International Journal of GEOMATE, Oct., 2022, Vol.23, Issue 98, pp.

92-99
ISSN: 2186-2982 (P), 2186-2990 (O), Japan, DOI: https://doi.org/10.21660/2022.98.3475
Geotechnique, Construction Materials and Environment

COMPARISON IN ESTIMATING RESERVOIR LIFETIME BY

UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION AND SITE OBSERVATION
*Vittorio Kurniawan1, Wati Asriningsih Pranoto1 and Anugerah Tiffanyputri Kristiani1

1
Civil Engineering Study Program, Universitas Tarumanagara, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author, Received: 02 June 2022, Revised: 04 August. 2022, Accepted: 09 Oct. 2022

ABSTRACT: Sedimentation can severely limit the service lifetime and functionality of reservoirs. The
application of the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) requires validation of its accuracy and applicability
despite its prevalence. This study compares reservoir lifetime predictions for the Leuwikeris Reservoir on the
Citanduy River using the USLE model and the suspended load records from the field measurement. The
comparison shows a reasonable similarity between the theoretical calculation and the factual observations in
determining the amount of watershed soil loss and the reservoir lifetime. Although the validation is successful,
USLE and the measurement technique have their specific limitations. In particular, the inability of USLE to
consider both gully erosion together with sedimentation and the inability of the measurement technique in
detecting bed load. Despite the limitations, these results are in line with previous studies which stated that
the USLE model is generally feasible in estimating the quantity of reservoir-bound sediment.

Keywords: Reservoir sedimentation, Reservoir lifetime, USLE, Daily suspended sediment record, Validation

1. INTRODUCTION The MUSLE was proposed by replacing the factor

R in the USLE model with a runoff factor [10–11].
Reservoirs account for 20% of international The quantity of land erosion is influenced by
power generation [1], therefore, their life becomes numerous variables, which are difficult to
a fundamental issue to be studied [2]. River determine accurately. This makes land erosion
transports water and sediments, which are deposited quantification a complex analysis. For the
on the reservoir bed, causing a decrease in capacity, prediction of sediment transport in rivers, some
which leads to its declining purpose as flood control, empirical probability distribution functions need to
water supply, and electricity generator, and finally be used [12]. However, several variations of the
shortening the lifetime [3–5]. previous methods and others for the prediction of
The service lifetime of the reservoir is generally sediment yield are available in the literature on soil
calculated based on dead storage capacity. When science, hydrology, and water resources.
sedimentation has filled the dead storage capacity, The increase in sediment deposits on the
the service life is considered complete due to Pangsar Besar Soedirman Dam from 1988 to 2016
disruption of normal operation [6]. led to a decrease in the reservoir capacity. For over
Therefore, sedimentation or siltation becomes a 28 years, the total capacity of the dam has dropped
primary issue. All reservoirs are destined to from 144 million m3 to 33.2 million m3 [13]. The
deteriorate and fail due to excessive sedimentation reservoir sedimentation has decreased 18% of
unless they are carefully constructed and power plant production for 16 years of operation
maintained. The large inflow of sediments and ultimately reduced the service life of the dam,
compared to the capacity can reduce the useful life 19 years earlier than the original plan [14–15]. In
of the reservoir. The planning of the reservoir must the USA, sedimentations have decreased the
consider the probable rate of sedimentation to lifetime of many reservoirs by 50 to 100 years [16].
determine whether the lifespan of the proposed These facts reveal the risk of reservoir
reservoir will be sufficient to warrant its sedimentation. Therefore, further studies must be
construction [7]. conducted to understand the sedimentation
A large variety of erosion-sediment yield processes in reservoirs.
models are available in the literature. The most This study aims to compare the sedimentation
commonly used methods for the prediction of rate at Leuwikeris Reservoir, River Citanduy based
sediment yield are the universal soil loss equation on theoretical computation and field observation.
(USLE) and the modified universal soil loss The catchment area model is limited to only the
equation (MUSLE) [7]. upstream reach of the river until the dam structure.
The USLE method [8] computes the soil loss at The reservoir is located in Cijeungjing District,
a given site as a product of six major factors. This Ciamis Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia as
method has been indicated as the most commonly displayed in Fig.1.
used regression model for predicting soil erosion [9].

