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Springer Water

Martina Zelenakova
Petr Hlavínek
Abdelazim M. Negm Editors

Management
of Water
Quality and
Quantity
Springer Water
The book series Springer Water comprises a broad portfolio of multi- and
interdisciplinary scientific books, aiming at researchers, students, and everyone
interested in water-related science. The series includes peer-reviewed monographs,
edited volumes, textbooks, and conference proceedings. Its volumes combine all
kinds of water-related research areas, such as: the movement, distribution and
quality of freshwater; water resources; the quality and pollution of water and its
influence on health; the water industry including drinking water, wastewater, and
desalination services and technologies; water history; as well as water management
and the governmental, political, developmental, and ethical aspects of water.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13419

Martina Zelenakova Petr Hlavínek
• •

Abdelazim M. Negm
Editors

Management of Water
Quality and Quantity

123
Editors
Martina Zelenakova Petr Hlavínek
Technical University of Kosice Brno University of Technology
Kosice, Slovakia Brno, Czech Republic

Abdelazim M. Negm
Faculty of Engineering
Zagazig University
Zagazig, Egypt

ISSN 2364-6934 ISSN 2364-8198 (electronic)

Springer Water
ISBN 978-3-030-18358-5 ISBN 978-3-030-18359-2 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18359-2
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
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Preface

The subject of water resources management is a very wide-ranging one, and only
some of the most important aspects are covered in this volume. It soon became
apparent that although a number of good books may be available on specific parts
of the topic, no text covered the required breadth and depth of the subject, and thus
the idea of Management of Water Quality and Quantity book came about. The book
has been treated as the product of teamwork of 30 distinguished researchers and
scientists from different institutions, academic, and research centres with major
concerns regarding water resources, agriculture, land and soil, rainwater harvesting,
and water quality and quantity.
The book can serve as a reference for practitioners and experts of different kinds
of organisations with responsibilities for the management of water, land, and other
natural resources. Equally, we hope that researchers, designers, and workers in the
field of water management and agriculture covered in the book will find the text of
interest and a useful reference source. The landscape which is sustainably managed
conserves water, lowers the rate and volume of run-off water from rain, snowmelt,
and irrigation, and helps reduce the amount of pollutants reaching surface water.
Water is an important medium regarding the transport, decomposition, and
accumulation of pollutants, whether of natural or anthropogenic origin, which in
excessive amounts represent considerable risks for all kinds of living organisms and
thus also for human beings. The step towards effective protection of water resources
is to know their quality. Systematic investigation and evaluation of the occurrence
of surface water and groundwater within the Czech Republic and other countries as
well is a basic responsibility of the state, as an indispensable requirement for
ensuring the preconditions for permanently sustainable development as well as for
maintaining standards of public administration and information. The fundamental
requirement in this context is to optimise water quality monitoring and assessment
and the implementation of necessary environmental measures.
This volume consists of 16 chapters. “The introduction” is written by the
editors with inputs from all the authors. It is to introduce the book to the audiences
where a brief summary of each chapter is presented. Chapter 2 titled “Stormwater
Management in Urban Areas” was prepared by Jakub Raček and Petr Hlavínek

v
vi Preface

from Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, AdMaS Centre.

