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Vlad Petre Glăveanu
Editor
The Palgrave
Encyclopedia of
the Possible
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of the
Possible
Vlad Petre Glăveanu
Editor
The Palgrave
Encyclopedia of the
Possible
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Emmanuel, for everything he made possible
Preface
The Possible
vii
viii Preface
equally about the past, the elsewhere, the unseen, and the impossible itself (see
also Glăveanu 2018).
Another important aspect to note from the start is that possibilities are not
always appealing or exciting. Having too many options to choose from can be
disorienting (Scheibehenne et al. 2010), innovating in unsustainable ways
harmful (Røpke 2012), and spending time in virtual reality can reduce the
appetite for in-person encounters (Williams 2007). On the one hand, this quest
for actualizing potentialities reveals the best and brightest in human nature and
is arguably behind our most creative and innovative achievements. But, on the
other, it carries risks and dangers; not everything we imagine as possible
should become reality, not all possibilities lead to the common good. In fact,
as the state of the world today demonstrates – in environmental, social,
economic, and political terms – enacting some potentialities closes the door
on other possibilities, expanding the possible for some can mean reducing it
for others and, thus, ethical choices need to be made at every turn (Sternberg
2021). Engaging with uncertain outcomes requires these choices be made in
the absence of guarantees about the eventual result. In the context of the (post)
pandemic world, it becomes imperative to have a sustained reflection about the
nature of human possibility, its origins, processes, and consequences. This is
the mission of what we currently identify as a “possibilities turn” and the
emerging field of Possibility Studies – the rich background for the present
encyclopedia.
The ability to mobilize what is absent in order to enrich the present has been
intensively studied within a variety of disciplines across history. These
include, but are not reduced to, psychology, philosophy, education, futures
studies, sociology, management, business, developmental science, anthropol-
ogy, politics, design, and the arts. The vocabulary of the possible and the
processes assumed to contribute to its cultivation are equally numerous. There
is today an expanding field of research on creativity, imagination, innovation,
and anticipation, a pervasive interest in counterfactual thinking, as-if thinking
and wondering, and, more broadly, in phenomena like hope, agency, and
utopia. What drives this concern is both an age-old question about the psy-
chological functions that underpin the development of human forms of culture
and civilization and a renewed interest in the power of creativity and imagi-
nation to help us solve the numerous, pressing challenges we are faced with as
individuals and societies. This interest, and the challenges that trigger it, are
both new and old, and a short detour through time can help us understand
better where the possible “fits” within this history and what it can bring about.
There is no single scientific account about our humanity, but an ongoing
story we create and constantly challenge through multiple paradigmatic turns.
For example, the narrative turn of the 1970s and 1980s began in semiology and
literary studies and soon after led the ongoing constructionist movement that
made social scientists pay closer attention to language, culture, and context
(Berger and Luckmann 1989; Bruner 1991). This emphasis on text and
Preface ix
dialogues across the natural and social sciences, the arts and humanities,
theoretical and applied fields.
In order to capture this openness and inclusivity, the possible is broadly
defined as those features, processes, and events that can come into being and
transform what already exists. In other words, beyond the here and now of
concrete experience, possibilities designate the elsewhere, the not yet here and
the nowhere that, through anticipation, imagination, and creativity, shape how
individuals and communities think, feel, and act in the present and build a
future. This is not a romanticized understanding of the possible, but a critical
reflection on who, how, what, when, where, and why we strive towards
possibilities and impossibilities. This ethos substantiates Possibility Studies
and its many potentialities.
Possibility Studies
to have agency and be endowed with imagination are inscribed within human-
istic thought and currently redefined by post-humanism in the direction of
recognizing that materials can also be actants. Psychologists dedicate more
and more time to themes like creativity, serendipity, and chance in trying to
overcome simple and deterministic models of human behavior. Sociologists
and economists bring these interrogations to the level of society and highlight
the pressing need to reimagine institutions and economic principles. Entire
disciplines have been formed around the theme of the future and its pull, both
old (Futures Studies) and new (anticipation studies). Meanwhile, the arts have
continuously attempted to open up new spaces of dialogue and possibility
when it comes to our understanding of the world and our place within it.
The main challenge facing this growing, diverse community is the lack of
systematic opportunities to meet and engage with each other’s ideas. While the
centrality of the theme of human possibility is recognized across several
disciplines (e.g., Appadurai 2013; Gergen 2015; Tavory and Eliasoph 2013),
academics are often trapped by disciplinary siloes of concerns and vocabular-
ies that do not communicate effectively with each other. This lack of cross-
fertilization restricts progress in fields like creativity which crosses several
domains such as psychology, anthropology, design, and philosophy with little
transdisciplinary collaboration. For example, psychological research is often
based on the study of individuals while the literature on social change is
typically focused on macro-social and institutional transformation – theories
and findings from both could cross-fertilize in building frameworks of “col-
lective possibility,” but this is a dialogue yet to take place.
We also have, across disciplines, different terms that capture very similar
phenomena but tend to do so from particular angles. For instance, constraints
are an important notion for innovation and improvisation researchers, but they
tend to have a negative connotation in the former (e.g., among innovation
management scholars) and positive in the latter (e.g., among anthropologists).
However, I believe that it is precisely in the difference of perspectives that
understanding can grow. The purpose of creating a space of dialogue on human
possibility for experts coming from a variety of fields is not to reach consensus
about the topic as this would deny precisely the kinds of differences that are the
engine of possibility itself; it is to create opportunities for transdisciplinary
collaboration, breakthrough research, and for raising the big questions of
Possibility Studies.
In this context, the Palgrave Encyclopedia of the Possible aims to examine this
central notion and the numerous concepts and themes associated with it today
from the standpoint of various disciplines (e.g., psychology, philosophy,
sociology, neuroscience, logic, design, ergonomics, entrepreneurship) and
multidisciplinary fields of research (e.g., anticipation studies, future studies,
complexity theory, creativity research). It adopts multiple perspectives on the
possible, from developmental (e.g., considering its emergence in pretend play
and games, in the use of symbols and technology) to applied (in domains such
xii Preface
References
Goeminne, G. (2012). Lost in translation: Climate denial and the return of the
political. Global Environmental Politics, 12(2), 1–8.
Glăveanu, V. P. (2018). The possible as a field of inquiry. Europe’s Journal of
Psychology, 14(3), 519–530.
Glăveanu, V. P. (2020a). The possible: A sociocultural theory. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Glăveanu, V. P. (2020b). Mobilities and human possibility. London: Palgrave.
Kaufman, J. C., & Sternberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2010). The Cambridge handbook of
creativity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kaufman, J. C., Glăveanu, V. P. & Baer, J. (Eds.) (2017). The Cambridge
handbook of creativity across domains. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Kearney, R. (2002). The wake of imagination. London: Routledge.
Latour, B. (2005). Reassembling the social: An introduction to actor-network
theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Leonardi, P. M. (2013). Theoretical foundations for the study of socio-
materiality. Information and Organization, 23(2), 59–76.
Olson, S. (2016). Grand challenges for engineering: Imperatives, prospects,
and priorities: Summary of a forum. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press.
Poli, R. (2017). Introduction to anticipation studies. Cham: Springer.
Praszkier, R. (2019). Working wonders: How to make the impossible happen.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Røpke, I. (2012). The unsustainable directionality of innovation–The example
of the broadband transition. Research Policy, 41(9), 1631–1642.
Scheibehenne, B., Greifeneder, R., & Todd, P. M. (2010). Can there ever be too
many options? A meta-analytic review of choice overload. Journal of
Consumer Research, 37(3), 409–425.
Sternberg, R. J. (2021). Transformational creativity: The link between crea-
tivity, wisdom, and the solution of global problems. Philosophies, 6(3), 75.
Tavory, I., & Eliasoph, N. (2013). Coordinating futures: Toward a theory of
anticipation. American Journal of Sociology, 118(4), 908–942.
Urry, J. (2016). Mobilities: New perspectives on transport and society.
London: Routledge.
Valsiner, J. (2014). An invitation to cultural psychology. New Deli: Sage.
Vygotsky, L. S. (2004). Imagination and creativity in childhood. Journal of
Russian & East European Psychology, 42(1), 7–97.
Williams, D. (2007). The impact of time online: Social capital and cyber-
balkanization. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10(3), 398–406.
