Art and Culture by Neeraj Sir

Art and Culture (Neeraj Sir)
Class 1
Introduction (09:14 AM)
• A number of classes- 13-14 for Art and Culture.

• Importance of Art and Culture
• 6-7 questions in prelims examination.
• 3-4 questions in the main examination.
• syllabus of mains mentioned.
Why do we need to study culture? (09:22 AM)
• What is the importance of studying culture as an aspirant?

• The first concept of nation is based on culture.
• Culture is the first identity of the people.
• It is an inalienable part of the society
• It is very difficult to change the culture of the people.
• The error of judgment can start at the level of the judiciary -
• For example- The Jalikkattu festival and Sabrimala issue.
• If people are not acceptable in their hearts, then the judiciary needs to
revisit its decisions.
• So, understanding the ethos and culture of the people is important.
• For Example- the earthquake in Gujarat and the nuclear test by India.
• Food aid that was provided was non- vegetarians and most of the
people were vegetarian.
• The foreign officials did not recognize/understand the culture of that
particular area.
• For example- Bihar is known for flooding. (1997 flood)
• NDRF - does the rescue operation in these situations.
• In The camp which was created, an unusual demand was made in this
camp and the demand was of Sindoor.
• Culture is an inalienable part of society.
• The context then was sexual exploitation, so women who felt quite
threatened asked for sindoor as a deterrent.
• The smallest commodity of culture has a big role in society.
• Culture is an evolving phenomenon.
• India has a good culture in the service industry.
India is known for its soft power- (09:48 AM)
• India is doing the conciliation between Russia and Ukraine.

• For example- yoga is an example of soft power.
• Why culture is important for the economy?
• The economic activity is at the time of festivities and marriage.
• China starts preparation for Diwali first.
• Many countries start preparing for Indian festivals like incense sticks in
Vietnam.
• Culture accelerates the economy.
• Importance of Language for civil servants.
• German and Polish quite similar to Sanskrit.
Syllabus Introduction - (09:56 AM)
• Architecture and sculpture- 6-7 classes

• Religion and Philosophy -2-3 classes
• Classical dance- 1 class
• Classical music-1 class
• Indian Paintings-1 class
• Language and literature-1 class
• Bhakti and Sufi movement-1 class
• Theaters.-1 class
Divide the entire period into three headings- (10:00 AM)
Ancient -
• Architecture and culture of the Ancient period.

• Indus valley civilization - (2600 -1800 BCE)
• Mauryan age- focus- pillars and stupa (321-185 BCE)
• Post-Mauryan age- stupa development, three styles of sculpture (185
BCE - 200 CE)
• Gupta age- cave architecture and Tempel architecture (319 - 550 CE)
• The architecture of South India- temple architecture (600 CE - 1100 CE)
Medieval - (10:02 AM)
• 1) Delhi Sultanate- (1206-1290) two types of architecture- Imperial and

provincial
• a) Imperial - Slave period, Khelji period, Tughlaq period, Sayyid period,
Lodi
• b) Provincial -(1200-1550)
• Bengal Architecture.
• Jounpur.
• Malwa.
• Gujarat.
• Bijapur.
• 2) Mughal Architecture -
• Akbar
• Jahangir
• Shahjahan 1627-1658
• Aurangzeb - 1658-1707
• 3) Rajput Achitectiure
• 4) Sikh Architecture
Modern Architecture - (till 1947)
• 1) British Architecture
• a) Indo- Gothic Architecture
• b) Neo-classical and neo-Roman Architecture
• c) Contemporary Indian Architecture
• d) Awadh architecture
• 2) contemporary Architecture.
A Brief description of resources (10:09 AM)
• Class notes are sufficient.

• The language of the New Ncert is difficult.
• No other book from the market has been suggested by sir.
Indus Valley Civilization - (10:22 AM)
• Indus Valley Civilization is the most advanced civilization.

• Urban planning
• Seals
• Sculptures of the Indus Valley Civilization
• Stone sculpture
Seals - (10:33 AM)
• They are the most important artifacts found.

• More than 5000 seals were found so far.
• They are Geometrically shaped objects
• The Main composition is Steatite which is a soft river stone.
Other Instances - Gold, Bronze, etc.
• There were Terracotta seals also.

• These seals were pictographic ie. there are pictures and symbols in
seals.
Examples of the seals- (10:38 AM)
• 1) Pashupati Seal –
• Yogic posture, the image is surrounded by many animals, there is an
elephant, rhino, bull, tiger, antelope
• The historian concluded that it is an image of proto-shiva.
• Meditative processes were known to the people of the Indus- valley
civilization.
• The concept of cohabitation- that this is a shared planet, and there is an
equal share of the animal and plant world.
• Indian religion - Lord Ganesh is related to Mouse.
• Lord Shiva is depicted with the bull and snake.
• Durga is depicted with a lion. So, some sort of nature worship is here.
• 2) Unique object- Some fish-like image - some unusual animal is
depicted.
• C3 and C4 plants, - Peeple, maize, wheat, and grass is a C4 plants.
• That is why PEEPAL is considered Pranvayu.
Seals- (10:53 AM) (Dictation)
• Seals were one of the most important artifacts found in Indus towns.
• They are one of the most important sources of information about the
Indus-valley civilization.
• Seals were Geometrically shaped objects, mainly made up of soft river
stone steatite.
• But there were other instances also for example- CHURT, COPPER,
GOLD, SILVER, BRONZE TERRAQUOTA, etc.
• Seals were pictographic. which means pictures and symbols were
created on seals.
• These pictures and symbols provided important information about the
practices in IVC.
• For example- the Pashupati seal
• Historians consider it as an example of Proto-shiva.

• In this image a person is depicted sitting in a yogic posture with three
horned headgear, he is surrounded by many animals like an elephant,
Rhinoceros, tiger, Bull, and dear.
• It can also be inferred from this image that Indus valley people followed
meditative processes.
• The seal also exemplifies the concept of cohabitation.
• For example- Seal with PEEPAL LEAVE-
• It indicates the importance of nature worship.
• Some of the seals carried images and symbols similar to mathematical
symbols like Pi-Pi etc.
• Based on it seal is also used as an educational tool.
• Many of the seals were used as emulates which indicates
that Shamanic practices were prevalent in the Indus Valley
civilization.
Sculptures of the Indus-valley civilization - (11:28 AM)
• Stone sculpture - There were not many examples of stone sculptures

but the ones which were found were made from soft river stone steatite.
• The most important example of stone sculpture was the bearded priest
who is seen wearing a headband, armband, and a prolific pattern cotton
shawl.
• This image is believed to be belonging to the priest of IVC.
• Terracotta is baked in the fire.
• The Terracotta technique was used for making a variety of Artifacts like
small toys, carts, and terracotta figurines.
• The most important terracotta figurine found in the majority of Indus
towns is the image of the mother goddess.
• There was a variety of depictions of mother goddesses.
• For example- In many of the images she was depicted as a pregnant
lady wearing a good number of ornaments.
• In some other images, a plant is created from her navel point, which
indicates she was regarded as the goddess of fertility.
• based on the image of the mother goddess, historians maintain that the
probably Indus valley society was matriarchial in nature.
Bronze sculpture- (11:52 AM)
• (Bronze= Copper+Tin)
• IVC is also referred to as Bronze civilization.
• Copper in IVC was imported from Mesopotamia, Oman, Sumer, and
Dilman( Qatar-Bahrain).
• Tin was imported from Afghanistan.
• The major commodity of export from IVC was cotton and wheat.
• The best example of a bronze sculpture is the image of a dancing girl.
• The lost wax technique was used for creating the bronze sculpture.
• This technique itself tells the intelligence of the Indus valley people.
• Even in the modern age where the sculpture-making process is
mechanized, in many parts of India, still lost wax technique is followed.
• For example- in GI Tag Dhokra's sculpture of Bastar.
The Topic for the next class is the Architecture of the Mauryan age.
Class 2
INTRODUCTION (9:07 AM)
• Overview of the previous class.
POTTERY OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION: IVC (9:08 AM)
• The general ware pottery was mainly used for storage of water grains
as utensils.
• It was made from clay and baked on fire.
• Miniature vessels were long and elongated pottery with a design on the
exterior surface.
• It was meant for decorative purposes.
• Faience pottery was also a decorative category of pottery mainly
created in the area of Lothal, Dholavira.
• Perforated pottery was also created which was meant for straining
liquor.
• Note: Generally, the dead of the Indus Valley was buried along with
pottery. On the basis of design and type of pottery, the class of the dead
person can be inferred. Moreover, many objects were kept inside the
pottery which indicates that Indus Valley people believed in otherworldly
things ie. they must have thought the dead person would bring the
objects buried with them in another birth.
ORNAMENTS AND COSMETICS (9:20 AM)
• IVC people used a variety of ornaments which included necklaces,

pendants, waistbands, finger rings, earrings, bangles, armbands, etc.
• The ornaments were mainly made from semi-precious stones like
amethyst, carnelian, and lapis lazuli.
• There were instances of bronze and gold ornaments also.
• From Harappa, a vanity box was found in which soap, lipstick, kajal, and
sindoor were found.
• Indus Valley people were also using tincture for healing wounds or cuts
in the body.
TOWN PLANNING OF IVC (9:34 AM)

• Note: Kindly see the diagram made in class.
• Generally, the IVC was divided into two parts ie. Lower and Upper
Town.
• The upper town was created on an upraised platform.
• Mainly for administration.
• Many college-type administrative buildings were created in this part of
the town.
• Another important feature was the presence of a common bath in the
upper town.
• The common bath is a stepped water tank.
• The steps of the tank were created from burnt bricks and joined together
with charcoal and gypsum.
• The best example is the great bath of Mohenjo-Daro.
• In this stairs were created in a North-South direction, and in the East-
West direction, changing rooms were created.
• Moreover, washrooms were also created attached to the changing
rooms.
• Another important structure in the upper town was granaries meant for
the storage of grains
• .
• It was scientifically made with strategic pores for the exchange of gases.
• The lower town was the biggest part of the Indus town meant for the
habitation of commoners.
• The lower town was divided into many sectors and there was a very
good network of roads.
• The roads used to cut each other at the right angle.
• On both sides of the road, drains were created which were covered with
a stone slab.
• Drains had the provision of cess pits or sumps for the purpose of
cleaning.
• The inner line of cesspits was coated with gypsum.
• It was meant for filtering wastewater and discharging water into the
ground.
• Inside the sectors, there were instances of single-storey, double-storey,
and even triple-storey houses.
• Each of the houses was created with a burnt brick of the same shape &
size in a ratio of 4:2:1.
• Inside the house, the central part was a courtyard and on the sides of
the courtyard, rooms were created.
• There was a separate provision for a kitchen, and washroom, and some
of the houses were also having private wells. (These private wells were
also open to the general public.)
• Generally, the Indus townhouses were not created facing the direction
of the main road.
• Moreover, the ground floor of houses was devoid of windows.
• Perhaps this approach was followed to safeguard their privacy.
MAURYAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE (10:23 AM)
• Shramana Tradition:
• In the rear end, the progressive section of society started the reform
movement.
• They protested against the supremacy of Brahmins, complex Vedic
rituals, indiscriminate animal sacrifice, and the deteriorating position of
women and shudra in society.
• This movement against the discriminatory tendency came to be known
as the Shramana tradition.
• Sramana is a Sanskrit word that means the one who strives for it.
• Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajeevika are considered three branches of the
Shramana tradition.
• Mauryas were the first rulers who truly patronized the Shramana
movement and they also took some architectural initiatives to give
patronage to the branches of Shramana.
MAURYAN CAVE (10:45 AM)
• Perhaps Mauryan caves were the first man-made cave on the Indian
subcontinent.
• These caves were intricately decorated from the outside.
• A semi-circular facade was created.
• Reticular panels were also created on the front gateway.
• From inside the caves were highly polished in nature.
• Two types of chambers can be observed inside the caves.
• One seems to be a prayer hall and other resting places.
• The majority of the caves were created by Ashoka and his grandson
Dashrath for Ajeevika monks.
• For Example, Lomas Rishi Cave of Barabar Hills in Gaya, Sudama
caves, Nagarjuni hills in Gaya, Karan-Chopar caves, and Vishwa Chopri
in Gaya.
• Dhauli Cave Odisha: a rock-cut elephant sculpture was created at
Dhauli which is still surviving.
MAURYA PILLARS (11:13 AM)
• Mauryan pillars had an average height of 40 ft.

• It was a monolith in nature which means created from a single stone.
• A long shaft, a bell capital, a geometrical shape abacus, and a crowning
animal.
• It was highly polished in nature and displayed high carver skill.
• The contemporary Maurya in Achemania, also created pillars.
• But they were not monoliths, instead created in parts and joined later.
• The average height of Achemanian pillars was around 18-20 ft and it
was compromised on the carver skill.
• Purpose of Mauryan pillars:
• (1) Initially the purpose was to commemorate the victory and to serve
imperial sermons (orders and commands).
• After the Kalinga war, Ashoka decided to abandon the policy of
Berighosh (military annexation).
• Ashoka accepted Buddhism and initiated the policy of Dhammaghosh
(socio-cultural annexation).
• (2) In the later phase the purpose of erecting pillars was to celebrate the
important life events of Buddha and to spread Dhamma (moral ethical
code of conduct in the society.)
• Sarnath Pillar
•
• Crowning animal: 4 back-to-back lions

• It represents Dharma-Chakra-Parivartan (turning the wheel of religion)
• The 4 crowning animals with the dharma-chakra abacus are the national
emblem of the Government of India.
• The Dharma-Chakra has 24 spokes.
• Moreover, 4 animals- bull, horse, lion, and elephant are depicted in a
clockwise manner in the abacus.
• Rampurva Pillar, Bihar
• The pillar at Rampurva in Bihar with Bull as the crowning animal
• Lauriya-Nandangarh pillar, Bihar
• Single lion as the crowning animal.
• Sankissa pillar, UP
• An elephant is a crowning animal.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF MAURYAN ART &

ARCHITECTURE
Class 3
A Brief Overview of the Previous Class (09:06 AM)
Pottery of Mauryan Architecture- (09:07 AM)
• Northern Black Polished Ware (Mauryan pottery).

• Fine particles of clay were used for its creation.
• Very even type of pottery was created at this time.
• It was the climax of pottery making with few small changes, big
differences in outcome were achieved at this time.
• The very first change was filtering the clay to get fine particles of the
clay and removing course grains from the clay.
• Pottery was made on Fast running wheels and a very even type of
pottery was created.
• Moreover, the smoothness of pottery further facilitated its polishing.
• The characteristic pottery of the Mauryan age is popularly known
as NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware).
Mauryan Sculpture (09:17 AM)
• During the Mauryan period, main sculptures of Folk Gods and

Goddess YAKSHA and YAKSHANI were created.
• They were revered figures in all three religions of that time.
• Yaksha is considered a force associated with the preservation of
nature.
• Yakshini are considered forces of regeneration.
• In Hinduism, Yaksha is mentioned in many religious texts like
Mahabharat.
• SAPTMATRIKA POOJA was also relevant in Hinduism whereby seven
Yakshinies were worshipped.
• In Jainism, There is a concept of 24 Yakshanis, corresponding to 24
TIRTHANKARS.
• In Buddhism, the concept of Yaksha was associated with strength and
power, and images of Yakshanis are considered very auspicious.
• For Example-
• Deedarganj Yakshani and Yaksha of Parkham.
• Salbhanjika Yakshani (Sanchi Stupa)- here Yakshani is holding the
branch of Sal tree.
STUPA (09:34)
• The stupa is a Sanskrit word that means 'HEAP OF SAND"
• The practice of stupa-making was followed from the Vedic period.
• The highly knowledgeable Rishis of the ancient period were cremated in
Stupa formation after their death.
• This tradition further continued and as such after the death of Buddha,
his followers also created a stupa after cremation.
• Later, Ashoka assumed the leadership of Magadh and after his
conversion to Buddhism, he decided to create Stupas on the relics of
Buddha.
• Initially, 9 Stupas were created at the places like - Vaishali, Rajgriha,
Kushinagar, Kapilvastu, Pava, Pippalvina, Vethupida, Allakappa, and
Ramgrama.
• Ashoka started to follow the tenets written in the Avadana sutra which
tells the benefits of creating a stupa as such Ashoka initiated a policy
name "Calm and Glad"
• As per this policy, Ashoka constructed near about 84,000 stupas all
over India to make the heart and souls of Buddhist followers Calm and
Glad.
Diagrammatic presentation of Stupa (09:57 AM)

• Torana
• Vedika
• Pradakshinapath
• Harmika
• Yasti
• Chatri
• Anda
• Medhi
• Relics of Buddha
• Birth (Lumbini)
• Nirvana (Bodhgaya)
• Dharamchakarparivartan (Sarnath)
• Mahaparinirvan (Khushinagar)
Tri Ratna of Buddhism -(10:15 AM)
• Buddha- Awakened one (at the top)

• Dhamma - Doctrines of Buddhism (in second place)
• Sangha- Monastic order of Buddhism (in the third place)
Final image/ final concept associated with the Stupa (10:20 AM)
• Medhi is considered as meditating leg of Buddha.