It is devoted mainly to the management of stormwater in the cities. Chapter 3 titled
“The Green Roofs and Facades as a Tool of Climate Cooling in the Urban
Environment” written by Martin Šenfeldr, Petr Maděra, Pavla Kotásková, and
Jitka Fialová from Mendel University in Brno, Faculty of Forestry and Wood
Technology, Department of Forest Botany, Dendrology and Geobiocoenology and
Department of Landscape Management and Miroslav Kundrata and Vlastimil
Rieger from Czech Environmental Partnership Foundation. It introduces green
facades and green roofs in the Czech Republic. The results from online monitoring
of the vapour from green roofs and the cooling effect have been shown, and the roof
and urban heat islands have been discussed. David Duchan, and Jaromir Říha from
Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Institute of Water
Structures, are the authors of Chap. 4 “Infiltration of Rainwater in Urban
Areas”. In this chapter, the review of the most used facilities for infiltration is
presented together with a brief description of the geotechnical investigation and
hydraulic approach recommended in the Czech Republic. On the other hand,
“Stream Water Quality Modelling Techniques”—Chap. 5—was also prepared
by Jaromír Říha. In this chapter, practical examples of screening and detailed water
quality studies applying modelling techniques are introduced. Chapter 6 titled
“Pharmaceuticals in the Urban Water Cycle” was prepared by Adéla Žižlavská
and Petr Hlavínek from Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, AdMaS Centre. This chapter provides the existing knowledge about
pathways of entry, occurrence, degradation, and behaviour of drugs in the water
cycle, especially in sewage systems. The reduced quality and yield of water lead to
an increase to reusing wastewater in the Czech Republic. Chapter 7 titled
“Biological Audits in the System of Water Treatment Control” was prepared by
Jana Říhová Ambrožová from Institute of Chemical Technology, Prague, Faculty of
Environmental Technology, Department of Water Technology and Environmental
Engineering. It discusses the significance of biological analysis in solving various
problems during the treatment of raw water from reservoirs and streams. The
concept of reused wastewater in buildings is based on the treatment of less polluted
greywater. The greywater reuse mainly in urban areas is discussed in Chap. 8 titled
“Gray Water Reuse in Urban Areas” by Jakub Raček. Chapter 9 titled “The
Necessary Documents for the Design Documentation for Water Supply and
Sewerage Systems in the Czech Republic”, which was prepared by Vojtěch
Václavík and Tomáš Dvorský from Technical University of Ostrava, Faculty of
Mining and Geology, Institute of Environmental Engineering, focuses on the
explanation and extension of the knowledge from the area of design documentation
for the field of sewerage systems, sewer connections, water supply systems and
water-service pipes both for the professional and non-professional public. Chapter 10
“Evaluation of Technical Condition of Sewerage Systems Operated by
Municipalities in the Czech Republic” was prepared by Petr Hluštík from Brno
University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, AdMaS Centre, and
Martina Zelenakova. This chapter deals with the comparison of the technical
condition of sewerage systems in the Czech Republic operating by water companies
Preface vii

and operated by municipalities themselves. Chapter 11 “Numerical Modelling

of the Fluid Flow at the Outlet from Narrowed Space for a Better Water
Management” was prepared by Vladimíra Michalcová and Kamila Kotrasová. It is
dedicated to problems of numerical modelling of Newtonian fluid flows in changing
flow space. Chapter 12 titled “Numerical Modelling of Fluid Domain Flow in
Open Top Channel” was prepared by the same authors Kamila Kotrasová and
Vladimíra Michalcova to provide a theoretical background for the influence of
choosing mesh parameters on seismic response of fluid domains by numerical
simulation of problems fluid–structure interaction during extremely loading.
Chapter 13 titled “Monitoring of Changes in Water Content in Soil Pores of
Earth-Fill Dams” was prepared in an international cooperation by Janka Pařílková
and Zbyněk Zachoval from Brno University of Technology, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Institute of Water Structures; Milan Gomboš and Danka Pavelková
from Institute of Hydrology, Slovak Academy of Science, Slovak Republic; Boriss
Gjunsburgs and Jekabsons Gints from Department of Water Technology, Institute
of Heat, Gas and Water Technology, Water Engineering and Technology, Riga
Technical University, Latvia; Yanko Yanev and Daniela Toneva-Zheynova from
Department Automation of Manufacturing, Faculty of Automation and Computing,
Technical University of Varna, Bulgaria; Tymoteusz Zydroń and Andrzej Tadeusz
Gruchot from Department of Hydraulic Engineering and Geotechnics, Faculty of
Environmental Engineering and Land Surveying, University of Agriculture in
Krakow, Poland. In this chapter, the team of the authors provides a view of
international cooperation and its achievements when dealing with a project of
applied research in the EUREKA programme, which was focused on the devel-
opment and construction of monitoring technology enabling changes in water
content to be monitored in a porous medium, exactly monitoring of water seepage
in earth-fill dam. David Duchan, Aleš Dráb and Jaromir Říha from Brno University
of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Institute of Water Structures, are
authors of Chap. 14 “Flood Protection in the Czech Republic”. It is focused on
flood risk assessment and management generally and specifically in the condition
of the Czech Republic. Chapter 15 titled “Small Hydropower Plants in the Czech
Republic” was also prepared by David Duchan and Aleš Dráb. The chapter pro-
vides an overview of the current use of hydropower potential in the Czech Republic
in small hydropower plants. The last chapter, written by editors, contains “Updates,
Conclusions and Recommendations for Management of Water Quality and
Quantity” which closes the book volume by the main conclusions and recom-
mendations of the volume, in addition to an update of some finding which may be
missed by the contributors of the volume.
Special thanks to all who contributed in one way or another to make this
high-quality volume a real source of knowledge and the latest findings in the field of
Management of Water Quality and Quantity. We would love to thank all the authors
for their invaluable contributions. Without their patience and effort in writing and
revising the different versions to satisfy the high-quality standards of Springer, it
would not have been possible to produce this book and make it a reality. Much
appreciation and great thanks are also owed to the editors of the Earth and
viii Preface