Acknowledgments
The editor would like to express his deep gratitude to all the colleagues at
Palgrave who supported this project from the start and made it possible. His
gratitude also goes to the excellent team of senior editors who generously
dedicated their time and ideas to curate such a diverse and rich type of content,
and to the authors who provided such insightful pieces. Last but not least, the
community of possibility studies scholars, researchers, and practitioners needs
to be acknowledged – this encyclopedia is a landmark in its development, now
and in the future.
xv
List of Topics
xvii
xviii List of Topics
xxi
Section Editors
xxiii
xxiv Section Editors
xxv
xxvi Contributors
Lívia Mathias Simão Universidade de São Paulo-USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
mind, however, still grounded on logical pro- assume it as closer to our purpose of addressing
cesses. Although Peirce’s first ideas are interest- the possible through the lens of Abduction.
ing for the discussion of the possible, we find this One well-known development to Peirce’s ideas A
second version even more critical because this on abductive reasoning is the work of Norwood
idea of Abduction operationalizes how we ima- R. Hanson in the Patterns of Discovery (Hanson
gine, amplify, and create our possible within the 1972). Hanson’s contribution on Abduction is
realms of rational tendencies of dealing with mostly related to the philosophy of science, espe-
uncertainty. cially to scientific discovery. From Peirce’s ideas,
This instinctive and natural capacity for gener- we can point to significant inspirations: how to
ating possible explanations should not be taken as create a new hypothesis through the feeling of
a “truth-seeking” mechanism but as a creative surprise or puzzlement (VenuKapalli 2013) and
(and innovative) reaction to surprise and puzzle- that “backward” reasoning is a step from surprise
ment (Paavola 2005). Peirce’s work often inter- to explanation (Paavola 2006). In a very Peircean
connects words such as surprise, puzzle, curiosity, fashion, Hanson’s proposition is as follows (Han-
guessing, or discovery with the idea of the son 1972, p. 86):
abductive process of inference. In our interpreta-
tion, especially when thinking about the possible, 1. Some surprising or anomalous phenomenon
Peirce is more interested in abductive reasoning “P” is observed.
products in his first phase. Even when he uses the 2. “P” would be explicable as a matter of course if
term “inference process,” knowing its results “H” were true.
(rules, facts, and cases) is at stake. His second 3. Hence, there is a reason to think that “H”
phase, more interesting for us, is concerned with is true.
the human condition of regularly dealing with
uncertainty and, almost always, succeeding in This set of claims was often criticized due to
dealing with it “rationally.” Peirce’s second the “lack” of soundness (Plutynski 2011). How-
phase is the most prevalent today when scholars ever, for our purposes, this is an astounding
think or speak about Abduction; however, after achievement in the philosophy of science. This
Peirce, much work has been done to conceptually simple syllogistic construction allows us to reflect
and empirically advance the idea of Abduction upon the fact that knowledge construction
and its role in human life. depends on the observer’s constructive and active
role in coordinating previous knowledge,
observed strangeness (most times related to a feel-
Further Advances on Abduction ing or confusion), and a plausible momentary
truth giving us tools to operationalize how new
Much of the conceptual work on Abduction has knowledge emerges in different contexts,
been developed in the writings of Peirce; how- although Hanson has described it mainly on sci-
ever, much of the contemporary understanding of entific discovery methods.
abductive reasoning (and its manifold) is also due As Peirce had proposed before, all human
to further development in different fields of exper- inference must come from a natural tendency to
tise: philosophy and logics (Hanson 1972; Ander- deal with information. Scientific thinking is just a
son 1986), psychology and cognitive sciences complex form of our regular capacity to inference
(Thagard and Shelley 1997; Magnani 2009), lin- applied to a specific field of knowledge “. . . all
guistics and literature (Eco and Sebeok 1983), and human knowledge, up to the highest flights of
many others. In this section, we review the ideas science, is but the development of our inborn
that helped to advance the concept of Abduction animal instinct” (Peirce, CP 2.754, 1903). With
and how it relates to the idea of the possible, but, this, we move forwards into conceptualizing
as pointed out before, we will privilege ideas that Abduction as the “natural” and “inborn” inferen-
departure from Peirce’s second phase because we tial move of creating “if-true” possible
4 Abduction
knowledge. In other words, this accounts for the Tomas Sebeok (1983) argue for a compelling
plausible (and possible) as a momentary truce. case that the logical methods prescribed in inves-
Although not a consensus, we remark that within tigative literature were “creative” Abduction (not
this “model” of discovery, the importance does deductive as most times they are referred to).
not rely on data itself but subjects’ reactions. For Their book goes further into the idea that Abduc-
us, this is a big step into developing a theory of tion is always present in the human mind. It is part
knowledge based on feelings, reactions, and of the fabric of our cognition. Their several chap-
human agency, contrary to data-driven, logical ters book makes a remarkable work in presenting
soundness and truth-seeking. how to integrate clues and imagination into
This humanistic understanding of knowledge “quasi-logical” guessing procedure, brilliantly
construction under uncertainty is not bullet-proof present in Arthur Conan Doyle and Edgar Allan
to criticism. One criticism of this “broader” idea Poe’s novels.
of Abduction points out that hypothetical thinking One significant contribution taken from this is
must be inferred within the existing premises. how Eco and Sebeok (and many other contribu-
Hence, it is not new knowledge. In this sense, tors to the book) recall the importance of
Abduction is not sufficient to propose a discovery semiotics in comprehending Peirce’s logical
model (Kapitan 1990). Moreover, as Paavola operation ideas. In this sense the capacity of
(2004) pointed out, this criticism sought to distin- Abduction to infer signs from signs to make up
guish between rational inference and what Peirce possible interpretations in a sign-mediated real-
accounts for as guessing or instinct. As points ity, resulting in a big step because the realm of
Santaella (2005) in Peirce, we can find this dis- logical validity and truth-seeking frequently
tinction. However, this does not diminish the claims Abduction. Reclaiming it to the semiotic
importance of the second one in favor of the first domain highlights the importance of context,
one. On the contrary, this shows that there is more language, and imagination for human “sense-
to reasoning than formal logic. making” of the world.
In fact, in modern logic and argumentation To sum up the after-Peirce advances on the
theory, Abduction refers to what Gilbert Harman concept of Abduction, we refer to Thagard’s
postulates as “inference to the best explanation” (2007) four quasi-logical models in Peirce’s
(Harman 1965). This model Abduction refers to a ideas: (1) simple hypothetical inferences from
subtype of inductive inference that warrants us to objects, (2) existential Abduction, that postulates
logically eliminate alternative explanations to a knowledge to exist in the absence of fact to back
set of premises (empirically observed or logically it, (3) rule-forming Abduction, a vital inference
formulated). In this sense, Abduction is the pro- procedure in theory generation (rules that explain
cess of finding the most probable (or better suited) other rules), and (4) analogical Abduction, an
explanation to a given observation under the inference that uses past cases (or experiences) to
available information. Although not directly further formulate a more complex hypothesis.
related to Peirce’s notion of Abduction (especially These four quasi-logical models are a useful
the second Peirce), this model also allows us to description of achievements made by using
reflect that “the possible” is always part of the Peirce’s ideas. Moreover, Aliseda (2006) pro-
knowledge construction processes. It shows us poses a simpler version account for Abduction as
that even under formal logic interests, we cannot referred to three levels of inference: (1) a logical
escape that uncertainty (or lack of information) parameter involved in formulating explanations
drives human minds to a possible that we must (possibility, plausibility, derivability, and others),
accept as an open-to-discussion truth. (2) those “triggers” for new knowledge formula-
The advances in Abduction are not limited to tion (e.g., puzzlement and surprise), and (3) the
logic or the applied fields of logical propositions. products of abductive reasoning (facts, rules or
In the investigation, the “methods” of Sherlock theories). Although not exhaustive, these two
Holmes and C. Auguste Dupin, Umberto Eco, and summaries are good descriptions of the uses of
Abduction 5
the concept of Abduction throughout different In the following sections, we present three
domains of knowledge. However, we still have examples of Abduction in different contexts.
to make it clear how Abduction and the possible First, we discuss how abductive modes of reason- A
come together. ing enable scientific discovery and explanation.
