Telework Before Anf After Covid-19
Telework Before Anf After Covid-19
Telework Before Anf After Covid-19
Definition: Telework is, today, a voluntary form of work organization in which the employee is lo-
cated outside the employer’s premises, at home or elsewhere, under a telework contract, uses informa-
tion and communication technologies (ICT) and works according to a predetermined schedule on the
basis of an agreed supervisory mechanism and an online reporting system on the work undertaken.
1. History
During the COVID-19 pandemic, teleworking became the “new normal,” chang-
ing people’s lives and affecting working relationships. More than ever, it has inspired
researchers from different fields of activity: economic, sociology, medical, ethical, etc. Re-
viewing the literature, this entry rediscovered the concept of “teleworking” and how it
evolved in the context of socio-economic development from 2000 to 2019. In the context of
the crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, this entry looked for answers regarding the
Citation: Türkes, , M.C.; Vut, ă, D.R.
changes produced by teleworking, one of the main forms of adapting employment to social
Telework: Before and after COVID-19.
distancing. What changes have been made to the legal and contractual regulations? How
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, 1370–1383.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
was the work schedule organized and the working time recorded? How was the training
encyclopedia2030092
provided and performance management carried out? What measures have been taken
regarding the socio-fiscal protection, occupational safety, and work health of employees?
Academic Editors: Stephen Bustin, What were the effects of digitalization? How has the work–life balance changed? In terms
Milva Pepi and Raffaele Barretta
of results, there is clear evidence that telework leads to increased professional satisfaction,
Received: 30 March 2022 higher productivity, and reduced administrative costs, representing a viable future option.
Accepted: 14 July 2022 Telework is a compound term originated by joining two components, “telou” (distance)
Published: 18 July 2022 from the Greek language and the word “tripalliare” (work) of Latin origin [1]. The term can
also be found in the specialized literature under the appellation of remote work [2], working
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
at a distance [3], teleworking [4], telecommuting [5], working from home (WFH) [6], mobile
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
work [7], remote e-working [8], and work from anywhere [9]. It is worth noting that the term
published maps and institutional affil-
“telecommuting” appears almost exclusively in articles published in the North American
iations.
media, while in European publications, the preferred term seems to be “telework.”
The premises for the emergence of telework were created during the Industrial Rev-
olution in telecommunications in the early nineteenth century. Once the federal postal
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. service, telegraphs, photographs, and telephones were introduced, it generated the transi-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. tion from a society based on voice communication, art, and writings (letters, newspapers,
This article is an open access article and books) to an industrialized one, marked by the development of the social division of
distributed under the terms and labor, emergence of new branches of production, new industrial, commercial and transport
conditions of the Creative Commons centers, and expansion of economic, commercial, and communication relations.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Over time, researchers have tried to provide a unitary and well-accepted definition
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ for telework, but with little success. A definition that covers the essence of telework and
4.0/).
differentiates it from other forms of work in the context of changes over time seems an
impossible endeavor.
In the 1980s, Grant et al. (1985) [10] characterized teleworking as “one kind of remote
working, or doing normal work activities while away from one’s normal workplace.” Other
researchers have issued narrow definitions, such as: “working away from the central
office” [11], “for employees to work out of their homes” [12], and “working at home” [13].
If computer and communications technology are considered [14], the definition of remote
work is expanded to include aspects of the processes required to organize work outside the
normal organizational boundaries of space and time.
In the second half of the twentieth century, the digital revolution, through the integration
of digital computers and communication technologies, gradually allowed the transition from
mechanical and analog electronic technology to digital electronics. The advent of the Internet,
the introduction of the home computer, the invention of the World Wide Web, the provision
of the first online services by its members, the transition to digital television, the use of mobile
phones, online social networks, and the increase in the number of users have marked the
beginning of an era of information and communication technologies in the production process,
machines gradually diminishing the need for human intervention. In this context of the
digital economy, the interest in teleworking has increased and international institutions, and
contemporary researchers have developed new modern approaches to this concept.
In 1996, the International Labor Organization (ILO) saw work from home as a form of
work organization in which the employee is located at a distance from the organization’s
headquarters or production units and cannot have personal contact with co-workers [15].