• Anda part is considered the middle part of Buddha.
• Harmika part is considered the head and neck of Buddha.
Jataka Katha (10:24 AM)
• The Vedika of Stupa is full of folk narrative that is Jatak Katha.

• These are the stories of the previous birth of Buddha.
• These stories are dialectic in nature which means they are full of moral
and ethical lessons.
Post Mauryan Architecture - (10:28 AM)
Tabular presentation - on Sculpture
Amravati
Basis Ghandhara Mathura
(Vengi)
Lower
• Area North-west+Frontier Krishna
Western UP+Rajasthan
province Godavari
valley
• Material Grey sandstone +sand White

Red Sand Stone
schist marble
Greco-Bacterian Roman Purely

• Influence Purely Indigenous
Influence (Hellenistic Indigenous
influence)
All the religions-
Buddhism,
• Religions Only
associated Only Buddhism Jainism, Buddhism
Hinduism.
Satavahana
• Patronization Kushana Dynasty s and
Kushana dynasty
Ikshvaku
• spiritual image
• wavy hair
• half-closed eye Delighted image
• unshaven face
• fewer ornaments • Combed hair To be
• Optimum clothes • open eyes
• Features covered in
• Muscles and veins • Shaven face
the next
visible • more ornaments
• class
Images were • luxurious cloth
depicted with • round bodies
beards and
mustaches
Greek Influence- Jain sculpture -
• many of the • The sculptures of

images of Gandhar Tirthankars were
were modeled created particularly the
around the images sculpture of
of greek Vardhaman Mahavir
mythological was often repeated.
figures - Apollo, • Majority of the image of
Jews, and Jainism were nude
Hercules. Atlas images either in a
etc. standing posture or in a
• The Grace of sitting posture. To be
• Unique Featur
Gandhar images • In the standing posture, covered in
e
were inspired by the sculpture was the next
the greek God- surrounded by class
Apollo and Jews creepers, snakes, and
on the other hand many other animals.
the muscularity of • Another important
the body was feature of the Jain
inspired by Atlas image was the creation
and Hercules. of a Chakra in the
middle of the chest.
Roman Influence-
Hinduism Sculpture-
• The images were
also modeled • In Hinduism sculptures
according to of Lord Shiva, Lord
Roman Vishnu, Goddess
Iconography. Parvati, and sculptures
• For example- The of Lord shiva were
sculptures depicted created.
with Roman • Lord shiva was often
realism, large represented in the form
foreheads large of Shivalinga and
earlobes, broad Mukhalinga.
soldiers, and • Lord Vishnu was often
chests, depicted with multiple
• moreover tall arms holding his
images were also a Aayudh (weapons like
feature of Roman Sudarshan chakra)
icons. • One of the popular
sculptures of Mathura
Bactarian Influence - is Mahisasur Mardini.
• The images belonging
• It is a central Asian to all the religions
Influence created "HALO" aroun
• Images depicted d the sculptures.
with wavy hair and
headgear.
• In some of the
images of
Bodhisatva, he
was portrayed with
weapons in his
hands.
• Long Overcoats
are also a central
Asian feature in
Gandhara.
• Images of Buddha
and Bodhisattva
were depicted
were
the "HALO" aroun
d the head.
Images of Gandhara Sculpture are shown and discussed in the class -

(11:40 AM)
THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS - JATAKA STORIES
Class 4
A Brief Overview of the Previous Class - (09:06 AM)

Amravati Sculpture- Jataka Panel - (09:08 AM)
Jataka Story Description-
• Ruru Jataka
• Chaddaanta Jataka
• Mahakapi Jataka
• Queen Mayadevi's dream
• It was on the birth of Buddha
• Buddha clam the mad elephant
• Nirvana Jataka
• Budhha is sitting in a Bhumisparsh mudra.
Dictation - (09:21 AM)
• Features of Amravati -
• Single dominating images were not created in Amravati.
• Instead, Jataka Panels were created.
• These Jataka panels depicted the previous life stories of Buddha.
• The Jataka stories were dialectic in nature which means moral and
ethical lessons are the basic part of Jataka Katha.
• Some of the important Jataka created in Amravati are as follows-
• Ruru Jataka
• Sibi Jataka
• Chaddaanta Jataka
• Mahakapi
• Buddha clam the mad elephant
• Nirvana
Post Mauryan Caves- (09:26 AM)
• Structure-wise -
• Based on Structure three types of caves were there-
• Apsidal vault cave with pillars –
•
• For Example- Ajanta, Bhaj, Karla, and Kanari in Maharashtra.
• Apsidal vault cave without pillars-
• For Example- Thana Nadsur, Cezarla cave
• Quadrangular hall flat roof cave-
• For Example- Mahakali Kondivite cave
Purpose of the caves - (09:36 AM)
• Chaitya cave
• Chaitya was the prayer hall for the monks.
• Generally, in these prayer halls, motif stupas were created at the rear
end of the Apsidal vault cave.
• Viharas Cave
• These were the resting places of the monks during the monsoon
season.
• During their stay, Monks needed to purify their thoughts and behaviour.
• They were also supposed to confess their wrongdoings or indiscipline
with their fellow monks.
• They also needed to take resolve not to repeat those mistakes.
Post Mauryan Stupa - (09:44 AM)

• The wooden Vedikas of the Maurya period were replaced by stone
vedikas.
• Inside the premise of the stupa, the idol of Manushi Buddha ( buddha
who was one among us and became enlightened) was installed.
• By the first century AD, many developments happen in Buddhism
which was represented through many changes in the Stupa structure.
• In this period one additional Pradakshina path was added at the level
of Medhi.
• As such there were two Pradakshina Paths.
• The lower one indicated, the Hinayana path of Buddhism.
• The Upper one indicted Mahayana Path of Buddhism.
• The number of Chatri's Started to increase in odd numbers. like- 5,7,9,
etc.
• The increase in numbers indicated the evolution of Buddhism and odd
numbers indicated the important life events of Buddha on odd dates.
The golden age of Art and Architecture - (10:04 AM)
• Gupta Age
• The Gupta age is considered the Golden Age of Art and Architecture.
• There was holistic development in many fields, particularly during the
tenure of Chandragupta-II.
• There were developments in the field of Sanskrit literature, Hindu
Religious literature, Temple construction, Mathematics, Astronomy,
Astrology, Metallurgy, Medicine, Surgery, etc.
• Chandragupta-II also maintains many famous luminaries in his court.
• For example- Dhanvantri, Varahmihir, Vararuchi, and Kalidas.
• In this period, not only the temples created but also manuscript
regarding the construction of temples was written.
• The Gupta period is also known for the climax of cave-making.
Cave Architecture of the Gupta period - (10:29 AM)
• Ajanta Cave-
•
• Ajanta is situated in Aurangabad of Maharashtra.
• It is situated in the Gorge of the Waghora river.
• There are 29 caves, 4 chaityas, and 25 viharas.
• All the caves are Buddhist.
• Buddhism-related specimens are there.
• Ajanta caves were created on the steep sides of the hill.
• As such Courtyards cannot be seen in Ajanta.
• Ajanta caves are entirely Buddhist.
• It embodies various specimens based on Buddhism.
• Which includes, Buddhist sculptures and Fresco Mural paintings.
Fresco Mural- (10:46 AM)
• The most important specimen is the Fresco mural painting.

• In the initial step, a mixture of clay, cow dung, and rice husk is applied
to the wall of the cave.
• Then, It is coated with lime plaster.
• In the final step, colors are applied.
• This initial mixture had the property of absorbing moisture and color.
• Over the period, the painting on the mixture got imprinted on the wall of
the cave as such it increased the longevity of the painting.
• Natural colors sourced from minerals and vegetation were used in
Ajanta Murals.
• For example- of the famous paintings of Ajanta.
• 1) Padampani- Boddhisattva holding a lotus
• 2) Vajrapani- Boddhisattva holding a vajra/ thunder bolt.
• 3) Dying princess.
• * Padampani is considered a form of Avlokiteshwar ( the lord who
looks down with compassion).
Ellora cave- Aurangabad district - (11:09 AM)
• A total of 34 caves was there-

• 17 belongs to Hinduism
• 12 to Buddhism
• 5 to Jainism
• Ellora caves were created on the sloping sides of the hill as such it has
courtyards.
• As compared to Ajanta, Ellora even included Triple storey caves.
• Though the construction of the caves started during the regime of
Vakatakas rulers, it reached its final culmination during the Rashtrakuta
period.
• Premise number -16 is considered an architectural wonder of India-
Kailashnath Temple.
• It was a monolith temple created by Rashtrakuta ruler Krishana- 1
• Premise number -10 is popularly known as Dashavtar cave.
• Vishwakarma cave is dedicated to the god of craft and architecture.
• Buddhist caves of Ellora included Chaiyats and viharas with the
sculptures of Buddha and Bhuddhisattaves.
• Jain caves of Ellora are popularly known as Indra Sabha.
• In these caves, sculptures of Tirthankars were created.
Bagh Cave of Madhya Pradesh- (11:24 AM)
• Banks of river Bagh.

• Purely Buddhist,
• There are a total of 9 sandstone caves
• Cave number - 4, is known as Rang Mahal, which has beautiful
Frescos based on Buddhism.
UPSC Prelims Question discussion ( 11:34 AM - 11:40)

Nasik Cave- (11:40 AM)
• Nasik is famous for not only Buddhism but also Hinduism.

• There are 24 sandstone caves in Nasik dedicated to the Hinayana
Phase of Buddhism.
• These caves are viharas.
• Nasik is also considered a holy place for Kumbh Mela and one of
the Shiv jyotirlinga Trimbhkeshwar.
• 12- Shiv Jyotirlinga-
•
• 3 from Maharashtra
• 1) Trimbhakeshwar
• 2) Girishneshwar
• 3) Bhimshankar
• 2 from Gujarat
• 4) Somnath
• 5) Nageshwar
• Madhya Pradesh-
• 6) Mahakaleshwar and
• 7) Omkaleshwar
• Uttarakhand-
• 8) Kedarnath
• Uttar Pradesh-
• 9) Kashi Vishwanath
• Jharkhand-
• 10) Baidyanath
• Andhra Pradesh -
• 11) Mallikaarjuna
• Tamilnadu
• 12) Rameshwaram
Elephanta cave - (11:47 AM)It is situated off-coast Mumbai on an Island.
• Hinduism is manifested in many forms in Elephanta Caves.

• It embodies a Shivlinga and the very famous Mahesh Murti, also known
as Trimurti.
• In this sculpture, the middle image of Lord Mahesh and the sides image
of his consort Uma and the aggressive form Bhairav was created.
• Trimurti is the most important sculpture of Elephanta.
The Topic For The Next Class - Continuation of Elephanta Cave.
Class 5
UDAIGIRI CAVES OF VIDISHA, MP (9:16 AM)

• It was created during the Gupta period and it is noted as a very famous
sculptor of the Varaha avatar (boar incarnation) of Lord Vishnu.
JUNAGARH CAVE, GIRNAR HILLS, GUJARAT (9:18 AM)

• It is also known as Uparkot cave which means chambers on an
upraised platform.
• These caves have a large number of chambers interconnected with
each other through stairs.
Both Buddhist and Hindu motifs can be seen in these caves.
UDAIGIRI AND KHNADAGIRI CAVES OF ODISHA (9:21 AM)
• It was created during the regime of the Jain king Kharavela.

• These caves are dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras whose sculptors
created at this place.
• Some of the sculptors depict different steps of Odissi dance forms.
MANDAPESWAR CAVES, MAHARASHTRA (9:24 AM)
• Originally it was a Shaivite cave, but in later times motifs associated

with Christianity were also created at this place.
SARNATH SCHOOL OF SCULPTURE (9:26 AM)
• It flourished around Banaras.

• In later phases, in Mathura also Sarnath art was produced.
• This style was further improvisation of Mathura sculpture.
• Pink color sandstone which was obtained from Chunar mines was used.
• It also depicted some of the features of the Amravati style, for example,
the dominating image of Buddha was often accompanied by a Jataka
panel.
• The halo in Sarnath style was profusely decorated on the margins.
• Moreover, the images were depicted in a transparent drapery.
• In the later stages, Sarnath's art was also produced in stone.
• For Example, Sultanganj Buddha.
TEMPLE ARCHITCETURE (9:45 AM)

• 'Vishnudhammottara Purana' mentions the rules to be followed in the
construction of temples.
• The first temple construction in India happened during the period of the
Guptas.
• The initial development happened in the following 3 stages:
• (1) In this very first stage flat roofed square temple was created.
• The temple also had shallow pillars meant for the purpose of decoration.
• Temples were created on a grounded platform.
• The oldest example of the first stage is temple number 17 of Sanchi.
•
• (2) Flat-roofed square temple approach continued with additional
changes.
• Now, temples were created on an upraised platform with in-depth pillars
for supporting the structure.
• There were also instances of double-storied flat-roof temples.
• For Example, the Parvati Temple of Nachna-Kuthara in MP.
• (3) In this stage, the upraised platform approach and in-depth pillar
approach continued.
• The characteristic feature in this stage was the creation of a curvy-
linear tower: Shikhar.
• This stage is said to have given rise to the Nagara style of temple.
• For Example, the Bhitargaon temple of Kanpur, and the Dashavatar
temple of Deogarh, Jhansi
•
•
NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLES (9:57 AM)

• Kindly also refer to the figure made in the class.
• It was the first institutionalized Hindu religious structure.
• It has the following features:
• (1) Nagara temple is created on an upraised platform known as Jagati.
• (2) On a particular part of Jagati, a temple is constructed which is known
as Adhisthana.
• (3) Generally boundary walls are not created in Nagara temples.
• (4) Generally, the water tank was also not created in Nagara temples,
since initial temples were created on the banks of the river.
• (5) The main chamber of the temple is Garbagriha, known as the house
of embryo or regeneration.
• (6) On the top of Garbagriha, a curvy-linear tower known as Shikhara is
created which represents the mighty Kailasha mountain or Meru
mountain.
• (7) The tower of the temple is paused by a horizontal disk known
as Amlak.
• (8) The topmost part of the temple is the finial which could be a Kalash/
Trishul or any other Hindu motif.
• (9) The entrance part of the temple is referred to as Ardhamandap and
the prayer hall is referred to as Mandapa.
• (10) Another very important part of the temple is the ambulatory
passageway or Parikrama path created around the Garbagriha.
• (11) Some of the temples in Nagara style followed the Panchayatan
style of temple making whereby the idol of one main god is
accompanied by 4 subsidiary gods.
• Examples:
• (a) Kashi Vishwanath temple, Varanasi. UP
• (b) Mahakaleshwar, Ujjain, MP
• (c) Omkareswar Temple, MP
• (d) Kedarnath, Uttarakhand
SUB-STYLES OF NAGARA STYLE (10:36 AM)
ODISHA STYLE (10:36 AM)
• The temple style developed under the Ganga dynasty and Gajapati
rulers of Odisha.
• The boundary wall is created in Odisha style.
• The characteristic feature of the Odisha style is the presence of Deul-
shikhara.
• Deul Shikhara: it is almost vertical and only near the top it starts
curving.
• The exterior walls of the Odisha temple are lavishly decorated.
• In some of the temples, carvings are also erotic in nature.
• The interior walls of the temple are kept plain.
• Odisha temple also includes Bhog Mandap for Prashad, and Nartya
mandap for religious music performances, and its prayer hall is known
as Jagmohan.
• For Example,
• (a) Jagannath Temple of Puri
• Note: It is part of Chardham and the abode of Lord Krishna. Inside the
temple, the images of Lord Jagannath, Balbhadra, and Subhadra are
placed. These images are created from neem wood. Generally, every
12th year during the festival of Nabkalewar, images are replaced with
freshly created images.
• (b) Sun Temple, Konark
•
• (c) Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneshwar
CHANDELA STYLE OF TEMPLE OR KHAJURAHO STYLE OF TEMPLE

(11:32 AM)
• These temples were created by the Chandela rulers of Bundelkhand.

