5-Current Status of CCS in The Global Economy

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Current status of carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies in the

global economy: A survey of technical assessment
Article in Fuel · June 2023

DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2023.127776
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Fuel 342 (2023) 127776
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel
Current status of carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies in

the global economy: A survey of technical assessment
Bartosz Dziejarski a, b, *, Renata Krzyżyńska a, Klas Andersson b
a
Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
b
Department of Space, Earth and Environment, Division of Energy Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The latest tremendously rapid expansion of the energy and industrial sector has led to a sharp increase in sta
CCUS tionary sources of CO2. Consequently, a lot of concerns have been raised about the prevention of global warming
Climate change mitigation and the achievement of climate mitigation strategies by 2050 with a low-carbon and sustainable future. In view
Decarbonization
of this, the current state of various aspects of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) technologies in
Technology readiness level (TRL)
R&D projects
general technical assessment were concisely reviewed and discussed. We concentrated on precisely identifying
Net zero emission the technology readiness level (TRL), which is beneficial to specifically defining the maturity for each key
element of the CCUS system with a commercialization direction paths. In addition, we especially presented and
emphasized the importance of CO2 capture types from flue gases and CO2 separation methods. Then, we
determined valuable data from the largest R&D projects at various scales. This paper provides a critical review of
the literature related to challenges of the CCUS system that must be overcome to raise many low TRL technol
ogies and facilitate their implementation on a commercial scale. Finally, our work aims to guide the further
scaling up and establishment of worldwide CO2 emission reduction projects.
10.7 Gt, which was mainly caused by limited global air transport [2].
1. Introduction Considering all these issues, optimizing the combustion of fossil fuels
used for energy production and the application of renewable energy
1.1. Recent trends in global CO2 emissions: The energy–climate challenge sources cannot counteract the phenomenon of increasing CO2 emissions
and therefore climate change is likely to continue in the coming decades.
The main reason for the increase in anthropogenic emissions is the Given the above, one of the most important goals of the energy policy of
drastic consumption of fossil fuels, i.e., lignite and stone coal, oil, and the European Union is to reduce greenhouse gases, such as CO2,
natural gas, especially in the energy sector, which is likely to remain the methane, nitrous oxide, and F-gases, which absorb and release thermal
leading source of greenhouse gases, especially CO2 [1]. The new analysis infrared radiation, resulting in an increase in the temperature of the
released by the International Energy Agency (IEA) showed that global Earth (the greenhouse gas emissions by gas in 2018 are presented in
energy-related CO2 emissions soared sharply by 6% in 2021 to 36.3 Fig. 1). Within the last 100 years, human-caused skyrockets in green
gigatonnes (Gt) compared to last year [2]. In 2020, fossil CO2 emissions house gas concentrations have led to a surge of 0.87 ◦ C (2006–2015
reached approximately 34.81 Gt [3], a 7% drop from levels in 2019 [4], relative to 1850–1900) in the global mean surface temperature of the
and in 2021 hit the highest level ever in history, as a result of the Earth (GMST) [5]. Only in the last three decades before 2012 the tem
tremendous rebound from the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, which stifled perature has increased by 0.6 ◦ C [6]. In addition, other environmental
international economic and social activities. This rise was fueled in large issues caused by excess greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere include
part by coal power plants, which coal itself represented >40% of the increasing seawater levels, as well as the number of ocean storms;
total increase in worldwide CO2 emissions in 2021, achieving a new stronger melting of ice sheets and glaciers; oceanic storms; species
peak, surpassing all previous records (15.3 Gt). For natural gas this value extinction; and disturbance of ecosystems [7]. Therefore, the reduction
also grew considerably, to 7.5 Gt, over 2019 levels. In the case of oil, CO2 of CO2 emission has become one of the priorities of highly developed
emissions remained notably lower than before the pandemic, reaching countries, as well as sectors of private industry around the world (Kyoto
* Corresponding author at: Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland; Department of Space,
Earth and Environment, Division of Energy Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
E-mail addresses: bartosz.dziejarski@pwr.edu, bartoszd@chalmers.se (B. Dziejarski).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.127776
Received 25 October 2022; Received in revised form 22 December 2022; Accepted 8 February 2023
Available online 27 February 2023
0016-2361/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
B. Dziejarski et al. Fuel 342 (2023) 127776
Nomenclature RTIL Room temperature ionic liquid

SEWGS Sorbent-enhanced water–gas shift
Acronyms TES Total energy supply
ASU Air separation unit TGR-BF Top-gas recycling blast furnace
BECCS Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage TPSA Temperature pressure swing adsorption
CaL Calcium looping TRL Technology readiness level
CAP Chilled ammonia process TSA Temperature swing adsorption
CCC Cryogenic carbon capture USA United States of America
CCMC Carbon capture and mineral carbonation VCSA Vacuum concentration swing adsorption
CCS Carbon capture and storage VPSA Vacuum pressure swing adsorption
CCT Clean coal technologies VSA Vacuum swing adsorption
CCU Carbon capture and utilization WGSR Water-gas shift reaction
CCUS Carbon capture, utilization, and storage ΔH Standard enthalpy of reaction
CCUS Carbon capture, utilization and storage % vol. By volume
CEP Clean Energy Package
CLC Chemical looping combustion Chemicals
CMR Catalytic membrane reactor Al2O3 Aluminum oxide (III)
CUP CO2 utilization potential C Carbon
DAC Direct air capture CaSiO3 Wollastonite
ECBM Enhanced coal bed methane CO Carbon oxide (II)
EFs Emission factors CO2 Carbon dioxide
EGR Enhanced gas recovery DEA Diethanolamine
EOR Enhanced oil recovery DIPA Di-2-propanolamine
ESA Electric swing adsorption H2 Hydrogen
ESS Energy storage system H2S Hydrogen sulfide
EU European Union K2CO3 Potassium carbonate
FEED Front-end engineering design MDEA N-methyl diethanolamine
FGD Flue-gas desulfurization MEA Monoethanolamine
GDP Gross domestic product Mg2SiO4 Forsterite
GHG Greenhouse gas emissions Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 Serpentinite
GMST Global mean surface temperature Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Talc
HSE Health, safety, and environment NOx Nitrogen oxides
IEA International Energy Agency O2 Oxygen
IGCC Integrated gasification combined cycle SOx Sulfur oxides
IGCC Integrated gas combine cycle TiO2 Titanium dioxide
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Units
KM CDR Kansai Mitsubishi carbon dioxide recovery process Gt Gigatonne
LCA Life cycle assessment kJ Kilojoule
MCFCs Molten carbonate fuel cells kWe Kilowatt electric
MOFs Metal-organic frameworks MPa Megapascal
NETL National Energy Technology Laboratory Mt Megatonne
NG Natural gas Mtpa Metric tonnes per annum
NGCC Natural gas combined cycle MWe Megawatt electric
OC Oxygen carriers MWth Megawatt thermal
PSA Pressure swing adsorption PPM Part per milion
R&D Research and development
RES Renewable energy sources
Protocol from 1997, EU Emission Trading System from 2005, Climate energy, and transport sector. As a result, the reduction of CO2 emissions
and Energy Package - “3x20% Package” from 2008, Energy Roadmap from flue gas mixture streams is a necessary operation in many impor
2050 from 2012, and Paris Agreement form 2015). Accordingly, over tant, high-tonnage technological processes and a perspective in the
the past two decades, global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion power industry and ecology. Distant areas of industrial activity should
from the European Union have already declined, and in 2020 reached be mentioned, such as fossil fuel power plants that generate electricity
7.29% on the global scale (Fig. 2). (the removal of CO2 released by burning coal, synthetic natural gas and
Consequently, the protection of Earth’s atmosphere against the biomass), and industrial processes, including cement industries, petro
emission of pollutants is one of the most important research directions in chemical industries (oil refineries), iron and steel mills, and the pro
the field of environmental engineering [8,9]. The policy in the field of duction of hydrogen by steam reforming methane or gasification of
air protection against harmful gaseous impurities, especially CO2, CO, other hydrocarbons [10]. In 2020, CO2 emissions reached almost 36.6%
SOx, NOx and volatile organic compounds, is dominated by the following from electricity and heat production worldwide (Fig. 3). The other
forward-looking trends: increasing the amount of chemical compounds largest carbon dioxide emitters were industrial manufacturing and fuel
covered by international regulations, which limits the negative impact production (21.8%); transportation (road transport, non-road trans
on the natural environment, consistent capture of pollutants at the port), domestic aviation and inland waterways (20.1%); buildings -
source of emissions, and standardizing pollutant emissions in industry, small-scale non-industrial stationary combustion (9.4%); and other
2
levels in the atmosphere will reach 570 parts per million (PPM) in 2100,
resulting in an increase of 1.9 ◦ C in the world average temperature [12].
The special report of IPCC from 2018 proves that global warming is
likely to reach 1.5 ◦ C between 2030 and 2052 if it continues to increase
at the current rate [5]. In view of the above, in 2019, the European
Union (EU) worked on the “Clean Energy for All Europeans” regulation
package, in short, referred to as the Clean Energy Package (CEP). In the
same year, the European Council published a communication on the
European Green Deal, i.e., a strategy whose ambitious goal is for the EU
to achieve climate neutrality by 2050, as a global leader in this area, and
approved it in 2020. In 2021, the European Council adopted a binding
EU objective to reduce net target greenhouse gas emissions by at least
55% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels (increase of the 40% target).
Then, the EU regulation package called “Fit for 55” was introduced,
which covers climate change, energy production, land use, trans
Fig. 1. Global greenhouse gas emissions in 2018 by gas [11]. portation, taxes, and aims to provide a coherent and balanced frame
work to achieve the climate goals of the EU and reach the 2030 target.
Beyond introducing specific regulations within a timeframe,
considering issues of financial input to achieve the goals of net zero
emissions and the Paris Agreement, as the first global climate agree
ment, is also crucial. According to the report named “The Emitting 7: the
time and cost of climate neutrality”, released in 2022, the seven largest
CO2 emitters (E7): China, the United States, the European Union, India,
Russia, Japan, and Brazil were responsible for 66% of global CO2
emissions in 2018 and made up 72% of the world’s gross domestic
product (GDP) in 2019. It has been determined, in light of the way things
are heading in their current lines of activity, that the EU will reach the
point of net zero emissions in 2056 (6 years after the objective that was
officially set), USA in 2060 (10 years after the objective), Brazil in 2061,
China in 2071, Japan in 2076, India in 2085, and Russia one year later
[13].
1.3. CCUS technologies: effective ways to reduce CO2 emissions
Considering the predicted increase in global energy consumption

Fig. 2. Global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion in 2020 by coun
driven mainly by developing economies, the content of CO2 in the at
try [11].
mosphere will be increased significantly in the next decades. For these
reasons, various methods are being searched by which it would be
possible to minimize this phenomenon. One of them is the way of clean
coal technologies (CCT), which are a new generation of sophisticated
coal utilization methods. They are intended to improve the efficiency of
coal extraction, preparation, and use, while also improving the envi
ronmental acceptability of the process in terms of stopping the increase
in CO2 emissions [14].
The most widely acknowledged CCT by experts, including IEA offi
cials, is carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) that refers to a
group of technologies that can satisfy climate objectives in a variety of
ways and become a key alternative for the decarbonization of the
world’s industrial industries. Among them, CCS is well known process of
capturing CO2 from stationary sources of carbon emissions and perma
nently storing it, before it is released into the atmosphere [15]. CCS can
be defined in more detail with reference to the characteristic stages that
follow each other, such as: capture, including CO2 separation from flue
gases (also regarded as a peculiar technique); followed by transport; and
long-term storage, which should be harmless to the environment. This is
Fig. 3. Global CO2 emissions in 2020 by sector [11].
directly related to the storage of CO2 in the lithosphere, biosphere, and
oceans, i.e. rock formations by injection into the ground or below the
sectors - industrial process emissions, agricultural soils and wastes ocean surface, to prevent it from being emitted and remaining in the
(12.1%) [11]. atmosphere. After sequestration, the storage location must be consid
ered as a “sealed vessel of CO2”, therefore, various aspects of CCS,
1.2. Current and future legislation on CO2 emission standards including leakage and monitoring. In addition to CCS, the IPCC recog
nizes the related concept CCMC, which stands for carbon capture and
Scientific institutions, using independent reports, have shown that mineral carbonation, as a viable technology in the CCS spectrum, which
the CO2 emission problem cannot be underestimated due to the potential is still being intensively developed [16,17]. Although there is some
threat resulting from disturbance of the natural balance in nature. Ac opinion that CCMC should not only be seen as a CCS storage solution,
cording to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), CO2 but as a separate technology, due to the possibility of CO2 utilization.
3
Fig. 4. Methodology of operation of CCS, CCU, CCMC, BECCS, and DAC technologies.
Fig. 5. Technologies currently used for reduction of CO2 emissions.
Another equally valuable strategy as a modification of CCS is bioenergy capture; they are first and foremost agricultural waste, residential and
with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), as a combination of obtaining service sectors, forestry, municipal waste and, especially, trans
energy from biomass with the simultaneous capture and storage of CO2. portation. Therefore, the technology to extract already emitted CO2
The IPCC Climate Change and Land report states that BECCS is one of the directly from the atmosphere, called direct air capture (DAC), was also
most effective mitigation activities related to land use, which would developed. In conjunction with the storage and utilization of CO2, it is,
lower emissions by 0.4–11.3 GtCO2 per year between 2020 and 2050 respectively, referred as DACS or DACU. Nowadays, to extract CO2 from
[18]. On the other hand, there is competitive technology for CCS that the atmosphere, two different technical techniques are being used:
rather than storing carbon dioxide, can reuse it as raw material in in liquid DAC and solid DAC (solid sorbents). There are 19 direct air cap
dustrial processes by contributing to the replacement of fossil fuels and ture facilities in operation around the world, capturing >0.01 Mt of CO2
chemicals, as well as the production of completely new valuable prod per year [20]. The schematic methodology and technologies used to
ucts – carbon capture and utilization (CCU) [19]. reduce the capturable and uncapturable CO2 emissions are presented in
Unfortunately, the CO2 emitted from certain sources is impossible to Fig. 4 and Fig. 5.
4
1.4. CCUS: A solution for global energy economy crisis
A matter of comparable importance to a stable energy economy is the