In 2020, the same organization expands the definition of telework, saying that it repre-
sents work performed outside the employer’s headquarters, at the employee’s home, or
elsewhere by using information and communication technologies (ICT), such as smart-
phones, tablets, laptops, and desktop computers, etc., and carried out based on a voluntary
agreement between the employer and the employee, based on some previously established
hours/ schedule, agreed on surveillance mechanism, and some arrangements for reporting
the work undertaken [16].
In addition to the above, in 2008, the European Commission proposed several recom-
mendations on teleworking, such as voluntary choice of teleworking, the right to return
to work at the organization’s headquarters, the guarantee of maintaining the status of
the employee, providing equal treatment, the employer’s obligation to inform, train and
evaluate the teleworker, coverage of the costs of teleworking arrangements by the employer,
ensuring the protection of all teleworkers in the field of occupational safety and health
(OSH), concluding insurance and confidentiality contracts with teleworkers, respecting the
rights and obligations of teleworkers, and facilitating access to telework [17].
In the context of the European Employment Strategy, negotiated agreements between the
European Council and several social partners for the modernization of the labor organization
led to the issuance of Directives 91/533/EEC [18] and 2019/1152 [19], which regulated
new teleworking-specific information, such as a telework employment agreement, telework
voluntariness and reversibility, telework working instruments, equal treatment and non-
discrimination of teleworkers, the privacy of teleworkers, and vulnerable groups of workers.
Some older studies present teleworking as a flexible way of working that involves the ac-
complishment of a wide range of remote work activities, electronic information processing, and
using telecommunications to maintain the employer–employee relationship while performing
full-time or part-time work [20,21]. Authors use terms such as “telework,” “telecommuting,”
or “remote work,” which generally refer to lucrative activities or work tasks carried out
outside the office, either at home or elsewhere, and relying on new technologies [22–25].
The aim of the entry is to analyze the evolution of telework as a flexible and modern
way of working before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, but also the psycho-socio-
economic implications generated on the activity of European enterprises.
The first objective of the entry is to identify several specific aspects of telework, also
highlighting its evolutionary change and socio-economic implications until 2019. Following
The aim of the entry is to analyze the evolution of telework as a flexible and modern
way of working before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, but also the psycho-socio-eco-
nomic implications generated on the activity of European enterprises.
The first objective of the entry is to identify several specific aspects of telework, also
Encyclopedia 2022, 2 1372
highlighting its evolutionary change and socio-economic implications until 2019. Follow-
ing the change in the way we connect, communicate, and work, the second objective ex-
amines the changes in telework regarding legal and contractual regulations, work ar-
the change working
rangements, in the way we connect,
time, measurescommunicate, and work,protection,
regarding socio-fiscal the second work
objective examines
safety, the
the changes
health in telework
of employees, regardingand
digitalization, legal and contractual
work-life balance, allregulations, work
as a form of arrangements,
adapting to the
working
sensitive time, measures
socio-economic regarding
context socio-fiscal
generated by theprotection,
COVID-19 work safety,The
pandemic. thethird
health of em-
objec-
ployees, digitalization, and work-life balance, all as a form of adapting
tive involves making a forecast of the evolution of the number of teleworkers between to the sensitive
socio-economic
2022 and 2025 in the context
EU (27 generated by which
countries), the COVID-19
was made pandemic.
by usingThe the third
Time objective involves
Series Modeler
making
procedure. a forecast of the evolution of the number of teleworkers between 2022 and 2025 in
theInEUthe(27 countries),
context which wascompetitive
of increasingly made by using the Time Series
and intensely Modeler
digitized procedure.
economies, this en-
In the context
try contributes to the of increasingly
literature competitive
by presenting theand intensely
deepest digitized economies,
transformations suffered this entry
by this
contributes to the literature by presenting the deepest transformations
voluntary form of work organization, from its appearance to the present. suffered by this
voluntary form of work organization, from its appearance to the present.