• It is considered the climax of Nagara temple.
• Chandela temples were created on a relatively very high platform.
• Temples were created on the East-West corridor.
• The characteristic feature of the Chandela style is the presence of
multiple Shikhara in varying sizes.
• It gives the impression of a mountain range.
• Both the exterior and interior walls of Chandela temple were decorated
with intricate carvings.
• Approximately 10% of the images are erotic in nature.
• The sculptures on the temple depict the concept of Dharma, Artha,
Kama, and Moksha.
• Not only Hindu but Jain temples were also created in this style.
• For Example,
• (a) Kandariya Mahadeva Temple of Khajurao
• (b) Chaunsath Yogini Temple, Khajurao, Jabalpur & Morena
• (c) Luxman Temple, Khajurao
• (d) Parsavnath Temple: Jain temple
• (e) Ghantai Temple: Jain Temple
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF THE TEMPLE

ARCHITECTURE
Class 6
Solanki Temples: (9:07 AM)
• Solanki temples were mainly created in Gujarat and South West

Rajasthan.
• It was patronized by Solankis who were clans of Chalukyas.
• Features:
• Generally, temples were without water tanks, but there were some
exceptions like the stepped water tank of Modhera Sun Temple.
• The outer walls of the temples were optimally decorated but the inner
walls were decorated with intricate designs. It showcased one of the
finest geometrical, floral, and intricate patterns similar to wood
carpentry.
• Generally, temples were created facing the east direction. Perhaps it
was done in this way so that on the day of Equinox, the sun rays directly
fall on the shrine and illuminate the entire chamber.
• Not only Hindu but also a large number of Jain temples were created in
this style.
• Not only temples but also step wells based on icons from Hindu
mythology were also created, for example, Rani ki Vav at Patan.
Example of Solanki Temples: (9:21 PM)
• Somnath Temple,
• Ajitnath Temple, Tarang,
• Palitana Hill Jain Complex,
• Dilwara Jain Temple, Mount Abu,
• Ambaji Temple.
South Indian Architecture: (9:23 PM)
• Evolution:
• Temple art in South India began under Pallavas from the initial years of
the Seventh Century CE.
• The Dravida Temple developed in the following four stages named after
the Pallava rulers:
• Mahendravarman Stage:
• In this very first stage, Rock-cut shrines were created inside which
image or the idols of deity was placed.
• This initial rock-cut shrine came to be known as Mandap.
• These Mandaps were created in the area of Mammandur.
• Narsimhavarman Stage:
• In this stage, not only the rock-cut chambers were created but the
shrine was also chiseled from the outside to give it a shape like a
temple.
• This new refined piece of architecture popularly came to be known as
Ratha.
• For example: Pandava Ratha of Mahabalipuram.
• Dharmaraja Ratha was the largest structure, and Draupadi Ratha was
the smallest.
• At this place, a huge sculptural relief (relief is a 2-dimensional figure,
ventral depiction) related to an episode from Mahabharat is created.
• This relief is famously popularized as Arjuna’s Penance, Bhagirath
calling River Ganga.
• Rajsimha Verman Stage:
• In this stage, the real structural temple was created.
• Temple was not the reformation of a rock, but it was created from
scratch.
• The characteristic feature of this style is the presence of a high
pyramidal tower known as Vimana.
• Vimana does not curve inside instead the straight line inclines.
• For example, Kailasnath Temple of Mahabalipuram.
• Nandivarman Stage:
• In this stage, no new addition was made to Dravida Temple, instead, the
Dravida style was popularized in South India.
• For example, Vaikuntah Perumal temple of Kanchipuram.
Dravida Style of Temple: (9:53 )

• Mandap
• Garbhagriha
• Vimana (above Garbhagriha)
• Ardha Mandap,
• Narta Mandap,
• Bhoga Mandap,
• Gopuram,
• Water Tank,
• Dwar-pal Sculpture.
• Generally, the temples in the South had high enclosure walls.
• The gateways are known as Gopuram.
• The number of Gopurams can be more than one, and it can be from all
directions.
• Generally, a water tank is created in Dravida temples.
• The characteristic feature is the presence of a high pyramidal tower
known as Vimana.
• Vimanas were not only created on Garbhagriha but also on the
Gopurams.
• In some of the temples, the highest Vimanas were created on the
Gopurams.
• The first part of the temple inside the premise is Ardhamandap.
• It is meant for the installation of the temple flag and sculpture of Nandi.
• Antaral is a narrow passage in Garbhagriha.
• Garbhagriha is generally not illuminated with electronic light, instead
dim lighting is maintained through Diya.
•
Brihadeshwara Temple: (10:15 AM)
• The construction of this temple was initiated by Rajraja Chola in 1011

CE.
• It became the climax structure of the Dravida style.
• The tower of the temple is 68 meter high, and on the top of the temple,
an 88-ton octagonal cupola is placed.
• Moreover, at no place, any cementing agent was used.
• Instead, the puzzle technique or interlocking pattern of stones was
followed for construction.
Sub-style of Dravida Temple: (10:19 AM)
• Vijayanagar Temple:
•
• It was patronized by the rulers of the Vijayanagar Kingdom, particularly,
the contribution of Krishna deva Rai was immense in temple
construction.
• Features:
• Very high enclosure walls were created.
• Closer to the main gateways, supernatural images of horses were
created.
• The characteristic feature of the Vijayanagar style was the introduction
of the second Garbhagriha known as Amman Shrine, it is dedicated to
the chief wife of the main god.
• Mahanavmi Dibba is a rectangular appraised structure meant for
religious rituals and sacrifices.
• Another very important structure inside the temple is Kalyan Mandap
meant for the annual festivity of God’s marriage.
• For example, Virupaksha Temple of Hampi (Karnataka), Veerbhadra
Temple of Lepakshi, Hazar Ramaswamy Temple of Lepakshi (Andhra
Pradesh)
• Nayaka Style of Temple:
• It was developed by Nayaka rulers of Madurai, they continued some of
the features of the Vijayanagar Style like high enclosure walls and
Amman Shrine
• Features:
• In this style, a large number of Gopurams were created from all the
directions.
• The water tank or Pushkaram was created inside the premise of the
temple.
• It is noted for the presence of huge corridors known as Parakrama.
• These corridors were lined with a large number of columns having a lion
figure at the top.
• Shops were also created inside the corridors.
• The Vimana on the Gopuram was much higher than the Vimana on
Garbhagriha.
• For example, Minakshi Sundareshvara temple of Madurai, Sri Rangnath
Swamy Temples, Srirangam.
Other Style of Temple: (11:24 AM)

• Vessara Temple:
• It was developed by Chalukya Rulers of Karnataka.

• Its name is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Vishra’ which means to take
a long path.
• It incorporated the features from Dravida, Nagara style of temple, and
Buddhist Chaitya.
• The tower of the temple at most of the places resembled Dravida

Vimana.
• It also had the concept of an ambulatory passageway like Nagara Style.
• Inspired by Buddhism, it incorporated semi-circular Buddhist Chaityas.
• For example, Durga Temple, Aihole, Ladkhan temple of Aihole, and
Papanath Temple of Pattadakal.
Hoysala Temple: (11:35 AM)
• The ground plan is Stellate.

• This temple style was developed by the Hoysala rulers of
Karnataka who ruled in the area of Dwarsamudra. In between
Mangalore and Bangalore.
• Features:
• It is a unique style of temple architecture that is known for the Stellate
ground plan.
• Temples were created with smokey grey sandstone
• Both the interior and exterior walls were intricately decorated with
carvings.
• Generally, the majority of the temples did not have towers, and a flat
structure was created on the top of Garbhagriha.
• On the exterior walls, entire Hindu mythology was created for example
Ramayan, Mahabharat, and Puranas.
• Hoyasaleshwar Temple of Halebid,
• Channakeshava Temple of Belur.
Topic for the next class: Indo-Islamic Architecture
Class 7
• Overview of the topics to be covered in the class.
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE (9:10 AM)
•
Trabeate Arcuade
Architecture Architecture
Ancient Medieval
Flat-roof Roof with

(Lintel roof) dome
Towers in the
Towers in the
form of
form of minar
Shikhara or
and minarets.
Vimana
Major
The major
construction
construction
material is
material is
brick and
stone.
limestone.
Cementing Cementing
agent is agent is
gypsum. mortar.
FEATURES OF INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE (9:18 AM)
• (1) They followed the arch and dome method of construction.

• (2) The major construction material used by Indo-Islamic rulers was
brick, limestone, red sandstone, grey sandstone, etc.
• (3) They avoided a representation of human images on their buildings.
• (4) For decoration, a variety of methods were employed.
• (5) A variety of geometrical designs in the form of triangles, squares,
and circles was used.
ARABESQUE TECHNIQUE OF DECORATION (9:29 AM)

• In this technique a continuous running stem is depicted with a similar
identical leafy structure on both sides of the stem
.
PIETRA-DURA TECHNIQUE OF DECORATION (9:32 AM)

• Pietra dura technique of decoration was also employed to create
intricate beautiful patterns on the wall.
• In this technique colored marble, colored stones, semi-precious stones,
and even precious metals are inlaid in the wall.
JALI WORK (9:36 AM)

• Intricate jali work or tracery work was created during this period.
• In the jalis, various geometrical designs were incorporated.
• It is believed that the tradition of jali was inspired by the wooden
carpentry of Gujarat.
• A large number of water bodies like fountains, and small water tanks
were created which further improved the aesthetics of Islamic buildings.
• Fountains were used to moderate the temperature of the environment in
the summer season.
PLANTS AND GARDENS (9:46 AM)
• During the Lodhi period, they started to plant gardens around buildings.
• Further, during the Mughal time, the Chahar-bagh style started.
CALLIGRAPHY (9:49 AM)
• Calligraphy was used to write the verses of the Quoran and other
religious works on the walls of religious buildings.
• Later the Persian script was beautified by making it more angular like
the Indian script.
• The angularised font of the Persian came to be known as Kufi.
DELHI-SULTUANTE IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE (9:54 AM)
SLAVE DYNASTY (1206-1290 AD)
• At this point in time the already existing religious structures were

converted into Islamic premises.
• For Example, Qutub Minar and Quwat-ul-Islam mosque were created by
using the materials of Quila Rai-Pitthora of Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
• In Ajmer, the Jain premise was converted into Adhai din ka Jhopra.
• The arches of this period were false and in all the premises, Hindu
columns were used.
KHILJI PERIOD (1290-1320 AD) (10:12 AM)
• True arch and dome method of construction started at this time.

• Allaudin Khilji created the gateway Alai-Darwaza in the Quwat-ul-Islam
Mosque premise.
• He also founded one of the precursor cities of Delhi, Siri.
TUGHLAQ PERIOD (1320-1414 AD) (10:15 AM)

• This period is considered a crisis period of architecture.
• The rulers were careful that the buildings created by their predecessors
were not strong and resilient.
• They replaced red sandstone with grey sandstone which was easily
available and cheaper.
• Moreover, it was stronger than red sandstone.
• They introduced the Batter method of construction whereby all the walls
of the building were slanted a little bit.
• The base of the building was highly enforced with concrete.
• Tughlaqs created 3 precursor cities of Delhi ie. Tughluqabad,
Jahapanah, and Ferozabad.
SAYYID PERIOD (1414-1451 AD) (10:24 AM)

• Sayyids introduced Turkish methods of architecture in India.
• They introduced an Octagonal tomb and the Guldasta method of
decoration.
• They also introduced blue enameled tiles in India.
• For Example, Md. Shah tomb in Delhi.
LODHI PERIOD (1451-1526 AD) (10:33 AM)

• Lodhis were also fearful of the weak structures created by their
predecessors.
• But, they did not compromise on the beauty of the building.
• They introduced double dome architecture consisting of an inner dome
and outer dome of varying height.
• It was a scientific invention that was later carried forward by the
Mughals.
• Lodhis also incorporated the Indian concept of Verandah in their
buildings.
• Lodhis were the first rulers who started planting gardens around the
buildings.
• For Example, Lodhi's tomb and Lodhi garden
PRECURSOR CITIES OF DELHI (10:51 AM)
• Indraprastha: Mythological
• Lalkot: Tomar rulers of Delhi
• Quila Rai Pitthora: Prithviraj Chauhan
• Siri: Allaudin Khilji
• Tughlaqabad: Giyassudin Tughlaq
• Jahapanah: Md. Bin Tughlaq
• Dinpanah: Humayun and not complete
• Shergarh: Shershah Suri
• Shahjahanbad: Shahjahan
PROVINCIAL ARCHITECTURE OF DELHI SULTANATE (11:17 AM)
BENGAL ARCHITECTURE
• They used brick, black stone, and thin terracotta brick as major
construction materials.
• They also created huge imposing buildings.
• One of the characteristic features was the creation of a sloping Bangla
roof.
• It was meant for effective drainage of rainwater.
• For Example, Adina Masjid of Pandua and Kadam Rasool Mosque of
Gaur
JAUNPUR ARCHITECTURE (11:29 AM)

• Jaunpur architecture was created by the Sharqi rulers of Jaunpur.
• They did not create minarets in their mosques.
• The most important characteristic feature was the creation of Propylon
gateways.
• For Example, Atala Mosque, and Jama Masjid in Jaunpur.
MALWA ARCHITECTURE (11:35 AM)
• It is also known as the Pathan style of architecture.

• They used a wide variety of stones in construction.
• The staircases in Malwa style were highly well proportioned.
• Large windows were created and cross ventilation was also maintained.
• They used wall mats for interior decoration.
• High-rising pavilions and building of arches were also created.
• Some of the buildings were created in the middle of the water body
which further enhances the aesthetics of the premise.
• For Example, Mandu fort, Jahaj mahal, Ashrafi mahal, Hindola mahal,
Rani Rupmati Pavillion.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: COMPLETION OF ARCHITECTURE PART
Class 8
A Brief Overview Of The Previous Class- (10:04 AM)
Gujarat Architecture- (10:05 AM)
• Gujarat Architecture majorly developed between the 13th to 15th

centuries CE.
• It is considered a mixture of Trabeate and Islamic Styles of
construction.
• Though in Islamic Style, arches were incorporated the designs and
motifs closely resembled Trabeate and wooden carpentry of Gujarat.
• Like, the ancient style, a large number of pillars/ columns were
incorporated into buildings.
• They also carry forward Gujarat's legacy of creating stepped water
tanks.
• For Example-
• Old Ahmedabad city (UNESCO World Heritage Status).
• Jama Masjid
• Teen Darwaja
• Gujarat Architecture is mainly known for its finest stone tracery work.
For example- Siri sayyid mosque of Ahmedabad.
• Bijapur Architecture -
• Bijapur architecture was developed under Adil Shah of Bijapur.
• It was a unique architecture that led to the introduction of the
following new features-
• 1) They incorporated cornices in their buildings.
• 2) Mostly, 3 facet blind arches were created.
• 3) Dome of Bijapur was almost spherical.
• For example-
• Gol Gumbaj of Bijapur.
• Adil Shah's Mussoleumof Bijapur.
• Jami masjid Bijapur.
Mughal Architecture- (10:19 AM)
• Mughal Dynasty was founded in India in 1526.

• Initially, Babur did not have enough time to create any landmark
structure.
• Though he constructed two mosques at Panipat and Sambhal.
• His son Humayun also faced many challenges and he was not able to
create any landmark building
• The first landmark building for the Mughals was Humayun's tomb.
• The construction of this building was initiated by the wives of
Humayun, Hamida Begam, and Bega Begam.
• This building is considered the very finest example of a fusion of red
sandstone and white marble.
• The Arch and plan of the building are highly symmetrical and spoke of a
fine balance.
• It was the first building where the Chaharbagh style was introduced.
•
Akbar period architecture- 106-1605- (10:32 AM)

• Akbar initiated his architectural endeavor with the construction of Red
Fort (Agra).
• Later, Akbar decided to shift his capital complex to a nearby
town Fatehpur Sikri.
Inside the Fatehpur Sikri complex, a large number of buildings were

created which are as follows-
Panchmahal - (10:44 AM)
• This building was constructed in a Fusion style whereby trabeate Rajput

and Mughal Art were amalgamated.
• In Rajput style hanging balconies, listel roofs, and pillared halls were
created.
• The topmost structure of this building reflected Mughal influence.
• Birbal Mahal, Jodha Palace, and Jahangiri Mahal were other notable
structures.
• Salim Chisti's Tomb is considered the finest example of Stone Tracery
work, created in white marble.
• Ibadat Khana was a big hall meant for religious discussions and
deliberations with representatives of different religions.
• Diwan-e-aam was meant for meeting with the general public, and
Diwanr-e-Khas for meeting with important officers.
• Akbar also funded the construction of the Govind-Dev Temple of

Vrindavan.
Jahangir Period - (11:02 AM)
• The majority of the architectural initiatives of this time were initiated by

Noor Jahan.
• Though Jahangir constructed Akbar's tomb at Sikandara.
He also created Moti Masjid at Lahore.
• It was Noor Jahan who created the most beautiful building of this phase
i.e Itmad-Udaula's tomb at Agra.
• It was the first building created in pure white marble and it is also noted
for its wide usage of the Pitra-dura technique of decoration.
• Noor-Jahan also planted the famous Nishat bagh and Shalimar bagh
of Srinagar.
Shahjahan Period- (11:14 AM)
• Mughal Architecture reached its climax during this period.

• All the features of Indo-Islamic Architecture reached the zenith stage of
their development.
• Arabesque, Pitra-Dura, and Calligraphy were widely used, though the
initial construction of Shah- Jahna was in red stand stone in the later
part of his life he has fallen for white marble.
• Initially, he added new buildings inside Red Fort Agra.
• For example- Moti Masjid.
• Later, he decided to create a new capital complex in Shahjahanabad in
Delhi.
• The city of Shahjahanabad included the areas like Chandni Chowk,
Chawri Bazar, Tees Hazari, Mori Gate, Kashmeri Gate, and
Daryaganj.
• The first construction in Shahjanabad was Red Fort Delhi.
• Shahjahan created the biggest mosque of the time - the Jama Masjid
in Delhi.
• After the death of his beloved wife Anjuman Bano Begam, Shahjan
constructed the most beautiful medieval building Taj-Mahal, created in
pure white marble.
• This building was the climax of all the features of the Indo-Islamic style.
• The premise of the Taj Mahal incorporated the concept of the Four
siding effect which created the illusion of varying sizes.
Aurangzeb's Period- (11:31 AM)
• After the death of Shahjahan, the Mughal construction activity slowed

down.
• Aurengzeb was not interested in constructing public architecture.
• He only patronized religious buildings.
• He created Moti-Masjid inside Red Fort Delhi and the world biggest
mosque Bodhshahi mosque , lahore .
• During his lifetime the construction of Rabia-ud-Daurani's Maqbara
was commissioned at Aurangabad which was completed by one of his
sons.
• This building is considered a poor imitation of Taj Mahal.
Provincial architecture during Mughal Period - (11: 40 AM)
• Sikh Architecture
• It developed during the Mughal period.
• Its features are-
• Many of the elements of Mughal Architecture, For Example - the
Dome.
• They made some modifications to the dome structure and came up with
muted dome concept.
• The water tank is a necessary feature of Gurudwaras.
• Gurudwaras are also noted for a multiplicity of Chhatris(kiosks)
• E.g. The golden temple - Amritsar. Patnasahib, Nandev sahib,
Anandganj sahib and Keshgarh sahib.
Rajput Architecture - (11:44 AM)
• Rajputs were the finest fort makers in India.