conversion, accumulation, and transformation of stored energy into
work. Today, energy production mostly includes the usage of fossil fuels,
less, renewable energy sources (RES), and nuclear fuels. The fact that
fossil fuels remain the dominating source of energy and automatically
cause tremendous CO2 emission, is due to the potential of a very simple,
affordable, and direct conversion of energy into work in important
branches of economy. Those are transportation (heat engines or internal
combustion engines), heating in industry and households, which utilized
various types of thermal systems (gas, oil, heat pumps).
The measure of the problem is clearly illustrated, in particular, by the
utilization of large amounts of energy from those sectors. In 2019 the
European Union used almost 30.9% of the final energy consumption for
transport, 26.3% for households, and 25.6% for industry [21]. Over and
above to that, in the same year according to the International Energy
Agency (IEA), the world total energy supply (TES) was approximately
606 EJ, where 30.9% of this value was made up of oil, 26.8% of coal,
23.2% of natural gas, 9.4% of biofuels and waste, 5% of nuclear energy,
2.5% of hydro, and only 2.2% of the rest of RES (geothermal, solar,
wind) [22]. The percentage breakdown in TES by source is shown in
Fig. 6.
With fossil fuel reserves becoming more depleted or a marginal share
of RES in TES (~23.5%) associated with a relatively high dependence on
weather conditions, rational management of energy production and
consumption in various regions has emerged as one of the most pressing
concerns of the 21 century and the prospects for accelerated energy
transitions. Therefore, the developments that have occurred because of
worldwide environmental objectives, the impacts of the COVID-19
pandemic, and the growth in oil costs discussed in recent years sug
gest that the local and global energy sectors are in desperate need of
modernization [23]. In this sense, specific solutions to energy manage
Fig. 7. The flexibility of the energy system.
ment systems must be adopted to address these issues, with the goal of
rationally monitoring the state of fossil fuel resources and gradually
“flexibility” refers to the efficiency of the energy system throughout
increasing the share of renewable energy sources. However, it is
continuous operation, in situations of substantial variations in energy
impossible to abandon the use of fossil fuels at present; besides, the
production and consumption (allowing for both the area and the tem
completely implementation of TES on an industrial scale will take
poral stability of the system) [24]. Energy storage appears as a critical
several decades. Hence, CO2 emission reduction continues to be a
idea to solve the challenges associated with unstable energy production
worldwide priority, and the only most promising way for that purpose
and to enable the fulfillment of current and future energy demands as a
are CCUS technologies. As an outcome, CCUS plays a critical role in
consequence of the energy sector transformation. It is widely considered
attaining carbon neutrality, addressing the challenge of global climate
a viable solution, which during off-peak times can store energy and
change, and meeting global energy goals.
release it during times when there is great demand [25]. In general, this
Accordingly, advancing the establishment of a low carbon economy
tends to help electrical grids overcome the major drawbacks (the un
will become substantially more difficult without a sufficiently flexible
certainty of load dynamics and contingency [26]) that allow moderni
energy system that allows the energy producing process to operate
zation and development of the energy system, reducing the start-up time
independently of its consumption over a certain time period. The word
of the power plant, and less troublesome energy production due to light-
load operation [25,27].
What is more, additional factor related to the dynamic maturation of
RES, their extremely increasing importance in the future energy in
dustry, and the energy storage system (EES) have been shown to be
essential to reduce CO2 emissions into the atmosphere. It is the flexible
operation of plants combined with partial CO2 capture in CCUS that has
a significant impact on the reduced costs of the capture step (Fig. 7).
Process simulations and economic evaluation proved that carbon cap
ture processes based on absorption [28,29] or adsorption [30] could use
excess electricity produced by RES in the most crucial technologies to
trap CO2 emitted from large point sources, when the price for it is above
the standard level.
To address the previously identified and noted issues, this review
aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of the CCUS generic
technical assessment. The main objective of this work is to analyze the
technological maturity of CCUS crucial elements that directly influences
their deployment phase on a commercial scale and achieves carbon
neutrality. Toward this, the paper is organized as follows: Section 2
Fig. 6. World total energy supply by source in 2019 [22].
5
describes an overview of current CCUS facilities development across the technology are based in North America, Europe and East Asia and Pa
globe; Section 3 explores three main CO2 capture ways from flue gases cific, which account for 63%, 22% and 9% of global maximum capture
(pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel com capacity, respectively (Fig. 9). Compared to 2020 and 2019, these values
bustion) and summarizes CO2 separation method (absorption, mem were totally different, the number of large-scale CCUS facilities was 65
branes techniques, cryogenic method, chemical looping combustion, and 51, with a maximum CO2 capture capacity of around 114.3 [32] and
and adsorption); Section 4 focuses on CO2 transport, including pipeline 96 MtCO2/year [33]. Nevertheless, even the current performances of
and ship transport; Section 5 evaluates CO2 utilization and storage along CCUS systems allows for sequentially lowering CO2 emissions into the
with CCMC; Section 6 characterizes BECCS, as a novel connection of atmosphere, to achieve Paris Agreement climate targets by 2050 as
biomass energy production with CO2 reduction. Ultimately, Section 7 outlined in the IEA’s Sustainable Development Scenario, >2000 facil
outlines future research opportunities for CCUS systems. ities will be required. That entails building between 70 and 100 new
facilities every year [34].
2. An overview of CCUS development progress: state of the art In the case of the division of CCUS facilities due to key global
maximum CO2 capture capacity industry sector, the following can be
Currently, the number of commercial CCUS facilities in the world particularly distinguished: power generation (26 facilities with 62.51
increased to 135 with a total mean CO2 capture capacity of 149.3 Mtpa, MtCO2/year), natural gas processing (20 facilities with 42.95 MtCO2/
according to the report published by the Global CCS Institute in year), chemical production (9 facilities with 13.72 MtCO2/year),
September 2021 (27 are operational, 4 are in construction, 58 in hydrogen production (16 facilities with 13.45 Mt CO2/year), ethanol
advanced development, 44 in early development, and 2 suspended op production (39 facilities with 10.85 MtCO2/year), fertilizer production
erations (Fig. 8)) [31]. Most of plants that implemented CCUS (7 facilities with 7.45 MtCO2/year), and cement (3 facilities with 3.2
Fig. 8. Numbers of global commercial CCUS facilities and their mean CO2 capture capacity by different stage of development in 2021 [31].
Fig. 9. Numbers of global commercial CCUS facilities and their maximum CO2 capture capacity by world region in 2021 [31].
6
Fig. 10. World map of commercial CCUS facilities in various stages of development in late 2021 [31].
Table 1
Comparison of CCUS facilities with operational status in late 2021 (based on [31]).
Name of the CCS facilities Country Operation Industry CO2 capture CO2 storage method
date capacity
[Mtpa]
Min Max
Terrell Natural Gas Processing Plant United States 1972 Natural Gas 0.4 0.5 CO2-EOR
Processing
Enid Fertilizer Plant United States 1982 Fertiliser 0.1 0.2 CO2-EOR
Production
Shute Creek Gas Processing Plant United States 1986 Natural Gas 7 7 CO2-EOR
Processing
MOL Szank field CO2 EOR Hungary 1992 Natural Gas 0.059 0.157 CO2-EOR
Processing
Sleipner CO2 Storage Norway 1996 Natural Gas 1 1 Saline formations
Processing
Great Plains Synfuels and Weyburn-Midale Plant United States 2000 Synthetic Natural 1 3 CO2-EOR
Gas
Core Energy CO2-EOR United States 2003 Natural Gas 0.35 0.35 CO2-EOR
Processing
Sinopec Zhongyuan Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage China 2006 Chemical 0.12 0.12 CO2-EOR
Production
Snøhvit CO2 Storage Norway 2008 Natural Gas 0.7 0.7 Saline formations
Processing
Arkalon CO2 Compression Facility United States 2009 Ethanol Production 0.23 0.29 CO2-EOR
Century Plant United States 2010 Natural Gas 5 5 CO2-EOR
Processing
Petrobras Santos Basin Pre-Salt Oil Field CCS Brazil 2011 Natural Gas 4.6 4.6 CO2-EOR
Processing
Bonanza BioEnergy CCUS EOR United States 2012 Ethanol Production 0.1 0.1 CO2-EOR
Coffeyville Gasification Plant United States 2013 Fertiliser 0.9 0.9 CO2-EOR
Production
Air Products Steam Methane Reformer United States 2013 Hydrogen 1 1 CO2-EOR
Production
PCS Nitrogen United States 2013 Fertiliser 0.2 0.3 CO2-EOR
Production
Boundary Dam 3 Carbon Capture and Storage Facility Canada 2014 Power Generation 0.8 1 CO2-EOR
Quest Carbon Capture And Storage Canada 2015 Hydrogen 1.2 1.2 Saline formations/
Production depleted oil fields
Uthmaniyah CO2-EOR Demonstration Saudi Arabia 2015 Natural Gas 0.8 0.8 CO2-EOR
Processing
Karamay Dunhua Oil Technology CCUS EOR Project China 2015 Methanol 0.1 0.1 CO2-EOR
Production
Abu Dhabi CCS (Phase 1 being Emirates Steel Industries) United Arab 2016 Iron And Steel 0.8 0.8 CO2-EOR
Emirates Production
Illinois Industrial Carbon Capture and Storage United States 2017 Ethanol Production 0.55 1 Saline formations
CNPC Jilin Oil Field CO2 EOR China 2018 Natural Gas 0.35 0.6 CO2-EOR
Processing
Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Australia 2019 Natural Gas 3.4 4 Saline formations
Processing
Qatar LNG CCS Qatar 2019 Natural Gas 2.2 2.2 CO2-EOR
Processing
Alberta Carbon Trunk Line (ACTL) with North West Redwater Canada 2020 Hydrogen 1.3 1.6 CO2-EOR
Partnership’s Sturgeon Refinery CO2 Stream Production
Alberta Carbon Trunk Line (ACTL) with Nutrien CO2 Stream Canada 2020 Fertiliser 0.2 0.3 CO2-EOR
Production
7
Fig. 11. Overall status of the most crucial element for CO2 emission reduction technologies measured in terms of the TRL scale [44,45,166].
8
MtCO2/year). The rest of industry branches are expanding their use in a demonstration scale (TRL 7), the need for commercial refinement re
wide variety of fields and applications, including the ones that follow: quirements (TRL 8), and finally commercial scale (TRL 9) [40]. In
synthetic natural gas, power generation and refining, direct air capture summary, TRL 1-3 characterize the research, TRL 4-6 the development,
(DAC), methanol production, waste incineration, iron and steel pro and TRL 7-9 the deployment phase [41]. Fig. 11 illustrates every crucial
duction, bioenergy, power generation and hydrogen production part of CCS technologies on the TRL scale, which will be deeply dis
(achieving at the same time 12.53 MtCO2/year) [31]. The world map of cussed later in the next sections.
the current status of CCUS facilities is presented in Fig. 10 and the
comparison of operational ones in Table 1. 3. CO2 capture
The most important considerations in the use of CCUS technologies
are the CO2 generation process, the technical readiness level (TRL) of the In CCUS technology, there are three main capture configuration that
particular steps of CCUS, the effectiveness of CO2 separation, the capi can be implemented in power plants and allow obtaining a concentrated
tal/operating costs, the environmental performance (Life Cycle Assess stream of CO2 from fuel combustion. They are classified into pre-
ment – LCA), as well as the ability to store or use CO2 on site or in combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combus
adjacent places of a plant [35]. The significantly crucial of the above is tion (Fig. 12). However, there is another technique, such as capture from
TRL, which is a nine-point scale system, used to define the degree of industrial process streams (steel, cement and chemical) that is often
maturity of the advancement of CCUS technology and to track the state considered the fourth [42]. In addition to the above four, there is also a
of technological development of the work (the same concept is also used competitive CO2 capture from the atmosphere, as mentioned earlier
for CCU and CCMC ways, as well) [36]. Referring to forecasts carried out (DAC). They will be described in more detail in Section 3.1.
by scientific centers around the world, it is indicated that the amount of Here in this step, carbon dioxide is separated at the same time from
captured and stored CO2 will reach a value of at least 4 Gt/year in 2040 the use of fossil fuels and/or biomass from other gaseous media by many
and 8 Gt/year in 2050 (in 2017 this value was only 40 Mt/year) [37,38]. of the existing technologies for gas separation that are integrated into
Therefore, a faster implementation of CCUS technology in many CO2 capture systems, such as absorption, adsorption, membrane sepa
branches of industry at the commercial level will undoubtedly be of ration, cryogenic distillation, or solid looping (calcium looping (CaL)),
fundamental importance in the long-term reduction of CO2 emissions chemical looping combustion (CLC)). This step of CCS is ambivalent
[39]. In account of this, it is typical for the technological progression of crucial, as flue gases may consist of additional pollutants such as: H2S,
CCS to proceed in a succession of scaling phases, which correspond to CO, CH4, SOx, and water vapor, which alter the gas stream’s physico
the respective levels of TRL. From initial concept and basic principles chemical characteristics (density, equilibrium limit of the vapor–liquid),
(TRL 1), formulation of the application (TRL 2), starting with laboratory causing ineffective storage. Consequently, the direct influence of these
scale (TRL 3-5), progressing to pilot scale operation (TRL 6), pollutants on the cost, safety, and efficiency of CCS technology is an
Fig. 12. Generic comparison of existing CO2 capture systems [42,46].
9
elemental consideration throughout its commercial deployment. The