2. The Evolution of Telework between 1990–2019
2. The Evolution of Telework between 1990–2019
Current trends and future evolutions of telework have been the subject of numerous
Current trends and future evolutions of telework have been the subject of numerous
international studies. Specialists grouped the statistics related to telework, considering the
international studies. Specialists grouped the statistics related to telework, considering
degree of penetration in different countries, the potential for adaptation, and future
the degree of penetration in different countries, the potential for adaptation, and future
growth. Thus, Huws (1991) [26] explored the meanings attributed to homeworkers and
growth. Thus, Huws (1991) [26] explored the meanings attributed to homeworkers and
the present and future extent of teleworking. According to Gareis and Kordey (2000) [27],
the present and future extent of teleworking. According to Gareis and Kordey (2000) [27],
at the end of 1999, nine million EU residents were teleworking, and their number was to
at the end of 1999, nine million EU residents were teleworking, and their number was to
increase between
increase between 5–22.8%
5–22.8%byby2005 in in
2005 thethe
mostmostdeveloped
developed countries, such
countries, as France,
such as France, Italy,
Italy,
Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
From
From 2011 to to
2011 2019, thethe
2019, share of of
share employed
employed persons
persons working
working from
fromhome
home in in
thethe
total
total
employment
employment hashas
experienced
experienced a different
a differentevolution
evolution from
fromcountry to to
country country.
country.In In
Belgium,
Belgium,
thethe
share ofof
share employed
employedpersons
personsworking
workingfrom fromhome
homedecreased
decreasedfrom
from 9.9%
9.9% in
in 2011
2011 toto 6.6%
6.6% in
in 2018.
2018. In
In Figure
Figure1,1,aasimilar
similarevolution
evolutionis is observed in Denmark, where the share
observed in Denmark, where the share of employed of em-
ployed persons working from home decreased from 12.0% (2011) to 7.9%
persons working from home decreased from 12.0% (2011) to 7.9% (2019). At the opposite (2019). At the
opposite pole are Malta and Finland, where the share of employees working
pole are Malta and Finland, where the share of employees working at home increased at home in-by
creased byrespectively,
4.2 and, 4.2 and, respectively,
3.6 in the 3.6
samein the
periodsame period [28].
[28].
Figure 1. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2011–
Figure 1. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2011–
2019.
2019.
In the European Union (EU), the share of people aged between 15 and 64 working
In the European Union (EU), the share of people aged between 15 and 64 working
from home out of the total employment increased from 5.4% in 2019 to 12.0% in 2020 and
from home out of the total employment increased from 5.4% in 2019 to 12.0% in 2020 and
13.2% in 2021 [28]. The highest shares of females working from home were recorded in
13.2% in 2021 [28]. The highest shares of females working from home were recorded in
Finland (13.3%), the Netherlands (12.5%), and Luxembourg (12.4%). A special situation is
observed in the Netherlands (15.4%) and Finland (14.7%), where the share of males who
worked from home during the pandemic was higher than that of females (see Figure 2).
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 4
Finland (13.3%), the Netherlands (12.5%), and Luxembourg (12.4%). A special situation is
Encyclopedia 2022, 2 observed in the Netherlands (15.4%) and Finland (14.7%), where the share of males who
1373
worked from home during the pandemic was higher than that of females (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Employed
Figure 2. Employed persons
persons working
working from
from home
home as
as aa percentage
percentage of
of the
the total
total employment
employment in
in2019.
2019.
Dangelmaier et al., in 1999 [29], estimated that the penetration of teleworking in the
Dangelmaier et al., in 1999 [29], estimated that the penetration of teleworking in the
U.S. would have increased to 25% by 2001. At the same time, other surveys indicated high
U.S. would have increased to 25% by 2001. At the same time, other surveys indicated high
rates of telework in Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands [30]. Grimes (2000) [31],
rates of telework in Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands [30]. Grimes (2000) [31],
analyzing the development perspectives of rural areas, considered that the social dimen-
analyzing the development perspectives of rural areas, considered that the social dimen-
sion must be connected with the technological dimension, focused on the installation of
sion must be connected with the technological dimension, focused on the installation of
the necessary infrastructure and equipment, and that teleworking is the ideal form to be
the necessary
promoted infrastructure
in these areas. The and equipment,
results of a 1993and that teleworking
study showed thatisinthe New ideal form tothe
Zealand, be
promoted in these areas. The results of a 1993 study showed
number of teleworkers had increased, especially among low-skilled technical workers,that in New Zealand, the
number of teleworkers
professionals, had small
or innovative increased, especially
businesses among
at home [32].low-skilled
Another studytechnicalfromworkers,
Latvia
professionals, or innovative small businesses at home [32]. Another
shows that, in the context of globalization, the integration of information and communi- study from Latvia
shows that, in the context of globalization, the integration of information
cation technologies, as well as the change of professional responsibilities, the demand for and communi-
cation technologies,
telework as well asofthe
increases regardless change
criteria, of professional
such as gender, age, responsibilities, the demand
and place of residence for
of the
telework increases regardless of criteria, such as gender, age, and place
respondents. Moreover, the inhabitants of less populated areas are interested in socializing, of residence of the
respondents.