Second, we present how the application of
Abduction-inspired classroom practices fosters
Abduction and the Possible imaginative, exploratory, and innovative knowl-
edge construction for students. Third, we present
For Peirce (and most scholars in this field), the how Abduction is part of how we make up our
starting point in Abduction must be the feeling of understanding of everyday life, focusing on how
puzzlement, in his particular interpretation (and this inference mode is much more present than
neglected by others), the central importance of one would imagine.
emotion in this mode of reasoning, as astonish-
ment and surprise are both significantly related to
emotions and abductive inference in real-world Abduction and the Possible in Scientific
situations (Thagard 2005). In a certain sense, Discovery
Abduction can be interpreted as a reaction to
surprise that enables the formation of the possible, Our departure point for this section refers to
a step toward amplifying what is known through Peirce’s own words: “Every single item of sci-
concluding something useful or new (Hintikka entific theory which stands established today has
1998). been due to Abduction.” (Peirce, CP 5.172,
This tendency to plausibility allows us to infer 1903) As Gare (2020, see entry ▶ “Specula-
that Abduction is the process of creating new tion”) points out, scientific discovery is achieved
knowledge based on feeling and intuition through speculation because it depends on imag-
(Paavola 2005). Moreover, this tendency varies ining creative solutions to contradictions, limita-
in degrees of plausibility. As Paavola (2006) tions, blind spots, and paradoxes. Moreover,
says, it goes from “a question meriting attention” Wilkie (2021, see entry ▶ “Speculative
to an “uncontrollable inclination to believe.” Research”) points out that when this type of
Abduction tends to create the possible, and for investigation is in place, one in which we are
Peirce, this means a possible that obeys the laws dealing with surprising or uncertain objects, we
of nature and reflects rational human capacities. are launched into the realm of the unexpected,
This “guessing” instinct of reasoning (Santaella novel, and “possibilistic.” We go further; what
2005) Peirce often points out to be correct and scientists are asked to do is make a possible,
reveal logical goodness (El Khachab 2013). How- acceptable, useful, and plausible knowledge,
ever, weak in form, this type of inference is pow- even if it is not a self-evident truth. To present
erful in creating plausible realities that give our case, we use the example of Johannes
texture to everyday life affairs. Kepler’s postulate of Mars’ orbit famously
The possible interpreted through the lens of discussed by Peirce.
Abduction refers to new, if-true, maybe, almost Kepler’s case is quite famous among scholars
logical construction of (not yet known) knowl- who study Peirce’s work. Peirce (CP 2.96, 1902)
edge. For that reason, many scholars have says that when observing the orbits of the planet
described Abduction as a discovery method (Han- Mars, they behave as if they were elliptical. Note
son 1972), a starting point for novelty in science that this as-if thinking made Kepler so inclined to
(Thagard 2005), the logical requirements to deal this conclusion that he applied (or created) a
with uncertainty (El Khachab 2013). Most impor- model to verify if it was also true for the other
tantly, Abduction is interpreted as something that planets and parallaxes observed in the data.
constrains and fosters searching for new ideas Kepler’s discovery is an abductive move in
(Paavola 2006). Peirce’s notion not because he found the right
6 Abduction
answer but because he found it through feeling as argumentation is to explore possible alterna-
inclined to something and then tested it afterward. tives to explain, advance, reject, or strengthen an
This discovery is now used to discuss several opinion based on coordinating previous and new
points: new knowledge is not the result of a single knowledge. Moreover, Larrain (2017) argues that
person’s genius (Hanson 1972), to exemplify the deduction and induction are insufficient to
rational process of finding an explanation to sur- explain the development of concepts. There must
prising data (McKaughan 2008) and how creative be a mechanism responsible for anticipating,
and inventive processes of analogy do scientific reviewing, and reorganizing new knowledge. In
thinking (Kapitan 1990; Gentner 2002). In this this sense, she says that formulating and evaluat-
case, the Possible results of a constructive process ing the (im)plausibility of something revolves
of feeling and pursuing an intuition, what around imagination. For concept development
Magnani (2009) calls “creative Abduction.” and learning, then, imagination is necessary
because it moves the here-and-now knowledge
to surpass borders not yet known.
Abduction and the Possible in Teaching In the same spirit, one example of this
and Learning approach to learning processes is Macêdo’s
(2021) work observing university students
Educational settings are fruitful spaces for reason- discussing personality development theory in
ing processes to emerge, develop, and establish Psychology. In this work, the author presents
within social practices of learning. Deduction or how students frequently engage in the “if-true,
induction base most of what is said about teacher then. . .” type of reasoning using different psycho-
and students’ reasoning in classroom activities. logical concepts in order to make sense of the
The first one accounts for formal procedures of concept of gender transition, without instructions
reasoning based on syllogistic truth-seeking to do it in this particular way. Initially, the case
methods, mostly concerned with necessary truth seems to be a rather traditional deductive infer-
conditions for knowledge. The second one refers ence structure “if. . . then. . . .” However, we point
to learning based on generalizations from data, to the use of an if-like type of discourse meant to
especially in the learning of natural sciences. expand the boundaries of the concepts in order to
These practices look for true, valid, and accurate evaluate what they did apply for or not; in other
scientific concepts. words, the students were not making deductive
However, a very current student practice, but movements trying to infer an existing conclusion,
less conceptualized or even explored as useful, they were actually proposing best possible expla-
occurs when students explore knowledge through nations if the use of personality would apply or
different alternatives, promoting as-if statements not to a variety of situations. For the students
that defy consolidated and normative school engaged in the conversation, it was essential to
knowledge. Haig (2012) calls it abductive learn- see if the role of nature and nurture in the consti-
ing when applying different forms of abductive tution of personality implied what notion of trans-
reasoning to different learning activities that ask formation and to what extent this transformation
students to formulate explanations and test would be conscious or voluntary. With different
hypotheses for an observed phenomenon. scenarios and creating possible worlds, the stu-
In a different direction, other researchers dents were able to coordinate, assess, and formu-
address the abductive processes in education in a late different positions that could be plausible
broader sense. For Rapanta (2018), active meth- through “as-if” thinking; they were experimenting
odologies that rely on engaging classroom dis- with the plausibility of concepts and not with
course, such as argumentation, actually foster certainty of them. Even when engaging wrongly
abductive reasoning and not formal logic or pos- with some canonical concepts, this “if-true”
sible generalizations. In other words, that what we “maybe” reasoning allowed them to move for-
ask our students to do when using discourse such ward the boundary of the concepts discussed.
Abduction 7
Unlike conditional thinking, we highlight here ignorance (or at least partially), and (3) ignorance
that the imaginative, creative, momentary theory is used as the basis for new knowledge, in this
construction made it possible for the students to sense, we abduce from constitutive ignorance. A
engage critically in the subject-matter in a way Magnani’s work is an essential step in developing
traditionally they would not be able to. a theory on how we deal with uncertainty through
abductive means while creating new knowledge
that helps us surpass situational ignorance, be it at
Abduction and the Possible decision making, professional practices, or art
in Ordinary Life appreciation.
On the presence of Abduction in our lives,
While the two before mentioned examples speak Thagard’s (2007) view helps us understand the
of effortful and deliberative processes (at least as role of emotion and intuition in our rationality.
part of scientific discovery or learning), we now Most of what is made from Peirce’s ideas on
address a relatively fast and uncontrolled interpre- Abduction is related to the logical strength of
tation of Abduction (Thagard 2005, 2007; this mode of reasoning. However, Thagard
Magnani 2015). In many interpretations, Abduc- (2007) says that one missing point is that even in
tion is the process of discovering or unveiling Peirce’s work, Abduction departures from and
“existing” knowledge, or at best, bringing to arrives at emotional states. For him, the process
light hidden information through a weaker form of Abduction starts at the feeling of puzzlement
of inference (Paavola 2006). That is mostly due to and ends at the satisfaction of knowing. This
the impact of Peirce’s ideas on logic and the concept is vital because it reclaims the role of
philosophy of science. However, when consider- psychological processes in our understanding of
ing how the later Peirce relates to contemporary the world.
psychology of reasoning, and even cultural psy- Following Peirce’s idea of “[. . .] the perceptual
chology, the boundaries of Abduction are stressed judgments, are to be regarded as an extreme case
to limits outside formal logic and thrown into the of abductive inference” (CP, 5181 1903), Thagard
human mind relation to reality, what many logi- (2007; Thagard and Shelley 1997) presents an
cians worry as “psychologism.” Now, we address interpretation of Abduction related not only to
how Abduction shapes (not discovers) our reality. logical and verbal acts of reason but as part of
We aim to show that Abduction is part of every- our forms of inferring the surrounding reality. For
day life as a vital and concrete experience him, Abduction is a multimodal type of inference
(Nubiola 2005) of making the “best possible” that coordinates our emotional reaction and
out of our previous knowledge (or ignorance). guides us to the satisfaction of finding plausible
Magnani (2015) proposes that abductive rea- knowledge.