kJ
CO2 capture process is expected to account for nearly 70–80% of the C + 2H2 →CH 4 ΔH = − 87.4 (3)
mol
overall cost of CCS; therefore, obtaining a purified gas stream with the
necessary level of CO2 through a highly effective process is significantly
important [43]. • Incomplete combustion reaction
As the separation process is part of the capture technology, TRLs kJ
depend mainly on their combination, the type of CO2 generating plant/ 2C + O2 →2CO ΔH = − 246.3 (4)
mol
industry, and the fuel used. CO2 separation technologies are compre
hensively described in Section 3.2, where the TRL will be discussed in
detail for each. Considering above, there is only two capture methods • Conversion of carbon monoxide with water vapor (water-gas shift
that has reached a commercial scale (TRL 9), which is pre-combustion reaction)
capture (widely used in natural gas processing plants) and post- CO + H2 O→H2 + CO2 (5)
combustion capture (power plants/aqueous amines) [44]. As for the
demonstration scale (TRL 7), the listed capture methods are in that
stage, such as: pre-combustion capture (IGCC - integrated gasification • Methanization
combined cycle + CCS), oxy-fuel combustion (coal power plant), and kJ
post-combustion (solid sorbent). For comparison, the direct air capture CO + 3H2 →CH 4 + 2H2 O ΔH = − 42.3 (6)
mol
(DAC) possesses TRL of 7. They might also perhaps reach the stage of
commercialization in the not-too-distant future. The other CO2 capture
methods range between pilot scale (TRL 6) – post-combustion capture
(calcium looping), lab prototype (TRL 4) – oxy-fuel combustion gas Table 2
Pre-combustion capture characterization.
turbine (water cycle), and lab test, as proof of concept (TRL 3) –
pre–combustion capture with low temperature separation [44]. Advantages/Opportunities References
In addition, capture methods can have various technological con ✓ Used extensively in the industry sector (existing technology [19,47,54,55]
figurations, including: post-combustion capture (top-gas recycling blast which has been utilized for higher than 95 years).
furnace (TGR-BF)/steel industry), post-combustion capture (coke oven/ ✓ Emission of CO2 is quite low (92–93% CO2 recovery). [47,53]
✓ Requires less energy for CO2 separation and compression steps – [12,53–55]
steel industry), partial oxy-fuel combustion (calciner/cement industry) high CO2 concentrations and partial pressure (<50% of post-
with TRL 6, or full oxy-fuel combustion (blast furnace/steel industry) combustion capture).
with TRL 6–7 [45]. ✓ Less expensive - requires smaller capital costs and equipment size. [53]
✓ The pre-combustion approach could be less expensive than the [56]
post-combustion and oxy-fuel technologies, by 38–45% and
3.1. CO2 capture from flue gases: A comparison of three existing capture
21–24%, respectively.
technologies ✓ Utilization of physical solvent used in CO2 separation, which are [12,55]
available at low cost and require low energy for regeneration
3.1.1. Pre-combustion capture (mature physical absorption technology)
Pre-combustion CO2 capture technology converts solid coal fuel or ✓Possibility to switch between H2 production and electricity [19]
generation with ease, which allows for more flexibility in the
petroleum residues (heavy oil fractions) into gaseous fuel that is outputs.
hydrogen-rich by gasification of coal at high pressures. Where, the CO2 ✓ Synthesis gas can be used as an alternative fuel to the turbine [54]
obtained is a by-product [47,48]. In the discussed CO2 capture method, cycle.
the fuel can react with oxygen or air, which results in the production of a ✓ After further purification, H2 may be utilized in fuel cells, [57]
transportation, and as a building ingredient in the synthesis of
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, i.e., synthesis gas, after prior
high-value chemicals.
cleaning of exhaust gases. The above process is called gasification ✓ Compared to post-combustion capture, this method uses less [54]
[47,49]. Then, in the catalytic reactor, the reaction between the syn amount of water.
thesis gas and steam takes place with the reduction of temperature, Disadvantages/Challenges References
which promote CO conversion to CO2 and an additional amount of
➣ Energy loss is significant compared to post-combustion capture [19,54]
hydrogen is produced (water–gas shift reaction - WGSR) [50]. The
method (energy is required for the reforming process, air
concentration of carbon dioxide in the gas mixture (CO2/H2) with little separation).
impurities is approximately about 15–60% and is much higher than in ➣ Improvements of efficiency of energy recovery throughout the [19]
the combustion gases of conventional power plants [51]. As a result, the manufacturing process needs to be pursued.
high concentration of CO2 and high pressure (typically 2–7 MPa) facil ➣ Requires a chemical plant in front of the turbine. [12]
➣ Retrofitting existing facilities increases the cost and complexity of [19]
itates its separation from the exhaust gases, which means that the energy the set-up process, which prevents it from being commercialized.
expenditure for the process is significantly lower and a capture method ➣ High pressure operation. [53]
is less expensive [7,51]. The reactions taking place during the process ➣ Complex chemical processes often result in further plant [12,53]
are presented below [49,52]: shutdowns.
➣ Non-gaseous feed stocks (demand for a cleaned gas stream and [12]
the possibility of costly scrubbing to control excessive NOx
• Synthesis gas production reaction emissions).
➣ Improvement of the gasification stage. [54]
kJ
C + H2 O→CO + H2 ΔH = 118.9 (1) ➣ Temperature associated with heat transfer problems due to H2- [53,55]
mol rich gas.
➣ The cooling of the flue gas to CO2 capture is necessary. [47]
➣ Requires a extensive supporting systems (e.g. an air separation [53,54]
• Boduard’s reaction unit).
kJ ➣ Efficiency loss in water–gas shift section. [47]
C + CO2 →2CO ΔH = 160.9 (2) ➣ In the absorption method, to avoid any reduction in solvent [19]
mol quality, the regeneration temperature should be lower than that
used currently. To resolve this problem, ionic liquids are being
utilized, which possess negligible volatility.
• Hydrogassing reaction
10
In the next step, CO2 is separated from the gas mixture by physical separate CO2 from other products contained in the resulting flue gas
solvents, such as rectisol and selexol, which are readily accessible and mixture, such as nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides, mainly
inexpensive. Subsequently, CO2 passes through the conditioning process due to the inability to sequestrate flue gases, taking into account the
(condensate and moisture removal, separation of solid particles, cooling costs of their compression and storage [47]. Therefore, prior to CO2
or heating of the gas, removing unwanted gaseous components) and is capture, the flue gas is subjected to denitrification, desulphurization,
compressed for final storage [46–48,52]. On the other hand, the and dust removal, among other processes [59]. The flue gas, which is
remaining gas with a high concentration of hydrogen is used as fuel in primarily composed of CO2, H2O, and N2, is then fed into the CO2 sep
boilers or gas turbines in a combined IGCC (integrated gas combine aration unit. The choice of the appropriate separation method depends
cycle) system to generate electricity. Despite the possibility of achieving mainly on several physicochemical properties of the exhaust gases and
a fairly high level of carbon dioxide capture efficiency up to 80% before the process conditions, that is, temperature, pressure, carbon dioxide
the combustion process, the very implementation of the technology is concentration, and the size of the gas mixture stream. Currently, among
closely associated with high capital and operating costs. These costs are post-combustion approaches, absorption based on monoethanolamine
generated primarily by the obligatory gas synthesis process, which re (MEA) is the most widespread and only commercially available tech
duces the economic attractiveness of the CO2 capture method itself nique [19]. The adsorption approach is also employed in post-
[46,47]. combustion capture, in the form of either temperature swing or pres
The characterization of pre-combustion capture method is included sure swing adsorption processes, as well as calcium looping combustion
in Table 2. The main opportunities and challenges of this technology are (CLC) [60]. It is also possible to implement membranes as an appro
related to improving the gasification stage, the CO2 separation step priate separation technique to reduce capital costs associated with post-
(absorption), and new strategies for cleaning syngas, in order to reduce combustion technology. To achieve low energy needs, a low carbon
energy consumption and associated costs [53]. In Table 3 is included footprint, and low operating expenses, membrane technology is
information on active, proposed, and terminated CCS projects world straightforward to adapt and scale up with the existing power plant
wide with pre-combustion capture technology between 2013 and 2019. [61]. In addition, it is worth emphasizing that the above methods of
separating CO2 itself do not influence other processes that occur during
3.1.2. Post-combustion capture fuel combustion [62–64].
The technology of capturing CO2 after the fuel combustion process is The flue gases from post-combustion technology themselves with
considered a mature technique that consists of the direct removal of relatively high temperature are discharged into the atmosphere under
carbon dioxide from the flue gas, which comes from the thermal power low pressure, close to atmospheric pressure (corresponding to the boiler
plant combustion chamber [12]. Additionally, it is compared in many flue gas pressure), where the carbon dioxide concentration is quite low.
ways with the equivalent of flue-gas desulfurization (FGD), which is It reaches 7–14% in coal-fired power plants, and in the case of gas-fired
widely used to capture SO2 from flue gases in coal and oil-fired power power plants it reaches a value of about 4%. That is a serious design
plants [47]. The advantages and disadvantages of post-combustion challenge, with respect to a thermodynamic driving force for low CO2
capture are given in Table 4. Table 5 presents selected global CCUS capture [46,47,62]. Therefore, the installation and process apparatus
projects from 2013 to 2018, which utilized this CO2 capture technology. must process large amounts of flue gases, resulting in their large size and
The key purpose of post-combustion capture is to capture and generating high capital costs [47]. Furthermore, the amount of energy
Table 3
Selected worldwide CCUS projects from 2013 to 2020 with pre-combustion capture technology [58].
Project name Country Project start Overall Plant size Amount of CO2 Capture/stored Project cost Currency
date status capture/stored unit
Riley Ridge Gas Plant United States 2020 Potential – – – – –