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measurement technique’s limitation and validation.

For this reason, this paper also probes the issue.

3. METHOD

The initial estimation of reservoir sedimentation

can be obtained from various empirical equations
and charts. The USLE is used to estimate the
reservoir sedimentation rate because it is the most
common method. Subsequently, the theoretical soil
loss will be compared with the suspended sediment
transport data collected at the site.

3.1 Sediment Transport Rate Estimation

The USLE method estimates the long-term

Fig.1 The map of Leuwikeris Dam and its erosion rate on a land slope within a certain time
surrounding [17] based on rainfall pattern, soil type, topography, as
well as land cover, and support. The method only
The construction process of Leuwikeris Dam predicts the amount of soil loss due to rainfall
started in 2016 and has not yet been opened when erosivity and concentrated flow, excluding wind
this study is being carried out. Therefore, no erosion and agricultural development by humans.
investigation has been conducted on this particular To estimate the total erosion rate that occurs at
location. The zoned dam with a central vertical clay the dam upstream, the calculated land erosion per
core is intended to operate for 50 years with a dead hectare is multiplied by the area of the watershed to
storage capacity of 36.09 million m3 [18]. The obtain the total annual land erosion. The formula is
reservoir with a capacity of 81.44 million m3 is expressed in Eq. (1) [8].
designed to irrigate 11,950 hectares of crops,
generate a 15 MW power supply, reduce 57 m3/s of A=R×K×LS×C×P (1)
flood, and supply 0.085 m3/s of water [17, 19].
Citanduy Watershed has a high erosion rate and where:
a large number of sediment yields around 328,961- A: the average amount of soil loss (t/ha/year)
8,158,644 m3 due to the silting of the river. Until R: rainfall erosivity (KJ/ha)
2012, the watershed erosion rate averaged 79.38 K : soil erodibility (t/ha/R)
t/hectare/year or 28,962,668 t/year with potential LS : topographic factor (unitless)
river sedimentation of 2,360,327.47 t/year [20]. C : land cover index (unitless)
P : support particle index (unitless)
2. RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
3.1.1 Rainfall Erosivity
The parameter of reservoir lifespan is important Rainfall erosivity (R) shows the relation
in determining its storage. This makes it necessary between the kinetic energy (E) and maximum 30
to estimate the quantity of sediment influx into the minutes intensity (I30) [23]. The estimation of the R
reservoir. The current practice is by USLE factor is a complex process, which requires long-
modeling, which is a popular approach worldwide. term data collection due to the limited precipitation
However, the question there is a concern about data availability in a large part of the world [24].
whether USLE is sufficiently accurate in Several methods are developed to calculate the
forecasting sediment influx. Comparing the result annual rainfall erosivity factor based on an indirect
of USLE with field measurement data is crucial in relation with daily precipitation. Meanwhile, Eq (2)
concluding its accuracy to estimate the quantity of as expressed below was proposed to determine the
reservoir-bound sediment. The successful rainfall erosivity according to an empirical study in
validation by measurement data will promote USLE Indonesia.
implementation and vice versa.
This paper does not only assess the validation EI30 = 6.119P1.211 ×D-0.473 ×M0.526 (2)
between the theoretical model and the factual data,
but it also investigates how the measurement where:
technique’s limitation affects the validation process. EI30 : rainfall erosivity (KJ/ha)
Numerous types of researches about USLE P : monthly rainfall (cm)
validation have been performed [21-22], but ta there D : number of rain days in a month (day)
is a lack of study on the relationship between the M : maximum rainfall in a month (cm)

