Research Methods Design and Analysis 13Th Edition Full Chapter PDF
Research Methods Design and Analysis 13Th Edition Full Chapter PDF
Research Methods Design and Analysis 13Th Edition Full Chapter PDF
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Contents
1. Preface xi
1. Part I Introduction 1
1. Authority 3
2. Rationalism 3
3. Empiricism 3
2. Hypothesis Testing 5
1. Regularity in Nature 7
2. Reality in Nature 7
3. Discoverability 8
1. Empirical 8
2. Control 9
3. Operationalization of Constructs 9
4. Replication 10
1. Description 13
2. Explanation 13
3. Prediction 13
4. Control or Influence 14
7. Pseudoscience 14
1. Summary 15
4. Practice Test 16
5. Challenge Exercises 17
2. Experimental Research 21
3. Causation 22
1. Cause 22
2. Effect 23
1. 1. Causal Inference 26
2. 2. Artificiality 27
6. Qualitative Research 31
2. Questionnaires 34
3. Interviews 35
4. Focus Groups 35
5. Observation 36
1. Summary 39
4. Practice Test 40
5. Challenge Exercises 41
1. Everyday Life 43
2. Practical Issues 43
3. Past Research 44
4. Theory 44
1. Getting Started 47
2. Defining Objectives 47
1. Books 48
2. Psychological Journals 48
4. Internet Resources 51
4. Obtaining Resources 53
6. Formulating Hypotheses 56
1. Summary 57
4. Practice Test 58
5. Challenge Exercises 59
2. 4 Ethics 60
2. Professional Issues 62
2. Ethical Dilemmas 64
3. Ethical Guidelines 66
3. Integrity 68
4. Justice 68
1. Institutional Approval 69
2. Informed Consent 70
3. Deception 72
4. Debriefing 73
1. Authorship 78
2. II. Personnel 81
5. V. Experimental Procedures 81
1. Summary 83
4. Practice Test 85
5. Challenge Exercises 85
1. Defining Measurement 88
1. Scales of Measurement 88
1. Nominal Scale 88
2. Ordinal Scale 89
3. Interval Scale 89
4. Ratio Scale 89
2. Reliability 90
1. Test–Retest Reliability 90
2. Equivalent-Forms Reliability 90
4. Interrater Reliability 91
3. Validity 91
3. Sampling Methods 95
1. Summary 106
1. History 118
2. Maturation 120
3. Instrumentation 120
4. Testing 120
6. Attrition 121
7. Selection 122
1. Summary 127
3. Matching 136
7. Counterbalancing 139
1. Randomized Counterbalancing 141
9. Automation 145
1. Summary 146
1. Power 153
5. Procedure 157
3. Instructions 159
5. Debriefing 159
1. Summary 162
1. Summary 189
1. Summary 206
1. Baseline 220
1. Summary 225
1. Matching 232
1. Summary 244
2. Rankings 260
3. Checklists 261
1. Summary 268
2. Ethnography 279
1. Summary 292
2. Key Terms and Concepts 293
2. Histograms 300
4. Scatterplots 302
1. Mode 304
2. Median 304
3. Mean 304
1. Range 306
1. z scores 307
1. Summary 320
2. Estimation 325
1. Summary 350
2. Language 365
1. Specificity 365
2. Labels 365
3. Participation 366
1. Italics 367
2. Abbreviations 367
3. Headings 367
4. Quotations 368
5. Numbers 368
8. Tables 368
9. Figures 369
1. Summary 377
1. Appendix 379
2. Glossary 380
3. References 392
4. Index 401
Preface
Welcome to Research Methods, Design, and Analysis. You are embarking
on a study that will help you to think systematically, critically, and
creatively in Psychology and other disciplines. We have two primary goals
for this text. First, we have focused on writing a book that provides an
understanding of the research methods used to investigate human thought
and behavior. Research methods tend to change slowly, but they do change.
This book provides coverage of the complete range of research methods
available today. Psychology tends to favor experimental methods, so we
devote more time to experimental research methods. Because
nonexperimental research also is used in many areas of psychology, we
carefully cover this method, including how to write a proper questionnaire.
Because of the rapid growth of qualitative and mixed methods in
psychology, we carefully cover these methods to complement the more
traditional methods and to add to each student’s repertoire of research
skills.