Shenhua Ningxia CTL China 2020 Potential 10,000 – – – –
Project MW
E.ON Ruhrgas Killingholme United Kingdom 2019 Terminated 470 MW 6,850 Metric Tons Per 1,000,000,000 British Pound
IGCC Day
Captain Clean Energy Scotland 2017 Hold 570 MW 10,412 Metric Tons Per 1,000,000,000 Euros
Project Day
Kentucky NewGas project United States 2017 Terminated – 13,700 Metric Tons Per 3,000,000,000 US Dollar
Day
Bent County IGCC Plant United States 2016 Hold 600 MW 4,200,000 Metric Tons 1,000,000,000 US Dollar
Total
FutureGen - Jewett United States 2015 Terminated 275 MW – – 1,500,000,000 US Dollar
FutureGen - Mattoon United States 2015 Terminated 275 MW – – 1,200,000,000 US Dollar
FutureGen - Odessa United States 2015 Terminated 275 MW – – 1,500,000,000 US Dollar
FutureGen - Tuscola United States 2015 Terminated 275 MW – – 1,000,000,000 US Dollar
Great Lakes Energy United States 2015 Active 250 MW 90 % Reduction 2,000,000,000 US Dollar
Research Park
Hydrogen Power Abu Dhabi United Arab 2015 Hold 420 MW 4,658 Metric Tons Per 2,500,000,000 US Dollar
Project Emirates Day
Masdar CCS Project United Arab 2015 Potential – 11,782 Metric Tons Per 15,000,000,000 US Dollar
Emirates Day
DKRW Energy LLC United States 2014 Hold – 20,000 Barrels Per Day 2,000,000,000 US Dollar
Kwinana Project Australia 2014 Terminated 500 MW 10,960 Metric Tons Per 2,000,000,000 Australian
Day Dollar
RWE IGCC Plant with CO2 Germany 2014 Hold 450 MW 7,124 Metric Tons Per 2,000,000,000 Euros
Storage Day
Taylorville Energy Center United States 2014 Terminated 630 MW 55 % Reduction 2,500,000,000 US Dollar
Wallula IGCC Plant United States 2014 Terminated 700 MW 65 % Reduction 2,200,000,000 US Dollar
Belle Plaine Polygen Canada 2013 Hold 500 MW 2,740 Metric Tons Per 5,000,000,000 Canadian
Capture Day Dollar
Huntley IGCC Project United States 2013 Terminated 680 MW 65 % Reduction 1,500,000,000 US Dollar
11
Table 4 needed for the capture and separation of CO2 related to the above
Post-combustion capture characterization. mentioned problems is quite high and must be included as potential
Advantages/Opportunities Reference costs for electricity production (increases them by 32% for a gas-fired
power plant and 65% for a coal-fired power plant) [63,64].
✓ Applicable to existing coal-fired power plants as well as new ones [47,54]
(existing technology).
✓ Extensive research is conducted to enhance sorbents and capturing [54] 3.1.3. Oxy-fuel combustion
apparatus. Oxy-fuel combustion technology is significantly different from con
✓ Retrofitting existing power-plant designs is a viable option. [46] ventional methods because fuel combustion itself occurs in a mixture of
✓ Higher thermal efficiency for conversion to electricity than pre- [12]
combustion method.
high purity oxygen and recirculated exhaust gas, rather than in air.
✓ Emission of CO2 is quite low (80–95% CO2 recovery by adsorption, [53] Therefore, the primary objective is to reduce nitrogen in the atmosphere
90–98% by absorption). through separation processes, consisting of the initial separation of ox
✓ Extra removal of NOx and SOx. [47] ygen (to obtain its purity above 95%) and nitrogen from the air supplied
✓ Use of hybrid processes (membrane-pressure swing adsorption) to [53]
to the boiler, leading to its partial or complete elimination [12,66]. It is
optimize CO2 capture efficiency.
✓ Increasing the efficiency of pulverized coal systems in the future will [53] closely related to the fact that due to the high nitrogen content in the
result in lower CO2 emissions and higher plant productivity. atmospheric air, ranging from about 79%, the carbon dioxide content in
Disadvantages/Challenges Reference
the resulting boiler flue gases fluctuates in the range of 3–15%,
depending on the type of fuel used [42]. In this situation, the separation
➣ At ambient pressure, the concentration of CO2 is low (typically [12,47,54]
of CO2 from the rest of the exhaust gas components is quite troublesome.
7–14%), which results in large process equipment sizes and high costs -
a large volume of gas has to be handled. Furthermore, part of the flue gas is recirculated to lower the combustion
➣ The relatively low CO2 partial pressure and high temperature of the [12,47] temperature, its implementation in pure oxygen would be practically
flue gases offers a design challenge. impossible, and therefore it is diluted with the exhaust gas taken from
➣ To capture CO2 at low concentrations in absorption method, powerful [12,47] the boiler (recirculation) [12]. This is important because the materials
chemical solvents must be utilized and regeneration of the solvents to
release CO2 will demand a significant amount of energy.
presently available are incapable of withstanding the enormous tem
➣ The amine technologies in absorption method employed result in a [54] peratures generated by the burning of coal in pure oxygen (the com
nearly 30% drop in net power production and an 11% fall in efficiency. bustion temperature reaches approximately 3500 ◦ C). Research shows
➣ In the absorption method, the corrosivity of amines, the high energy [19,47,53] that the optimal composition of the stream fed to the boiler should
footprint of regeneration, and degradation all contribute to solvent loss
contain 30–35% O2 and 65–70% CO2 [42,67]. That is why a certain
and evaporation.
➣ Absorption method based on MEA is related with expensive capital and [65] research direction of this technology is the development of high-
operating costs. As a result, certain initiatives that relied on that temperature resistant materials, especially for the adsorption process.
technology have been shelved. The great interest in the oxy-fuel combustion method in power sys
➣ Due to the low concentration of CO2 in the flue gas, the additional cost [56] tems is mainly due to its key advantages, i.e., the decrease in the amount
of power production increases by approximately 60–70% for new
infrastructure and by 220–250% for retrofitting.
of flue gas and nitrogen gas emissions, together with improved boiler
➣ Greatly affected by trace impurities (NOx, SOx) in adsorption method. [53] energy conversion efficiency, and the possibility of direct CO2 seques
➣ Steam extraction reduces the flow to the low-pressure turbine, [54] tration (CCS). Where the concentration of carbon dioxide in the result
lowering its efficiency and capacity. ing mixture of flue gases can reach 80–98%, depending on the fuel, the
➣ High pressure drop for adsorption separation process. [53]
combustion process, the air in the leakage levels, the purity of O2 and its
➣ For high capture levels, high performance, circulation volume, and [54]
water needs are required. excess. The rest of the chemical components are water vapor (condensed
Table 5
Selected worldwide CCUS projects from 2013 to 2019 with post-combustion capture technology [58].
Project name Country Project Overall Plant Amount of CO2 Capture/ Project cost Currency
start date status size capture/stored stored unit
China Resources Power Integrated CCS China 2019 Planned – 2,740 Metric Tons – –
Project Per Day
Large Pilot Testing of Linde United States 2018 Active 10 MW – – 899,744 US Dollar
Large Pilot Testing of the MTR Membrane United States 2018 Active – – – 1,196,388 US Dollar
Post-Combustion CO2 Capture
UKy-CAER Heat-Integrated United States 2018 Active 10 MW – – 1,177,550 US Dollar
Transformative CO2 Capture Process
CATO1 - Rotterdam ROAD project Netherlands 2015 Terminated 250 3,014 Metric Tons 330,000,000 Euros
MW Per Day
Trailblazer Energy Center United States 2015 Terminated 600 15,755 Metric Tons 3,000,000,000 US Dollar
MW Per Day
Boundary Dam Integrated CCS Project Canada 2014 Active 115 2,740 Metric Tons 1,300,000,000 Canadian
MW Per Day Dollar
EW Brown Generating Station United States 2014 Active 0.70 – – 21,425,289 US Dollar
MW
PureGen Project United States 2014 Terminated 500 90 % Reduction 5,000,000,000 US Dollar
MW
RWE nPower - Blyth Post-Combustion United 2014 Terminated 2400 8,220 Metric Tons 2,000,000,000 British
Project Kingdom MW Per Day Pound
Aalborg - Northern Jutland Power Station Denmark 2013 Hold 411 4,932 Metric Tons 2,000 000 000 Danish
Project MW Per Day Krone
Enecogen Cryogenic CO2 Capture Netherlands 2013 Active 850 24.66 Metric Tons 37,000,000 Euros
MW Per Day
Jamestown BPU United States 2013 Potential 40 MW 98 % Reduction 145,000,000 US Dollar
RWE nPower - Tilbury Project United 2013 Terminated 1131 90 % Reduction 1,000 000,000 British
Kingdom MW Pound
Veolia Environment CCS Project France 2013 Active 23 MW 548 Metric Tons 1,900,000 Euros
Per Day
12
Table 6 facilitates the capture and separation of CO2 as well as reduces the costs
Oxy-fuel combustion characterization. of its recovery, allowing direct transport and storagealong with
Advantages/Opportunities Reference achieving almost zero emissions into the atmosphere. Given that the
process of capturing and separating CO2 is relatively simple to carry out,
✓ It may be used in existing or new power plants (existing technology) [47]
✓ CO2 recovery at the 90–98% level. [53,54] the oxy-fuel combustion technique is by far the most attractive energy-
✓ Various sorts of fuels can be utilized (biomass/municipal solid waste), [72,74] efficient route in conjunction with two other approaches to primary
resulting in the development of a carbon neutrality - BECCS. technologies (pre-, post-combustion capture), with a low efficiency
✓ The use of oxy-fuel combustion modification in order to reduce both [72,73] penalty of 4%, compared to 8–12% for the post-combustion capture
economic and efficiency penalties.
✓ Produce steam cycles with excellent efficiency. [54]
[68].
✓ NOx formation is kept to a minimum due to a absence of nitrogen [47] Oxy-fuel combustion is a relatively young technology used for a
✓ By using this method, NOx emissions are decreased by 60–70% [12] combination of power generation and CO2 capture. Until now, it has
compared to air-fired combustion. been examined in a variety of demonstration projects and pilot-scale
✓ Potential to be operated at high pressure, therefore, less CO2 [12]
facilities. The first pilot installation with a capacity of 30 MWth was
compression energy is required.
✓ Less expensive than other techniques of carbon capture because of the [12] launched in Germany in 2008 (Vattenfall’s pilot plant) [67]; another
reduced flue gases volume and greater concentration of CO2 was commissioned in Australia in 2012, called the Callide Oxyfuel
(70–95%). Project [69]. Similarly, the OXYCFB300 Compostilla Carbon Capture
✓ There are no on-site chemical operations required and the system is [54] and Storage Demonstration Project in Spain [70] and the Lacq pilot
simple to adapt into an existing power plant.
✓ Due to the absence of nitrogen, the volume of gases produced is low, [47]
plant in France [71] have proven the practicality of oxy-combustion.
resulting in a reduction in the size of the overall process. Currently, a certain trend can be seen regarding the modification of
this technology along with combining it with others to appeal in terms of
Disadvantages/Challenges Reference
commercialization to reduce both economic and efficiency penalties or
➣ Combustion in pure oxygen is complicated – high temperature. [47] accelerate decarbonization. These can be mentioned, among others: oxy-
➣ Requires large amount of oxygen compared to pre-combustion, which [47,53]
is costly, both in terms of capital expenditure and energy
fuel combustion integrated with the supercritical carbon dioxide cycle
consumption. (replace the conventional steam cycle) [72]; heat recovery from the air
➣ High energy input for air separation unit, which has a significant [12,47] separation unit, CO2 compression and purification unit [73]; or
influence on the overall efficiency of the power plant. considering biomass as a replacement fuel for coal, as a synergistic
➣ Development of air separation unit methods other than cryogenic [73]
method combining bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)
distillation.
➣ The cost of air separation and flue gas recirculation significantly [12,53] [72,74].
reduces the economic benefit. Unfortunately, apart from the above attempts of commercialization
➣ It is necessary to develop building materials that can resist the high [12,53] of oxy-fuel combustion, the separation processes (energy-intensive unit
temperatures of the combustion gases, which are caused by the for the removal of nitrogen from air to obtain of high-purity oxygen –
enormous oxygen content during fuel combustion.
➣ Technology needs to be proved for large scale operations. [54]
ASU) constitute a certain barrier to the possibility of wide imple
➣ High risk of CO2 leakage. [54] mentation of this combustion technology on an industrial scale. It results
in high operating costs and a higher electricity price of 7% compared to
installation without CCS [46]. Nowadays, the only established method
to ensure the highest concentration of CO2) and in smaller amounts for creating a large volume of high-purity O2 for wide-scale use is
sulfur oxides (II), nitrogen oxides and solid particles, which must be cryogenic distillation [73]. Therefore, it is very necessary to investigate
removed, respectively [12,46,66]. This nature of the exhaust gas greatly new and innovative air separation approaches, for example: ion-
Table 7
Oxy-fuel combustion technology in selected worldwide CCUS projects from 2006 to 2020 [58].
Project name Country Project start Overall Plant Amount of CO2 Capture/stored Project cost Currency
date status size capture/stored unit
Datang Daqing CCS Project China 2020 Hold 350 MW 2,740 Metric Tons Per – –
Day
Shanxi International Energy China 2020 Potential 350 MW 6,850 Metric Tons Per – –
Oxyfuel Project Day
Hydrogen Energy International United States 2019 Terminated 400 MW 7,124 Metric Tons Per 4,028,136,691 US Dollar
LLC Day
White Rose CCS Project United 2014 Potential 450 MW – – – –
Kingdom
SaskPower Canada 2012 Terminated 300 MW 8,000 Metric Tons Per 1,500,000,000 Canadian
Day Dollar
Aviva Corp Coolimba Oxyfuel Australia 2010 Terminated 400 MW 7,946 Metric Tons Per 1,000,000,000 Australian
Project Day Dollar
FutureGen 2.0 United States 2010 Terminated 200 MW 2,740 Metric Tons Per 1,650,000,000 US Dollar
Day
OXYCFB300 Compostilla Project Spain 2009 Active 323 MW 100,000 Metric Tons 180,000,000 Euros
Total
Petrom Zero Emissions Plant (ZEP) Romania 2009 Potential 15 MW – – – –
South Korea CCS2 South Korea 2009 Active 300 MW 3,288 Metric Tons Per – –
Day
Vattenfall CO2-Free Oxyfuel Plant Germany 2008 Terminated 30 W 216 Metric Tons Per 120,000,000 Euros
Day
ZENG Worsham-Steed United States 2007 Potential 70 MW 870 Metric Tons Per – –
Day
CS Energy Callide Oxyfuels Project Australia 2006 Completed 30 MW 82.20 Metric Tons Per 245,000,000 Australian
Day Dollar
13
transport and oxygen-transport membranes [75–77] along with chemi used in industrial applications for several decades. Today, it is projected
cal looping combustion (CLC) [78–80]. that its combined CO2 capture capacity in commercial facilities is
The oxy-fuel combustion method has many research areas that are approximately 860 MtCO2/year [81]. The CO2 separation process is
not fully understood. These are the following processes: degassing of based on the reaction of a solvent with CO2, creating a new intermediate
volatile components; combustion of coke residues; ignition and stability during a reversible or irreversible chemical transformation, as shown in
of the dust-air flame; transformation of mineral substances; combustion Fig. 13 [82,83]. Commonly used solvents include mainly mono
and emission of gaseous pollutants (NO2, SO2) and their effective cap ethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), N-methyl diethanolamine
ture. The overall description of oxy-fuel combustion method is charac (MDEA), and di-2-propanolamine (DIPA) [83–85]. Regeneration occurs
terized in Table 6 and its application examples in CCUS projects between through an increase in temperature; therefore, the intermediate com
2006 and 2020 are included in Table 7. pound breaks down into the primary solvent and the CO2 stream
[82,83]. However, the recovery of CO2 depends on the specific case and
the nature of the chemical reaction. The advantage of the method, ac
3.2. CO2 separation technologies cording to the current scientific literature, is that chemical absorption
gives good results in terms of the efficiency of removing low-
In each of the CO2 capture systems at different stages of its course, it concentration CO2 from the exhaust gas mixture at relatively low pres
is necessary to use appropriate CO2 separation technologies. The choice sure. The disadvantages include the need to clean the flue gases, that is,
of CO2 separation depends on the conditions under which the process is remove SO2, O2, as well as dust and hydrocarbons, because the presence
to take place, considering the fuel used, the partial pressure of CO2, and of these substances can interfere with the operation of the absorber
the composition of the gas to be treated. The CO2 separation technolo column [86]. Additional disadvantages are the corrosiveness and high
gies vary from those used by industrial sectors for various gases energy consumption of the process related to solvent regeneration.
(chemical absorption and membranes) to those that need more pro The TRL assessment of chemical absorption is closely related to the
gressive ideas, such as cryogenics method or calcium looping. Depend post-combustion capture approaches, and its values depend primarily on
ing on the capture system, there are few main methods for CO2 the type of liquid solvents. Thus, chemical absorption based on tradi
separation, including chemical and physical absorption, membrane tional amine solvents is considered to have a TRL of 9 as the most mature
techniques, cryogenic method, chemical looping combustion (CLC), technology (widely used in fertilizer, soda ash, natural gas processing
calcium looping (CaL), and adsorption process. Selected R&D projects plants, e.g., Sleipner, Snøhvit CO2 storage and Boundary Dam 3 CCS
that potentially can be commercialized for the above key CO2 separation Facility). The Benfield process also achieved commercial scale (fertiliser
technologies covering absorption, membrane, and adsorption are also plants, e.g., Enid Fertilizer Plant) by using potassium carbonate (K2CO3)
presented. Data on current R&D projects were collected from the Na as an alkali absorption solvent. Other chemical absorption technologies
tional Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) database of the United exploit: sterically hindered amines, which have TRL 6–9 (depending on
States Department of Energy. the technology suppliers, e.g. coal-fired power plants - Petra Nova CCS);
chilled ammonia (chilled ammonia process - CAP) to remove CO2
3.2.1. Absorption especially from low-pressure flue gases - TRL 6–7; water-lean solvent
(coupling of physical and chemical absorption, e.g. Gerald Gentleman
3.2.1.1. Chemical absorption. Chemical absorption is the most mature Station and Jinjie Power Plant) - TRL 4–7; phase change solvents (e.g.
CO2 separation technique that was developed in 1930 s and has been
Fig. 13. Simplified process flow diagram of chemical absorption for CO2 capture.
14
DMX Demonstration in Dunkirk) - TRL5–6; amino acid-based solvent - chemical methods [88]. Moreover, the solvents have low corrosivity.
TRL 4–5; encapsulated solvents - TRL 2–3; and ionic liquids that has TRL The equilibrium CO2 loading, operating conditions cost of CO2 capture
2–3 [166]. and many others essential parameters on different chemical and physical
In the case of chemical absorption verification on the TRL scale for solvents in latest R&D projects are compared in Table 8.
specific CO2 capture sectors, it is mainly chemical production: ammonia
(TRL 9), methanol (TRL 9), high-value chemical (7–8). There are also 3.2.2. Membranes
other industries, such as iron and steel: direct reduced iron (TRL9), blast Membrane techniques are an innovative concept for the separation of
furnace - process gas hydrogen enrichment (5–6); cement sector (TRL CO2 from the flue gas mixture [12]. Membrane separation is based on
7–8); power generation - coal (TRL 9) and biomass (TRL 7–8) [81]. the use of a membrane, which is a thin layer of semipermeable barrier
material that separates a given gaseous medium when a driving force is
3.2.1.2. Physical absorption. Physical absorption consists of the fact that applied, e.g., pressure difference, temperature, or electric potential on
the absorbed carbon dioxide is dissolved in a solvent that does not react both sides of the membrane. The membrane divides the gas stream
with CO2 (it is chemically inert). The process itself is based on Henry’s (feed) into a permeate gas stream and a retained stream (retentate)
law; according to him, the concentration of gas dissolved in the ab [90,91].
sorption liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above The classification of membranes used for CO2 separation can be
the liquid [82,86]. Typical substances that act as a solvent in physical based on three general criteria: origin, morphology, and structure [90].
absorption include Rectisol (cold methanol) and Selexol (polyethylene The industry mainly uses organic membranes, which show a great va
glycol dimethyl ethers) [52], which both have TRL 9 [166]. They are riety in terms of physical structure and the materials from which they
often employed in natural gas processing (Fig. 14) and coal gasification are made. They are resistant to hostile process conditions, i.e. high
facilities, e.g., Shute Creek Gas Processing Plant, Century Plant, Cof temperature and pressure or the reactive chemical properties of the
feyville Gasification Plant, or Great Plains Synfuels and Weyburn-Midale exhaust gas mixture. In view of this, polymeric membranes and their
Plant. When considering specific industrial applications same as for hybrid system were acknowledged as an effective method of CO2 sepa