soning is a type of response to ignorance- This interpretation is not only well described
problems. Ignorance (see entry ▶ “Ignorance”) is but originates from Peirce’s own words. Now we
taken as uncertainty, puzzlement, or unexpected look at an example of how abductive inference is
knowledge demanding situation (we could risk part of the ordinary experience of everyday life
stating that all situations are these in nature). events in Peirce’s words:
Moreover, he proposes that Abduction is an
ignorance-mitigating type of reasoning, meaning Looking out my window this lovely spring morning
I see an azalea in full bloom. No, no! I do not see
that there are other less useful types of responses that; though that is the only way I can describe what
(non-mitigating) and that abductive reasoning is a I see. That is a proposition, a sentence, a fact; but
large part of how our cognition handles reality. He what I perceive is not proposition, sentence, fact,
proposes that ignorance-problems triggers one of but only an image, which I make intelligible in part
by means of a statement of fact. This statement is
three types of responses: (1) ignorance overcome abstract; but what I see is concrete. I perform an
due to additional knowledge necessary in that Abduction when I so much as express in a sentence
context, (2) acceptance and surrendering to anything I see. The truth is that the whole fabric of
8 Abduction
our knowledge is one matted felt of pure hypothesis rational procedure but the tendency to find plau-
confirmed and refined by induction. Not the sible and useful solutions that mitigate ordinary
smallest advance can be made in knowledge
beyond the stage of vacant staring, without making life “ignorance.”
an Abduction at every step. (MS 692, 1901 – our
emphasis)
Cross-References
This idea of Abduction allows us to conclude
that our reality is a recurrent process of guessing ▶ “As If” Thinking
and readjusting our knowledge to our senses. In ▶ Concept Formation
this sense, the possible is not discovered or is a ▶ Ignorance
probable event. The possible, interpreted through ▶ Serendipity
this amplified idea of Abduction, is the reality in ▶ Speculation
itself, and the process to construct (not discover) is ▶ Speculative Research
abductive, fast, and uncontrolled inference. With ▶ Surprise
this example, we point to the accomplishment of
Peirce in presenting (or reviewing) how our cur-
rent state of real worldliness is momentary and References
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proposal for investigation. In Abductive reasoning
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Anderson, D. R. (1986). The evolution of Peirce’s concept
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We aimed to present how Abduction is developed Bergman, M., & Paavola, S. (Eds.). (2003) The Commens
dictionary of Peirce’s terms. Retrieved from http://www.
in Peirce’s early and late phases with this entry. helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html. Reprinted
Following the latter, we discuss how the possible from A letter to Calderoni, by C. S. Peirce, 1905
is only ever realized in life because of this peculiar Eco, U., & Sebeok, T. (1983). The sign of the three: Dupin,
mode of reasoning. Abduction, then, should be Holmes, Peirce. Bloomington: Indiana University
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viewed as a natural modality of inferences that El Khachab, C. (2013). The logical goodness of abduction
has two sides to it: on the one hand, it can be in C. S. Peirce’s Thought. Transactions of the Charles
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puzzlement, and for this reason, Abduction is a problem of contemporary epistemology. Transactions
particular case of reasoning because it brings emo- of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 34(3), 503.
Kapitan, T. (1990). In what way is abductive inference
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Action Research 9
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A. W. Burks (Eds.), (CP) Collected Papers of Charles Action research is an approach to research
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which aims at both taking action and creating
Peirce, C. S. (1963–1966). (MS) The proper treatment of knowledge or theory about that action as the
hypotheses: A preliminary chapter, toward an exami- action unfolds. It starts with everyday experi-
nation of Hume's argument against miracles, in its logic ence and is concerned with the development
and in its history. The Charles S. Peirce papers,
30 reels, 3rd microfilm edition. Cambridge, MA: The
of living knowledge. Its characteristics are
Houghton Library, Harvard University, Micro- that it generates practical knowledge in the
reproduction Service (Manuscript 692 quoted as MS). pursuit of worthwhile purposes; it is partici-
Plutynski, A. (2011). Four problems of abduction: A brief pative and democratic as its participants work
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together in the present tense in defining the
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role of argumentation. Informal Logic, 38(2), 293–311. through cycles of action and reflection. In this
Santaella, L. (1991). Instinct, logic, or the logic of instinct.
Semiotica, 83, 123–141.
vein they are agents of change and core-
Santaella, L. (2005). Abduction: The logic of guessing. searchers in knowledge generation and not
Semiotica, 2005(153-1/4), 175–198. merely passive subjects as in traditional
Thagard, P. (2005). Generating explanatory hypotheses: research. In this vein, action research can be
Mind, computer, brain, and world. In The Proceedings
of the XXVII Annual Conference of the Cognitive Sci-
understood as a social science of the possible
ence Society, CD edition (Vol. 33). as the collective action is focused on creating
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10 Action Research
enhancing an urban orrural community, or the cycles of planning, taking action, and reflec-
improving an agency’s service to its clients. Of tion performs both a practical and philosophical
course, what constitutes a worthwhile purpose function in its attentiveness and reflexivity as to A
and for whom is an inquiry in its own right. As what is going on at any given moment and how
action research generates practical knowledge in that attentiveness yields purposeful action and
the pursuit of worthwhile purposes, it is participa- learning. In summary, action research is a living,
tive and democratic as its participants cooperate in evolving process of coming to know rooted in
creating the worthwhile possible future. Partici- everyday experience; it is a verb rather than
pants work together in defining the questions they a noun.
wish to explore, the methodology for that explo-
ration, and its application through cycles of action
and reflection. In this vein they are coresearchers The Philosophies of Action Research
and agents of change and knowledge generation
and not merely passive subjects. Action research has a solid grounding in many
Action research starts with everyday experi- philosophical approaches: Aristotelian praxis,
ence and is concerned with the development of American pragmatic philosophy, Habermasian
living knowledge. It draws on diverse forms communicative action, the Lewinian social psy-
of knowing (referred to as the extended chology of change, phenomenology, critical the-
epistemology). ory, constructivism, social constructionism,
critical realism, and in the philosophy of Wittgen-
• Experiential knowing – the knowledge arising stein. The SAGE Encyclopedia of Action Research
as people encounter the realities around them (Coghlan and Brydon-Miller 2014) provides rich
• Presentational knowing – the knowledge introductions to action research’s diverse philo-
expressed in giving form to experiential know- sophical foundations and expressions. Susman
ing through language, images, music, painting, and Evered (1978) argue that the conditions
and the like from which people try to learn in everyday
• Propositional knowing – the knowledge distill- life are better explored through a range of philo-
ing experiential and presentational knowing sophical viewpoints: Aristotelian praxis, herme-
into theories, statements, and propositions neutics, existentialism, pragmatism, process
• Practical knowing – the knowledge that brings philosophies, and phenomenology. They pro-
the other three forms of knowing to full fruition posed that action research provides a corrective
by doing appropriate things skillfully and to the deficiencies of standard social sciences
competently practices by being future oriented, collaborative,
agnostic, and situational implying system devel-
Heron and Reason (1997) argue that practical opment and so generating theory grounded in
knowing is primary as it integrates other forms of action. The case is made that after the linguistic
knowing. Practical knowing opens up new forms turn of postmodernism it is now time for the action
of engagement with the world (experiential know- turn in generating knowledge that is both valid
ing) and leads to representing this experience in and vital to the well-being of individuals, commu-
significant patterns (presentational knowing), nities, and the promotion of larger-scale demo-
which is turn feeds into a revised propositional cratic social change.
understanding of the originating questions. At a glance action research seems to have a
An added dimension to the engagement in relationship with “Responsible Research and
practical knowing as a philosophy of research is Innovation” (RRI), a term used within the
that it involves researching in the present tense European Union to denote forms of scientific
(Coghlan and Shani 2017). Action research builds research and technological development pro-
on the past, takes place in the present with a view cesses that take the effects and potential impacts
to shaping the future. Accordingly, engagement in on the environment and society into account
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CHAPTER X
THE WOUNDED MOOSE
In this way he passed the long, terrible hours of the night. But as
soon as it began to grow light he untied the dogs, and took a circle of
several miles through the woods, hoping that he might find some
trace of the missing hunter. But he remembered the old man’s
instruction that he was not to leave the camp to go any very great
distance, and after two hours of futile search he returned in despair.
The dogs, seeming to realize that something was wrong, were
alert to every unusual sound; and when Larry would spring up and
peer through the trees expectantly, they would leap about and bark
excitedly. But the sun rose higher and higher, and still Martin did not
come.