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Daily rainfall data of 2019 at the Cihonje, 3.1.4 Land Cover Index
Cisayong, Cibeuerum, and Ciamis Kadipaten from The C factor ranges from 0 to 1, where a value
the Citanduy watershed Hydrological Information of 1 indicates that the land is not covered and the
System were used to calculate the rain erosivity. surface is considered arid land, while zero shows
The location of the rain post and tributaries are that the land is covered and well protected [24].
shown in Fig.2. Several studies have been carried out to determine
Based on the distance between the available rain the land cover management factor (C) for general
gauges and the tributaries, the rainfall at Ciamis is situations. The land cover index for different types
used for the calculation of erositivity in tributary of land cover is in [34]. Most of the land in the study
number 1 because it is the nearest. Meanwhile, the area is used as rice fields and dry land mixed with
rain gauges at Cibeureum, Cisayong, Cihonje, and shrubs.
Kadipaten are considered during the calculation of
the rainfall erosivity at each tributary. These values 3.1.5 Support Particle Index
are applied to calculate the amount of soil loss at The P factor is defined as the impact of land use
tributaries 2-9, 10-15, 16-33, and 34-37, or agricultural systems on soil erosion. When there
respectively. is no erosion control solution, the P-value can be
assumed to be 1.0 [24].
3.1.2 Soil Erodibility The P factor adjusts the erosion potential due to
This parameter is highly sensitive to soil runoff by considering the effects of contours and
physical properties such as texture, organic matter terracing [35].
composition, and the percentage of sand, silt, and The value of the P factor for various land
clay [25]. The soil erodibility factor for various soil conditions is stated in [34].
types is in [26] and [27]. Land use affects erosion through land cover (C)
Soil types in the study area consist of brown and conservation index factor (P). Each type of land
latosol, dark brown-red latosol, gray regosol and use has a different agricultural pattern that affects
lithosol complex, red-brown Mediterranean and the value of the P coefficient. Most of the land in
lithosol complex, an association of humus-gley and the study area is used as rice fields and dry
gray alluvial, and yellow-brown andosol [28–32]. agricultural land mixed with shrubs.

3.1.3 Topographic Factor 3.1.6 Sediment Delivery Ratio

The LS factor is analyzed based on the length The USLE only assumes the amount of soil
(L) and the slope (S) of the topography. The slope moved on, not from, a field [36]. Therefore, the
length factor is an index between the erosion that sediment delivery ratio needs to be considered in
occurs on the slope length and the 22 m long slope predicting the annual sediment yield in the river
identically. Meanwhile, the slope factor is an index course.
between the erosion that occurs on a slope and the Potential sedimentation is the process of
gradient with a slope of 9% identically. transporting sediment from erosion to be deposited
Since erosion can occur in the presence of runoff in certain places such as reservoirs. The actual
(overland flow), the length of the slope can be amount of erosion that becomes sediment is
interpreted as that of the overland flow LS, which is influenced by the ratio between the volume of
calculated using Eq. (3) [33] with the contour data sediment from actual erosion and the volume that
[28–30, 32]. can settle in the reservoir, which is the Sediment
Delivery Ratio (SDR). The SDR is affected by
L
LS = � � × �1.38 + 0.965 S + 0.138 S2 � (3) watershed area and can be formulated as expressed
100
in Eq. (4).
where:
S(1-0.8683A-0.2018 )
LS : Topographic factor (LS) SDR = + 0.08683A-0.2018 (4)
2(S+50n)
L : Slope length (m)
S : Slope gradient (%) where:
SDR : Sediment delivery ratio (%)
The topography of the Citanduy watershed area
A : Catchment area (ha)
includes mountainous areas in the north and the
n : Manning roughness coefficient
coast in the south, which border the Indian Ocean.
In the middle part, there is a hilly area with an Estimation of the potential sediment rate that
average slope of the land as follows (a) the eastern occurs in a watershed can be calculated using Eq.
part (Cilacap and Ciamis Regencies) 0.20-14.11 %, (5).
(b) the middle part (Tasikmalaya Regency) 1.4 -
S-pot = E-Act × SDR (5)
12.15 %, and (c) Western Part (Garut and Cianjur
where:
Regencies) 4.91 - 11.35 % [20].
S-pot : Potential sedimentation