chemical absorption, physical adsorption is widely applied in ammonia ration, due to their excellent permeability, selectivity performance, and
production (TRL 9), methanol synthesis (TRL 7–8), and high-value simplicity in regulating membrane pore size throughout the formation
chemicals development (TRL 7–8). process. As a single technique, polymeric membranes have reached a
This type of absorption has a better efficiency than chemical ab TRL 7 (Front-End Engineering Design (FEED) studies for large pilot in
sorption at a higher partial pressure of CO2, such as those found in an stallations). On the contrary, their combinations with other separation
IGCC [87]. Therefore, it must be carried out for a flue gas mixture where methods achieved lower scaling steps, that is, the polymeric mem
the partial pressure of CO2 is not lower than 15% by volume, otherwise it branes/cryogenic separation hybrid in the pilot phase (TRL 6), and the
would be economically unprofitable, which is a drawback [82,86]. polymeric membranes/solvent hybrid, which has a TRL of 4 (conceptual
Regeneration of sorbents takes place through desorption of the absorbed studies) [166]. In the case of inorganic membranes, the most promising
component by means of high temperature, pressure reduction, or both are carbons, zeolites, ceramics, and metals [12]. A wide variety of
process parameters. The advantages of using physical absorption include membrane materials have been studied recently in R&D project between
the low consumption of energy needed to regenerate the absorbent 2022 and 2023 and their selectivity toward CO2, operating conditions,
(weak energy interaction between the absorbent-absorbate complex) cost of membrane material with technology maturity are compared in
and a lower temperature required for its occurrence compared to Table 9.
Fig. 14. Physical absorption (Selexol process) for CO2 capture from a natural gas stream.
15
Table 8
Selected R&D projects completed in 2020–2022 on absorption process in post-combustion CO2 capture technology [89].
Type of Project focus Prime Project Equilibrium Operating Operating Manufacturing Estimated CO2 CO2 Technology TRL
solvent performer duration CO2 loading pressure temperature cost for solvent cost of CO2 recovery purity maturity
[mol/mol] [bar] [℃] [$/kg] capture [% vol.] [%]
[$/tCO2]
Amine-based Retrofit the Bechtel 2019–2022 0.4–0.49 1.089 53.5 1–2 114.50 80–90 >99 FEED 5–7
solvent NGCC plant National, Inc.
Water-lean Develop a novel ION 2019–2022 0.5–1.0 1 40 – 39–45 – – Pilot-scale 6
amine amine-based Engineering, (550 MW (0.6 MWe)
solvent solvent for CO2 LLC coal-fired
capture power plan)
Amine-based Amine-based Southern 2019–2022 – 0.9–1.1 30–60 – – 90 99.9 FEED 5–7
solvent technology Company
retrofit to NGCC Services, Inc.
Hindered Advanced KM University of 2019–2022 – – – – 43.42 95 – FEED 5–7
amine- CDR process Illinois (816 MWe)
based retrofit
solvent
Water-lean Water-Lean Research 2018–2022 2.04–2.22 0.133 34–45 30 – – – Bench-scale 4
solvent solvent Triangle (6 kWe)
emissions Institute
Mitigation
Amine-based Integrated University of 2018–2022 0.5 1.01 40 14.74 23.97 90 95 Large bench 5–6
solvent advanced Kentucky scale
solvent process (0.1 MWth)
Water-lean Novel additives Liquid Ion 2018–2022 0.48 1.01 40 2 3.8 80 10 Laboratory- 3
amine for amines Solutions, LLC scale
solvent
Ammonium Developing SRI 2018–2022 1.5–3.5 1 20–40 – 30 (target) 90 95 Laboratory- 3
and mixed-salt International scale
potassium solvent process
salt
solvent
Solvents Flue gas Linde, LLC 2018–2021 – – – – 55.89–62.15 – – Pilot-scale 6
pretreatment to
minimize
solvent losses
Water-lean Molecular Pacific 2018–2021 0.29 1 40 13 – 90 95 Laboratory- 3
solvent refinement of Northwest scale
water-lean National
solvents Laboratory
Amine-based Transformative University of 2018–2021 0.42 1 40 4–6 41.4 90 99.9 Large pilot- 6
solvent process using Kentucky scale
(MEA) advanced Research (10 MWe)
solvents Foundation
Water-lean Water-lean ION 2018–2019 0.4–1.0 1.0–1.15 20–50 – 37.15 89–91 – FEED 5–7
solvent solvent Engineering
technology
retrofit
Hindered KM-CDR™ University of 2018–2019 – 1 40 – 53.8 95 99.9 Commercial- 5–7
amine- process retrofit North Dakota scale design
based
solvent
Amine-based Electrochemical Massachusetts 2017–2020 1 1 50 <50 45–65 90 99 Laboratory- 3
solvent regeneration of Institute of scale
amine solvents Technology
Based on their structure, membranes can be divided into four groups: larger surface area and improved control over gas flow rates [92]. The
porous, homogeneous solid, and solid carrying electric charges, liquid or most significant drawback of membranes is that their efficiency is
solid containing selective carriers. Moreover, the structure of the reduced at lower CO2 concentrations. When the concentration of CO2 in
membranes may be symmetrical, the structure is identical throughout the gas stream is <20%, the membrane exhibits limited flexibility and
the entire cross-section of the membrane, or asymmetric when the becomes impractical (additional stages and the recycling of one of the
structure changes in the cross-section [90,91]. In the spectrum of the streams are required) [93]. The other problems are related to the
mentioned membrane structures, only a few technologies are currently functioning at high temperatures, sensitivity to corrosive gases, and the
considered to reduce CO2 emissions, they are: electrochemical mem maintenance of adequate efficiency for long-term operation.
branes integrated with MCFCs (Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells) with a TRL Regarding the CO2 capture process and the emerging transport
7 – large pilots installation at Plant Barry, and room temperature ionic mechanism through the membrane structure, membrane separation can
liquid (RTIL) membranes at the formulation of the application phase be divided into two methods: gas separation membrane and gas ab
(TRL 2) [166]. sorption membrane, illustrated in Fig. 15 [94]. Between these two types
This separation method has the benefit of not causing weeping, of mechanisms based on significantly different forms of CO2 separation
entrainment, foaming, or flooding, all of which are typical concerns by membrane structure, only gas separation membranes in natural gas
when using a packed column. Along with that, membranes feature a processing are at commercial phase operations (TRL 9) that has been
16
Table 9
Selected completed and ongoing R&D projects in 2022–2023 on membrane-based techniques in CO2 capture technology [89].
Type of membrane Project focus Prime Project CO2 CO2 Operating Manufacturing Module cost of Cost of CO2 CO2 Technology TRL
performer duration selectivity pressure temperature cost for manufacturing CO2 Recovery purity maturity
[-] normalized [℃] membrane and installation capture [% vol.] [%]
flux [GPU] material [$/tCO2]
[$/m2]
Pre-combustion CO2 capture
Carbon molecular sieve Capture CO2 State 2018–2022 0.5 (H2O) 200 150 20 ~1000 $/kg/h – 90 95 Laboratory- 3
hollow fiber from coal- University of 2 (H2S) scale
membranes derived New York 0.025 (H2)
syngas
Polymeric membranes CO2 capture Membrane 2018–2022 0.50 (H2) 225 200 500 15 $/kg/h 84 90 99.5 Bench-scale 4
in IGCC Technology
power plant and
Research,
Inc.
Amine-containing CO2 capture Ohio State 2018–2022 0.1 (H2O) 327 107 ~54 97 $/m2 – 90 95 Laboratory- 3
polymeric membranes from coal- University 3 (H2S) scale
derived 139 (H2)
syngas
Polybenzimidazole CO2 capture SRI 2018–2022 40 (H2) 80–120 200–250 30–80 – – – – Bench-scale 4
polymer hollow-fiber from a International (dense
membrane syngas layer
stream thickness
of >1 µm)
WGSR catalytic Integration Bettergy 2018–2022 >75 (H2) 150 350–550 1200 – – 80 >95 Laboratory- 3
membrane reactor of WGSR, H2 Corporation scale
separation,
and CO2
enrichment
Ceramic-carbonate dual- Integration Arizona 2018–2022 >500 300–600 700–900 1000 ~1000 $/kg/h – 99 90 Laboratory- 3
phase membrane of WGSR, H2 State (H2O) scale
reactor separation, University >500
and CO2 (H2S)
enrichment >500 (H2)
Post-combustion CO2 capture
Polymeric mermbrane Large pilotMembrane 2018–2026 0.3 (H2O) 1000 30 – 50–100 $/m2 – 70–75 99 Large pilot- 6
polymer Technology 50 (N2) scale
membrane and 0.5 (SO2)
system Research,
Inc.
Mixed matrix membranes Achieve State 2019–2023 0.3 (H2O) 1500–2000 60 – – 30 – 95 Bench-scale 4
(rubbery polymers and high carbon University of 50 (N2) (target) (target)
metal–organic dioxide New York 0.5 (SO2)
polyhedral) permeance
Polymeric CO2 capture The Ohio 2019–2023 1 (H2O) 3500 57–77 20 40 $/m2 40.0- >60–90 >95 Bench-scale 4
composite membrane from flue State 170 (N2) 41.5
gas University
Polymeric mermbrane Retrofit Membrane 2019–2022 0.3 (H2O) 1000 30 10 50 $/m2 57.64 90 >96 FEED 5–7
process of Technology 30 (N2)
polymeric and 0.5 (SO2)
membrane Research,
CO2 capture Inc.
system
Polymeric membrane CO2 capture Membrane 2018–2022 0.3 (H2O) 1700 30 50 – – 75 >85 Engineering- 5
from coal Technology 50 (N2) scale
flue gas and 0.5 (SO2)
Research,
Inc.
Molten hydroxide dual Membrane Luna 2017–2022 999 (N2) 800 300 300 – – 99 >96 Bench-scale 4
phase mamebrane support Innovations
materials
(metal
oxides)
Amine carriers as the Selective Ohio State 2016–2020 0.3 (H2O) 2299 57–67 10 32 $/m2 246 90 >95 Pilot-scale 6
membrane matrix/ membranes University 50 (N2)
nanoporous for < 1% 0.5 (SO2)
polyethersulfone CO2 sources
polymer support
Polyimide-based Combine American Air 2015–2020 <0.2 – − 30 to − 45 – 100 $/kg/h – 80-90 >58 Bench-scale 4
membrane with Liquide, Inc. (H2O)
cryogenic >50 (N2)
separation 0.3 (SO2)
to reduce
(continued on next page)
17
Table 9 (continued )
Type of membrane Project focus Prime Project CO2 CO2 Operating Manufacturing Module cost of Cost of CO2 CO2 Technology TRL
performer duration selectivity pressure temperature cost for manufacturing CO2 Recovery purity maturity
[-] normalized [℃] membrane and installation capture [% vol.] [%]
flux [GPU] material [$/tCO2]
2
[$/m ]
the cost of
CO2 capture
Graphene oxide-based Retrofit Gas 2013–2022 1/10 1020 80 – – ≤40 70–90 >95 Bench-scale 4
membrane high- Technology (H2O) (2025
selectivity Institute 680 (N2) goal)
membranes (GTI)
in a
pulverized
coal or
natural gas
power plant
Graphene oxide-based Retrofit the Gas 2013–2022 >30 (N2) 2500 70 – – ≤40 70–90 >95 Bench-scale 4
membrane high-flux Technology (2025
membranes Institute goal)
in a (GTI)
pulverized
coal or
natural gas
power plant
Fig. 15. Scheme of CO2 separation membrane (from the left) and gas absorption membrane methods [97].
utilized in Petrobras Santos Basin Pre-Salt Oil Field CCS [166]. In Fig. 16 [12,94,96].
is given schematic flow diagram of membrane process for CO2 capture
from a coal-fired power plant [95]. 3.2.3. Cryogenic method
Cryogenic carbon capture (CCC) methods consist of compressing the
3.2.2.1. Gas separation membrane. For gas separation membranes (ho flue gas mixture and cooling it to the appropriate temperature at high
mogeneous solids), the gas transport mechanism is based on dissolution pressure in several stages to separate CO2 based on the dew point or
and diffusion. Separated CO2 dissolves in the membrane material and sublimation for a specific component, inducing phase changes only of
then diffuses through it depending on the form of mass transport (pas carbon dioxide, as shown in Fig. 17 [98]. This method can obtain higher
sive, facilitated or active transport). The components of the exhaust CO2 recovery (99.99%) and purity (99.99%) than other separation
gases are separated due to differences in their solubility in the mem technologies [94]. Furthermore, they are used mainly for the separation
brane material and discrepancies in the rates at which they pass through of gaseous streams with high concentrations of CO2, usually >50% [99].
it [12,94]. In the case of low concentrations of CO2 (corresponding to boiler
exhaust gas), the use of this technology is unprofitable due to the too
3.2.2.2. Gas absorption membrane. In the case of gas-absorbing mem large amount of energy needed for the compression and cooling pro
branes, which are microporous solids, the transport mechanism is the cesses [100]. Thus, cryogenic methods are currently mainly studied to
transfer of carbon dioxide through the pores of the membrane to the advance the low-TRL cryogenic capture process and scale-up in associ
other side of the membrane into the liquid that absorbs it. The mecha ation with other CO2 capture processes, for example polymeric mem
nism of this type of separation depends on the pore size of the membrane brane techniques (TRL 6) [166]. Other existing cryogenic based hybrid
and the type of absorbing liquid used, the affinity for the separation of a CO2 capture systems in addition to membrane, involving hydrate [101],
specific component of the flue gas stream. In this way, the membrane adsorption (zeolites 4A and 13X) [102] and absorption (chilled
enables the separation of waste gases into CO2 rich and low streams ammonia process) [103]. However, their TRL is mostly assigned to a
18
Fig. 16. Simplified scheme of membrane technology for post-combustion capture from power station flue gas.
Fig. 17. Schematic diagram of CO2 separation by cryogenic carbon capture (CCC) process [108].
laboratory scale (TRL 3). to engineering scale (30 tonnes of CO2 captured/day – TRL 5) at Central
If mentioned the current R&D projects, they focus mainly on using Plains Cement Plant in Sugar Creek, Missouri. Another project led by the
CCC in the cement production sector. One of the prime performers is University of Illinois (2022–2023) concerns a pressure swing adsorption
Sustainable Energy Solutions (2022–2025), LLC wishing to advance CCC (PSA) unit combined with a cryogenic unit to produce a high-purity CO2
19
Fig. 18. Schematic representation of chemical-looping combustion process (CLC) [98].
product stream at Holcim Ste. Genevieve cement plant in Missouri. The reactor (also known as a “oxidizer”) and the other of which is a fuel
goal is to complete a FEED study (TRL 5–7), for a commercial-scale reactor (“reducer”), as shown in Fig. 18. Oxygen for fuel combustion is
carbon capture system that can separate 95% of the total CO2 emis obtained from the reduction of transition metal oxides (those of copper,
sions [89]. cobalt, iron, manganese, and nickel), which are the bed material
This separation process entails numerous phases of compression and circulating between the two reactors - oxygen carriers (OC) [110,111].
cooling of gas mixtures to produce phase changes in CO2 in flue gases All of these chemical individuals have been recognized as potential
and, typically, other components in the mixture [12]. The separated candidates for oxygen carriers, where the most influential properties of
carbon dioxide in the liquid phase or in the form of a solid (dry ice) is OC to increase the efficiency of CLC are high oxygen capacity, high
removed directly. The selectivity of the cryogenic method results pri reactivity, high reoxidation rate, excellent stability during CLC cycles,
marily from different values of dew/sublimation points for individual high mechanical strength to resist the stress associated with circulation,
components of the exhaust gases subject to separation, they may be: CO, high resistance to agglomeration, minimal environmental effect, and
SO2, NOx, H2O, CH4, and NH3. They significantly impair cooling and low price [98,112]. In the next step of CLC, the reduced metal oxides are
result in corrosion, fouling, and plugging [100]. sent to an air reactor, where they are oxidized by oxygen. After oxi
The greatest advantages of this method of CO2 separation are no dization, OCs are transported to the fuel reactor, where they are reduced
need to use chemical reagents, and ease of transport of CO2, which is and used as a source of oxygen by the fuel, and then oxidize to CO2 and
obtained directly in the liquid phase [12,104]. On the other hand, the H2O.
main disadvantage is the energy consumption of the installation due to Currently, most CLC systems have been evaluated in TRL 5–6, which
additional processes that must be carried out to minimize the water correspond to pilot tests. Compared to another native technology of
content in the flue gas stream that supplies the cryogenic equipment solid looping (comprising high-temperature looping cycles), i.e. calcium
(preventing ice formation and blocking the process equipment with it looping (CaL), CLC is less advanced in implementation on the com
and limiting the achievement of values of unacceptably high pressure mercial scale [166].
drop) [12,105]. Therefore, one of the research areas is the assessment of The primary advantages of the CLC method are the absence of
CO2 frosting characteristics [106,107]. harmful compounds in the air reactor exhaust gases (which are primarily
composed of nitrogen) and the ease with which CO2 can be separated
3.2.4. Chemical looping combustion (CLC) from the exhaust gas stream from the fuel reactor via a condenser, thus
To reduce CO2 emissions, an option that has been proposed by reducing energy consumption and separation costs [47,113]. This
Ritcher and Knoche is the use of fossil fuels in a process known as approach has certain disadvantages, including poor stability of the ox
chemical looping combustion (CLC) [109]. This approach compart ygen carrier and slow redox kinetics [114].
mentalizes combustion into intermediate oxidation and reduction pro
cesses that are carried out independently, with a solid oxygen carrier 3.2.5. Calcium looping (CaL)
moving between the two separated units. The CLC technology is based Calcium looping (CaL) is an is a novel way of separation method that
on two reactors that are internally connected, one of which is an air is becoming extremely prevalent in post-/oxy-combustion CO2 capture
20
Fig. 19. CO2 capture from flue gas by calcium looping process (CaL).
technologies from coal power plants [115], greenfield capture-ready reactivity of the sorbents, and a rapid decline in CO2 capture perfor
biomass-fired plants [116], electricity generation sector, and other mance [118,121]. As a direct consequence of this, it is necessary to
carbon-intensive sectors (such as cement, lime, and steel), which uses regularly remove part of the sorbent and replace it with a new one. This
CaO-based sorbents [117]. The CO2 capture mechanism occurs through leads to an increase in the cost of the procedure, and the wasted sorbent
reversible reactions between CaO and CO2, commonly referred to as also has to be removed from the premises. When these barriers are
carbonation and calcination, respectively, for each stage [118]. Fig. 19 considered, they remain a pressing concern and must be solved before
shows typical configuration for calcium looping. CaL was first suggested the CaL method achieves TRL 9.
in the 1990 s, but has only been shown to be successfully demonstrated
in recent years in actual settings at a pilot scale. Currently, this tech 3.2.6. Adsorption
nique is in the stage of feasibility and cost studies on a commercial scale In the last decade, intensive research has been carried out on
(TRL 6–7) [166]. CaL, in general, has been a particularly promising adsorption as a potential method of separating CO2 from the flue gas,
subject of research for the retrofit of pulverized coal-fired power plants, owing to its quite high capacity at low temperature and high pressure,
but it has also been suggested for standalone biomass power plants obtaining the final product with high purity, the possibility of complete
(BECCS) [116,118]. Although there are some CAL concepts related to automation of its process, and the reduction of many unnecessary steps.
the retrofit of sorption-enhanced hydrogen production processes [119]. Nowadays the most significant challenges of adsorption deployment on
As CaO-based sorbents, which are covered in the section on an industrial scale are four fundamental aspects: cost-effective produc
adsorption (a fundamental phenomenon in the cycles of chemical tion on a large scale of adsorbents, reduction of CO2 uptake due to the
looping) in terms of the current scope of recent related studies, CaL will negative impact of impurities in flue gas mixture, controlling and
not be considered in detail here. In general, CaL provides several ben regulating temperature of flue gas to a proper level, and costs associated
efits that cannot be found in other CO2 separation technologies, with frequent adsorbent replacement. Table 10 shows the performance
including a decrease in power plant efficiency that is only marginally of the CO2 capture and its cost, operating conditions, and manufacturing
noticeable and the possibility of this decrease being further reduced cost of an adsorbent material for selected adsorption R&D projects in
[120]. Unfortunately, this approach has a number of drawbacks, one of 2013–2023.
the most significant being that calcium sorbents deactivate during the The adsorption process is cyclical and consists of two separate pro
cyclic operation of adsorption and regeneration in many successions. cesses: the adsorption and desorption of CO2 (Fig. 20). It takes place as a
This phenomenon is the result of sintering, which causes modifications result of the uneven sorption capacity of the adsorbent and the speed of
in the porosity and crystal structure of the sorbent, deterioration of the the adsorption kinetics of selected gaseous agents from the separated
21
Table 10
Selected completed and ongoing R&D projects in 2014–2023 on adsorption in CO2 capture technology [89].
Type of adsorbent Project focus Prime Project Equilibrium Operating Operating Manufacturing Cost of Cost of CO2 CO2 Technology TRL
material performer duration loading [mg pressure temperature cost for manufacturing CO2 recovery purity maturity
or mmol [bar] [℃] adsorbent and installation capture [% vol.] [%]
CO2/kg] [$/kg] [$/kg] [$/tCO2]
Post-combustion CO2 capture
Alkyl-amine coated Novel Lawrence 2017–2021 2.5 0.13 50 <75 – – 90 90 Bench-scale 4

