osan valinnut, sekö, joka ainoastaan on elänyt ja
leikkinyt maan kuihtuvilla kukilla, vai se, joka on etsinyt ikuista,
katoamatonta aarretta tuolla ylhäällä. Nostakaa siis tekin vanhaa
päätänne ylöspäin, ystäväni; älköön teidän katseenne olko kiinnitetty
pimeään hautaan: teidän tyttärenne ei lepää siellä, vaan hän lepää
tuolla ylhäällä, Jumalan luona, ja löytäkää hänet sieltä!

P.S.
 Koska minä tyytymättömänä ja kummastuksekseni huomaan, että
on luultu tarpeelliseksi vastoin minun tietoani ja tahtoani jättää minun
teille kirjoittamani kirjeet yleisön käsiin, ja koska pelkään, että moni
siitä häikäisevän runollisesta valosta, johon olette voinut pukea
asianne, kentiesi joutuisi harhaan ja eksyisi, niin aion pitää huolta
siitä, että myöskin tämä vastaus, niin järjestämättömänä ja
vaillinaisena, kuin te sen tässä näette, julaistaan edes heikkona
vastalauseena teidän totuuden asian vääristelyynne.

Jälkilause.

Tämä Lauri Stenbäckin runoelmani suomennos, ensimäinen

laatuansa, on tehty v. 1899 ilmestyneen, viidennen ruotsalaisen
painoksen mukaan (jättämällä pois muista kielistä käännetyt runot).
Eläessään oli runoilija itse toimittanut kolme painosta (1840, 1850 ja
1868); hänen kuolemansa jälkeen julkaistuista oli neljäs (1878) yhtä
pitävä edellisen kanssa, jota vastoin viides on lisäyksillä varustettu.
Nämä lisäykset ovat tässä suomennoksessakin luettavat Lopuksi oli
viimeiseen ruotsalaiseen painokseen liitetty muutamia tietoja tekijän
elämästä sekä yksityisistä runoelmista. Niitä ei ole käännökseen
otettu, koska professori Eliel Aspelinin kirjoittama runoilijan
täydellinen elämäkerta on valmistunut ja saatavissa. Nykyään se on
tosin vain ruotsinkielisenä kirjakauppaan ehtinyt, mutta ensi vuonna
se on suomenkielisessäkin asussa ilmestyvä.
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