and professional Moreover, the inhabitants
networking activities andof less populated
are looking for areas
a job inaresmart
interested
centers inspecially
socializ-
created for remote work [33]. Hesse (1995) [34] shows that the potential for teleworking spe-
ing, and professional networking activities and are looking for a job in smart centers will
cially created
increase for remote
over time, workthe
presenting [33]. Hesse of
example (1995) [34]Department
the U.S. shows that of theDefense,
potential for tele-
which has
working will
expanded increase overarrangements
telecommuting time, presenting the
for its example of
employees withthedisabilities
U.S. Department of De-
and designed
fense,
the which hasneeded
technologies expanded for telecommuting
this form of work arrangements
in the short andfor its employees
long term. with disabili-
ties and designed
In recent themore
years, technologies
and moreneeded
studiesfor thisshown
have form ofthat
workthein theofshort
use and longbrings
teleworking term.
In recent years, more and more studies have shown that the use
many benefits to individuals, organizations, and society. These are presented in Table 1. of teleworking brings
many benefits to individuals, organizations, and society. These are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. The multiple benefits brought by telework.
Table 1. The multiple benefits brought by telework.
The Benefits Brought by Telework
The Benefits Brought by Telework
1. Individuals
1. Individuals
→ → contribute totoachieving
contribute achieving aa better work–lifebalance;
better work–life balance;
→ → obtaining a flexible schedule, working in a coworking
obtaining a flexible schedule, working in a coworking space or onor
space vacation;
on
→ decreasing the expenses regarding transport, clothes, and food; [35–39]
vacation;
→ reducing stress and burnout syndrome (professional burnout); [35–39]
→ → decreasing
developingthetelework-specific
expenses regarding
skills. transport, clothes, and food;
→ reducing stress and burnout syndrome (professional burnout);
2.→ developing telework-specific skills.
Organizations
2. Organizations
→ reducing administrative costs;
→ growing labour productivity;
→ increasing employee engagement; [39–41]
→ finding new ways of employee recruitment.
Encyclopedia 2022, 2 1374
Table 1. Cont.
The existing literature highlights a series of studies that analyze the attitudes and
perceptions of managers and employees related to telework. Some managers, although
reporting positive attitudes towards telework, still show high resistance, although this
could become a significant form of work [43]. Silva-C (2019) [44] noted that specific
managerial practices, employee productivity, and the improvement of information security
tools in organizations are the main factors affecting managers’ attitudes towards adopting
teleworking practices. For young workers who use information and communication
technologies (ICT) easily, telework has become a natural part of work, while for older
workers, it has become a form of postponing or staying active after retirement.
For enterprises, teleworking can also be seen as an opportunity to hire young and
older people, ensure working patterns’ diversification, and experience exchange [45].
Individual and collective labor contracts were updated with new conditions in coun-
tries such as Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Luxembourg, and Slovenia, while in others
(France, Estonia, Spain, Malta, Croatia, Italy, Portugal, and Greece) it was enough only
to conclude written agreements. According to Hendrickx et al. (2020) [47], the Belgian
government adopted a series of labor market-related measures, amending the legal regu-
lations on teleworking and social distancing while implementing the Belgian temporary
unemployment system. To reduce the effects of the pandemic, the French government
introduced partial unemployment measures, thus distributing the efforts between the state,
employers, and employees and limiting the loss of jobs [48].