MOF adsorbents for Berkeley
CO2 capture National
(TSA) Laboratory
Alkalized alumina 0.5 MWe CO2 TDA 2014–2022 1.0 1.12 140 6.5 – 37 90 95 Pilot-scale 6
(Al2O3) adsorbent capture Research,
process using Inc.
TSA
Microporous Reduce the InnoSepra, 2019–2022 3.25 1.15 25–32 4.0 336 31 90 99 Laboratory- 3
adsorbent cost of CO2 LLC scale
capture (TSA)
Ion exchange amine Develop novel TDA 2018–2022 0.72 1.1 60 <20 – 29.7 90 95 Bench-scale 4
polymeric resin adsorbent Research,
material to Inc.
CO2 capture
using TSA
Bi-layer laminated Optimization Electricore, 2019–2022 1.5–2.5 1–1.1 40–50 100–200 – – 90 90 Bench-scale 4
structured sorbents of novel Inc.
(MOFs) adsorbent
materials
TiO2/Al2O3 on Reduction in Rensselaer 2019–2023 0.965–1.2 0.15 20 3.6 – ~30 90 95 Bench-scale 4
Zeolite 13X CO2 capture Polytechnic (target)
cost and Institute
energy
penalties
(PSA)
Low-temperature Develop TDA 2018–2023 0.5 1.0 30 3.75 – 38.89 – – Pilot-scale 6
physical adsorbent membrane- Research, Inc
adsorbent
hybrid system
MOF on microlith in Develop novel Precision 2017–2023 – – 30 – – 30 – – Bench-scale 4
adsorption adsorbent to Combustion, (target)
modules CO2 capture Inc.
using TSA
SIFSIX-2-Cu-I MOF CO2 capture TDA 2019–2023 2.3 1.0 30 30 (target) – 30.7–36.4 90 95 Laboratory- 3
using VCSA Research, scale
Inc.
Carbon pellets Novel low- SRI 2013–2018 4 1 20 – – 45 90 95 Bench-scale 4
sorbent cost carbon International
adsorbent
Amine Improving the Aspen 2013–2016 100–200 0.8 40 7–10 (target) – – – – Bench-scale 4
functionalized performance Aerogels, Inc.
aerogel adsorbent of CO2 capture
Pre-combustion CO2 capture
Functionalized High-capacity TDA 2013–2022 1.04 33.8 198 3.88 212.8 28–40 90 96 Pilot-scale 6
carbon sorbent regenerable Research,
adsorbent Inc.
mixture. During adsorption, a experimental apparatus is filled with the properties [123]. The effectiveness depends on a variety of other factors
adsorbent. After that, the flue gas containing CO2 is transported through that strongly influence the practical utilization of CO2 adsorbent on an
it. Further, the gas mixture is led to the surface of the solid sorbent industrial scale: process parameters, the composition of the flue gas
material, which adsorbs CO2 molecules and passes other gases through mixture, the specific branch of industry for application, physicochemical
its structure. After adsorption, CO2 is removed from the adsorbent layer parameters, environmental criteria, etc. The choice of a particular
(desorption process) - regeneration of the adsorbent for reuse and then adsorbent is related in part to the type of CO2 capture, where temper
desorbed CO2 is transported, conditioned and compressed [122]. ature plays an important role. For post-combustion capture, the flue gas
Theoretically, the capture of CO2 by adsorbent material is mainly temperature is relatively low; for coal-fired flue gas it is approximately
conditioned by two factors: the degree of development of its porous 60–150 ◦ C, and for natural gas-fired flue gas around 100 ◦ C, in that case
structure (the degree of expansion of micropores/mesopores, and the most types of adsorbent can be used. On the other hand, CO2 capture
size of the specific surface area of the adsorbent) and its chemical before the combustion process, where the gas resulting after gasification
properties. The first factor determines the space available for gas or the post-water–gas shift reaction of the fuel has a much higher tem
adsorption, and the second affects the interaction forces between the perature, 500–1800 ◦ C and 250–550 ◦ C, respectively [124–126]. The
CO2 molecules and the solid surface, which determine the adsorption temperatures of the oxy-fuel combustion reach similar or even higher
22
Fig. 20. Schematic diagram of the CO2 adsorption process.
values [12]. This results in the application of adsorbents that are more (cement sector) [137], and fixed-bed/VSA-light product pressurization
resistant to high temperatures to avoid degradation of their material (LPP)/zeolite 13x [138].
structure. In relation to the way regeneration modes until now, various types
In view of adsorption progress in the market, the two major types of are used in different scale. The most recognized and mature method in
adsorption, as key factors, may interchangeably be referred to as phases industry is pressure swing adsorption (PSA), achieving TRL 9 [166]. The
in the advancement of technology. Physical adsorption (e.g. activated other PSA modifications mainly concern the way of CO2 desorption,
carbon, silica, alumina, MOFs, or zeolites) is now used most often in which is conditioned by a combination of the following various pa
cement industry (TRL 5–6); chemical industry i.e. ammonia (TRL 5–6), rameters: increase in temperature, reduction in partial pressure, or CO2
methanol (TRL 7–8) production; and iron and steel sector i.e. direct concentration in the volume of the flue gases, flushing out with an inert
reduction process (TRL 5–6), smelting reduction process (TR 7–8) [81]. fluid, change of chemical conditions or electric field application.
In contrast, chemical adsorption is in a much earlier technology stage, Consequently, the main classification was divided into several charac
substantially in the research and development phase (amine-based ad teristic variations, i.e., pressure swing adsorption with the use of vac
sorbents, metal oxides, metal salts, hydrotalcites). Apart from the choice uum in the desorption process (vacuum pressure swing adsorption
of materials, adsorption also has other segments that interact with each (VPSA)), vacuum swing adsorption (VSA), temperature swing adsorp
other, which should be considered in the spectrum of conducting tion (TSA), combined temperature and pressure swing adsorption
experimental research. They are contactors (adsorbent beds) and solid (temperature–pressure swing adsorption (TPSA)), and adsorption with
sorbent technologies (mainly a method of adsorbent regeneration). In the use of low-voltage electric current passed through the bed during the
other words, the selection of the contactor and the regeneration method desorption stage (electric swing adsorption (ESA)). Of the above PSA
must be tightly connected with the advancement of the adsorbent ma modifications, only VSA also managed to achieve industrial scale
terial in the CO2 capture. Specific gas–solid contacting systems are a implementations (TRL 9, Air Products Port Arthur SMR CCS) [166].
vital aspect in the efficient use and development of each type of adsor Other methods of regeneration are found at various technology
bent material to obtain the maximum potential from them, as they in advancement, VPSA and TPSA reached TRL 6 [139], TSA has a TRL of
fluence not only the overall outcome of the process, but also the 5–7 (large pilot tests to FEED studies for commercial plants) [166], ESA
operational/capital costs (CO2 capture costs) [127] and the acceleration is between a TRL of 3–4 [140]. For PTSA, no specific values are given in
of the commercial implementation of adsorption technologies [128]. the literature, so it can be suspected that it is at very early stage of
When assessing the adsorbent beds itself through TRL, it is difficult to technology. In addition, the scientific literature reports unconventional
define them because of the close connection with the regeneration adsorption technologies that do not fit into the scope outlined above
method and the examined adsorbent material, or because of the lack of conventional regeneration method, these are: enzyme catalyzed
specific information in the literature of larger-scale projects. Therefore, adsorption (TRL 6), sorbent-enhanced water gas shift (TRL 5), and
it is not advisable to verify them in terms of the TRL. Until now, con electrochemically mediated adsorption (TRL 1) [166].
tactors were reported with various modifications, mainly in coal sector, Characteristics of all investigated CO2 separation technologies are
etc. on the laboratory scale (TRL 3) - multistage fluidized/VTSA/PEI + summarized in Table 11, and current technology readiness levels are
SiO2 [129], fixed bed + membrane hybrid/VSA/zeolite 13x molecular presented in Fig. 21 and Fig. 22.
sieve [130], sound assisted fluidized bed/fine activated carbon [131];
bench scale (TRL 4) - multistage fluidized/TSA-N2/PEI + SiO2 [132]; 4. CO2 transport
and pilot scale (TRL 5–6) - fluidized bed/TSA/dry sorbent (K or Na)
[133], moving bed/TSA/amine functionalized sorbent [134], fixed bed/ Carbon capture and storage technologies are heavily dependent on
VPSA/zeolite 13x and activated carbon [135], moving bed/TSA/ CO2 transit. After capture and separation, carbon dioxide must be
advanced carbon sorbent [136], fluidized bed/TSA/PEI-based adsorbent transported in the appropriate phase state. This can be done in several
23
Table 11
General advantages and disadvantages of CO2 separation technologies [12,42,47,55,98,141,142].
Method Advantages Disadvantages/Challenges
Physical absorption ✓ >90% CO2 separation efficiency. ➣ Low effectiveness of CO2 capture.
✓ Low energy consumption for sorbent regeneration. ➣ Low selectivity towards CO2.
✓ Temperature required for the process is lower than for chemical ➣ Limitation on operating temperature (the capacity of solvents is best at low
methods. temperatures).
✓ Low corrosivity and toxicity. ➣ High capital and operational costs.
✓ More economical at a higher partial pressure of CO2. ➣ Economically unprofitable if CO2 partial pressure <15% vol.
Chemical absorption ✓ Most mature technology. ➣ Need to clean the exhaust gases (water, SOx, NOx).
✓ Simplicity and the possibility of using it with a low partial pressure of ➣ Corrosivity of proces apparatus.
CO2.
✓ Suitable for retrofit. ➣ High energy demand for regenerating the solvent.
✓ High absorption capacities. ➣ Solvent toxicity and loss
✓ Product purity >99% vol. ➣ Large absorber volume.
➣ Environmental impacts due to solvent degradation.
Membranes ✓ >80% CO2 separation efficiency. ➣ Strength problems at high pressures.
✓ Uncomplicated process. ➣ Strict temperature requirements.
✓ No regeneration energy is required. ➣ Plugging by impurities in gas stream.
✓ Simple modular system. ➣ Sensitivity to corrosive gases.
✓ No waste streams. ➣ Need for gas compression.
✓ Higher separation energy efficiency compared to absorption and ➣ Difficult to maintain performance over long-term operation.
adsorption.
✓ No additional chemicals in separation process. ➣ Preventing wetting is a major challenge.
➣ Permeation and selectivity issues.
Calcium looping (CaL) ✓ Cheap raw materials for sorbents synthesis. ➣ Reduced CO2 uptake due to sintering of sorbents in many cycles.
✓ Optimal method for retrofit of pulverized coal-fired power plants, ➣ Additional expenses regarding fast rapid degradation of sorbent.
sorption-enhanced hydrogen production process or BECCS.
➣ Waste management of sorbents.
Cryogenic method ✓ High CO2 purity. ➣ Significant energy penalty due to refrigeration (low temperature, high
pressure condition).
✓ High separation efficiency(up to 99.9% vol. CO2). ➣ The energy consumption to minimize the moisture level in the flue gas stream
(preventing ice formation and blocking the process. equipment).
✓ Production of ready to transport, pure liquid CO2. ➣ High capital costs.
✓ No need of chemical reagents.
✓ Suitable for high pressure gas stream with high concentration(>50%
vol.).
✓ Easy scaled-up to industrial application.
Chemical looping ✓ Simplicity and the possibility of using it with a low partial pressure of ➣ Insufficient stability of the oxygen carrier.
combustion (CLC) CO2.
✓ The exhaust gas from the air reactor is mainly N2. ➣ Slow redox kinetics.
✓ The exhaust gas stream from the fuel reactor is composed of CO2 and ➣ Process is still under development and not implemented in industry scale.
H2O (CO2 can be easily separated by a condenser).
✓ Avoids huge energy penalty and thus less operational cost.
Adsorption ✓ >85% CO2 separation efficiency. ➣ Low CO2 selectivity.
✓ Ease of use and maintainability of the installation. ➣ Lower CO2 uptake compared to other separation technologies, such as
absorption or cryogenics.
✓ Since adsorbents can be reused, low waste generation. ➣ Lack of expertise.
✓ Reversible process (physical adsorption). ➣ Scalability.
✓ Large selection of materials with high CO2 uptake. ➣ Problem with the resistance to high temperature.
✓ Low energy requirement to regenerate a adsorbent material. ➣ Continuous, low-cost manufacture on a widespread scale of a adsorbent.
✓ Wide operability range. ➣ Sensitivity to sulfur/nitrogen oxide and moisture.
✓ Possibility to use waste biomass or industrial resides as raw materials ➣ Poor durability of adsorbents (additional cost of material replacement).
do adsorbent synthesis.
ways, e.g. in the gaseous phase. However, the distribution of CO2 as a options include pipelines and ships, the choice is particularly based
gas is not an economically viable option, similar to the situation with a primarily on the distance to the CO2 storage site [146]. The advantages
two-phase flow, which can result in high pressure losses [143]. Gener and disadvantages of these transport methods are given in Fig. 23. The
ally, there is a consensus that significant amounts of CO2 should be two most technically mature advanced transport research methods are
transported as liquid or preferred in the supercritical state (above the onshore & offshore pipelines and transport ships. CO2 can also be
critical temperature and pressure), and as a dense phase fluid (above the transported by road and rail tanker as well, but it is not the preferred
critical pressure but below the critical temperature) [144]. The dense mode of transportation for a large CCS project. However, China still
phase offers the greatest number of advantages as the most energy- relies heavily on highway cryogenic storage tanks for its offshore CO2
efficient conditions, due to its viscosity being comparable to that of a transit, as a pioneer in this field of research [145]. Therefore, all
gas and its density being closer to that of a liquid [143]. In addition to transport technologies reached a TRL 9 stage, since they are now being
the phase characteristic, there are also other existing studies of the ef used on a commercial scale.
fects of CO2 property on the transport process, such as density, viscosity,
heat capacity, and thermal conductivity. And their impact is determined 4.1. Pipeline transport
on transport cost, pressure drop/loss, and temperature drop [145].
The CO2 transmission process itself is well established and can be Pipelines are today considered a mature market technology. They are
divided into offshore and onshore transport, which are two distinct reviewed as safe transmission technology, because CO2 is not toxic or
subsets of the overall transport system. Onshore transport options flammable, and generally the possibility of pipeline leakage is low
include highways, railroads, and pipelines, while offshore shipping [145]. From 2014, >6.500 km of CO2 pipelines were spread around the
24
Fig. 21. TRL of CO2 separation methods (the following scheme is not meant to be all-inclusive).
25
Fig. 22. TRL of CO2 separation technologies by economic sector (the following scheme is not meant to be all-inclusive).
26
Fig. 23. Evaluation of the merits and disadvantages of CO2 transport techniques [145].
Fig. 24. Indicative costs of CO2 pipelines influenced by CO2 flowrate [31].
world, which operated particularly in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) technological evaluation, as the diameter strongly influences the
projects in the United States [147]. According to the latest available amount invested capital. In most cases, the amount of money invested
data, the total length of the global CO2 pipeline exceeded 8000 km in will be proportional to the diameter of the pipe [145]. As a result, the
2015, with the United States accounting for the highest proportion most practical pipe diameter would be as small as possible while still
(>7,200 km) [145]. In 2013, Europe had only about 500 km of CO2 meeting the CO2 transmission requirements [152]. In the design of a
pipelines, so the difference is enormous [148]. In the case of future pipe diameter, in addition to the diameter itself, pressure, flow rate, and
trends that depend on the level of industrialization development, esti fluid flow should be taken into account [153,154]. The influence of one
mates by IEA professionals showed that the length required for CO2 those process parameters is clearly seen in Fig. 24, where the flow rates
pipeline networks in 2030 will be approximately 100.000 km, and the of transported CO2 correlate significantly with capital and operational
length required in 2050 will range between 200.000 and 550.000 km expenditure of the pipeline, and the advantage of the dense phase over
[149]. The carbon dioxide stream transported by the pipelines is com the gas phase is noticeable.
pressed to a pressure of 10–20 MPa, higher than the critical one (~7.38 Today, research on CO2 pipelines is focused on their design (e.g.
MPa) to avoid multiphase flow regimes, making it less difficult and more impact of impurities - H2S, O2 H2O, N2 on phase equilibrium), utilized
affordable to transport [150]. materials, safety and maintenance (e.g. corrosion processes in pipe
The transport capacity of CO2 pipelines is a function of the diameter lines), and management as challenging factors. Additionally, the
of the pipeline; therefore, it should be correctly dimensioned according development of innovative construction and detection methods is also
to the appropriate source of CO2 emissions [151], also in terms of essential [145].
27
Fig. 25. Scheme of CCU process flow.
4.2. Ship transport demand for CO2 grew steadily over the previous years. In 2015, it
increased rapidly to 230 MtCO2, and in 2020, the level was expected to
For the last 30 years, CO2 has been transported by ships, in any way reach 250 MtCO2 [156]. The trend of increasing demand is willing to
connected to food or industrial industries, with a working pressure of remain constant due to the economic development of three major CO2
15–20 bar and a temperature of –30 ◦ C, as the optimal cryo-compressed market, which are the USA (33%), China (22%), together with Europe
conditions of their operation [155]. In certain cases, particularly over (16%), and in 2025 its predicted value seems to rocket to approximately
longer distances, shipping through a ship rather than a pipeline may be 272 MtCO2. For 2015 data, the largest industrial consumers were pri
the most cost-effective option, as ships are more adaptable [42] and marily the fertilizer industry (responsible for around 57% − 130 MtCO2
have good economy [145]. Ship transport requires the use of certain for urea production), and the oil sector (34%), including the use of
pieces of machinery, such as an intermediate storage tank, loading and 70–80 MtCO2 in CO2-EOR. Other areas of the economy where CO2 is
unloading facilities, and CO2 carrier/cargo tanks. In general, carrier used are the production of food (3%) and beverages (3%), the fabrica
tanks may be classified into three distinct categories: pressurized, tion of metals (2%) and other applications (4%) [156]. In light of this,
completely refrigerated, and semi-refrigerated. These categories are CCU technology combines the potential for mutual benefit, both for the
considered the target designed characteristic and are determined by net-zero strategy and for many branches of industry, which attract
three obligatory factors to be considered throughout the design pro governments and the community of investors to support its develop
cedure, the two most important such as: the boiling temperature ment. Throughout the last decade, total private financing for CO2 uti
(determining element in the selection of the tank), and the internal lization start-ups across the world reached nearly 1 billion dollars.
pressure (conceived on the vapor pressure and the liquid pressure) and The carbon capture and utilization (CCU) process consists of the CO2
the third one - cargo density, which is essential for the choice of scuttling capture from flue gases and its subsequent disposal. It is a competing
of the tanks and its assistance [151]. Therefore, the greatest challenge of technique for the CCS approach, which is required to get to the point
this method of transport are the strict requirements for the control of where large-scale CO2 emissions can be minimized as rapidly as feasible.
temperature and pressure in specific range of values in the CO2 transport However, in contrast to that, CCU technology, as a vital feature of the
equipment, taking into account possible mechanical damage to the long-term strategy, aims to recycle CO2 that has been captured and
tanks, leakage or different atmospheric conditions. convert it into a variety of other chemicals, solvents, raw materials in the
manufacture of fuels, carbonates, polymers, or as a recovery agent in
5. CO2 utilization and storage techniques such as enhanced oil/gas recovery (CO2-EOR/EGR), and
enhanced coal bed methane (CO2-ECBM) [157] - CO2, which is stored
5.1. Carbon capture and utilization (CCU) simultaneously, is treated as a means of its utilization while obtaining
valuable new products. Therefore, these methods are classified as both
In 2000, global CO2 consumption was around 150 Mt/year, and the CCS and CCU. The same is the case with CCMC technology, where CO2
28
Fig. 26. The ways of utilization and re-use of CO2 in CCU technology (the following scheme is not meant to be all-inclusive).
can be reused in the form of carbonates in industry. Generally, new (organic and inorganic carbonates, carboxylic acids, carbamic acids, and
pathways to reuse CO2 has crucial implications for the current problems biodegradable polymers) are created [161]. On the other hand, the
of many economy sectors and ecology, causing positive effects on them. second method usually produces solvents (hydroformylation/hydroge
It especially includes its contribution to the goal of reaching global nation/oxidation/biocatalysts/polymers synthesis in CO2) [157],
climate goals; providing various substitutes for carbon feedstock, which working fluid in a power cycle, and heat transfer fluid [161]. They are
is essential for growing societies; enabling the development of the cir used primarily in cooling and geothermal systems, in supercritical
cular carbon economy, and waste management; facilitating transmission extraction, or CO2-EOR/CO2-EGR/CO2-ECBM.
and distribution of power derived from renewable sources [158,159]. In the case of the CCU, the determination of TRL is still fraught with
The CCU process itself can be divided into characteristic stages that some degree of doubt, when it comes to non-CO2-EOR (CO2-EOR only
repeat cyclically: emission, capture, utilization, and obtaining products has achieved truly TRL 9) [44]. CCU is representative of a diverse set of
(Fig. 25) Therefore, the goal of highly developed economies is to identify technologies, most of which have their conceptual viability established
and develop technologies that allow the creation of useful and valuable in the pilot commercial project and the need to transform CO2 into
substances or products from recovered CO2, which can have a significant products that cannot yet be made available on the market due to the
impact in many industrial sectors. Complete incorporation of CCU into need for more research and/or modifications to the existing regulatory
value-added goods provides an opportunity to reduce unavoidable structure [162]. Therefore, it can generally be assumed that mainly all
process emissions and mitigate process costs. An exhaustive examina CO2 utilization methodologies have TRL 6 [44]. However, considering
tion of the viability of the process is necessary to achieve the successful the mature state, there are possibilities to identify specific CO2-based
construction of a CCU process; however, it is not immediately clear products on the TRL scale [163]. Only the group of CO2-based chem
which of the available solutions is best suited for this. To determine icals, fuels, and durable minerals reached TRL 9, as follows: methanol,
which CCU solutions have the greatest potential, the set of criteria can CO2-based polycarbonates, polyols, polyurethanes, salicylic acids, and
be used to reflect various aspects of the utilized process, such as: the urea. The rest of the technologies in this group are between TRL 1
specific mass of CO2 in the product; CO2 utilization potential (CUP), (malates), and TRL 8 (cyclic carbonates, dimethyl carbonates, and
robust life-cycle assessment; technology readiness level (TRL); the re methane). In the case of mineral carbonation and construction mate
sources used; the requirements for CO2 quality and health, safety, and rials, it is TRL 4 (magnesium carbonates) to TRL 8 (sodium bicarbonates,
environment (HSE) issues; they are all important factors [160]. concrete curing). A biological algae cultivation and enzymatic conver
According to current trends, captured carbon dioxide can be reused sion oscillates between TRL 3 (CO2-based enzymatic and microbial
in CCU in two ways: by conversion (additional energy and other sub products) and TRL 8 (dry algae powders) [163]. Fig. 27. presents more
strates are required) or without conversion (Fig. 26). In the first method, details of development approaches to CO2 utilization in the CCU.
4 subgroups can be distinguished: chemical, biochemical, photochem
ical, and electrochemical. As a result, energy carriers (methane, syngas,
methanol, gas hydrates, biomass fuels) and chemical raw materials
29
Fig. 27. TRLs for main ways of CO2 utilization (non-EOR) [163].
30
Fig. 28. Worldwide total storage resources by country in late 2021 [31].
5.2. CO2 storage Sleipner CO2 Storage, Snøhvit CO2 Storage, Quest CCS, Illinois Industrial
CSS, Gorgon CO2 Injection [31]. The CO2-enhanced gas recovery (CO2-
CO2 transported to a specific storage location can finally be seques EGR), the depleted oil and gas reservoir, they are still in the demon
trated, which is the most difficult challenge in CCS technology. The last stration phase (TRL 5–8 [166], or TRL 7 [44]), and CO2-ECBM is be
storage step may be divided into three categories: geological, oceanic, tween TRL 2–3 [166].
and mineral storage. In 2021, according to the CO2 Storage Resource The waters of the oceans make up the most extensive natural habitat
Catalog, the theoretical capacity of CO2 total storage resources is on Earth and also contain the greatest quantity of elemental carbon. In
approximately around 13,000 Gt across the globe and their abundant the past, given the amount of carbon dioxide the oceans could absorb by
availability can achieve Paris Agreement climate targets (1.5 ◦ C sce injecting it into the deep ocean to form liquid CO2 lakes, sequestration in
narios) [5]. The highest geological storage capacity of CO2 is available this ecosystem was proposed. Over time, this procedure was declared
primarily in the United States, which represents 62.2% of total storage illegal because of the possibility of leakage, which could cause volatil
resources (8,061.812 Gt). The second largest score has China with ization into the atmosphere, threatening human life. More importantly,
23.75% (3,077.431 Gt) and the third, Australia with the result of 3.88% the release of CO2 into the ocean would first and foremost result in the
(502.430 Gt). The rest of the countries include the following: Canada acidification of seawater and, as a consequence, the destruction of entire
(3.11%), South Korea (1.60%), Japan (1.17%), Malaysia (1.154%) and marine ecosystems. As it has never been possible to conduct a controlled
others (2.38%) [31]. The illustrative share of countries in CO2 total experiment in which significant quantities of relatively pure CO2 were
storage resources is given in Fig. 28. injected into the deep ocean [42], any findings on the potential for
The most proven method is to store carbon dioxide underground by environmental damage are based on the formulation of technological
injecting it into an appropriate geological environment or a given concepts (TRL 2) [44].
geological reservoir/stratum with a specific depth. There are typically The geological process of mineral storage, also known as mineral
few distinct types of geological formations that are examined for CO2 carbonation, occurs when CO2 reacts with alkaline earth metals such as
storage: depleted reservoirs of oil and natural gas; nearly depleted, or calcium or magnesium from rock formation minerals made up of silicate
unexploited reservoirs of oil and natural gas (CO2-EOR/CO2-EGR); deep groups to form carbonate minerals (CaCO3/MgCO3) [167]. These stor
unmineable coal deposits or coal seams - enhanced coal bed methane age methods aim to simulate the process of weathering rocks, which can
(CO2-ECBM), deep saline aquifer [42]. Only some of the above geolog be observed in nature and that phenomenon. The storage potential of
ical storage options have achieved a TRL of 7 or higher. As a result of the mineral carbonation has been estimated to be 100,000–250,000 GtCO2.
huge capacity for CO2 storage, CO2-EOR (enhanced oil recovery) [164], This statistic accounts for all basaltic rocks, a prevalent form of rock,
as well as saline formations [165], are widely used in CCS. In 2021, 22 of which comprise 70% of ocean basins and 5% of continents on the Earth
27 CCS facilities and projects operating on a commercial scale exploited [16]. Thus, there is a large possibility of CO2 storage through mineral
CO2-EOR [31], so it has reached the TRL 9. Similarly, 5 of commercial- carbonation on a commercial scale; however, currently the TRL ranges
scale CO2 storage projects have used saline deposits (TRL 9), which are from 2 to 6 [166]. This is related to the need to develop monitoring
31
Table 12 5.3. Carbon capture and mineral carbonation (CCMC)