• They constructed large forts in many areas.
• e.g. Amer fort, Mehrangarh fort, Ranthanbore fort.
• Though they used a wide variety of stones buff colors stones were
widely used.
• Mughal influence can be seen in many places in the fort.
• One of the characteristic features of the Rajput style was the
construction of handing balconies of varying shapes and sizes.
• They also included a large number of columns in the buildings.
• Rajputs were one of the initial creators of the labyrinth.
• Sawai Raja Jai Singh constructed five astronomical observatories,
Jantar Mantar at Jaipur, Mathura, Ujjain, and Varanasi.
• Rajput rulers utilized the picturesque aspects of the lakes to create
beautiful palaces e.g. Hawa Mahal, City Palace, Govind Dev Temple,
Ummaid bhavan (Jodhpur), Udai Vilas Palace (Udaipur).
Modern British period- (12:05 PM)
1) British architecture-
A) Indo-gothic style of Architecture-
• It led to the introduction of advanced British structural engineering tools

in India.
• For example- the Introduction of fine Iron rods, steel, and poured
concrete.
• Now, Thinner walls in the building were created with strength remaining
intact.
• Large windows were created and cross ventilation was also taken care
of.
• They started creating pointed arches in the buildings.
• One of the interesting aspects of Indo-Gothic art was the ornamentation
of victorian deco art.
Areas of indo-gothic style (12:17 PM)
• Bombay-
• Church gate
• gateway of India
• Fort
• South Mumbai
• Cuffe parade
Calcutta-
• St. Paul cathedral

• Writers building
• Victoria memorial.
Chennai-
• Rippon building
• Municipal Corporation Building
• Mysore Palace etc.
Neo Roman style of Architecture -neo-classical architecture (12:22 PM)
• After the transfer of capital to British architects, Edwin-Luteyens and

Herbert Baker was entrusted with developing new architecture in Delhi.
• Features-
• Many of the Indian styles were incorporated to create the grand
architecture in New Delhi as such an anonymous style developed.
• Grand and beautiful buildings were created at this time.
• The utility and convenience were highly compromised.
• The majority of the buildings were created in circular ground plans.
• The double dome architecture of medieval times was also incorporated.
• They developed a good number of Green belts in the New Delhi area.
• For example-
• Rashtrapati Bhawan,
• Sansad Bhawan,
• Old parliament building
• Central secretariat
• Teen-murti Bhawan
• National Museum etc.
The topic to be discussed in the next class is Awadh Architecture,

Religion, and Philosophy.
Class 9
AWADH ARCHITECTURE (9:12 AM)
• It was developed by the rulers of Awadh when the British power was
rising in India.
• It was a unique architecture, quite different from Delhi Sultanate and
Mughal style.
• Awah architecture is noted for use of brick as a dominant construction
material.
• At no place, marble or limestone was used in Awadh.
• They created big floral gateways which were inspired by different parts
of a flower.
• Dome in Awadh style was created without any apparent support.
• Awadh rulers were one of the finest labyrinth makers.
• For Example, Rumi Darwaza, Bada Imambada, Chota Imambada,
Chattar manzil.
•
RELIGION & PHILOSOPHY (9:25 AM)

BUDDHISM (9:25 AM)
• Founder: Siddhartha Gautam

• Birth: 563 B.C.E Lumbini
• Father: Suddhodhana
• Mother: Mahamayadevi (Kosala Mahajanpada)
• Kingdom: Kapilavastu (Malla Mahajanpada)
• Varna: Ksatriya
• Clan: Shakya (symbol: lion)
• Wife: Yashodhara
• Son: Rahul
• FOUR SIGNS OF LIFE:
• Signs of Despair
• (1)An old Man
• (2)A sick person
• (3)A dead body
• Sign of hope
• (4) yellow-robed monk
• Other details:
• At the age of 29 Siddhartha left his home. This event in Buddhism is
known as 'Mahavinishkarma- The Great going forth.
• He became a Parivrajak- 'Homeless Wanderar'.
• He started to follow the Shraman tradition.
• After some point in time, he found a teacher Alara Kalam who was an
early Sankhya philosopher. After learning from Alara Kalam he had to
leave his Ashram.
• Once again he started to wander in search of enlightenment.
• At age 35, he reached the village Uruvila (Modern Bodh Gaya) where
on the banks of river Niranjana (Phalgu) under a peepal tree he
meditated for 49 days.
• At midnight of the 49th day he achieved 'Nirvana- the extinguishment
of the flame of desire.'
• After achieving Nirvana, Siddhartha moved to a place called Sarnath
where in a deer park, he gave his first sermon which is
Dharmachakraparivartan (turning the wheel of religion).
• His sermon is popularly known as Arya Satya and Ashtangikmarg.
• ARYA SATYA: (10:05 AM)
• The world is full of misery- Dukha
• There is a cause of misery- Samudaya
• Misery can be overcome- Nirodh
• There is a path- Magga
EIGHTFOLD PATH (ARYA ASHTAN MARGA) (10:08 AM)
• Samyak Drishti- Right Vision

• Samyak Vaach- Right Speech
• Samyak Kammantha- Right Conduct
• Samyak Ajivana- Right means of Livelihood
• Samyak Vyamana- Right Exercise
• Samyak Dhyan- Right Concentration
• Samyak Smriti- Right Awareness
• Samyak Samadhi- Right deep meditation
• After giving his first sermon Buddha moved to many places like Rajgir,
Pava, Vaishali, and Shravasti for the purpose of preaching.
• Finally, at the age of 80 in 483 B.C. he reached the place
of Khushinagar where he achieved Mahaparinirvana- 'the final
blowout.'
• It means death.
• After his first sermon, Siddhartha came to be known as 'Buddha-The
awakened one.'
• His followers came to be known as Buddhists.
• Buddha, after achieving Nirvana, started to preach in many places.
• He spent the maximum number of Vassa (Monsoon stay) at Shravasti in
Jetavan monastery.
• After teaching for many years he achieved Mahaparinirvana at a place
called Kushinagar in 483 BCE.
• After his death, his followers decided to convene a Buddhist council to
compile his teachings.
FIRST BUDDHIST COUNCIL (10:25 AM)
• In 483 B.C.E. the followers of Buddha persuaded the contemporary king

Ajatashatru to convene the First Buddhist Council.
• As such the First Buddhist Council was convened at Rajagriha presided
over by Buddhist monk Mahakashyapa and patronized by
Ajatashatru.
• The major developments of the Council are as follows:
• The compilation of two books.
• The cousin of Budhha, Upali elaborated on the original teachings of the
Buddha which were compiled in a text known as Suttapitaka.
• One of the favorite disciples of Buddha, Ananda, elaborated on the rules
to be followed by the monks in a Buddhist monastery which was
compiled in Vinayapittaka.
SECOND BUDDHIST COUNCIL (10:40 AM)
• The Second Buddhist Council was convened in 383 B.C. at Vaishali.

• It was patronized by the contemporary king Kalasoka of the Sisunaga
dynasty.
• The assembly was presided over by Buddhist monk Sabbakammi.
• The major development of this council was the division of Buddhism into
two sects ie. Sthavarvadins or Theravada (orthodox sect) and
Mahasanghikas (liberal sect).
• After the conclusion of the second assembly in the following years,
Buddhism got divided into 18 sects- 11 sects emerged from
Sthavarvadins, and 7 sects emerged from Mahasanghikas.
THIRD BUDDHIST COUNCIL (10:52 AM)
• The Third Buddhist Council was convened in Patliputra in 215 B.C

• The council was presided over by the Buddhist monk Mogaliputra Tissa
and patronized by Ashoka.
• In this council, Ashoka removed all the deviations from Buddhism and
recognized Theravada as the original and the only version of Buddhism.
• In this council, Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled which was a
philosophical interpretation of Buddha's teachings.
• After the council was over Ashoka started sending different Buddhist
missions to many places like Sri Lanka, South East Asia, and Central
Asia.
• He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon or
Srilanka for propagating Buddhism. (When in the early medieval
centuries, Buddhism was declining from its own place of birth, it
survived outside India due to the initiatives of Ashoka.)
• He also sent Buddhist missions to East Asia, South East Asia, and
Central Asia.
FOURTH BUDDHIST COUNCIL (11:14 AM)
• The 4th Buddhist Council was convened in 78 AD at Kundalvan in

Kashmir.
• It was patronized by Kanishka and presided over by Vasumitra and sub-
presided by Ashwaghosha.
• The council led to the compilation of an encyclopedia of Buddhism
ie. Mahavibhasha.
• This session led to the development of Mahayana Buddhism from the 7
branches of Mahasanghikas. (When Ashok recognized Theravada as
the only real Buddhism, Mahasanghika survived in Nagarajunikonda,
Andhra region.)
• Mahasanghika fostered the development of Mahayana Buddhism
through the deification of Buddha - Devatraropan.
• The Mahayana followers started to refer to the 11 orthodox branches of
Sthavirvada as Hinayana tradition.
Basis Hinayana sect Mahayana sect
11 orthodox 7 Liberal
Composition branches of branches of
Sthavirvada Mahasanghikas
They started
They did not worshipping the
Idol Worship believe in idol idols of Buddha
worship. and
Boddhisattvas.
They used only They also started

the Pali and using the
Prakrit Sanskrit
Language
languages for language for the
the propagation propagation of
of Buddhism. Buddhism.
They considered
Nirvana not only
They
an individual
considered
Philosophy phenomenon but
Nirvana an
of Nirvana it is also a group
individual
phenomenon.
phenomenon.
(Guided path to
Nirvana)
Nirvana is the Buddhahood is

Final goal
highest goal. the highest goal.
BODDHISATVAS (11:42 AM)
• Boddhistavas are considered as the previous life of Buddha who is

capable of achieving Nirvana but they postponed their nirvana to help all
the sentient beings (those who can not help themselves) on the planet
Earth.
• After many lifetimes when they have helped a large number of people to
achieve Nirvana, they progress to the path of Buddhahood.
EARLIEST SECTS OF BUDDHISM (11:47 AM)
• Sammittiya
• Sautantrika
• Shravastivadin
• Madhyamika or Vaibhasika
• Yogacara
IMPORTANT SECTS OF BUDDHISM IN CONTEMPORARY TIMES (11:48

AM)
• Mahayana Buddhism:
• It is the largest sect of Buddhism followed in almost all the continents of
the world.
• Theravada:
• It is the old orthodox sect of Buddhism, also referred to as the School of
elders.
• It is mainly practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand.
• Vajrayana Buddhism:
• Its other name is the sect of thunderbolt or vehicle of the Thunderbolt.
• It is considered the Tantric sect of Buddhism.
• The development of Vajrayana Buddhism happened at Nalanda and
Vikramshila university.
• The practices of Vajrayana Buddhism are closer to Tantric Hinduism.
• It is Vajrayana Buddhism that traversed Tibet.
• In Tibet, Kalachakra Buddhism emerged.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF RELIGION &

PHILOSOPHY
Class 10
METAPHYSICAL THOUGHTS OF BUDDHISM (9:12 AM)
• On Universe
• Buddhists believed that the universe was created on the concepts of
nature.
• On Vedas
• Buddhists refuted the divine authority of the Vedas.
• On God
• Buddha never answered any question about god.
• Buddhists were agnostic.
• On Rebirth
• They believed in rebirth and Karmic consequences.
• Buddhists believed in the concept of Karmic consciousness. They said it
is Panchaskandha who takes the rebirth.
• On Soul
• Buddhists believed in the concept of the eternal self.
• They rejected the concept of the eternal soul like in Hinduism.
JAINISM (9:25 AM)
Tirthankar (9:29 AM)
• It is derived from the word Tirath which means OAR.

• Tirthankars are the personalities who helped the common folk to cross
the cycle of birth and death.
Jainism
• Jainism is an ancient creed that came to reality due to the contribution

of 24 Tirthankars.
• The first 22 are believed to be mythological personalities.
• The last 2 are considered historical personalities.
• Thus he has come, thus he has gone, thus he has never gone.
• Adinath Rishabdev is considered the first Tirthankar.
• Parshavnath was the 23rd Tirthankar.
• He was the son of the King of Kasi Aswasena.
• He became a Shramana monk and started to search for enlightenment.
• On Parsavnath hill, he achieved enlightenment.
• He formulated 4 pledges of Jainism.
VARDHMAN MAHAVIRA - 24th TIRTHANKAR (9:40 AM)
• Birth: 540 B.C

• Place: Kundagram, Vaishali, Bihar
• Father's Name: Siddhartha
• Mother's Name: Trishala (sister of Lichchavi king Chetak)
• Varna: Kshatriya
• Clan: Jnantri
• Principality: Jnantrika
• Wife: Yashoda
• Daughter: Arnojya
• Mahavira left his home at the age of 30 and became a Parivrajak
(homeless wanderer).
• He started to follow the Sramana Tradition and strived for
enlightenment.
• At the age of 40, he achieved Kaivalya (Kewal Gyan) or supreme
knowledge at a place called Jhimbakgram on the banks of River
Rhizulpalika where he meditated under the Asol tree.
• After attaining he came to be known as Jina which means conquerer.
• His followers came to be known as Jains.
• He added the 5th pledge to the already existing 4 pledges.
PANCHANUVRATA (5 PLEDGES OF JAINISM) (9:52 AM)
• Mahavira added the 5th vow in 5 pledges:

• (1) Do not commit violence- Ahimsa
• (2) Do not speak lie- Amrusha
• (3) Do not steal- Asteya
• (4) Do not acquire a property- Apagriha
• (5) Observe celebacy- Brahmacharya
• THREE JEWELS OF JAINISM:
• (1) Right Knowledge
• (2) Right Faith
• (3) Right Conduct
• Chandragupta Maurya was the first Magadh monarch who accepted
Jainism under the influence of Jain monk Bhadrabahu
• Around 300 BCE, there was a severe famine in Magadh.
• In this situation, Chandragupta decided to shift to Sravanbelagola in
Karnataka to perform extreme penance.
• Under the guidance of Bhadrabahu, he observed, Sallekhana or
Santhara (Fasting till death) and died in typical Jain fashion.
• In Patliputra his son, Bindusara convened First Jain Council in 299
B.C.E.
• It was presided over by the Jaina monk Sthulbhadra.
• The major development of the council was a compilation of the
teachings of the 24 Tirthankars in the 14 books known as Poorvas.
• After the death of Chandragupta, Bhadrabahu returned to Patliputra. He
was not satisfied with the proceedings of the First Jaina Council.
• He moved out from Patliputra to Nepal and finally the coastal areas of
Odisha.
• In the next 100 years, two sects of Jainism emerged-
• (1) Shwetambars (white-clad)- A liberal sect of Jainism
• (2) Digambar (sky-clad) - Orthodox followers of Jainism
Digambar Shwetambar
Orthodox Liberal
Remained They used to

naked all wear white
the time. clothes.
As per
Digambara
As per
tradition,
Shwetabar
Tirthankar
tradition,
no 17,
Mallinath was
Mallinath
a female.
was a
male.
Digambar
believed
women can
not achieve
Kaivalya in
this birth as
it is not
right for
them to
They believed
practice
women can
nudity. In
achieve
this birth,
Kaivalya in
they must
this birth only.
follow all
the rituals
and in the
next birth
when they
are born as
men, they
can achieve
Kaivalya.
SUB-SECTS OF JAINISM (10:19 AM)
• Tarapanthi
• Terapanthi
• Bispanthi
• Mulap
• Sthanakvasi
• Ghumanpanthi
• Totapanthi
SECOND JAIN COUNCIL (10:23 AM)
• It was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat.