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E-Act : Actual erosion USLE method estimates the soil loss from the
SDR : Sediment delivery ratio catchment area, but not necessarily the amount of
soil transported. Hence, the variable of sediment
3.2 Field Observation delivery ratio (SDR) needs to be determined. The
computation of SDR by Eq. (4) is derived by
The suspended sediment load data is important applying an average slope (S) of 9.1 %, Manning
in the validation or calibration process of USLE coefficient (n) of 0.06, and catchment area of
analysis. The two observation stations available 63,405 hectares, the result is SDR = 2.27 %.
include Cirahong (-7.35 N, 108.36 E) and The multiplication of A and SDR (Eq. (5))
Bojongsalawe (-7.36 N, 108.46 E). The produces the amount of land erosion leaving the
Cirahong station is upstream of the reservoir inlet, watershed. This shows that the eroded soil will
while Bojongsalawe is downstream of the dam. The move into the Leuwikeris Reservoir waterbody.
data were provided by the Citanduy River Authority Therefore, Eq. (5) represents the potential amount
(Balai Besar Wilayah Sungai Citanduy) and are of sediment deposited on the reservoir bed.
accessible at bbwscitanduy.sdatelemetry.com. Multiplying A total with SDR yields S-pot =
The available sediment record is only 1 year 1,853,266.71 t/year. Assuming the sediment-
long, which is obtained in 2019 (Fig.3 and 4). specific gravity (γ) is 2.56, the volume of sediment
Therefore, the analysis will assume that the transported into the reservoir is 723,932.31 m3/year.
suspended sediment loads this year represents the The previous paragraph estimates the volume of
normal hydraulic behavior of the Citanduy River. solid particles displaced from the watershed and
transported by the river into Leuwikeris Reservoir.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS However, this is not necessarily the volume of
sediment occupying the storage. The displaced
This study shows the estimated reservoir particles collectively settle at the reservoir bottom.
lifetime based on land erosion upstream of the dam The accumulated mass will contain pores among the
using the USLE. It also compares the result of the particles. Subsequently, the reduction in the
USLE method with the suspended sediment load reservoir volume will be greater than the volume of
measured within the area. displaced sediment. However, the relationship
The land erosion rate was derived by summing between them is hitherto difficult to determine.
the application of Eq. (1) for all tributary yields A = Hence, the rest of the analysis will assume the
1,289.24 t/ha/year. volume of sediment eroded from the watershed
Since the watershed area is 63,405 hectares, the equals the volume of settled/deposited sediment.
amount of the eroded soil is their multiplication,
namely A total = 81,744,281 t/year.

Fig.2 The map of Leuwikeris Dam’s catchment (green shade); the main river (dark blue line); the tributaries
(light blue line and numbered); the rainfall stations; and the suspended sediment observation station (red circle)
[28–30, 32]