At last the boy could stand the suspense no longer. In defiance of
Martin’s explicit instructions he decided to leave the camp and try to
find him. The thought that the old man must have been injured, or
taken ill, kept forcing itself into the boy’s mind. An experienced
hunter like Martin would not lose his way; and moreover, if he should
become confused, he would still have his own trail to follow back to
camp; for this trail was well marked in the snow. In any event, Larry
could not remain inactive any longer with these terrible fears tearing
at his heart.
So he harnessed the dogs tandem to one of the empty toboggans,
strapped on his snow-shoes, and started out following Martin’s trail
of the day before. At first he took the lead, running at top speed; but
presently he found that, since the trail had been broken out by
Martin, he could make better time by letting the dogs haul him on the
toboggan. His weight was so much less than the load they were
accustomed to haul that now they ran along the trail at high speed,
following Martin’s tracks without any guiding instructions.
For two hours they went forward, Kim leading, his nose close to
the snow, and both dogs keenly alert. The tracks wound in and out
among the thickets, indicating where Martin had explored likely
looking places for game, but their general direction was toward the
southwest, the course the old hunter had said he should take. Once
the snow-shoe trail had followed the track of a deer for half a mile;
but evidently the animal was not overtaken, for presently they found
where Martin turned off into his original course again.
By noon the dogs had begun to slacken their pace a little, and
Larry, thoroughly discouraged, had decided that he would retrace his
course, when they reached the crest of a low hill a short distance
ahead, which seemed to command a view of the country for some
distance around. If nothing could be seen of Martin from this hill, he
would face about and return to camp; and more than likely he should
find the old man there waiting for him. Hardly had he reached this
decision, however, when Kim stopped so suddenly that Jack and the
toboggan bumped into him, and stood with bristling hair and stiffened
muscles for a moment, and then made a frantic leap forward,
snarling and barking.
At the same time Jack seemed to have discovered the cause of
his mate’s excitement, and it was only by twisting the sled rope
about a sapling that Larry prevented them from dashing madly off
into the woods. Yet he was unable to discover the cause of their
actions, although he peered intently through the trees in all
directions. But whatever the cause, he knew that they had scented
something quite out of the ordinary; and as a precaution he drew the
little rifle from its case and made sure that the firing-pin was set for
the heavy cartridge.
Then he took a firm grip on Kim’s collar, putting all his weight
against the dog’s strength, and advanced cautiously through the
trees toward the top of the hill.
The crest of this hill had been cleared of large timber years before
by a forest fire, and there was an open space for several hundred
yards beyond. When Larry reached this cleared space he saw a
sight that made his heart leap into his throat and his hair seem to lift
his cap. His hand trembled so violently that he came near dropping
his rifle, and his breathing ceased altogether for a moment.
For at the opposite side of the clearing stood a huge animal, tall
and gaunt, its thick neck supporting a head like a great black barrel
crowned with a pair of thickly pointed horns that seemed as long as
the toboggan from tip to tip. The great creature stood facing him, the
long, coarse hair about its head and neck standing out straight, its
fore legs wide apart, its hind legs slightly bent ready for a spring
forward. All about it for a space of several yards the snow was
trampled into a hard bed and blotched with blood.
In the center of this trampled space was a huge boulder, and just
beside it a sapling perhaps six inches in diameter. Perched on the
top of the boulder and only a few inches out of reach of the great
antlers, old Martin lay huddled. Or, to be more exact, what appeared
to be a bundle of Martin’s clothes that looked as if they might have
been hurled there by the infuriated animal. The mystery of the old
man’s failure to return to camp was explained.
At the sight of the huge animal so close at hand the dogs became
absolutely frantic; and knowing that it would be folly to try to control
them further, and wishing to give them every possible advantage in
the fight that was now inevitable, the boy slipped the harness from
each.
As the dogs bounded toward the wounded animal, the moose
sprang forward to meet them, snorting fiercely; but in doing this the
heavy creature put itself at once at a disadvantage. For its hoofs
broke through the crust at every step, while the dogs kept their
footing on the surface, darting in and out, snapping fiercely at legs
and flank.
The noise of this battle roused Martin from the stupor into which
he had fallen, so that he raised his head, and then gradually dragged
himself into a sitting posture. Then, as he recognized the dogs, and
saw Larry hurrying forward, new life thrilled the old man, and he
began waving his hand and shouting feebly to the boy.
At first his voice was so low that the boy could not hear it above
the din; but as he approached the rock, waiting for a favoring
moment to place his one shot in some vital spot, he could make out
some of Martin’s instructions shouted through his trumpeted hands.
“Steady, boy, steady!” the old man shouted. “Wait till he turns his
head, and shoot between the eyes! Not now—wait till he turns—not
yet—!”
Just then the moose, frantic with pain and anger, caught sight of
the boy approaching him. At this discovery the huge animal seemed
to forget the dogs, and wheeling, made straight for Larry, head down,
bristles standing, and bloody foam blowing from its nose and mouth.
“Shoot! Shoot! For God’s sake shoot, Larry!” the old man
screamed, half rising, and then toppling back upon the rock.
But Larry needed no instructions. He had proved himself and his
weapon only yesterday, and he had the courage born of experience.
The first terror inspired by the huge animal had passed, and now he
stood with his feet braced wide apart on his snow-shoes, the rifle at
his shoulder and his eye fixed on the little bead of the front sight as
the huge animal plunged toward him. Kim and Jack, realizing the
impending danger to their master, buried their teeth in the moose’s
flanks on either side and hung on grimly causing the animal to pause
momentarily. This was Larry’s chance. There was a flash and report,
and the big animal, rearing upwards and sinking on its hind legs,
plunged sidelong into the snow and lay still. The heavy steel-
jacketed bullet had crashed into its brain, killing it instantly.
Before the huge head fairly reached the ground both dogs were at
the animal’s throat, tearing and mangling, mad with the lust of battle.
Larry, reacting from the tense excitement, felt his knees sag under
him as he realized the result of the shot. But even this did not make
him forget to load his gun again instantly—a thing that becomes
automatic with the hunter—and approach the beast cautiously, ready
for another shot. But the dogs, with fangs buried in the creature’s
throat, gloating in the hot blood, bore silent witness that more shots
were unnecessary.
Then Larry’s pent-up emotions found expression in a wild shout
as he rushed to where old Martin lay.
But his feeling changed to dread apprehension when he reached
the base of the rock, saw where the blood had trickled down over the
side, and found that the old man had fallen back unconscious.
Perhaps his triumph had come too late after all! In an instant he had
kicked off his snow-shoes, climbed the sapling that rose beside the
rock, and was kneeling over the still, crumpled figure, his warm
hands caressing the white cheeks, his voice choked with emotion.
His warm touch revived the hunter, who opened his eyes slowly,
and then smiled faintly up at the boy.
“I’ll be all right in a minute,” the old fellow whispered; “get me off
this rock and build a fire, quick. I’m frozen.”
But getting the injured hunter off the rocks without hurting him
proved a difficult task. The sides were almost perpendicular, and
Martin too weak to help himself at all. So, after several futile
attempts, Larry was obliged to get the harnesses from the toboggan,
fasten the draw strap under the hunter’s arms, and in this manner
lower him over the side. Then the boy quickly gathered some sticks
and made a hot fire.
During most of this time Martin remained inanimate, but he
revived again when Larry had dragged him near the fire; and now he
asked faintly for water. A few gulps of the melted snow water from
Larry’s cup revived him perceptibly, and meanwhile the boy was
chafing his cold hands, and had removed his moccasins and drawn
his feet close to the fire.
Presently Martin asked feebly for food; but Larry shook his head.
For once he had forgotten one of the old man’s reiterated
instructions—that he should never go anywhere from camp without
taking at least one ration with him. When he started out he had only
expected to be gone a few hours, and in his perturbation he had
forgotten to take anything to eat.
But the old hunter’s wits had not completely failed him.
“The moose,” he said faintly.
And then the boy remembered that a month’s supply of food, upon
which the dogs were still feasting, was lying only a few feet away. So
in a few minutes he had a huge slice of moose steak suspended on
a stick over the fire, from which he cut off thin strips and fed to the
ravenous hunter.
During this process he had time to observe the nature of Martin’s
injury, although he was not quite sure of its exact location, as the
hunter’s clothes were rent and blood-stained in many places.
“It’s my left leg,” Martin said, interpreting the boy’s anxious
expression. “It’s all ripped to pieces. But it was the cold that was
killing me. Now I’m getting warm and feeling stronger every minute.