• It was patronized by the Chalukyas of Gujarat.
• This session was presided over by Devardhi Kshema Shramana.
• The session led to a compilation of the majority of Jain literature which
is as follows:
• (a) Angas
• (b) Up-angas
• (c) Prakirana
• (d) Chedab sutra
• (e) Mul-sutra
• (f) Bhagwati-sutra
METAPHYSICAL THOUGHTS OF JAINISM (10:28 AM)
• On Universe
• Jainas believed that the universe was created on Universal law or the
concepts of nature.
• On Vedas
• Jainas refuted the divine authority of Vedas.
• On God
• Jainas maintained, if at all, there is any God-like entity, then he must be
below Tirthankars.
• On rebirth
• They believed in the concept of rebirth.
• On Soul
• Jains maintained there are two types of the soul- the Animate soul (jiva)
and the Inanimate soul (ajiva).
EXTREME PRACTICES OF JAINISM (10:40 AM)

• Discarding the clothes
• Sallekhana
• Extreme nonviolence: Jainas forbids not only the killing of animals but
also plants, insects, and even germs.
• They started wearing masks to avoid the killing of germs and also they
filtered water before drinking.
REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF BUDDHISM IN THE EARLY MEDIEVAL

CENTURY (10:50 AM)
• Once Buddha said to his cousin that once women are allowed to enter
the Sangha, then Buddhism which is going to survive for ages will
vanish within 1000 years from its own place of birth.
• Later his statement proved to be true.
• Reasons:
• (1) Monks became corrupt.
• (2) They started to lead a luxurious life.
• (3) They abandoned using the language of the people ie. Pali and
Prakrit.
• (4) They started practicing the Sanskrit language which was difficult for
the common public to understand.
• (5) Monks started to interfere in the affairs of the kingdom because of
this many kings stopped patronizing Buddhism.
• (6) In the Gupta period many positive developments related to Hinduism
happened. For example, Hinduism was institutionalized at this time with
the construction of temples and the compilation of the majority of Hindu
literature. In the Gupta period devotion or Bhakti was emphasized,
rather than animal sacrifice. Purana literature portrayed Buddha as the
IXth reincarnation of Vishnu which diluted the tenets of Buddhism and it
got assimilated into Hinduism.
• (7) The rapid divisions in Hinduism were also not working in its favor.
• (8) Buddhists were highly critical of the caste system and Vedic rituals.
• (9) Buddhists displayed a very high missionary zeal which started to
work against them.
• (10) In medieval times many of the Buddhist legacies were burnt and
destroyed by medieval rulers. For Example, the burning of Nalanda
University by Bhaktiyar Khilji.
On the other hand, Jainism which was also contemporary of Buddhism never
faced threat to its existence in India. Jainas were always a small community
that never displayed missionary zeal. Moreover, they were against the flows in
society but they never advocated the removal of the entire system.
INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEM (11:51 AM)
Orthodox Heterodox
Phiolosphy Philosophy
(Astika) (Nastika)
Those who Those who

accept the reject the
authority of authority of
Veda. Veda.
Those who
reject the
It includes
authority of
Sada Darshan:
the Veda:
(a) Those who
(a)
incorporate the
Buddhism -
concept of
accepts the
God- Yoga,
concept of
Nyaya,
rebirth &
Vyashaishika,
liberation
Vedanta.
(b) Jainism -
(b) Those who
accept the
do not
concept of
incorporate the
rebirth &
concept of
liberation
God-
(c)
Samkhya,
Charvaka -
Mimansa.
reject rebirth
& liberation
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF RELIGION &

PHILOSOPHY
Class 11
ORTHODOX PHILOSOPHY (9:10 AM)

SAMKHYA PHILOSOPHY
• Samkhya philosophy is considered the earliest orthodox philosophy.

• Kapilmuni was its initial founder.
• This philosophy does not give any reference to God.
• The philosophy is also referred to as dualistic philosophy which means
belief in two realities.
• It mentions the universe owes its origin to Purush and Prakriti which are
the two realities.
• Purush is the consciousness and Prakriti is the element of nature.
• The combination of the two objects is created.
• In the process, purush starts identifying itself with Prakriti and it forgets
its original nature because of which bondage is created.
• The ultimate aim is to break the bondage of purush with Prakriti.
• When push realizes it is a separate reality, it gets to know the real
knowledge.
• Real knowledge leads to liberation.
• Samkhya considers 3 pramans of knowledge:
• (1) Pratyaksha ie. perception
• (2) Anuman ie. inference
• (3) Shabda ie. testimony
YOGA PHILOSOPHY (9:32 AM)

• Yoga philosophy was propounded by Patanjali who is believed to have
existed in the 4th century BCE.
• He wrote Yogsutra in which this disciplinary philosophy was explained.
• Samkhya and Yoga are considered Yugma.
• Yoga accepts Samkhya's theory of the origin of the universe and the
concept of Purush and Prakriti.
• Yoga considers the ultimate aim of the soul to get united with God.
• Yoga prescribes Ashtanga yoga for disciplining the mind, body, and
soul.
• (1) Yama- Don'ts like not speaking lies, committing violence, stealing,
etc.
• (2) Niyama- Do's like daily maintenance of personal hygiene inculcating
good behavior, etiquette, honesty, integrity, etc.
• (3) Aasana- Right body postures to gain maximum benefit of Yoga.
• (4) Pranayama- Right breathing exercises.
• (5) Pratyahara- restrain from indulgence.
• (6) Dharan- selecting an object to concentrate on.
• (7) Dhyana- concentrating on the selected object.
• (8) Samadhi- entering into deep meditation.
• In this last stage, kundalini Jagran happens which means the activation
of Shushumna naadi and Muladhara chakra.
• In this stage, the person gets real knowledge and progresses to the
path of liberation.
NYAYA PHILOSOPHY (10:01 AM)
• Nyaya philosophy was propounded by Rishi Gautam.

• It emphasizes valid knowledge as the path of liberation.
• Valid knowledge is based on logic and reasoning.
• It accepts 4 pramanas of knowledge:
• (1) Pratyaksha
• (2) Anuman
• (3) Upamana ie. comparison
• (4) Shabda
• Nyaya gave a very famous proposition ie. where there is smoke, there is
fire (from the logic and reasoning, one must be able to compare and
differentiate between the smoke and many lookalikes of smoke, only
then it can be concluded the presence of fire.)
VAISHEHSIKHA (10:11 AM)
• This philosophy was propounded by Kanada (Aulukya).

• This philosophy is considered the beginning of formal Physics in India.
• As per this philosophy, universe is atomic in nature.
• All the objects in the universe are made up of atoms of air, fire, earth,
and water.
• It says the atom is the smallest indivisible and indestructible part of the
universe.
• Though they are inactive in themselves, they are put into motion due to
God's will.
• The atomic recognition of the universe leads to valid knowledge and
liberation.
• Nyaya and Vaisesikha are Yugma since they emphasize logic.
MIMANSA (PURVA MIMANSA) (10:31 AM)
• It is a reflection on the early part of the Veda ie. Samhita, the

Brahmana, the Aranyaka.
• The initial part of the Vedas is about Vedic rituals and that is why this
philosophy emphasizes the importance of the Vedic rituals or
Karmakand.
• This philosophy was propounded by Jaimini.
• This philosophy emphasizes the performance of Vedic rituals.
• It came up with a concept of heaven and hell.
• Heaven is the outcome of the accumulation of good deeds and hell is
the outcome of the accumulation of bad deeds.
• It recognizes the performance of Vedic rituals and life according to the
Vedic prescription leads to eternal bliss or liberation.
• But, those who do not observe Vedic rituals and proscribe the Vedic
conduct go to hell.
• They are not fit for liberation and they will be gone again and again.
VEDANTA (11:01 AM)
• Vedanta is considered the end of Veda.

• It is basically a reflection on the Upanishadic thought.
• Badrayana is believed to be the initial commentator on this philosophy.
• But later many streams of thought emerged in this philosophy.
• The important ones are as follows:
• (1) Advaitavada (non-dualism):
• This philosophy was propounded by Adi Shankaracharya, who was
born in Kerala in the 8th century CE.
• He believed in one reality ie. Brahma.
• It says there is no difference between the creator and the created, the
difference that we perceive is because of our ignorance.
• This ignorance can be eliminated by embarking on the path of
knowledge which leads to liberation.
• It uses one of the Upanishadic Mahavakya- ''Aham Brahmasmi- The
God is within oneself'' (the one is God if he gets the real
knowledge.)
• Shankaracharya says that the world is an illusion or Maya but because
of our ignorance, we recognize a road as a snake in the darkness.
• But once the light of knowledge is cast on the road, then the illusion
goes away.
• (2) Vishsihtha Advaitavada (Qualified non-dualism):
• It was propounded by the 11th CE saint Sri Ramanujacharya.
• He also considered Brahma as the only reality but maintains that he has
special attributes.
• According to Ramanujacharya, the world is real and created by God.
• He also considers the ultimate aim of an individual is to get salvation or
liberation.
• It suggests the path of devotion or Bhakti marg to recognize the special
attributes of God.
• This recognition leads to the person embarking on the path of liberation.
HETERODOX PHILOSOPHY (11:24 AM)
CHARVAKA PHILOSOPHY (11:25 AM)
• Brahaspati was the initial commentator of this philosophy.

• This philosophy is also termed Lokayat which means very popular
among the masses.
• It is also known as materialistic philosophy.
• It rejects Veda, god, soul, rebirth, and salvation.
• It considers perception as the only means of knowledge.
• They gave the famous proposition:
• ''प्रत्यक्ष किम प्रमाणं- Pratyksham Kim pramanam''
• It means that perception is the only means of knowledge.
• Whatever we don't perceive from our sensory organs, is not knowledge.
• It says maximization of pleasure must be the ultimate aim of life.
• It gave a famous proposition:
• "यावज्जीवेत सुखं जीवेद ऋणं िृत्वा घतृ ं पिवेत, भस्मीभूतस्य दे हस्य िुनरागमनं
िुतः॥"
• ''Yavat Jivet Sukham Jivet Rinam Kritva Ghritam Pivet, Bhasmi
Bhutasya Dehasya Punargaman kutah.''
• Live happily, and maximize pleasure even if you have to take a loan for
eating ghee (or good health).
• Once this body is burnt into ashes there is no returning back.
AJIVIKA PHILOSOPHY (11:50 AM)
• It was propounded by Makhaliputra Gosala.

• It was called Niyativada- Theory of destiny.
• It says there is no free will and whatever has happened is happening
and will happen, one can not change it.
• It emphasizes whatever that is written in destiny can not be changed by
any intervention.
• It prescribes the path of austerity.
• Ajivikas accept the concept of soul or Atma but they differ on salvation
(because of niyati ie. written in destiny).
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCE
Class 12
Indian classical Dances(9:06 am)
• Bharat muni's Natya shastra is considered the earliest treatise on

dance drama and music.
• As per the story in Natya shastra lord Brahma instructed Bharat muni to
create a pass time with the ultimate philosophy of moksha.
• As per the instruction of lord, Brahma Bharat Muni took the following
elements from the existing Vedas i.e Pattaya(words) from Rigveda
• Abhinay(expression) from Yajurveda, geet(music) from Samaveda, and
Rasa (emotions) from Atharva Veda.
• As such he created the 5th Veda i.e Natya Veda.
Aspects of classical dance :-

• 1. Lasya:-Feminine aspects characterized by Soft and beautiful
movements, profound expressions, and grace.
• Example:-Goddess Parvati's dance on the occasion of her marriage

with lord shiva is considered the first example of Lasya.
•
• 2.Tandava:-Masculine aspects. It is characterized by fast movements
strength determination and aggression.
• Example:-Lord shivas tandava at the time of the death of sati is
considered as the first example of tandava.
• Lord shiva's tandav has 2 parts.
• a. Bhairav tandav -It is the dance of destruction.
• b. Anand tandav- It is the dance of recreation of the universe.
• The second mythological example of tandav is Lord Krishna's tandav
on the head of Kalia Nag.
• There are other mythological examples like kali tandav mahishashur
Mardini and tandav of lord Indra on the occasion of the birth of the first
Tirthankara Rishav deva.
Three elements of classical dance(9:29 am)
• Nritta- Pure dance movement

• Natya- Dramatic expression.
• Nritya- Dance movement with expression.
• Later Nandikeshvara's Abhinaya Darpan elaborated on the use of
emotion or rasa in dance form which is as follows.
• 1. Shringar (love)
• 2. veer (courage )
• 3. Hasya (comedy)
• 4. Rudra. (anger)
• 5. Bhayanak(fear)
• 6. Bhivatsa (disgust)
• 7. Adbhut (amazement)
• 8. Karunya. (tragedy)
• 9. Shant (peace)
• According to sangeet natak academy, there are 8 classical forms.
• The Ministry of culture also recognizes Chhau as a classical form.
Bharat Natyam
• Also is known as Bhava Raga Tala Natyam.

• It is the oldest classical form of India which emerged from the Devdasi
system of Tamilnadu.
• Under the system young girls to the temples. they were symbolically
married to the main God of the temple.
• They needed to serve the god through their dance form for the entire
duration of their lifetime.
• In modern times there were many protests and movements against the
devadasi system and the exploitation of young girls.
• This situation was revived by freedom fighter E. Krishna Iyer who
started to practice dance form without any system.
• Later Rukmini Devi Arundale with her performances gave global
recognition to this dance form.
Features(9:53 am)
• Bharat Natyam is considered the mother of many classical forms
• It practices the following steps:-
• 1. Alaripu:-It is the invocation of god to seek his blessings.
• 2. Jatiswaram-it is a pure dance movement.
• 3. Shabdam- Beginning of Abhinay
• 4. Varnam.Elaboration of abhinaya
• 5. Padam- mastery in abhinaya
• 6. Jawali- Energetic performance on short love lyrics
• 7. Thillana- Exuberant and joyous movement symbolizing temporary
salvation.
• It is often referred to as the fire dance and it is a manifestation of the
element of fire in the body.
• Katak Mukha hasta is the most important mudra in Bharat Natyam
whereby the first 3 fingers are joined to symbolize OM the universal
sound.
• Ek Charya Lashyam is a special performance in Bharat Natyam
whereby a single female dancer takes up the role of many.
• Started as female but was also performed by males in contemporary
times.
• Nattuvanar is a person who recites the mantra continuously during the
performance.
• Carnatic classical music is used during the performance.
• Carnatic classical music mainly incorporates musical instruments like
violin veena flute mridangam etc.
• Famous proponenets:-Bala Saraswati Ragini Devi, Yamini Krishna
murti, Padma Subramaniam, Mrinalini Sarabhai.
Kuchhi pudi (10 :14 am)
• It derives its name from the Andhra village of kuchalapuram

• The dance form was initiated by a group of male dancers from this
village who performed on a Hindu religious theme.
• They were popularly known as Kusselva.
• In the Neo-Vaisnavite period, the dance form was monopolized by male
Brahmins of Andhra.
• They started to perform on the theme of bhagwat Puran.
• And they are popularly known as Bhagawatalus.
• It is their dance forms that were patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar
and Golconda.
• In modern times the dance form was revived by Raginidevi and Bala
Saraswati.
Features (10:24 am)
• Kuchipudi's performance starts with the initial step Daru.

• In this step, dancer enters the stage one by one and introduce their
character in a dance act with a small performance.
• After Daru, they invoke the god to seek his blessings.
• Kuchipudi represents the elements of the earth in the body which is
highlighted in themes incorporated in Kuchipudi's performance.
• The most popular themes of Kuchipudi are associated with lord Krishna.
• Bhama kalam written by Siddhendra yogi is the most popular theme. It
is the story of lord Krishna and his jealous wife Satya Bhama.
• In Kuchipudi, Shringar Rasa is highly emphasized.
• It started as a male performer at the start but was also practiced by
females in contemporary times.
• Many times dancers also take up the role of a singer during the
performance.
• The solo performances of Kuchipudi include:-
• Marduk Shabdam- It is a story of a frog.
• Tal Chitra Natyam-in this the dancer creates rangoli or images on the
dance floor while the performance.
• Tarangam-In this performance dancer keeps her toe on the edges of
the brass plate while balancing the water pot on her head and two lit
diyas in her hands.
• Famous Proponents:-Raja reddy, Radha Reddy, Yamini Krishna
Murthy.
Mohiniattam(11:07 am)
• It is often referred to as the dance of the enchantress.

• The origin of Mohiniattam is attributed to the mythological dance
performance of Lord Vishnu during Samundra Manthan (churning of the
sea) to take back the nectar pot from Ashura.
• In modern times the dance form was patronized by the rulers of
Travancore.
• In the 20th century, this dance form was revived by V.N. Menon under
patronize of Mukund Raja.
Features (11:17 am)

• Mohiniattam incorporates the grace of Bharat Natyam and the vigor of
Kathakali.
• It started as a female preserve and it is still a female preserve.
• It is a feminine form of dance that highly emphasizes the Lashya aspect
of dance.
• There are 40 basic steps in Mohiniattam which are commonly known
as Attavavakul.
• The steps of the dancer resemble sea waves swaying of palm trees
coconut trees and paddy fields.
• The costume of Mohiniattam is of utmost importance which is off
white kasavu silk saree with golden brocade on borders and a jasmine
Gajra in the hair lock.
• Famous proponents include Sunanda Nair, Madurai Amma,
Kalyanikutty Amma, and Baijayanti Mala.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: (CONTINUATION OF INDIAN CLASSICAL

DANCE.)
Class 13
A brief review of the previous class(09:09 am)

Kathakali(09:12 am)
• It is derived from the Sanskrit words Katha and kali which means story
and drama.
• Originally kathakali was performed inside traditional theatres of Kerala
like Ramanattam, Krishnaattam, Koothiyattam, and Chakiarkoothu.
• Later the dance form branched off and became a separate temple
performance.
• Initially, it was patronized by the rulers of Travancore and Cochin.
• In modern times it was patronized by V.N. Menon with the support
of Mukund Raja.
Features (09:24 am)
• It is often referred to as the ballad of the east.