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Since the dead storage capacity of Leuwikeris However, bed load is significantly difficult to
Reservoir is 36.09 million m3, the lifetime of the measure because it is a thin layer near the bed [39].
reservoir can be forecasted by dividing the dead The estimation of sediment influx needs to depend
storage by the annual erosion rate, namely 36.09.106 on suspended load measurement, which is carried
m3/723,932.31 m3/year = 49.85 years. The out by US DH-48.
estimated lifetime is close to the reservoir lifespan
estimated by the Ministry of Public Works and
Housing of the Republic of Indonesia at 51.47 years,
which was computed by the USLE method.
The next step is to forecast the amount of
sediment in Leuwikeris Reservoir using the
observed daily record of suspended sediment load
Fig.4 and 5. The annual sediment load measured at
Cirahong station is 401,990 t/year, while
Bojongsalawe has 455,062 t/year. This showed that
Bojongsalawe saw more sediment than Cirahong
station because it lies downstream. This implies the Fig.3 The record of suspended sediment load at
greater the catchment area yields, the more Cirahong station in 2019 [40]
transported sediment.
The result shows that the bulk density is 0.6 t/m3,
while the suspended sediment volumes are 723,932
m3/year and 669,984 m3/year at Cirahong and
Bojongsalawe, respectively. Furthermore, these
values are close to the soil loss calculated using the
USLE by the Ministry of Public Works and
Housing of the Republic of Indonesia or the authors,
which are 701,250 m3/year and 723,932 m3/year,
respectively.
The calculation of the Leuwikeris Reservoir
lifetime using the USLE predicts that the reservoir Fig.4 The record of suspended sediment load at
will reach the end of its life after 49 years 10 months Bojongsalawe station in 2019 [40]
7 days (49.853 years) from the time of operation. Table 1 The reservoir lifetime estimation based on
This is in line with the estimation results based on various approaches
sediment transport data from the Citanduy
Reference γ Sediment Lifetime
Watershed Hydrological Information System at the
(t/m3) yield (year)
Cirahong and Bojongsalawe observation stations. It (m3/year)
also correlates with the erosion rate data on the USLE reference 1 * 2.561 701,250 51.47
water resources development pattern of Citanduy USLE calculation 1 2.561 723,932 49.85
Watershed, which predicted that the reservoir Cirahong station 2 0.602 669,984 53.87
Bojongsalawe station 2 0.602 758,436 47.59
lifetime will be completed after 53.867, 47.585, and *
[20]
51.465 years, respectively. Before validating the 1
Specific gravity
2
USLE calculation with the recorded suspended Bulk density
sediment load, there is a need to consider the
limitation of the method. This is because it only
quantifies sediment from the catchment area, but
not from gully or stream bank erosion [36]–[38].
The recapitulation of the estimation of reservoir
lifetime from different approaches are shown in
Table 1 and Fig. 5.
The sediment observed at Cirahong and
Bojongsalawe is not exactly from the Citanduy
watershed, but it can be mixed with the sediment
from the bed and bank erosion of the Citanduy river
and tributaries. Moreover, USLE failed to consider Fig. 5 The illustration of the sediment yield quantity
the deposition of eroded soil along the river. based on various approaches
The limitation also comes from the The quantity of land erosion computed by USLE
measurement technique. The calculation of should approximate the amount of sediment
reservoir lifetime considers the total load (bed load recorded during observation (Fig.5). The problems
+ suspended load) which enters the reservoir. are USLE’s limitation in considering

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erosion/deposition mechanism and the inability to lifetime might differ from the calculation.
precisely determine bed load. Despite these
limitations, the USLE method performs accurately
when validated with sediment measurement. The
analysis in this study shows the agreement of
eroded soil quantification by USLE calculation or
by field observation. Meanwhile, results from
previous reports concluded that the theoretical
eroded soil quantity compares quite fairly with
measurement data [37]. It also compares accurately
with different measurement methods such as the
paleolimnological records [41].
The fact that the validation compared quite
fairly might come from the balancing of erosion and
deposition along the rivers. The USLE does not
consider gully erosion and sedimentation. When the
amount of gully erosion and deposition are not
different, they counterbalance each other. It implies
that the USLE-calculated soil loss’ quantity
approximates the quantity of sediment entering the
reservoir.

Fig.7 The land use development within the

Citanduy catchment area
5. CONCLUSIONS

The sedimentation rate determines when the

dead storage of the reservoir will be full and the end
of its service life. The theoretical calculation using
USLE and the field measurement data is in line with
Fig. 6 The validation scheme of eroded soil quantity the reservoir lifetime prediction, which is
by field measurement approximately 50 years.
Furthermore, the suspended load tends to Validation is still necessary to ensure the
dominate total sediment transport [42]. This accuracy of the theoretical erosion analysis.
indicated that its measurement approaches the total However, there is no perfectly accurate erosion
load. This method justifies the use of US DH-48 in model and measurement technique. This study
sampling the suspended load, which is in line with signifies the agreement between suspended load
this study. field observation and USLE analysis despite of their
Note that the reservoir lifetime calculation in shortcomings. There are many advancements
this paper assumes no change in the watershed’s required to improve both accuracies, but the finding
land use. Land use change will alter reservoir in this case study indicates the feasibility of the
sedimentation [43–44]. Examples of land use combination.
change are urban sprawling and conversion from
vegetation into a settlement or industrial area [45– 6. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
46]. Such phenomena indeed occur here. The
The authors are grateful to Lembaga Penelitian
satellite imageries from various years reveal the
dan Pengabdian Kepada Masyarakat Universitas
land use change in the Citanduy watershed (Fig.7).
Tarumanagara for funding this study.
The red line is the border of the watershed while the
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