In another half hour I’ll be ready to take a ride home with you while
the sun is high.”
By the time the steak was consumed Martin was sitting up, taking
sips of hot water out of the tin cup from time to time. Every
movement caused him great pain, but he strove stoically to conceal
this from the boy.
“Harness up the dogs,” he said presently, “pack me into the
toboggan, and let’s start for camp. We haven’t any time to lose, for it
gets cold on a sled when the sun goes down.”
So Larry called the dogs, who were loth to leave their feast,
packed the old man into the bag on the toboggan so that only his
head showed above the flaps, and started.
Several times he had tried to get the old hunter to tell him how it
had all happened; but Martin put him off, assuring him that there
would be plenty of time for talking when they were back in camp
again.
Once the start was made there was no chance for talking, all
Larry’s energies being required to keep the now lazy dogs up to their
usual speed. And now he realized the wisdom of not feeding them
until their day’s work was done, as was Martin’s inflexible rule. He
was kept busy steering the toboggan around rough places that would
jar his passenger, as the old man’s excruciating pain was
accentuated by every additional shock. Yet Martin would not
consider stopping, or even slackening the pace; and as the dogs
warmed to their work after the first few miles they were able to make
the camp just as the sun was setting, all hands ready to drop from
exhaustion.
They found Larry’s big fire still burning, and in a few minutes he
had warmed up the remains of the feast he had planned for the night
before. Then, when he had wrapped up the injured leg, and propped
the old hunter in a comfortable position before the fire, Martin was
ready to tell his story.
“Don’t you mind now, and look scared whenever I screw up my
face,” the old man began; “for the pain shoots around pretty bad at
times. But I’ll stand it all right, and I’ll kill many a bull moose to pay
for it, too.”
Then he chuckled softly in the old familiar manner.
“What makes me laugh,” he said, “is to think that all this time I
have been letting you think that I am something of a hunter, trying to
show you how to kill game; and here you go out and kill the moose
that came mighty near killing me. This is how it all happened:
“I came across signs of game after I had left the camp about an
hour, and the signs were good too; but still I didn’t get sight of
anything, and I kept going right on until well after noon. So I decided
to turn about and take the back track home, feeling sure that I should
have better luck on the way in. Sure enough, when I came near the
place where you found me, I found where a moose had floundered
along through the snow, probably scared from some yard by my
scent as I passed. He was standing near the big rock and as the
wind was blowing toward me, he hadn’t discovered me.
“So I worked around to get the rock between us, and then I
sneaked up so as to get a close shot and make sure of him. I ought
to have tried a longer shot at him, but you see the .38-40 is a pretty
small cartridge for moose except at close range, and I intended to
get him, sure.
“I sneaked along until I was right behind the rock, and then I
stepped out and shot point blank for his head. But just at the very
second I pulled the trigger the old rascal had to jerk his head about
six inches to one side, so that the bullet ploughed deep into his neck,
just where it would hurt and make him mad, but nothing more.
“And then all the trouble happened in about three seconds. I
jerked down the lever to throw in another cartridge, for he was
coming right at me. But Jumping Jee-rusalem! if the old gun didn’t
jam. The head of the empty shell had broken off and stuck in the
chamber! I didn’t have any time for investigating, for the bull was
right on top of me, so I just jumped for the side of that rock. Nothing
but a fly could have gone up it—without help; and I knew that then as
well as I do now. But I hadn’t any choice. And the curious thing is
that the old moose himself furnished the help.
“He was so close to me when I jumped that one of his points
caught my leg and ripped it open as he went along; but at the same
time he flung his head up and threw me clean up the side of the
rock. So by the time he could stop and turn around I was up out of
his reach. But I was his meat, all the same. All he had to do was to
sit down and wait long enough and I’d freeze or starve to death.
“He had no notion of waiting, though,—that is, not at first. He
planned to come right up there and finish the job. But you see he
didn’t have any friend around to hook him in the leg and give him a
boost as I had, so he couldn’t make it. He tried for a full hour, getting
madder and madder every minute, snorting and pawing up the snow,
and then coming back for another try at me. And there I had to sit
and take it, with my gun lying down below in the snow.
“Pretty soon I saw that the old scoundrel had settled down for a
regular siege. He gave up trying to reach me, but he never took his
eyes off me, and just walked ’round and ’round that rock hoping I’d
come down. I’ll bet he made that circle a thousand times in two
hours.
“I thought when night came that he would start off and give it up,
and several times he did go away behind a clump of trees a few rods
away. But the minute I raised my head or moved a finger he was
right back on the job again.
“Then I knew that my time had come. It wasn’t such a terribly cold
night, you know, but I lay out there in the open with nothing over me,
and I was mighty weak from the blood I’d lost. And I knew that I was
slowly freezing to death. I thought of a dozen things to try, but all of
them were hopeless. There was no use in sliding off and grabbing
the rifle for by the time I could get the broken cartridge out the
moose would have killed me several times over. If it hadn’t been for
the leg I’d have come down and fought it out with the old brute with
my hunting knife. I have done that before with a wounded bull. But I
was so weak that I could hardly raise my body, let alone my leg. So I
just settled down to freeze.
“But you see I’m a tough old rooster, and when the sun came up
this morning I was still there, with my moose taking good care that I
should stay there. By that time, though, I didn’t care much whether
he stayed or not. It didn’t make any difference. For I couldn’t have
crawled fifty yards if I’d had the chance I was so stiff and weak.
“After a while I dozed off; and the next thing I remember I heard
the bull fighting with some wolves. I thought they were wolves then,
but I didn’t even open my eyes to see, although I hoped they’d kill
him. And then something sounded familiar about those wolves’
voices, and I turned my head. And there was old Jack and Kim trying
to even up my score with the old critter.
“My God! boy, I never knew what it was to be glad about anything
in my life before! There you were coming with the little gun, and
there was Jack on one side and Kim on the other taking out hunks
from the old moose’s side at every jump, and—”
The old man stopped, and brushed his arm across his eyes,
unable to go on for a minute, while Larry sat blinking hard at the fire.
But presently the hunter regained his composure a little, and
continued:
“And then when you fired and shot that old devil right between the
eyes, I was willing to die for sheer joy.”
The old man paused again and tried to force a little laugh.
“And to think that you had to come and kill him with the little gun,
while the best that I could do was to make him mad.”
And he patted the boy’s shaggy head affectionately.
“But you see, Martin, I’ve been having more practice lately than
you have,” the boy said, springing up. “Wait till I show you
something.”
He darted out of the tent and came struggling back hauling the big
white wolf and dropped it before the fire, and then brought the other
three and laid them in a row for Martin’s inspection. His eyes were
shining with pride and the old hunter’s face beamed with genuine
admiration.
“Just four cartridges—one for each wolf,” Larry said proudly, “and
a little tap with a club thrown in for good measure.” And then he told
the old man the story of the wolves, and exhibited the rip in his coat
sleeves.
Several times during the recital Larry noticed that Martin’s face
twitched with the agonizing pain he was suffering, although the old
man tried hard to conceal it, protesting that it was a thing too slight to
be worth noticing.
“It isn’t the pain so much,” the old man said, at last. “I can stand
that all right. But I could stand it just a thousand times better if I had
my old pipe and one pinch of tobacco. Boy, I’d give one long year of
my life if I could have five minutes’ smoke. I’d get up and fight a
moose, or a grizzly, or both, right now for a dozen whiffs of the old
pipe.”
With a little laugh Larry jumped up, ran to their pile of plunder, and
fumbled in his ditty bag. Then he turned and held up a pipe and a
plug of tobacco for Martin to see.
“Will this new pipe do?” he asked, laughing, as he handed Martin
the precious articles.
The old man’s eyes were round with astonishment, and his hands
trembled with eagerness. They trembled so that he could hardly pare
off the shavings of the plug and load the pipe, and light it with the
brand that Larry handed him from the fire. But a few whiffs steadied
him.
“You see,” Larry explained, “when you told me to put something or
other into my ditty bag for luck, I couldn’t think of anything that would
be luckier than a pipe and some tobacco for you—just to buy you off
some time when you got cranky, you know. So here’s your bribe to
keep you good natured about my running off and leaving the camp
when you told me not to.”
“Well, this makes twice to-day that you’ve saved my life,” the old
man grinned, “so I’ll forgive you. And now pile some wood near me
so that I can keep the fire going, and then you crawl into bed and get
some sleep. I don’t suppose this moose leg of mine would let me
sleep anyhow, but even if it did I wouldn’t waste my time doing it
when there was a pipe and some tobacco around. I am almost glad
now that the old beast gouged me.”