Odonata are among the few kinds of Insects that are known to form
swarms and migrate. Swarms of this kind have been frequently
observed in Europe and in North America; they usually consist of
species of the genus Libellula, but species of various other genera
also swarm, and sometimes a swarm may consist of more than one
species. L. quadrimaculata is the species that perhaps most
frequently forms these swarms in Europe; a large migration of this
species is said to occur every year in the Charente inférieure from
north to south.[346] It is needless to say that the instincts and stimuli
connected with these migrations are not understood.
The Odonata have no close relations with any other group of Insects.
They were associated by Latreille with the Ephemeridae, in a family
called Subulicornia. The members of the two groups have, in fact, a
certain resemblance in some of the features of their lives, especially
in the sudden change, without intermediate condition, from aquatic to
aerial life; but in all important points of structure, and in their
dispositions, dragon-flies and may-flies are totally dissimilar, and
there is no intermediate group to connect them. We have already,
said that the Odonata consist of two very distinct divisions—
Anisopterides and Zygopterides. The former group comprises the
subfamilies Gomphinae, Cordulegasterinae, Aeschninae,
Corduliinae, and Libellulinae,—Insects having the hinder wings
slightly larger than the anterior pair; while the Zygopterides consist of
only two subfamilies—Calepteryginae and Agrioninae; they have the
wings of the two pairs equal in size, or the hinder a little the smaller.
The two groups Gomphinae and Calepteryginae are each, in several
respects, of lower development than the others, and authorities are
divided in opinion as to which of the two should be considered the
more primitive. It is therefore of much interest to find that there exists
an Insect that shares the characters of the two primitive subfamilies
in a striking manner. This Insect, Palaeophlebia superstes (Fig. 272),
has recently been discovered in Japan, and is perhaps the most
interesting dragon-fly yet obtained. De Selys Longchamps refers it to
the subfamily Calepteryginae, on account of the nature of its wings;
were the Insect, however, deprived of these organs, no one would
think of referring Palaeophlebia to the group in question, for it has
the form, colour, and appearance of a Gomphine Odonate.
Moreover, the two sexes differ in an important character,—the form
of the head and eyes. In this respect the female resembles a
Gomphine of inferior development; while the male, by the shape and
large size of the ocular organs, may be considered to combine the
characters of Gomphinae and Calepteryginae. The Insect is very
remarkable in colour, the large eyes being red in the dead examples.
We do not, however, know what may be their colour during life, as
only one pair of the species is known, and there is no record as to
the life-history and habits. De Selys considers the nearest ally of this
Insect to be Heterophlebia dislocata, a fossil dragon-fly found in the
Lower Lias of England.
CHAPTER XIX
Fig. 281.—A, Last three abdominal segments and bases of the three
caudal processes of Cloëon dipterum: r, dorsal vessel; kl, ostia
thereof; k, special terminal chamber of the dorsal vessel with its
entrance a; b, blood-vessel of the left caudal process; B, twenty-
sixth joint of the left caudal process from below; b, a portion of the
blood-vessel; o, orifice in the latter. (After Zimmermann.)
The life-history has not been fully ascertained in the case of any
species of may-fly; it is known, however, that the development of the
nymph sometimes occupies a considerable period, and it is thought
that in the case of some species this extends to as much as three
years. It is rare to find the post-embryonic development of an Insect
occupying so long a period, so that we are justified in saying that
brief as may be the life of the may-fly itself, the period of preparation
for it is longer than usual. Réaumur says, speaking of the winged fly,
that its life is so short that some species never see the sun. Their
emergence from the nymph-skin taking place at sunset, the duties of
the generation have been, so far as these individuals are concerned,
completed before the morning, and they die before sunrise. He
thinks, indeed, that individuals living thus long are to be looked on as
Methuselahs among their fellows, most of whom, he says, live only
an hour or half an hour.[364] It is by no means clear to which species
these remarks of Réaumur refer; they are doubtless correct in
certain cases, but in others the life of the adult is not so very short,
and in some species may, in all probability, extend over three or four
days; indeed, if the weather undergo an unfavourable change so as
to keep them motionless, the life of the flies may be prolonged for a
fortnight.
Nearly 300 species of Ephemeridae are known, but this may be only
a fragment of what actually exist, very little being known of may-flies