• It is a unique performance that depicts an eternal fight between good
and evil where good wins over evil.
• The theme of kathakali is inspired by Mahabharat Ramayan and
Puranas.
• It emphasizes the use of eye and eyebrow movement to depict different
types of emotions.
• Facial makeup is of utmost importance.
• Different colors in facial makeup convey different characters.
• 1. Green colour-It depicts Satvik character(divinity virtue honesty etc)
• 2. Red colour-It depicts Rajsik character(royalty luxury opulence).
• 3. Black colour-It depicts Tamsik character(evil wickedness etc).
• 4. White colour beard -It depicts Divine figures.
• 5. Yellow colour-It depicts beautiful women or saints.
• The colours used in facial makeup are created organically with local
stones coconut oil and rice flour.
• The temple performance of Kathakakali often happens in open spaces
under the sky.
• It highlights the importance of the element of the Sky.
• During the performance, the Soapana music of Kerala is used.
• Famous proponents include Gopinath and Guru Kunchukurup.
Odissi(09:36 am)
• It is considered to be the second oldest classical form.

• It is mentioned as Odhra Nritya in Bharatmuni's Natya shastra.
• Initially, Maharis were repositories of this dance form.
• They were patronized by Jain king Kharvela.
• In later times Mahiri dance became defunct and in its place court form of
Odissi, Nartala developed.
• In modern times another type of Odissi emerged which is known
as Gotipua.
• The efforts of Charles Fabri and Indrani Rehman led to global
recognition of this dance form.
Features (09:52 am)
• It incorporates many elements from Bharat Natyam.

• It is often referred to as fluidic dance which means a dancer can create
any shape with the help of her body.
• It is also referred to as moving sculpture as the dancers without
disturbing their pose move around the stage.
• Odissi's dance performance represents an element of water in the body.
• Tribhanga is considered the most important posture in Odissi.
• It is the Tri-bent position of a body in which the body is deflected at the
neck torso and knee.
• It is considered feminine or Lashya posture of dance.
• Chowk is another posture whereby the dancer creates the shape of a
square with the help of her legs.
• It is considered as Tandav or masculine posture of dance.
• Odissi's performance starts with Mangal Charnam which is an
invocation of god to seek his blessings.
• It is followed by Batunritya(a fast dance dedicated to Batukeshwar
Bhairav)Pallavi and Tharijham.
• The Last step is Moksha or Trikhanda Manjura
• The Last step is an exuberant and joyous moment symbolizing
temporary salvation.
• Gotipua is one of the most popular versions of Odissi which is
performed by young boys aged around 14 or less.
• It is an acrobatic performance that involves leaping jumping and
frogging.
• In this performance young boys are dressed like females and they
perform on the theme of Lord Vishnu.
• Odissi local music is used during the performance.
• Popular themes of Odissi include Geet Govind of Jaydev and vichitra
Ramayan of Vishwanath Kunthia.
• The famous proponents of Odissi include Guru Pankaj Charan Das,
Kelu charan Mahapatra, Sonal Mansingh, Sharon Lowen, and Myrta
Bravie.
Manipuri(10:17 am)
• It is believed that this dance form emerged when lord shiva along with
Goddess Parvati descended to the hills of Manipur and danced with
local Gandharvas.
• The present-day Manipuri is a combination of themes of Lord Krishna
like Ras Leela, Sankirtan, Marshal dance of Manipur Thang-ta, and
Lai Hairoba.
• In modern times dance form was revived by Rabindra Nath Tagore who
introduced the Manipuri dance form at Vishwabharti university
Shantiniketan.
Features(10:30 am)
• Mukha Abhinay(facial expression) is absent.

• Instead, they perform Sarvang Abhinay (bodily expression).
• Very often the dancers in Manipuri take up the role of singer.
• The local Manipuri music is used during the performance which includes
musical instruments like pung, Pena, Cymbals, and rhythmic
handclapping known as Kartals.
• Nagbandha is the most important Mudra in Manipuru whereby the
dancer tries to create the shape of 8 with the help of a body curve.
• Famous proponents of Manipuri include Bimbavati Devi, Jhaveri
Sisters(Nayna, Suverna, Ranjana, Darshana).
Sattriya(10:35 am)
• Origin attributed to Bhakti saint Shankar Dev.

• He was head of the Vaishanavite monastery or Sattar in Assam.
• He introduced two folk forms in Assam Ojhapalli and Devdasi.
• The combined form of these folk dances came to be known as Sattriya.
Features(10:40 am)
• The themes of Sattriya are based on the writings of Shankar dev which
are known as Borgeets.
• Local music of Assam is used during the performance which involves
mainly Khol as the Musical instrument.
• The male devotee dancers of Sattriya are known as Bhokots.
• The costume of Sattriya is made from pat silk of Assam.
• For males, it is kurta dhoti and Pagdi and for females, it is saree (Ghuri
chadar) with Pagdi (paguri).
• In contemporary times there are 2 popular versions of Sattriya:-
• 1. Gayan Bhayanar sattriya.
• 2. Kharmnar Nach sattriya.
Famous proponents of Sattriya include Ghanakant Bora, Jatin Goswami,

Anita Sarma, and Tankeshwar Hazarika.
Kathak(11:08am)
• It emerged from the Kathakar tradition of Braj and Awadh.

• Dancers were telling stories from Mahabharat, Ramayan, and Purana
and performing on it.
• Later during the Mughal time dance form transitioned into court
performance which led to Persian influence in Kathak.
Features(11:16 am)
• It is a unique dance form when compared to all other classical forms of

India.
• Kathak does not have a bent position instead full foot contact is of
utmost importance.
• With the full foot, the contact dancer thumps on the floor and creates
different sounds.
• The Persian influence in kathak is reflected in the costume of female
dancers which is the Anarkali suit.
• For males, the costume is generally a dhoti-wide kurta and a towel.
• Generally, dancers jump in the air and take a turn which leads to the
creation of beautiful pirouettes (Ghera) in the costume.
• The elements of recitals in Kathak are as follows:
• 1. Gatbhav
• 2. Toda
• 3. Tukda
• 4. Tarana
• 5. Kramalaya
• 6. Padhant
• 7. jugalbandi
• Jugalbandi is a competitive play between a dancer and a tabla player.
• In which both try to meet each other's rhythm but also try to outplay
each other.
• The most unique feature is the presence of the Gharana systems.
• It is based on Guru Shishya Parampara.
• The popular Gharana of Kathak are as follows:-
• 1. Lucknow Gharana: Developed under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah. It
emphasizes on expression.
• 2. Banaras gharana: Developed under Janaki Prasad.It emphasizes on
expression
• 3. Jaipur Gharana: Developed under Bhauji.It emphasizes on rhythm.
• Initially, Kathak was performed on Dhrupad music but later during the
Mughal period, Thumri Tarana and Ghazal were introduced.
• Famous proponents include Pandit Birju Maharaj, Pandit Umashankar,
Lachhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi, and Damyanti Joshi.
• Folk dances:(presented through videos).
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: (INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC).
Class 14
INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC (9:15 AM)
• Bharatmuni's Natyashastra is the earliest treatise on music.

• There were references to music in Rigveda.
• There used to be a special priest who sang hymns of Rigveda.
• This priest was known as Udgatar.
• All those hymns which were sung constitute Sama Veda.
• The name Sama Veda is derived from the word 'Saman' which means
music.
• Sama Veda mentions near about 16000 Raga and Ragini.
• The later part of Sama Veda is known as Gandharva Veda, which is
known as the 'rule book or grammar book' of music.
BASICS OF INDIAN MUSIC (9:36 AM)
• There are 3 basics of Indian music which are as follows:

• (1) Swara:
• Swara is a frequency, note, tone, or pitch. Indian music is heptatonic in
nature which means there are 7 pure Swara or notes in Indian music-
Sadja, Reshabha, Gandhara, Madhyam, Pancham, Dhvaita, and
Nishadh.
• Shruti is the feeblest sound that the human ear can perceive. It is the
fundamental and basic unit of Swara.
• (2) Raga:
• Raga is created with different combinations of Swara.
• For the creation of a raga, there must be at least 5 distinct notes.
• On the basis of distinct notes, there can be 3 types of raga- Uddhava
Raga, Sadhav Raga, and Sampoorna Raga.
• (3) Taal:
• Taal is the basis of rhythm.
• It is an arrangement of beats cyclically.
• On the basis of the rhythmic cycle following type of Taal can be there:
• (a) Thisra- 3 rhythmic cycle
• (b) Chatusara
• (c) Khanda
• (d) Misra
• (e) Sankirtha
• Initially, there was no difference between North Indian and South Indian
music.
• But, the clearcut differentiation started after the establishment of Islamic
rule in India and due to the influence of Amir Khusru.
• Another important factor of differentiation was the Time-Season-
Mood theory of Raga followed by singers of North India.
• For Example, following principle ragas followed this system:
•
Raga Time Season Mood
Megha Dawn Rainy Courage
Shri Morning Winter Love

Deepak Afternoon Summer Compassion
Early
Bhairavi Autumn Devotion/Awe
morning
HINDUSTANI CLASSICAL MUSIC (10:07 AM)
• Hindustani is an umbrella term that is basically a collection of many

compositions.
• Some of the compositions are considered Classical and others are
considered semi-classical.
CLASSICAL HINDUSTANI (10:09 AM)

Dhrupad:
• Dhrupad is a difficult kind of singing.

• It is a simple composition that demands lungs and vocal cords.
• Dhrupad's performance starts with an alaap followed by jod and the 4
composed sections ie. Sthai, Antara, Sanchali, and Abhog.
• It is a devotional type of singing.
• The lyrics of Dhrupad are mainly in Braj bhasha and Awadhi.
• Dhrupad's performance is often accompanied by the musical
instruments pakhawaj and tanpura.
• Dhrupad is considered the oldest classical music of India.
• Its origin can be traced to the Vedic period.
• In medieval times, Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior popularised it.
• In the court of Akbar, there were many famous Dhrupad singers like
Tansen, Baiju Bawara, and Gopaldas.
• Swami Haridas who was the guru of Tansen was also a very famous
Dhrupad singer.
• Impressed by the singing of Tansen, Akbar gave him the title of Mia-
master of music.
Gharanas Of Dhrupad:
• One of the important features of Hindustani music is the existence of

Gharanas.
• Gharanas emenate from guru-shishya parampara.
• The existence of different Gharanas is based on changes in dialect,
temperament, and aptitude of music.
• Gharanas- Dagri, Betiyah, Darbhanga, and Vishnupur gharana
KHAYAAL (10:40 AM)
• The origin of Khayaal is attributed to Amir Khusrau.

• Khayaal is a Persian word that means thought or imagination.
• Unlike Dhrupad, the singers of Khayaal enjoy much more freedom in the
structure and form of the music.
• It is not watertight like Dhrupad.
• The emphasis is on imagination, not on the steps.
• Khayal is a romantic composition, in the beginning, the Persian
language was followed for the lyrics of Khayaal, but later Urdu and
Awadhi became major languages of Khayal composition.
• The special feature of Khayal is the use of Taana in music.
• Khayal music is often accompanied by the musical instrument Rabab.
Gharanas of Khayal (10:48 AM)

• Kairana Gharana, Lucknow Gharana, Jaiur Gharana, Patiala Gharana,
Gwalior Gharana, Agra Gharana are the 6 popular gharanas of Khayal.
SEMI-CLASSICAL MUSIC (10:50 AM)
Thumri:
• The origin of Thumri can be attributed to the Bhakti saints in India.

• It is semi-devotional.
• based on temperament, there are two popular versions of Thumri:
• (1) Poorvi Thumri: sung in a slow tempo
• (2) Punjabi Thumri: sung in a faster tempo
• Lucknow and Benaras are considered famous Gharanas of Thumri.
Dhamar (11:14 AM)
• It is a semi-romantic and semi-devotional music, mainly performed in

the Braj area on the occasion of Holi.
• It is specifically performed on the theme of the love affair of Lord
Krishna, Radha, and Gopikas.
Tarana (11:15 AM)
• It originated in the Mughal age and was highly popular among the
aristocratic class of North India.
• One of the important features of Tarana is very less meaningful lyrics.
• It was created only for entertainment.
Tappa
• It was created by camel riders of the North West.

• It is noted for a quick turn of phrases and idioms.
• Later, singers of Punjab refined Tappa and composed fast songs under
this category.
Qawalli (11:24 AM)
• It is another creation of Amir Khusrau.

• It is devotional.
• Amir Khusrau started to compose small couplets in the praise of Allah,
the prophet, and the Sufi saints.
• It is specifically performed at the festival of Urs.
Gazal (11:29 AM)
• It is another product of Persian influence.

• Essentially, it is romantic poetry but many times, underlined Sufi and
devotional aspects are also noted, whereby God is seen as beloved.
CARNATIC CLASSICAL MUSIC (11:32 AM)
• Sangeetsara of Vidyaranya is considered a forerunner of the Southern

system.
• In the middle of the 17th century, Venkatamukhi
wrote 'Chaturdandiprakasika' which became the bedrock of Carnatic
music.
• In this book, he mentioned the highly scientific Melakarta Raaga
system.
• Even to this date, this system is followed in Carnatic music.
• At the time of independence, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande tried to
popularise Carnatic music and started to train people in the Melakarta
system.
• Later after independence, Bhatkhande college of music was founded in
Lucknow to promote Indian Classical forms.
STRUCTURE OF THE CARNATIC MUSIC (11:41 AM)
• Carnatic performance starts with Ragam.

• Ragam is an improvised Alapana for free time.
• Ragam is followed by Tanam, which is an interconnector.
• The final section of Carnatic singing is known as Pallavi.
• It is the formal lyrics of the song which sets the melody to a Taal.
• There are two popular versions of Carnatic music:
• (1) Kriti: The lyrics of the song are highly emphasized.
• (2) Kritanai: The music part of the song is highly emphasized.
• Purandardhar is considered the Grand old man of Carnatic music.
•
Male Trinity of Female Trinity of

Carnatic Music Carnatic Music
Tyagraj, ML
Shyamashastri, Vasanthkumari,
Mutthuswami DK Pattama, MS
Dikshitar Subbulakshmi
• MS Subbulakshmi is considered the greatest classical music figure in
India. In the 1960s she performed in the UN assembly. She was the
recipient of the Sangit Kalanidhi and Raman Magsaysay awards.
TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Class 15
Script:(9:38:57 AM):
• Brahmi and Kharoshithi are considered the oldest script in India.
• Brahmi gave rise to many of the Indian scripts.
• For example:-From Brahmi developed the Gupta script and Vatalettu
script which further gave rise to the majority of Indian scripts.
• Brahmi is also considered a connecting link between major Indian
languages.
• On the other hand, Kharoshithi was mainly practiced in NW parts of the
Indian subcontinent.
• Indian languages are considered the most advanced languages in the
world.
• The majority of Indian languages follow the abugida system of
writing>>Consonants are fully written but vowels are used as diacritic or
matra.
• Whenever any word is going to start with a vowel, then it is fully written.
• In Indian languages, the system of writing corresponds to a system of
pronunciation.
• Broadly Indian languages can be divided into 4 families of
languages:
• -Indo-Aryan group of languages.>> Hindi, Sanskrit, Urdu, Punjabi,
Bengali, Gujarati, Kashmiri, etc.
• -Dravidian languages.>>Tamil, Telegu, Malayalam, Kannada.
• -Sino Tibetian languages.>>Naga, Manipuri, Arunachali, Mizo,
Sikkimese, Lepcha, etc.
• -Austric Languages.>>Bodo, Santhali, Mundari, Andamanese,
nicobarese, gondi, etc.
• As per the records, Sanskrit came to India with the arrival of Aryans.
• The first Sanskrit composition in India was Rig Ved.
• It is considered the truly international language the boundary of region
and religion.
• The Sanskrit language was equally popular in Buddhism, Jainism, and
Hinduism.
The Sanskrit language can be divided into the following 2

categories:(10:38:16 AM):
• Vedic and Derivative texts:

• Rig Veda:
• It is the oldest of all the Vedas.
• Mainly composed during the early Vedic age.
• Rig Veda is the earliest collection of 1028 hymns and sounds.
• It provides a beautiful description of nature and mentions important
rivers and mountains.
• Rig Veda is also the source of prayers and mantras.
• Through these mantras, they seek the development of a highly cultured
society with the traits of honesty, dignity, and virtue.
• Rig Veda is one of the most important sources of information about the
society, polity, and economy of the early Vedic period.
• There are 10 mandalas in Rig Veda out of which 2 to 7 are the oldest
composed during the early Vedic period and 1, 8,9,10 were composed
in the later Vedic period.
• The expert priest of Rig Veda is Hotra.
• Yajurveda:
• Most popular of all Vedas.
• Deals with Vedic rituals and performance of yajna.
• Broadly divided into 2 parts:
• Shukla Yajurveda.
• Krishna Yajurveda.
• The expert priest of Yajurveda is Adhvaryu.
• SamVeda:
• Veda of music.
• All those hymns of music which were sung constitute Samveda.
• It mentions 16000 Raga and Ragini.
• The later part of Samveda is known as Gandharva Veda which is the
rule book of music.
• The expert priest was known as Udgatar.
• Atharvaveda:
• Most extensive of all the Vedas.
• Origin can be traced to 2 Rishis i.e. Atharva and Angira.
• Highly extensive and deals with a variety of topics like spells and
charms, cures for 99 diseases, botanical information about India,
numerology, Vedic mathematics, astrology, etc.
Extended text of Veda:(11:00:53 AM):
• Brahman:
• These are the first extended text of Veda that deals with the ideals and
rituals of Veda.
• Tries to expound Vedic ideals and provide a simplistic explanation of
Vedic rituals.
• Aranyak:
• Means forest.
• Knowledge of aranyak.
• Disseminated in forest stage of life.
• Deals with the mystery of the Veda and also spells and charms.
• Initiated the discussion on life death and soul.
• Upanishad:
• Meaning is sitting near a guru for learning.
• Deals with the philosophy of Veda.
• Initiated the discussion on the most complex topics like liberation, the
purpose of life, etc.
• Puranas:
• This means that one renews the old.
• tries to establish the ideals of Hinduism with legendary stories
accompanied by Itihas.(Mahabharat and Ramayan).
• On the basis of theme, Purana can be divided into 4 categories:
• -Sarga>>Craetion of universe.
• -Pratisarga>>destruction of the universe.
• -Manvantar-Creation of human beings and the story of the first human
being many and Ila.
• -Vamsanucharita>>deals with the dynastic history of India.>>about the
satvanahas.
• In fact history of Gupta and Maurya is also mentioned in Purana.
Classical Literature:(11:28:08 AM):
• Mrichakatika by shudraka:
• Satire on society.
• The common public used Pali and Prakrit languages and those in official
positions used the Sanskrit language.
• Mudra rakshasa:
• Writteny by vishakadutta.
• Mentions of political mechanization created by Chanakya against Nanda
Ruler finally led to the establishment of the rule of Mauryas in Magadha.
• Abhijyan shankuntalam:
• Love affair of Shakuntala and Dushyant.
• Malvikagnimitra:
• Love affair of Agnimitra Sunga and Malvika.
• Vikramourvashi:
• The love affair of Pururava and celestial nymph Urvashi.
• Raghuvamsam:
• Story of the clan of Lord Ram.
• Kumarsambhavam:
• Story of the making of a young God>> Kartikeya.
• It also mentions the marriage of lord Shiva and Parvati.
• Poetry of Kalidasa:
• Meghadutam:
• Love letters through clouds.
• Ritusamhara:
• Medley of seasons.
• Buddhacharita:
• Written by Ashvagosha.
• Biography of Buddha.
• Devichandraguptam;
• By Vishakadutta.
• Biography of Chandragupta 2.
• Harshcharita:
• By Banabhatta.
• Biography of Harshvardhan.
• Grammatical texts of Sanskrit:
• Ashtadhyayi.
• Mahabhasya by Patanjali.>> commentary on Panini Ashtadhyayi.
• Amakosha by Amar Sinha>> Lexicography of Sanskrit.
• Medical texts:
• Charak Samhita By Charak.
• Bhrigusamhita by Bhrigurishi.
• Sushruta Samhita:
• Book on surgery.
• Mentions the surgical instruments and different types of surgery like
ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, and rhinoplasty.
Next class- Literature continuation.
Class 16
Literature:(Continued from the last class):(1:08:02 PM):
• Swapnavassavaddata:
• Written by Bhasa.
• 3 books written by Harshvardhan:
• Ratnavali.
• Naganada.
• Priyadarshini.
• Pali and Prakrit Literature:
• After the arrival of Sanskrit in India, many Apabhramsha languages
started to develop due to the interaction of Sanskrit and the local
languages of India.
• An umbrella term Prakrit is used for all the Apabhramsha languages of
India out of which pali is considered archaic Prakrit.
• Later by the 6th cent AD, Prakrit was represented by the following
languages:
• Ardhamagadhi, sauraseni, paisachin and Maharashtri.
• Modern Hindi developed from Sauraseni.
• Buddhist literature:
• Generally divided into 2 categories i.e.:
Canonical and Non-canonical
Canonical literature:
• Bound by the rules and based on original developments from the times
of Buddha.
• Written only in pali.
• Mainly consist of the Pitakas books.
• Suttapitaka:
• Original teachings of the Buddha.
• Vinayapitaka:
• Rules and regulations are to be followed by the monks.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka:
• Philosophical interpretation of Buddha's teachings.
• Khuddaka Nikaya>>Mentions Jataka Kathas>> Previous life stories of
Buddhas.
Non-canonical Literature:(1:24:30 PM):
• These books weren't bound by original cannons.

• Highly revered and respected texts in Buddhism.
• Examples:
• Lalitavistara>> Holy texts of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Written both in Pali and Sanskrit.
• Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa;
• Sri Lankan chronicle of Buddhism.
• Both are in pali.
• Mahavastu:
• Holy text of Theravada(Pali).
• Mahavibhasa:
• Encyclopedia of Buddhism.
• Buddhacharita:
• Biography of Buddha.
• In Sanskrit.
• Therigatha:
• Written in pali.
• Unique text of the time which was written by women and attributed to
women.
• It was related to women's experience of renunciation.
• Jain Literature:
• Unique text of the time not only wrote their own doctrines but also
doctrines of their rival schools like Buddhism, Ajivika, and Hinduism.
• During the first Jain council>>14 books were compiled known as
the Purvas>> Ardhamagdhi Prakrit.
• These books aggregated the original teachings of Torthankars.
• During the second Jain council at vallabhi>> the majority of the Prakrit
Jain literature was written i.e. Anga, Upanga, Prakirna, Chedabsutra,
Mulsuatra, and Bhagwati sutra.
• These texts are mainly written in Maharashtri and Sauraseni Prakrit.
• Another specialty of the Jaina literature is that it is a very important
source of literature about the Mahajanpadas of India.
• Bhagwatisutra mentions about 16 mahajanapadas.
• Source of Dynastic history of eastern India.
• A good number of Jaina literature is also available in Kannada, Tamil,
and Sanskrit language.
• Example>> Tarave Ramayan in the Kannada language.
Sangam Literature:(1:44:53 PM):
• The Sangam period includes the rule of early Chola, Cheras, and
Pandyas.
• 300 BCE to 600 CE>. time period.
• Under the patronage of Pandya rulers, 3 Sangam assemblies were held
near Madhurai.
• Sangam signified the confluence of poets and poetesses from all the 3
kingdoms.
• It is believed that the first Sangam assembly was attended by the gods,
angels, and saints.
• No particular literature survived from the first Sangam assembly.
• Only 1 book survived from the second Sangam assembly>> Tolkappiya
written by Tolkappiyar.
• It is the foundational grammar text of the Tamil language.
• In the third Sangam assembly, 473 poets and poetesses participated
which included 35 women.
• All the texts of the third assembly are still survived and considered a
foundational block of Tamil literature.
These books are divided into:
• -Malkanakku:>> 18 Major texts.

• Further divided into:
• Ettuthogai.>> Prose.:
• The major text mainly deals with the political exploits of the Pandya
rulers.
• ppatuppattu.>>Poems.
• These are texts on ethical and moral codes of conduct.
• Thirukural written by Thiruvalluvar.
• Holds an important place in Tamil society.
• It is a book on pragmatism and practicality.
• It has witty quotes and quotations on administration, finance, polity, etc.
• Serves as a manual percept to guide one to a noble life.
• Such is its popularity that it has been accepted as a book of oath in
Tamil society.
Tamil Epics:
• Silapatthikaram:
• Written by Ilango Adigal.
• Story of anklet.
• Story of Kovalam, Kannagi, and Madhavi.
• Pandya king-Nedunjeliyun.
• Manimekalai:
• Sattanar wrote it.
• Story of Madhavi's daughter who later became a Buddhist monk.
• Kilkannakku:>> 18 minor texts.
Classical languages of India:(2:33:08 PM):
• Tamil.
• Sanskrit.
• Kannada.
• Telugu.
• Malayalam.
• Odiya.
• Urdu:
• Urdu is a Persian word that means camp.
• After the establishment of the Delhi sultanate, the development of the
Urdu language started.
• Due to the cross-interaction of Persian and Turkish officers of the Delhi
sultanate and the Indian soldiers, a new language developed.
• Vocab of Urdu is mainly based on Hindavi, Khadi Boli, Turkish, and
Persian.
• The grammatical structure of Urdu was based on Sauraseni.
• In later times Persian script was adopted for writing Urdu.
• In Mughal times>> Nastaliq and Thuluth also became important scripts
to write Urdu.
Indian Painting:(3:09:31 PM):
• Prehistoric paintings of India:

• In the upper paleolithic period, rock-cut cave paintings were created
by early humans.
• 50000 BCE to 10000 BCE.
• These paintings are known as petroglyphs.
• It was basically a line diagram.
• They used naturally obtained colors like red, yellow, green, and ochre.
• Theme>> included hunting scenes, gathering, fighting, etc.
• The most important site of the upper paleolithic period is Bhimbhetka in
Madhya Pradesh.
• Mesolithic paintings:
• 10000 to 6000 BCE.
• Characteristic tool>> Microlith facilitated the creation of mesolithic
paintings.
• Paintings were aesthetic and depicted the sociocultural practices of that
time.
• The colors were naturally derived like the previous period.
• Red became the dominating color at this time.
• Moreover, the main source of red colour was animal blood and bone
marrow.
• They also mixed egg yolk in colors to provide it oily texture and further
increase the longevity of the painting.
• A wide variety of themes were painted at this time which includes>>
Hunting, gathering, fighting, animal riding, household chores,
celebration, sexual union, and phallus worship.
• These themes depict the division of labour, domestication of animals,
community sense, the primitive concept of marriage, and primitive
worship.
• Sites>> Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, Bagohr, Mirzapur and Narsinghgarh.
Mural paintings:(3:47:57 PM):
• Created on a wall on a wider scale.

• Indian mural tradition mainly started in the Post Maurya age inside the
Ajanta caves.
• Indian tradition is popularly known as Fresco.
• European murals followed the Duko technique or oil painting tradition.
• Ajanta paintings:
• In Maharashtra.
• Buddhist theme.
• Examples>>Padampani and vajrapani.
• Flying Apsara.
• Ellora mural:
• Maharashtra.
• Period>>Rashtrakuta period.
• theme>> Vaishnavism.
• Sittanavasal paintings:
• Sittnavasal cave of Tamil Nadu.
• Patronized by Pandya kings.
• Theme>> Jainism.
• Badami murals:
• Karnataka.
• Created inside Badami caves.
• Patronised by Chalukya rulers of Karnataka.
• Important contributor>> Manglesh Chalukya.
• Theme>> Vaishnavism.
• Depiction of royal images.
• Lepakshi murals:
• Vijaynagar murals.
• Anantapur district in Andhra Pradesh.
• Patronized by Krishnadeva Raya.
• Complete absence of primary colors.
• It is noted for a complete absence of primary colors like red, green, and
blue.
• Depicted vast themes like routine life and secular aspects of life.
Next class- Continuation of murals.

Class 17
A Brief review of the previous class(01:09 pm)
Mural paintings(01:13 pm)
• 1) Chola murals:
• Mainly practised in Tanjore.
• It was created on the walls of the temple.
• It was based on Hindu mythology.
• Moreover, royal images were also created on the walls. For example
life-size images of Raj Raja Chola and Rajendra Chola.
• 2) Kerala Murals:
• It developed under the patronage of feudal lords of Kerala.
• It was mainly practised on the walls of temples in central Kerala and
north Kerala.
• Theme was based on Mahabharat, Ramayana, and Puranas.
• 3) Nayak Murals:
• It was developed under the Nayak rulers.
• It was practised both on the walls as well as in architectural buildings.
• It was a unique mural whose theme was drawn from both Hinduism and
Jainism.
Miniature paintings(01:21 pm)
• Miniature is a small-scale painting but highly detailed in nature.

• It was created on perishable materials like palm leaves, paper and cloth.
• Initially, two rules were laid down for the creation of miniature:
• a) Painting must not be larger than 25 square inches.
• b) The object to be painted must not be larger than 1/6th of the larger
size.
• In later times the rule was diluted and bigger-scale paintings were also
created.
• Divisions of miniature paintings:
• 1) Early Miniature
• 2) Mughal Miniature
Early miniature:
• a) Pala miniature
• b) Apbhramsa(western)
Pal miniature:
• Pal rulers from Bihar and Bengal played an instrumental role in the
popularization of Buddhism.
• It is under their patronage which led to the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism.
• Moreover, due to their efforts Buddhism reached Tibbets.
• A Large number of scholars from Tibbet started arriving at the Buddhist
university of Nalanda, Vikramshila, Somrupa, and Oddantpuri.
• Pal rulers initiated the first miniature painting of India which was created
on Palm leaves.
• It was the type of manuscript painting in which images were
accompanied by handwritten notes.
• These paintings and manuscripts were completely based on Buddhism.
• b) Apbhramsa or western miniature:
• It was mainly practised in the area of Gujrat and South Rajasthan.
• It was also a type of manuscript painting created on palm leaves.
• It was patronized by Jain traders as such a main theme dominated the
painting.
• One of the most important examples is the Kalpa sutra.
• In the later period, they started to create paintings on vellum papers and
finally settled on papers.
Mughal miniature(01:47 pm)
• When Humayun reestablished the Mughals in India, he also brought two

famous Persian painters Mirsayyid Ali and Abdus Samad.
• With the arrival of these 2 painters, Persian Safavid style miniature
started in India.
• 1) Paintings during Akbar's Period:
• Akbar was very fond of painting.
• He also considered painting as an avenue of employment.
• He opened karkhana for painting and also opened gateways of
karkhana to fellow Indian painters.
• A major feature of his painting was 'Realism'.
• Real court scenes were painted.
• Akbar created a studio of painting known as Tasveer khana.
• He also started a system of rewards to promote the best paintings.
• During his tenure, Mir Syyid Ali and Abdus Samad painted the Hamza
Nama series.
• It was based on the life and adventures of Amir Hamza, uncle of the
Prophet.
• Akbar was highly appreciative of this painting as such he ordered that
Indian literature must also be painted in book form.
• It led to the creation of Razm Nama(Mahabharat) and Tutinama.
• Akbar also created makhtab khana where Indian literature was
translated into Persian and Turkish language.
• 2) Painting during Jahangir's period:
• Mughal painting reached its climax during this time.
• Jahangir himself was a great painter and he was a naturalist.
• He painted on various flora and Fauna.
• The greatest achievement of this phase was the creation of a Portrait
painting in which the main object is highlighted and the rest of the
background is blurred.
• Jahangir was also a master of the European Tradition of painting and
also painted a good number of European themes like mother mary and
zebra.
• Another important development was the creation of decorated margins
on the painting.
• 3) Painting during Shahjahan Period:
• Shajahan continued the patronage of paintings but the realism of the
Mughal painting was diluted.
• Heavy usage of Gold and silver was reflected in this period's paintings.
• Pencil sketching and shadow sketching tradition which was popular in
Europe started to be practised in India also.
• Another new beginning in the Mughal painting was the incorporation of
the Light and Shadow method of painting.
• After the Arrival of Aurangazeb, many art forms started to decline.
• Painters faced heavy unemployment and started seeking painting
assignments in regional kingdoms which further led to the growth of
regional kingdoms of Rajasthan and Pahadi areas.
Rajasthani paintings(02:25 pm)
• The mural tradition of painting was very strong in Rajasthan.