CHAPTER XI
THE RETURN TO THE WRECK
Martin was in fine spirits when Larry finally crawled out of his
sleeping bag and set about getting breakfast next morning. The
injured leg was stiff and useless, to be sure, but the acute pain had
subsided and did not bother the old man except when he attempted
to move. “By to-morrow,” he assured the boy, “I’ll be ready to hit the
trail again.”
Larry, with a perplexed look, turned from his work of frying moose
meat to see if Martin was in earnest.
“I guess your tobacco has gone to your head, Martin, if you expect
to be able to use that leg much by to-morrow,” he said indulgently.
“I don’t expect to be able to use it much by to-morrow,” Martin
replied simply, “but we’ll be moving all the same.”
Larry set the frying pan down beside the fire, and came in and
stood before the old man with his arms akimbo, scanning the old
fellow’s immobile face. For a moment or two they faced each other,
neither of them speaking and both looking very serious. Larry was
puzzled but determined.
“Now see here, Martin,” he began, “you don’t really suppose that
you are going to be able to travel to-morrow, do you?”
“I certainly do,” the old man replied without relaxing a muscle;
“and what’s more to the point, I’m going to!”
“But Martin,” Larry protested, “how do you expect that your leg
which is so sore you can’t even move it to-day, will be so you can
walk on it to-morrow?”
“I don’t,” Martin replied.
“Then how do you suppose you are going to stumble on through
these woods mile after mile,” Larry persisted.
“Who said anything about stumbling through these woods, or any
other woods?” the old hunter asked, with a twinkle in his eye. “You
shouldn’t jump to conclusions, Larry.” And he chuckled at the boy’s
discomfiture.
Larry gave a defiant toss of his head and returned to his frying
pan. “Kim and Jack and I are going to eat our breakfast now,” he
announced with a grin. “Perhaps you can beg some breakfast too
when you are ready to tell me what you are driving at.”
“All right,” Martin capitulated; “I’m too hungry to be stubborn. Bring
on the breakfast and we’ll talk while we eat. I’ve been thinking this
thing all out during the night, and here it is:
“We’re going to travel to-morrow, but I intend to ride. I am going to
have you pack me on the sled with a few days’ stock of food, and get
Kim and Jack to haul me. You can come along as escort, if you care
to. In fact if you don’t care to I shan’t go, and we’ll spend the winter
here and starve, instead of going back to the yacht to get fat.”
At this announcement Larry gave a shout that brought the dogs to
their feet in surprise. The idea of returning to their comfortable
quarters on the coast instead of struggling on through the wilderness
seemed a vision of perfect happiness to the boy.
Martin outlined his plan completely while they ate their breakfast.
They would take the two sleeping bags, the tent, and a supply of
food, harness the two dogs to one of the sleds and “hit the back trail
for ‘home,’” as he called the wreck. He would sit on the toboggan in
one of the sleeping bags and direct the dogs while Larry would
trudge behind helping to steady the sled and prevent it overturning in
the rough places. In this way they could make the return trip in four
days easily unless a storm came up. If a storm came they would
simply “hole up” and wait until it blew over. When the wounded leg
had healed, as it would very shortly in their comfortable camp, they
would make another start for civilization.
It took Larry the greater part of the day to make the necessary
preparations for this trip. Under Martin’s direction he rigged one of
the toboggans with handles at the back, so arranged that he could
use them for steadying the sled or helping the dogs in the hard
places as he walked behind. He also made a back-piece of twisted
branches for Martin to lean against as he sat on the sled,
strengthening this rough framework with cord and strips of canvas.
When finished Martin declared that it looked like a movable brush
heap; but he admitted that it was strong and serviceable, and made
a comfortable support for his back.
The second toboggan and the extra provisions were suspended
from limbs high above the ground where they would be out of the
reach of animal prowlers, and available for future use should they
ever need them.
They broke camp the next day before dawn and headed the dogs
out into the open expanse of glistening crust. There was no need to
direct their course, nor stimulate them to top speed. A trained sledge
dog remembers directions better than a man, and is as keen for the
return trip toward home as his human companions. Indeed Jack and
Kim showed such enthusiasm and found that their load ran so easily
on the hard crust that Larry had difficulty in keeping up with them at
times except by clinging to the handles. Crossing the plain, which
consumed so much time on the outward trip, required only three
hours for the return; and even in the woods that lay beyond their
progress was almost twice as fast as before.
Despite Larry’s efforts, however, the sled received severe bumps
at times, that made Martin groan with pain. But the old hunter would
not allow any stops or slackening of speed for so trivial a matter as
his personal discomfort. His dominant idea was to get back “home”
as quickly as possible, and his attitude spurred Larry on to exert
himself to the limit of endurance. By sundown they had covered a
quarter of the distance to the coast; and in the afternoon of the fourth
day they came tearing into the home camp, the dogs barking
frantically and Martin and Larry shouting their delight.
Here they found everything practically as they had left it, so that
they had only to open the tent flaps, light a fire in front, and sit down
to rest and enjoy themselves.
But it was no part of Martin’s plan to let Larry sit idle during the
long weeks that lay ahead of them, or to remain inactive himself one
hour longer than his injured leg compelled him to. He knew that
idleness and lack of diversions were bad things for the boy, who
would very soon feel the strain of their solitary surroundings if not
kept so fully occupied that the time would pass quickly. He could
offer few diversions, but he had planned plenty of active work.
His first move next day, therefore, was to have Larry haul him to a
point where he could inspect the wreck. He found it frozen in where
they had left it, and wedged into a huge mass of ice that would hold
it fast until the warm spring weather. So he transferred their living
quarters temporarily to the after cabin, which Larry made snug with a
little tinkering. Here, warmed by the galley stove, he could give his
wound more effective treatment than in the open tent. Meanwhile he
set Larry to work building a hut made from the wood of the forward
cabin.
The task of tearing this cabin to pieces was even greater than that
of actually putting it together again, but Larry set about it with saw,
axe, and crow-bar. At first he worked alone; but after a few days
Martin was able to crawl up on deck and superintend things from his
seat in a sleeping bag, while the dogs acted as interested
spectators. The days were very short now in this far northern
latitude, and every hour of daylight was devoted to the wrecking
work, leaving the “housekeeping” work to be done by lamplight. In
this way the boy was kept so completely occupied, doing and
accomplishing, that there was little time left to dwell upon the
loneliness of their situation. So that, on the whole, the time passed
quickly and pleasantly. This was what Martin had hoped to
accomplish.
By the time the house-building material was secured, the old
hunter could hobble about on extemporized crutches and give
directions about building the hut, and sometimes assist Larry in
steadying the boards that held the frame in place. And when their
new home had reached a stage that called for finishing touches he
was able to handle hammer and saw in performing some of the
lighter work.
The hut was a curious little creation, with round port holes for
windows and a ship’s cabin door, which gave it the appearance of
having been cast up from the sea. It was made of the tight fitting
boards, and rendered doubly wind proof by two thicknesses of
canvas stretched over every part of it and nailed securely. Inside it
was made attractive with all manner of ornaments taken from the
yacht. There were two comfortable bunks arranged cabin-fashion
one above the other at one end, a table and chairs, a case of books,
and the little stove from the galley that kept the room warm even in
the coldest weather. With its complete equipment, even to spring
cots and mattresses, Martin declared it the finest winter home ever
owned by shipwrecked hunters.
By Christmas day it was completed even to the smallest detail,
and on that day they moved in and formally took possession,
deserting the yacht forever. This day was made one of special
merriment and rejoicing, for Martin was able to dispense with his
cane or crutches for the first time, and use his leg in a natural
manner without assistance. It was still weak, but strengthening so
rapidly that it promised soon to be completely restored to power. So,
to celebrate this combination of happy events, they brought all
manner of delicacies from the pile of stores, and devoted the first
part of the day to preparing for a grand feast.
In the afternoon they harnessed the dogs tandem to the toboggan,
Martin took his place in the “movable brush heap,” and all went for a
“joy ride” of several miles through the woods in a great circle that
brought them back to the cabin about sundown. In several places on
this journey they crossed caribou tracks, the sight of which made
Martin’s eyes sparkle, and he predicted great hunting trips before the
winter was much older.
In the evening they had their grand dinner which the dogs
attended, all hands doing full justice to every course. After the feast
Martin and Larry played cards until far past their usual bedtime.
Taken all in all Christmas day proved a very cheerful one in the great
wilderness.