Environmental Sciences series at Springer for the constructive comments, advice, and
the critical reviews. Acknowledgements are extended to include all members of the
Springer team who have worked long and hard to produce this volume and make it a
reality for the researchers, graduate students, and scientists around the globe.
The volume editor would be happy to receive any comments to improve future
editions. Comments, feedback, suggestions for improvement, or new chapters for
next editions are welcomed and should be sent directly to the volume editors. The
emails of the editors can be found inside the books at the footnote of their chapters.

Brno, Czech Republic Abdelazim M. Negm

January 2019
Zagazig, Egypt Martina Zelenakova
January 2019
Kosice, Slovakia Petr Hlavínek
December 2019
Contents

Part I Introducing the Book

1 Introduction to the “Management of Water Quantity
and Quality” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Petr Hlavínek, Abdelazim M. Negm and Martina Zelenakova

Part II Rainwater in Urban Areas

2 Stormwater Management in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Jakub Raček and Petr Hlavínek
3 The Green Roofs and Facades as a Tool of Climate Cooling
in the Urban Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Martin Šenfeldr, Petr Maděra, Pavla Kotásková, Jitka Fialová,
Miroslav Kundrata and Vlastimil Rieger
4 Infiltration of Rainwater in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
D. Duchan and J. Říha

Part III Water Quality and Reuse

5 Stream Water Quality Modelling Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Jaromír Říha
6 Pharmaceuticals in the Urban Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Adéla Žižlavská and Petr Hlavínek
7 Biological Audits in the System of Water Treatment Control . . . . . 163
Jana Říhová Ambrožová
8 Gray Water Reuse in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Jakub Raček

ix
x Contents

Part IV Water Supply and Sewerage Systems

9 The Necessary Documents for the Design Documentation for
Water Supply and Sewerage Systems in the Czech Republic . . . . . 221
Vojtěch Václavík and Tomáš Dvorský
10 Evaluation of Technical Condition of Sewerage Systems
Operated by Municipalities in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Petr Hluštík and Martina Zelenakova

Part V Hydrodynamics Modelling

11 Numerical Modelling of the Fluid Flow at the Outlet
from Narrowed Space for a Better Water Management . . . . . . . . . 265
V. Michalcová and K. Kotrasová
12 Numerical Modelling of Fluid Domain Flow in Open
Top Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
K. Kotrasová and V. Michalcová
13 Monitoring of Changes in Water Content in Soil Pores
of Earth-Fill Dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
J. Pařílková, Z. Zachoval, M. Gomboš, D. Pavelková, B. Gjunsburgs,
J. Gints, Y. Yanev, D. Toneva-Zheynova, T. Zydroń and A. Gruchot

Part VI Water Structures

14 Flood Protection in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
D. Duchan, A. Dráb and J. Říha
15 Small Hydropower Plants in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
D. Duchan, A. Dráb and O. Neumayer

Part VII Conclusions

16 Updates, Conclusions and Recommendations for Management
of Water Quality and Quantity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Martina Zelenakova, Petr Hlavínek and Abdelazim M. Negm
 Part I
Introducing the Book
Chapter 1
Introduction to the “Management
of Water Quantity and Quality”

Petr Hlavínek, Abdelazim M. Negm and Martina Zelenakova

Abstract This chapter presents the main features of the book titled “Management
of Water Quantity and Quality” and their related topics mainly in Czech Republic.
Topics which are covered are divided into five themes including (a) storm water in
urban areas, (b) water quality and reuse, (c) water supply and sewerage systems, (d)
hydrodynamics modelling and (e) water structures. The main technical elements of
each chapter are presented under its relevant theme.