One important challenge managers had to face was to maintain a high standard
of performance, from the team level to the overall organizational performance, while
fulfilling their commitments to employees, customers, stakeholders, and other beneficia-
ries. Kim et al. (2021) [60], assessing the role of supervisors in managing/ motivating
teleworkers, showed that supervision, which includes results-based management and
confidence-building efforts, has contributed substantially to improving organizational
performance where teleworking has been applied. Buşu and György (2021) [61] demon-
strated the influence of professional teleworking activities on employee performance in
the context of adapting the new work system. Moreover, they claimed that the impact of
teleworking on business performance was conditioned by several determining factors, such
as the adequate management of human resources, capitalization of the positive aspects of
teleworking, the ability to actively involve all staff, and the ability to reward teleworkers
for the work performed and to prevent their resistance to change. The study conducted by
Jamal et al. (2021) [62] showed that the presence of autonomy, the flexibility of working
hours, and the existence of technological resources have contributed to improving the
work–life balance, raising work productivity and performance, and increasing employees’
satisfaction in full-time telework.
maintain the health and safety of employees in telework but also to prevent the spread of
the coronavirus at the workplace (Biasi*, 2020) [70].
According to Budacia (2021) [71], one of the social protection measures implemented in
Romania during the pandemic was a non-taxable income within the limit of 400 lei per month,
granted to employees who carried out teleworking activities to cover the expenses of utilities
and purchases of office equipment. Cuerdo-Vilches (2021) [72] conducted an online survey
to study the perception of Spanish employees about the workspace and its adequacy. The
adequacy of teleworking spaces was insufficient for one-third of households, the number of
people working or studying at home was extremely high, employees had to quickly improvise
exclusive teleworking spaces, and the availability of digital resources was limited.
3.5. Digitalization
Digitalization, a socio-technical process that continuously evolves at the individual,
organizational, societal, and global levels [73], is considered the key to innovation, com-
petitiveness, and the growth of society [74]. Through its specific tools (cloud computing,
software, platforms for teaching and learning, etc.) and complex technologies, digitalization
creates the opportunity to increase organizational performance and work productivity,
improve management practices, and create higher remuneration for new jobs created. In
the context of teleworking and extensive usage of the Internet, the adoption of digital
technologies by enterprises has led to new opportunities for teleworkers, a different way of
organizing work, additional safety and health norms, new requirements for digital skills,
labor standards, and a high interest towards the well-being of teleworkers. According to
Stoica et al. (2021) [75], the spectacular development of information and communication
technology corroborated with modern management (anthropocentric, systemic, product-
oriented, etc.) led, in particular, to the creation of a new infrastructure for telework and, in
general, to the creation of a global Internet network, in which digital technologies (cloud
computing, Big Data, artificial intelligence, Internet of Things (IoT), Internet of Everything
(IoE), etc.) are an integral part of the ecosystem of today’s telemarketing paradigm. Sap-
firova et al. 2021 [76], studying the impact of digitalization on legal regulations, labor relations,
and the protection of labor rights, noticed the need to redefine the rights and obligations of
employees and employers who have adopted this modern form of teleworking. It reiterated
the employee’s obligation to inform the employer about the equipment used during tele-
working, as well as the employer’s obligation to provide the teleworker with the equipment,
technical support, and digital training necessary for carrying out the work activity.
Figure 3. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2020.
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 10
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 10
Encyclopedia 2022, 2 Figure 3. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2020.
1379
Figure 3. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2020.
Figure 4. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2021.
Figure 4. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2021.
Figure 4. Employed persons working from home as a percentage of the total employment in 2021.
In 2021, the share of employees working from home in the total employment slowly
In
continued2021,
itsthe share of
upward employees working from home in the total employment slowly
In 2021, the share trend (see Figure
of employees 4), reaching
working from homemaximum
in the levels for men in Finland
total employment slowly
continued
(25.8%), its upward
Luxembourg trend
(24.3%),(see Figure
and 4),
Ireland reaching
(21.9%), maximum
while for levels
women for
in men
the in Finland
Netherlands
continued its upward trend (see Figure 4), reaching maximum levels for men in Finland
(25.8%),
(19.6%), Luxembourg
Germany (14.7%), (24.3%), and Ireland
Iceland (11.2%) (21.9%),
[28]. while for women in the Netherlands
(25.8%),
(19.6%), Luxembourg
Germany (24.3%),
(14.7%), and(11.2%)
Iceland Ireland[28].