The old man had cherished the hope that his leg would heal and
gain strength so rapidly that they could make another attempt to
reach the settlements before the winter was over. For he knew that if
they did not do so they must wait until the unsettled weather of
spring was over, and the ground dry enough for reasonably easy
traveling. At that season they would encounter the terrible wood flies
and insects, far more to be dreaded in certain regions than cold and
snow. But it would be madness to attempt to make the winter journey
until his strength had returned fully, and he soon realized that this
would not be until well on toward spring. Very soon he was able to
take fairly long snow-shoe tramps, assisted by the dogs and the
toboggan, but hauling a heavy sled was quite out of the question. So
he finally resigned himself to spending the winter at the cabin.
Larry had shown such aptitude in learning the many secrets of
woodcraft that he determined to make a “land pilot,” as he called it
facetiously, of him during their exile. As the boy had become
proficient in the use of the rifle, Martin devoted part of the time to
instructions in the art of trapping. They were in the land of the silver
fox,—the most highly prized skin of all the fur-bearers—and so they
concentrated their efforts to catch some of these wary animals.
Meanwhile they made constantly lengthening hunting excursions
after caribou, Larry occupying the position of chief hunter with the old
man playing assistant. But on these hunting trips the little gun that
Larry had carried at first was left hanging on its peg in the hut. In its
place Larry now carried a repeater similar to Martin’s—a heavy
weapon, that gave the boy many an arm ache.
Game was not very plentiful, however, and it required constant
efforts to keep their larder supplied with fresh meat. But this scarcity
of game gave the old hunter more opportunities for teaching the boy
all manner of woodland tricks to secure it. Meanwhile he imparted to
his pupil the most important and difficult feature of woodcraft—the art
of “being at home” in the woods—to know directions instinctively, to
observe and interpret every sign, and to take care of himself under
all conditions.
Several times, when the injured leg was stronger and his pupil
more advanced, Martin made practical tests of the boy’s progress.
He would select a day when snow was falling, harness the dogs to
the toboggan loaded with tent, sleeping-bags, and provisions, and
make a zigzag journey into the heart of the woods. Here they would
pitch camp and wait until the storm ceased. By that time their trail
would be completely obliterated. Then, without any guiding
suggestions, he had Larry take the lead and pilot them back to the
cabin.
At first the boy would become confused, and be obliged to call
upon the old hunter to straighten him out; and sometimes Martin
allowed him to become completely at fault before he would aid him.
But little by little Larry learned to observe and remember instinctively,
until presently Martin found it impossible to confuse him even on
long trips.
He learned how to interpret the signs of game, also, how to
approach it successfully, and where to expect to find the wood
denizens under the ever varying conditions. And when they were
successful with gun or traps, Martin taught him how to skin and
dress the game, and to care for the pelts.
“We’ll have to leave all these good furs behind us, I know,” the old
man would say; “but we won’t waste them; and perhaps some other
fellow will come along some day and find them. There’s just one pelt
that we won’t leave, if we get it. That’s the silver fox.”
But this silver fox is a wily fellow. He seems to realize the value of
his coat; or at least he knows that it is very valuable to himself, and
uses his cunning to retain it. Week after week Martin used his
knowledge and Larry’s increasing skill to trap one of these fine
fellows, only to be disappointed on each occasion. They would find
where Reynard had hovered about their trap, sometimes actually
stepping over it to steal the bait, knowing in some occult manner just
where the fatal jaws were concealed. It was in vain that Martin
coated the trap with wax to disguise the scent, covering his hands
and feet with the skins of the wild animals in setting or approaching
the trap. Reynard refused to be deceived.
But perhaps success made him careless, although it was probably
the fault of the thin covering of wet snow that fell one day late in the
spring. For at last, after Larry had almost given up hope of getting
even a single silver fox skin, the inevitable happened. Poor Reynard
walked deliberately into a trap that had been set rather carelessly to
catch a marten.
When Larry discovered this long sought prize held securely by
one foot in the jaws of the trap, he gave a shout of delight at his
unexpected success. The little animal had evidently been caught
several hours before, and from the appearance of the ground about
the trap had struggled fiercely to free itself. But now it seemed
resigned to its fate, and stood crouching, watching Larry’s approach
without making any further effort to escape. Even when the boy
raised a heavy stick to despatch the captive, the little animal made
no attempt to evade the blow, acting more like a dog resigned to take
punishment from its master than a denizen of the wilderness
accustomed to battle for its existence. But its wide, intelligent eyes,
seemed to beg mutely for mercy.
The actions of the little animal completely unnerved the boy: he
could not strike the crouching figure. If the fox had struggled fiercely,
or attempted to fight for its life as a mink or marten always did, Larry
could have despatched it at once; but that submissive attitude
completely disarmed him. He could not resist the mute appeal in
those eyes.
He lowered the club and turned away, ashamed of his weakness.
But when he turned again, determined to overcome his scruples, the
eyes met his with their mute plea, and again he lowered the club.
What would Martin think of such girlishness? he asked himself.
Would Martin, or any good hunter, hesitate to snatch the prize that
he had been struggling for all winter? He was sure they would not,
and he despised himself for his weak-heartedness.
The longer he hesitated the surer he felt that he could not strike.
Then the thought obtruded itself: Who would ever know if he did not
strike? Who would there be to judge him but his own conscience if
he were to set the little animal free instead of killing it? The moment
these thoughts passed through his mind he knew that the fox had
won its freedom. He should have struck at once: now it was too late.
But freeing the captive foot from the jaws of the trap without
encountering the animal’s sharp, white teeth was no easy task; for
he could not expect the fox to interpret his humane action correctly,
and stand mutely while he forced down the trap spring. So it was not
until after several fruitless attempts that he succeeded in placing a
heavy limb across the spring, and by bending it down, allowed the
jaws to fall open and release the foot.
During this manipulation the fox made no attempt to struggle,
simply crouching down and watching the boy with its haunting eyes.
And even when the jaws of the trap relaxed it did not bound away as
Larry had expected, but slipped out of sight stealthily and with no
apparent haste, not yet fully assured of its unexpected good fortune.
The boy watched the animal disappear with mingled emotions of
shame and satisfaction. But when it was out of sight he drew a long
breath, and went back to camp in a sober mood.
That night at supper Martin was unusually talkative. In about a
week, he said, they should start for home if the fine weather
continued, and the thought of it put him in a happy frame of mind.
But Larry ate his supper in silence, trying to excuse himself for his
deception, and his “chicken-heartedness” in freeing the fox.
Martin, who was watching him out of the corners of his eyes,
suddenly surprised him by stopping in the middle of a story to ask:
“Larry, what happened out in the woods to-day that you are so
ashamed of?”
The boy replied evasively at first, but the old hunter shook his
head incredulously.
“See here, Martin,” Larry said at last, “what would you do if you
happened to come along to a marten trap and found a silver fox
there—not a dead fox, you know, and not one that snarled and
snapped and tried to bite you. But a fox that had fought to get loose
until he couldn’t fight any more, but just stood there and looked you
straight in the eye even when you raised a club to kill him, and
seemed to say to you:
“‘That’s right, take your club and kill me, I can’t get out of your way
now. I’m only a poor little fox, anyway, while you are a big, brave boy,
with guns and dogs and traps, and you needn’t even come near
enough so that I can bite you. You have been trying to kill me all
winter, just because some woman will give you a thousand dollars
for the fur I wear to keep warm in, and now you’ve got your chance
to do it.’—What would you do, Martin, if a fox looked at you and
talked to you with his eyes like that?”
“What would I do, Larry?” the old man repeated, looking at the
roof and puffing slowly at his pipe. “Why, I’d say, ‘Martin, here’s your
chance to make a thousand dollars mighty easy. I’ll just hit him a rap
on the head, and take him home and skin him.’ That’s what I’d say,
Larry. But what I’d do when I saw the little fellow’s big brown eyes
asking me to let him go home to his family—what I’d do, probably,
would be to look all around to make sure that no one was looking to
see what a coward I am in my heart, and then I’d spring the trap and
turn the little rascal loose.”
With a bound Larry was out of his chair.
“That’s just what I did this afternoon, Martin,” he shouted, dancing
joyfully about the room to relieve his pent-up feelings.
“And so you sat here all the evening calling yourself a coward,”
said Martin, when Larry had subsided, “just because you couldn’t
bear to kill a fox in a trap. How about killing wolves, Larry, and
moose that are trying to kill you? Cowards don’t act that way, boy.
And the bravest men usually have the softest spots in their hearts.”