• There are instances of wall paintings from the 15th century and strongly
in the 16th century.
• After the decline of miniature painting in the Mughal court, a miniature
tradition found asylum in the course of Rajasthan.
• In all the painting traditions of Rajasthan, the most common feature is
the depiction of Lord Krishna.
• Moreover, Rajasthani schools replicated the theme from:
• Geet Govind of Jaydev.
• Rajtaringini of kalhan.
• haurpanchasika of Bilhan.
• Dhola Maru, etc.
• There are many styles which developed in Rajasthan and are as
follows:
• 1) Hadoti painting:
• The Hadoti area includes Kota and Budi.
• This area is considered as Green heartland of Rajasthan, as such in
Hadoti's painting, the vegetation of this area is depicted in detail.
• Though Lord Krishna is one of the popular themes but a large number
of paintings are dedicated to hunting scenes.
• 1) Mewar painting:
• Mewar includes the area of Udaipur, Nathdwara, and Chittorgarh.
• These paintings mainly depicted royal palaces, celebrations in the Royal
Udaipur l environment, and the lakes of.
• One of the very popular subcategories in Mewar is the Picchwai
painting.
• It is created on a cotton cloth which serves as a background for the idol
of Srinath ji in Nathdwara.
• The painting is installed according to changing seasons.
• 2) Marwar painting:
• This region includes the area of Jodhpur, Bikaner and even Jaisalmer.
• Though they followed the tradition of making paintings of Lord Krishna,
they also followed the Ragmala type of painting.
• It was a unique fusion of musical raga in the painting.
• Though it was unique in nature but inferior in quality.
• 3) Kishangarh painting:
• Kishangarh style was the climax of Rajasthani painting.
• It depicted the features in an exaggerated fashion.
• It was Nihal Chand who developed a particular style of Kishangarh.
• Physical features were a sharp nose, sharp chins, and eyes exuding
margins of the face. almond-shaped eyes, and slender curves in the
body.
• Images also had long fingers but were smooth in texture and very thin
eyebrows.
• The most famous painting of Kishangarh was Bani-Thani.
• She is considered as fashion lady of India.
Pahadi painting(03:16 pm)
• 1) Kangra painting:
• The Kangra tradition of paintings started under Rajput rulers of this
area.
• It is a unique painting which is a combination of painting and embroidery
in which images of Hindu gods and goddesses were created.
• The painted piece of cloth was exchanged as a gift during the marriage
celebration.
• Later Kangra tradition also adopted the portraiture painting of royal
figures along with the local vegetation.
• It started the tradition of making Nayika paintings.
• Another speciality of Kangra was the use of golden hues from the wings
of a beetle.
• * (NotePerhaps it was the first painting which got the patronage of the
British when Charles Metcalf discovered it along Kangra valley around
1885.)
• 2) Guler Basohli Painting:
• They continued the Kangra tradition of painting and also created a good
number of portraiture.
• The Nayika Tradition of painting reached its climax in the form of Asht
Nayika.
• In some of the depictions, Nayika is represented braving odd situations
to meet her beloved.
Paintings from South India(03:33 pm)
• 1) Kalamlkari Painting:
• Practised in the Andhra Pradesh region.
• Kalamkari is created on cotton cloth and it takes near about six months
to complete one painting.
• Based on the theme there are two types of Kalamkari:
• a) Srikalhasti kalamkari: based on Hindu mythology.
• b) Masulipatnam: based on a Secular theme which is very popular in the
textile industry.
• 2) Tanjore Painting:
• Tanjore painting developed under Nayak rulers.
• It is one of the costliest paintings of India known for the usage of real
gold and ornaments in painting.
• In the very first step, cotton cloth is pasted on a wooden block with the
paste of Tamarind and jaggery
• Then images are embossed on the panel and finally, it is filled with
colours including Gold.
• The theme of the painting is mainly based on Hindu mythology
• The Gods from the Hindu pantheon are often represented but the
favourite is Lord Krishna and his life.
• 3) Mysuru painting:
• It developed under the Wodeyar rulers of Mysore.
• It closely followed the Thanjore tradition.
• Like Thanjore it was also created on cotton cloth pasted on wooden
blocks.
• Though it also followed the embossing technique, it was thinner as
compared to Tanjore
• The characteristic feature of Mysore's painting was the use of
contrasting colours, mutant colours and Gesso paste.
• Gesso paste is a combination of lead gamboge and Glue which is
applied on painting at the last stage.
• It provides shine to the painting, safeguards it from insects and
increases the longevity of the painting.
• The theme of the painting was mainly based on Hinduism but Mysore
Dussehra is the most celebrated theme.
(TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF PAINTING)
Class 18
Paintings (01:09 PM)
• Thangka Painting:
• Belongs to Leh and Ladakh regions.
• It is a Tibetan style of Buddhist painting created on Silk cloth.
• It also draws a theme based on the dragon.
• Another specialty of Thangka painting is the Mandala theme.
Madhubani painting (01:13 PM)
• It was mainly practiced by women of Mithilanchal.

• It was wall art created with colors mixed in rice flowers.
• On the basis of the theme, there are three types of Madhubani:
• 1. Aripana:
• Created on the entrance of the house and prayer room
• 2. Gosai-ghar Madhubani:
• Created inside prayer rooms based on the religious theme
• 3. Kohbar Madhubani:
• Created inside the bedroom and is based on a love theme and other
imaginative themes.
• In contemporary times, it is also created on canvas and paper.
• One of the unique features of Madhubani is the complete utilization of
space in canvas.
• It is a highly dense type of painting.
Pattachitra(01:24 PM)
• It is a type of scroll painting that originated from the Puri area of

Odisha.
• Initially, it was based on the legends of Lord Jagannath, Balbhadra,
and Subhadra.
• Later, the local secular theme of Puri was also translated into painting.
• It is mainly created on cotton cloth and palm leaves.
• Ansarpatti Pattachitra is used inside the Jagannath temple when the
lord goes for Rathyatra.
Patana kalam(01:29 PM)
• It was very similar to Mughal painting in terms of technique and

outlook.
• But the theme of these paintings was based on the daily challenges and
hardships of the common man.
• It was mainly practiced by male painters employed in the royal courts.
Kalighat Painting(01:31 PM)
• It was practiced in Bengal mainly from the 19th century.

• It depicted the folk culture of West Bengal and followed the subaltern
approach whereby the life and culture of lower strata of society were
depicted.
• Sometimes, it was quite amusing also.
Pabuji ki Phad(01:35 PM)
• It was painted on the life of Rajasthani warrior Pabuji who was a highly
revered figure among the pastoralist and herdsmen of Rajasthan.
Manjusha Painting(01:37 PM)
• It is a folk painting of Bihar.

• It is mainly known for the incorporation of elements of nature in painting
particularly the motif of the snake is quite a repeated theme
in Manjusha.
Warli Painting(01:38 PM)
• It was practiced by the Warli tribe of Maharashtra
• Initially, it was created on the walls of their houses but later the
commercial production of this painting also started.
• It is noted for use of only two colors at a time.
• In one painting, they depict their social, and cultural life, their economic
activity, and their household.
Bhakti and Sufi Movement (01:46 PM)
• The Bhakti tradition can be traced to the Gupta period.

• Gupta rulers emphasized Bhakti and it superseded the Vedic practice of
sacrifice.
• But the real beginning of Bhakti is traced to the 7th century AD in Tamil
Nadu.
• The Alvars and Nayanars saints of Tamil Nadu popularised
the Bhakti movement in South India.
• Alvars were devotees of Lord Vishnu and they started to compose
simple poems in the praise of Lord Vishnu that is Prabhandham and
Prabhandha Kavyam.
• Nayanars who was a devotee of Lord Shiva started to compose simple
poems in the Tamil language in praise of Lord Shiva as Tevaram and
Tevcrams.
• In the 8th Century AD, it was Shankaracharya who
defended Hinduism on an intellectual basis.
• He found four Math at:
• Sringeri
• Dwarka
• Badrinath
• Puri
• In the 11th century AD, Sri Ramanujacharya popularised
the Bhakti movement and it was he who consolidated
the Bhakti tradition of India.
• Many of his disciples and followers popularised the Bhakti tradition in
Central and North India.
Lingayat and Veershaiva movement of Karnataka(02:02 PM):
• Lingayat means those who wear Linga and Veershaiva means heroes
of Lord Shiva.
• Basavanna founded the Lingayat tradition of Karnataka from
them Veershaiva tradition also emerged.
• They considered lord shiva as the ultimate and final reality.
• They also believed that at the time of death, the body gets reunited with
lord Shiva.
• They did not believe in the authority of Vedas and they don't follow the
process of cremation after death instead they bury their dead.
• They included all types of people in their cadre no matter backward,
untouchable, women, etc.
• It was a highly progressive movement that stood against the
discriminatory practices existing in the society like the cast.
• They also favored the upliftment of untouchables, backward, women,
and post-puberty marriage.
• Maharashtra:
• The Bhakti tradition in Maharashtra can be traced to the late 14th
century.
• The efforts of saints like Dyaneshwar, Namdeva, and Tukaram.
• It led to the tradition of Wari-Warkari tradition of Pandharpur.
• It is associated with worship and devotion to lord Vithoba.
• The life of Tukaram is an example to emulate.
• He belong to the lowest strata of society which was not entitled to write
on religious matters.
• He broke the injunctions of upper-caste society and started writing on
Hindu religious matters.
• Moreover, he also stunned the upper caste society by writing the
religious matter in the Marathi language instead of Sanskrit.
• The angry upper caste society threw all his books in the nearby river.
• It is said that Tukaram observed 13 day fast after which his books
reappeared from the river.
• From the middle of the 15th century, the Bhakti movement became
popular in North and Eastern India.
• It is believed that Ramananda who was a follower of Sri
Ramanujacharya further popularised the Bhakti movement in the
North.
• Right from the beginning, two trends in Bhakti have noted is:
• 1. Saguna Bhakti:
• The adherence to the Bhakti belief of the god with attributes.
• To them, god can reincarnate in human form.
• The major saints in this category include:
• Surdas
• Tulsidas
• Meerabai
• Shankardev
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
• Vallabhacharya and so on.
• 2. Nirguna Bhakti:
• The adherence to Nirguna Bhakti believed that god is without any shape
or form and moreover God does not reincarnate.
• The major saints in this category were:
• Kabir
• Guru Nanak
• Kabir was one of the foremost saints of Nirguna Bhakti.
• He believed that god is without any shape or form.
• He was highly critical of the orthodox practices of Hindus and Muslims.
• He always tried to forge unity between different communities of India.
• He composed intelligent and quiet practical two-liners popularly known
as Doha.
• The Dohas of Kabir were sharp and dialectic in nature.
• Later his compositions were compiled in Bijak and Kabir Grunthavali
• Guru Nanak was born in the Hindu rich merchant family of Talwandi.
• Right from his childhood, he was interested in the study of all religions.
• He deeply studies Hinduism and Islam but was not satisfied.
• He believed God is Nirankara which is without any shape or form.
• He started to compose his ideas in the form of the simple
poem Shabad.
Sufi tradition of India(02:34 PM)
• After the establishment of Islam, its popularity increased in major parts

of the world so as in the Indian subcontinent.
• In the 10th century AD, Islam came under the grip of Theologians who
followed dogmatic and scholastic approaches which was leading to a
dilution in the original tenets of Islam.
• It led to the emergence of Sufi to counter the scholastic approach.
• Sufi is derived from the word Suf which means the piece of woolen
cloth.
• Sufis claim that they share direct lineage from Allah and the Prophet
Mohammad which they called Silsila.
• Sufis adopted a meditative process and musicology to connect with the
higher authorities.
• Sufi hospice is known as Khanqah.
• Khanqah is headed by a master who is known as Shiekh Khawaja or
Peer.
• His disciples are known as Murids.
• Sufi master trains the disciples in meditative processes to establish a
link with Allah and the Prophet.
• The Sufi order is generally referred to as Silsila.
• The first Silsila which came to India was Chisztia in the 12th Century
AD.
• Sheikh Mainuddin Chiszti was the first saint of Silsila who created his
base at Ajmer.
• He was popularly known as Gharib Nawaz.
• He started the system of Community food service which later on was
incorporated into Sikhism as Langar.
• Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar was the next Sufi saint in India who created
his base at Faridkot.
• He was popularly known as Baba Farid.
• Later some of his teachings were incorporated into the holy text
of Sikhism Guru Granth Sahib.
Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi (03:00 PM):
• He was the most famous Sufi saint of Delhi.

• He never discriminated against others on the basis of caste, creed, and
religion.
• His Dargah in Delhi was open to everyone but not to Delhi Sultans.
• In an interesting turn of events, he refused to meet Alaudding Khulji.
• It is said that he saw the rule of seven Sultans of Delhi but he never
visited them.
• The last Chisztia saint in Delhi was Naseeruddin Chirag
• Because of his pious and honest nature, he was referred to as Chirag-i-
Delhi.
• The second important Silsila which came to India was Suhrawadi.
Suhrawadi Silsila(03:24 PM):
• It was founded by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakaria.

• It accepted the official position of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Iltutmish gave the title of Shaikh-ul-Islam (leader of Islam).
• In later times, two trends in the Sufi tradition of the Indian sub-continent
emerged:
• 1. Ba-Shara:
• Those who followed the Islamic Law Shara.
• These are:
• Naqsbandia
• Firdausia
• 2. Be-Shara:
• These were those Sufi saints who did not follow the Islamic law
of Shara.
• They were also known for practicing extreme methods of meditation and
music as their main vehicle to connect with God.
• For example,
• Haidari,
• Malang,
• Qalandars
Contribution of Sufi and Bhakti Movement(03:35 PM)
• Both Bhakti and Sufi saints popularised secular ideals and tried to
maintain unity between the different layers of Indian society.
• They emphasized devotion rather than following the methods of
Theologians.
• They worked towards the upliftment of the lower section of society.
• One of their most important contributions was enriching the regional
literature of India.
• They further popularised many of the regional languages of India.
• They were the first example of progressive socio-religious reform in the
Indian sub-continent.
• Though they started well, due to the lack of an ambient environment,
their progress was halted in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
Traditional Theatres of India(03:42 PM)
• Bhand-Pather:
• Belongs to Jammu and Kashmir
• Theme: Daily life activity with the satire of society.
• Swang:
• There are two popular varieties of Swang:
• Rohtak Swang(Haryana)
• Hathras Swang(UP)
• Theme: Mundane activities of life with bouts of entertainment.
• Raslila:
• It emerged from Braj of UP.
• Theme: Love affair of Lord Krishna With Gopikas.
• Ramlila:
• Awadh, UP
• Theme: Lord Rama
• Nautanki:
• UP
• It is an entertainment theatre but many times the Dohas and
Chopais from religious literature are used to depict morality and ethical
behavior.
• Maach:
• Madhya Pradesh
• It is based on Daily life activity and one of the popular themes is
complaints about the mother-in-law.
• Pandwani:
• Chattisgarh
• Theme: Legends of Alha and Udal
• Bhaona:
• Assam
• It is the presentation of Ankia-Naat of Assam.
• Jatra:
• West Bengal
• Theme: fair organized in honor of God, particularly Lord Krishna.
• In Bengal, it was initiated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu who also started
the tradition of Kirtana Music.
• Bhavai:
• Gujarat
• Theme: it is a devotional theatre performed during the Navratri festival.
• Dashavtar:
• Goa
• Theme: Ten incarnations of Vishnu.
• Yakshagana:
• Karnataka
• Theme: Some episodes of Mahabharata
• Krishnaattam:
• Kerala
• Theme: The life story of Lord Krishna
• Ramanattam:
• Kerala
• Theme: The life story of Lord Rama
• Mudiyettu:
• Kerala
• Theme: Triumph of Goddess Bhadrakali over Asur Darik
• Theyyam:
• Kerela
• It is derived from the Sanskrit word Daivam which means divide
• Theme - Hindu Mythology
• Koothiyattam:
• Kerela.
• It is the longest-surviving traditional theatre of India.
• It is an interesting theatre in which both Sanskrit and Malayalam
languages are used
• Therukoothu:
• Tamil Nadu;
• Theme: Based on the life of Draupadi.
• It is performed to please the rain Goddess Mariamman
• Tamasha:
• Maharashtra
• Performed by the Fishermen's community
• It is performed with fast dance on Lavani Music
Syllabus ended

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Art and Culture (Neeraj Sir)

Introduction (09:14 AM)

• A number of classes- 13-14 for Art and Culture.

Why do we need to study culture? (09:22 AM)

• What is the importance of studying culture as an aspirant?

• India is doing the conciliation between Russia and Ukraine.

Syllabus Introduction - (09:56 AM)

• Architecture and sculpture- 6-7 classes

Divide the entire period into three headings- (10:00 AM)

• Architecture and culture of the Ancient period.

Medieval - (10:02 AM)

• 1) Delhi Sultanate- (1206-1290) two types of architecture- Imperial and

Modern Architecture - (till 1947)

A Brief description of resources (10:09 AM)

• Class notes are sufficient.

Indus Valley Civilization - (10:22 AM)

• Indus Valley Civilization is the most advanced civilization.

Seals - (10:33 AM)

• They are the most important artifacts found.

Other Instances - Gold, Bronze, etc.

• There were Terracotta seals also.

Seals- (10:53 AM) (Dictation)

• Historians consider it as an example of Proto-shiva.

Sculptures of the Indus-valley civilization - (11:28 AM)

• Stone sculpture - There were not many examples of stone sculptures

Bronze sculpture- (11:52 AM)

INTRODUCTION (9:07 AM)

• Overview of the previous class.

POTTERY OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION: IVC (9:08 AM)

ORNAMENTS AND COSMETICS (9:20 AM)

• IVC people used a variety of ornaments which included necklaces,

TOWN PLANNING OF IVC (9:34 AM)

MAURYAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE (10:23 AM)

MAURYAN CAVE (10:45 AM)

MAURYA PILLARS (11:13 AM)

• Mauryan pillars had an average height of 40 ft.

• Crowning animal: 4 back-to-back lions

TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF MAURYAN ART &

A Brief Overview of the Previous Class (09:06 AM)

Pottery of Mauryan Architecture- (09:07 AM)

• Northern Black Polished Ware (Mauryan pottery).

Mauryan Sculpture (09:17 AM)

• During the Mauryan period, main sculptures of Folk Gods and

Diagrammatic presentation of Stupa (09:57 AM)

Tri Ratna of Buddhism -(10:15 AM)

• Buddha- Awakened one (at the top)

• Medhi is considered as meditating leg of Buddha.

Jataka Katha (10:24 AM)

• The Vedika of Stupa is full of folk narrative that is Jatak Katha.

Tabular presentation - on Sculpture

• Material Grey sandstone +sand White

Greco-Bacterian Roman Purely

All the religions-

Greek Influence- Jain sculpture -

• many of the • The sculptures of

Images of Gandhara Sculpture are shown and discussed in the class -

THE TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS - JATAKA STORIES

A Brief Overview of the Previous Class - (09:06 AM)

Jataka Story Description-