Comparison of CO2 storage methods [17,166].
Storage method Current status TRL CCMC technology (carbon capture and mineral carbonation) is one
of the methods of preventing the emission of CO2, consisting in the re
Saline formations ➣ CO2 rapid injection at a significant rate 9
(1Mtpa). action of CO2 with raw materials, including minerals found in nature or
➣ Injected CO2 can be monitored, and alkaline industrial waste, which is particularly worth emphasizing in the
storage is permanent. context of CO2 utilization. CCMC provides the possibility to produce
➣ The tools required to identify, appraise construction materials as well as the opportunity to recover valuable
are well established.
➣ Low economic costs.
ones [168]. Accordingly, CCMC is partially classified as CCS and CCU
CO2-EOR ➣ Proven storage locations. 9 technology range considering the stage of storage and the possibility of
➣ Maximize oil recovery. utilization, and may also be considered a waste-to-product valorization
➣ More specific monitoring is needed to sector. That is why its TRL strictly depends on whether the CCMC
make sure that the CO2 injected is being
technology is considered in terms of the storage process itself (TRL 2-6)
stored permanently.
CO2-EGR ➣ Proven storage locations. 7 or the additional utilization of the CO2-based product (TRL 4 – magne
➣ Maximize natural gas and gas condensate sium carbonates, TRL 7 – calcium carbonates, and sodium carbonates,
recovery. TRL 8 – sodium bicarbonates, concrete curing), as discussed earlier.
➣ Tight and low-permeability reservoirs. The result of CCMC is the formation of stable and persistent car
Depleted oil and natural gas ➣ Technically mature. 7
field ➣ Airtight structures.
bonate compounds, commonly found in nature, which are environ
➣ Limited capacity. mentally neutral. This is one of the significant advantages of the CCMC,
➣ They have only been applied in in addition to reducing CO2 emissions and waste management. The
demonstration projects. formed carbonates ensure safe and long-term storage of CO2 (stable
Mineral carbonation ➣ High storage potential. 2–6
storage conditions over a long period of time with a monitoring-free
(basaltic rocks, ultramafic ➣ Storage is safe and durable.
rocks) ➣ Permeability of rocks is difficult to solution) [169]. The main steps of the CCMC process are shown in
predict. Fig. 29, and the possibilities to reuse the final carbonated products on an
➣ Majority of tools for conventional CCS industrial scale are given in Fig. 30.
cannot be applied to monitor a CO2 plume in In most cases, the CCMC uses natural ores, such as serpentine
a basalt.
(Mg3Si2O5(OH)4), talc (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2), forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and
CO2-ECBM ➣ Viable technology and can increase 2–3
methane production. wollastonite (CaSiO3) [168,170] from deposits of basalt rocks. Because
➣ The produced methane provides revenue they are generally available, there is no need to make additional in
to the operation. vestments in raw materials. On the other hand, the extraction step of
➣ Injection of CO2 significantly reduces the
natural minerals itself is a process that consumes a lot of energy (huge
permeability of coal -additional costs and
increasing operational complexity. reactors) and has negative effects on the surrounding ecosystem
➣ ECBM applies only to coal seams which (required milling and activation stages usually performed under high
will never be mined. temperatures and pressures) [171]. Along with naturally low rates of
Ocean storage ➣ Currently, this method is prohibited by 2 carbonation, the technology in question presents a great deal of diffi
law.
culty and expense. An exemplary reaction for wollastonite is presented
➣ A very risky with unpredictable results.
➣ Itis at stage of formulation of below [172]:
technological concepts.
CaSiO3 + 2CO2 + H2 O→Ca2+ + 2HCO3 − + SiO2 (7)
Where then:
methods for the verification and measurement of CO2 plumes in basaltic
formations. Later in this review, a comprehensive explanation of this CaSiO3 + CO2 + H2 O→CaCO3 +SiO3 (8)
approach (CCMC) will be provided. The current status of underground
In the case of worldwide alkaline industrial waste for CO2 mineral
CO2 storage technology is presented in Table 12.
ization, they include in particular iron/steel slags, pulp/paper industry
Fig. 29. Illustration of CCMC technology steps.
32
Fig. 30. Possibilities of reusing mineral carbonation products in industry [174].
Fig. 31. BECCS technology diagram.
wastes, mining/mineral processing wastes, cement/concrete waste, combustion wastes (17.4%), iron and steel slags (13.6 %) and mining
incinerator residues (blast furnace slags) and wastewaters [171,173]. wastes (8.0%) [171].
Furthermore, the commonly waste used in the CCMC technology is also
coal fly ash, which is one of the coal-fired, or fuel combustion product. 6. Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS)
Within the context of the mineral carbonation process, it is considered a
great option for use alone or in combination with mineral silicates to When discussing the potential to reverse the effects of climate
sequester CO2 [170]. Because of solid wastes substantially greater change, the terms biomass, bioenergy, and biofuels are becoming an
reactivity and inherent alkalinity, they are much more suited for the increasingly common topic of discussion as alternative energy sources
process of CO2 mineralization and are readily available in close prox that are carbon neutral compared to fossil fuels. The bioenergy with
imity to industrial locations. The most recent findings from this line of carbon capture and storage technology involves not only the generation
study indicated that roughly 310 MtCO2 should be credited to the direct of energy from biomass (forestry residues, energy crops or agricultural
reduction by mile-on of alkaline solid wastes over the globe [171]. Ac residues, and biodegradable waste products), but also the combined
cording to this estimation, mineralization with iron and steel slags was effect of photosynthesis with the subsequent capture of CO2 and its
responsible for 43.5% of the total amount of direct CO2 reduction, the geological storage [175]. Hence, bioenergy production coupled with
use of cement wastes for 16.3%, mining wastes were for 13.5%, and the carbon capture and storage (CCS) is referred as BECCS and has reached
use of coal combustion ashes was for 12.3%. Compared to the indirect TRL 7 in industry sector, or TRL 4 in power sector (Fig. 31) [44,176].
CO2 reduction by utilization of carbonated products, the difference is BECCS has the potential to contribute a large amount to achieve the
very clear. This path of CCMC reached 3.7 GtCO2, where the largest required severe reduction in CO2 emissions, whether used individually
share has cement/concrete wastes (55.7%), subsequently coal or as part of a cost-effective unified strategy in an effort to achieve
33
negative emissions and a net reduction in atmospheric CO2 emissions • development and formulation of plans for the incorporation of
[177]. The magnitude of the impacts of BECCS varies on the scale of BECCS into global environmental programs.
deployment, the location of biomass cultivation (includes emissions
associated with earlier land use and indirect change in land use change), 7. Conclusion
initial land use, type of land, type of bioenergy feedstock, initial carbon
stocks, climatic region or management regime and the final energy One of the methods of limiting global warming to meet the long-term
carrier generated [18,178]. climate targets of the Paris Agreement, or European Green Deal, and
Furthermore, the evaluation period of BEECS is unimaginably sig consequently reaching net zero emissions by 2050 is the CCUS. Until the
nificant and closely influences the amount of GHG emissions per unit of share of new energy carriers in the world total energy supply (nuclear
bioenergy produced (emission factors - EFs), due to the reality that they energy, RES, hydrogen, or methane) increases to a certain point, carbon
contribute to emissions caused by changes in land use, as well as fore capture utilization and storage is essential in terms of its role in the
gone sequestration. Numerous regions have been reported to generate energy transition. Over the past few decades, it has become a proven
power with negative EFs, resulting in a substantial global power supply successful climate mitigation tool in all ways, with 135 global facilities
and potential connection with CCS [178]. Across a range of represen so far and a total CO2 capture capacity of 149.3 Mtpa. In view of above,
tative concentration pathways by 2030, 2050 and 2100 presented by this review covers and discusses a wide variety of technologies utilized
IPCC (scenarios that include timeseries of emissions and concentrations at different scales in the CCUS system related to CO2 capture, separation,
of the full suite of GHGs) for several climate change mitigation strate transport, storage, and utilization, as well as critically assesses their
gies, the options with largest potential for carbon dioxide removal is technical merits in the sense of the technology readiness level (TRL).
delivered by BECCS, achieving the maximum value for the most opti Consequently, TRLs provided consistent and universal evaluations of
mistic forecast of 0.1, 6.8 and 14.9 GtCO2 per year, respectively [18]. technical maturity each of them, based on a scale of 1 to 9, and enabled
Although the overall potential of BECCS may seem substantial, it is hard to illustrate scaling up by research, development, and deployment stage.
to realize owing to the limited land resources of mankind. Even when Furthermore, we highlight significant disadvantages of specific tech
sustainability concerns are considered, the BECCS potential falls to a nologies that have to be resolved, as well as difficulties that need to be
maximum of 5 GtCO2 per year in 2050 [5]. Furthermore, experts’ con addressed further in regards to the CCUS R&D projects.
fidence in the precise potential of BECCS is poor due to widely varied Based on our investigation there is the significant apparent incon
assumptions, including: the amount of energy crops produced, incom sistency between strict goals for decarbonization and the delayed
plete estimates of processes occurring in ecosystems, and emissions implementation of CCUS on industrial scale. In regard to this situation,
associated with native vegetation clearance for energy crops growth and the findings and future CCUS research paths would be highlighted and
subsequent processing [5,18]. proposed for consideration as follows:
The applicability of BECCS is not universal, and certain nations and
localities will be much more suited to the large-scale deployment of • Many vital elements of CCUS system have different technological
BECCS considering biomass availability than others [177]. The chal maturity that hinder it complete commercialization in the major
lenges facing BECCS also emerge in terms of the consequences on: land industrial sectors, considered the largest emitters of CO2 (power,
use competing with food production, food consumption, and thus food chemical, cement, iron, and steel). Especially, where CO2 capture
security; environmental impacts (water scarcity, the constraints on and storage in geological formations, or utilization is connected with
negative emission potential imposed by collateral emissions, and change other technologies.
in land use change); comparatively poor energy efficiency compared to • By the specific steps of CCUS, today’s maturity of CO2 capture is
fossil fuels; cost penalties (retrofitting or integrating CCS technologies in mainly influenced by the plant application, technological configu
bioenergy systems); and the repercussions on biodiversity resulting from rations, separation technology and the type of fuel used in industrial
the heavy use of land, water, and nutrients [18,175,178]. Another facilities.
crucial drawback of BECCS is an apparent overreliance on it in models • Of the three main capture configurations, only post-combustion
and frameworks for developing policies to mitigate the effects of climate capture (power generation/aqueous amines) and pre-combustion
change, where uncertainties appear for scaling up to the commercial capture (natural gas processing) are widely used commercially
scale [175]. (TRL 9). Ox-fuel combustion is investigated between lab prototype
The problem mentioned above can be solved by specific actions; and demonstration stage with TRL ranging from 4 to 7.
therefore, targeted economic and social activities are recommended • To enhance the overall performance of CO2 separation methods, thus
[18,175,176]: increasing the TRL at the same time, is to create separation hybrid
systems (polymeric membranes with physical adsorbents (TRL 6),
• favoring agricultural, forestry, municipal waste, and algae as cryogenic method (TRL 6), or liquid solvents (TRL 4)). This enables
biomass sources; to overcome the barriers of a single technique and accumulate ben
• it is necessary to conduct in-depth research on the topic of the effect efits from both processes, resulting in greater efficiency and lower
of collateral emissions and the real negative emission potential of the costs.
energy, transportation, and processing sectors; • CO2 transport is strictly based on ships, shore and offshore pipelines,
• integration of bioenergy into sustainably managed agricultural which are currently used worldwide (TRL 9). In the case of rail and
landscapes; road tankers, their intensive development is recommended in spe
• strong routes to public and governmental backing, which will be cific regions of the world.
essential for wide-scale adoption and successful deployment of • The most examined geological formations for CO2 storage are saline
BECCS; formations and unexploited reservoirs of oil with TRL 9. Other
• utilize the co-firing of coal-biomass with CCS; storage methods require more commitment to criteria for evaluating
• continue advanced studies of the effects of the technological storage sites, CO2 behavior in reservoirs, and techniques for assessing
advancement of BECCS for biofuel production as an option to reduce CO2 storage capacity.
costs and improve energy efficiency; • CO2 conversion to large-scale production, e.g., plastic, fuels, or
• in order to account for the unknowns posed by BECCS, future models synthetic gas, possess a much greater impact on the overall reduction
will need to make necessary adjustments and adaptations and of CO2 emissions and higher TRL than its direct application as sol
anticipate the worst-case scenarios for large-scale implementation; vent, working or heat transfer fluid.
34
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Current status of carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies in the