(21.9%), while for women in the Netherlands
Given
(19.6%), both the above-mentioned
Germany aspects and the database provided by Eurostat, a
Given both the(14.7%), Iceland (11.2%)
above-mentioned [28].and
aspects the database provided by Eurostat, a
forecast has
Given been made to highlight the future trends in the number of people who will
forecast hasboth
beenthe madeabove-mentioned
to highlight theaspects
future and thein
trends database
the numberprovided by Eurostat,
of people who willa
work remotely
forecast has been (teleworkers)
made to highlightuntil 2025 in the trends
the in
future EU (27 countries), using the Time Series
work remotely (teleworkers) until 2025 the EU (27 in the number
countries), usingof people
the Timewho will
Series
Modeler procedure
work remotely from
(teleworkers)the SPSS
untilprogram. Figure
2025 in Figure 5 shows
the EU5 (27 the clear,
countries), strong upward trend
Modeler procedure from the SPSS program. shows the clear,using
strong the Time Series
upward trend
of the number
Modeler of teleworkers
procedure from the in theprogram.
SPSS EU fromFigure2011 to52021
showscompared
the clear,tostrong
the previous
upward period.
trend
of the number of teleworkers in the EU from 2011 to 2021 compared to the previous period.
of the number of teleworkers in the EU from 2011 to 2021 compared to the previous period.
Figure5.5.A
Figure Asimple
simpleline
linemeans
meansof
ofteleworkers
teleworkersin
inthe
theUE
UEduring
during2011–2021
2011–2021by
bydate.
date.
Figure 5. A simple line means of teleworkers in the UE during 2011–2021 by date.
InTable
In Table2,2,the
thevalue
valueof
ofthe
thestationary
stationaryR-square
R-square(0.530
(0.530<<1)
1) indicates
indicatesaa good,
good, correct
correctfit
fit
ofthe
of theInmodel
model and
and explains
explains the
the variation
variation observed
observed in
in the
the Ljung–Box
Ljung–Box statistical
statistical series.
series.
Table 2, the value of the stationary R-square (0.530 < 1) indicates a good, correct fit
of the model and explains the variation observed in the Ljung–Box statistical series.
Table2.2.Model
Table Modelfit
fitstatistics—teleworkers
statistics—teleworkersbetween
between2022–2025.
2022–2025.
Table 2. Model fit statistics—teleworkers between
Model 2022–2025. Ljung–Box Q (18)
Fit Statistics
Model Fit
Number of Ljung–Box Q (18) Number
Number of
Model Number StatisticsModel
Stationary R-
Fit Statistics Ljung–Box Q (18)
Model Predictors
of Number of Statistics DF Sig. Outliers
of
Number of
ModelPredictors Stationary StationarySquaredR- Outliers
Predictors Statistics DF
Statistics Sig. Sig. Outliers
DF
R-Squared Squared
Teleworkers-
0 0.530 0.934 20.843 15 0.142
Model_1
Encyclopedia 2022, 2, FOR PEER REVIEW 11
Thesignificance
The significance value
value (0.142),
(0.142),greater
greaterthan 0.05,
than is not
0.05, significant;
is not therefore,
significant; the model
therefore, the
is specified
model correctly.
is specified correctly.
Figure66indicates
Figure indicatesthe
theobserved
observedvalues
valuesofofthe
thedependent
dependentseries,
series,the
thevalues
valuesfor
forthe
the
forecast period, the values for the estimation period, and the confidence intervals
forecast period, the values for the estimation period, and the confidence intervals for the for the
forecast period. In conclusion, the model predicted an upward evolution of the numberof
forecast period. In conclusion, the model predicted an upward evolution of the number
ofteleworkers
teleworkersininthe
theEU
EUfor
forthe
theforecasted
forecastedperiod
periodfrom
from 2022–2025.
2022–2025.
References
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of%20Telework%20in%20the%20context%20of%20Ecollaboration_chap_2006.pdf (accessed on 28 January 2022).
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[CrossRef]
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