Article in Fuel · June 2023

Bartosz Dziejarski Renata Krzyżyńska

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Current status of carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies in

Nomenclature RTIL Room temperature ionic liquid

1.3. CCUS technologies: effective ways to reduce CO2 emissions

Considering the predicted increase in global energy consumption

Fig. 5. Technologies currently used for reduction of CO2 emissions.

1.4. CCUS: A solution for global energy economy crisis

A matter of comparable importance to a stable energy economy is the

Fig. 12. Generic comparison of existing CO2 capture systems [42,46].

elemental consideration throughout its commercial deployment. The

Riley Ridge Gas Plant United States 2020 Potential – – – – –

Pre-combustion CO2 capture

Post-combustion CO2 capture

Fig. 18. Schematic representation of chemical-looping combustion process (CLC) [98].

Post-combustion CO2 capture

Alkyl-amine coated Novel Lawrence 2017–2021 2.5 0.13 50 <75 – – 90 90 Bench-scale 4

Pre-combustion CO2 capture

Fig. 20. Schematic diagram of the CO2 adsorption process.

Fig. 25. Scheme of CCU process flow.

Table 12 5.3. Carbon capture and mineral carbonation (CCMC)

Fig. 29. Illustration of CCMC technology steps.

Fig. 30. Possibilities of reusing mineral carbonation products in industry [174].

Fig. 31. BECCS technology diagram.

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