Keywords Management quality · Quantity · Modelling · Water resources · Czech

Republic · Pollution · Hydropower

1.1 Czech Republic: A Brief Background

In the Czech Republic is situated main European watershed separating the seas of the
North, Baltic and Black Seas. The main rivers are Elbe (370 km), Vltava (433 km),
Moravia (246 km), Dyje (306 km), Odra (135 km) and Opava (131 km). The long
river is also Ohře (246 km), Sázava (225 km), Jihlava (180 km), Svratka (168 km),
Jizera (167 km), Lužnice (157 km) and Berounka (139 km). The largest natural lake
in Czech Republic is Černé jezero in Šumava.

P. Hlavínek
Faculty of Civil Engineering, AdMaS Centre, Brno University of Technology,
612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
e-mail: hlavinek.p@fce.vutbr.cz
A. M. Negm (B)
Water and Water Structures Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,
Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
e-mail: Amnegm85@yahoo.com; Amnegm@zu.edu.eg
M. Zelenakova
Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Technical University, Košice, Slovakia
e-mail: martina.zelenakova@tuke.sk

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 3

M. Zelenakova et al. (eds.), Management of Water Quality and Quantity,
Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18359-2_1
4 P. Hlavínek et al.

The climate is moderate in the Czech Republic, intermediate between the conti-
nental and oceanic types. Typical is the alternation of four seasons. It is characterized
by predominant Western flux and intense cyclonic activity. The influence of the sea is
manifested mainly in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, and continental climate influ-
ences are increasing. However, the greatest influence on the climate in the Czech
Republic is the altitude and the relief.
Typical are abundant precipitation and transitions of frontal systems—annually
they will pass through the Czech Republic on average 140 times. Most rainfall will fall
in June or July, at least in January or February. The wettest place in the Czech Republic
is the Jizera Mountains (especially the Bílý Potok area). The driest of Libědice in the
district of Chomutov is situated in the collision shadow of the Ore Mountains. The
average annual temperature is between 5.5 and 9 °C. The coldest month of the year is
January, the warmest July. Tropical days are recorded on average 12 per year; tropical
nights are very rare. Arctic days are usually 1–2 per year. The warmest places are the
Dyje-Svratka and Dolnomoravsky valley, and then the big cities, especially Prague,
where the temperature increases the dense housing development. The chilliest place
is the peak of Sněžka. The windiest point of the Czech Republic is the peak of
Milešovka. At the same time, it is the place with the greatest number of storms in
the year.

1.2 Main Themes of the Book

The book covers the following themes: (a) storm water in urban areas in Chaps. 2,
3 and 4; (b) water quality and reuse in Chaps. 5, 6, 7 and 8; (c) water supply and
sewerage systems in Chaps. 9 and 10; (d) hydrodynamics modelling in Chaps. 11
and 12; (e) water structures in Chaps 13 and 14. In the following sections, the main
features of each chapter will be presented under its relevant theme.

1.3 Storm Water in Urban Areas

Chapter 2 focuses on storm water management in urban areas. The chapter pro-
vides the basic overview of storm water management (SWM) in urban areas in Cen-
tral Europe connected with storm water (SW) run-off, and the potential solutions
are defined. The current dry weather in the Czech Republic (CR) accompanied by
extreme weather fluctuation provides the necessity to deal with reducing the surface
run-off and then consider connecting the SW to the sewer system or the watercourse.
SWM as a decentralized drainage system represents the point of natural processing
of SW and its return in the natural water cycle. SWM in urban areas is connected
with surface run-off quality, SW quality, SW management methods and SW reuse.
And for conditions in the CR, the potential solutions are defined: evaporation, infil-
tration and regulated run-off to watercourses. These solutions can be implemented
1 Introduction to the “Management of Water Quantity and Quality” 5

by the accumulation of SW and its use for irrigation and flushing toilets. The reduced
quality and yield of surface and groundwater due to droughts and changing climatic
conditions lead to an increase of reusing SW in the CR. Given the current continuing
trend of reducing the cost of SW collecting, treating and water reuse technology, the
SWM will be more often designed in practice.
Chapter 3 deals with the green roofs and facades as a tool of climate cooling in
the urban environment. The chapter is focused on the introduction of green facades
as well as green roofs in the Czech Republic. In the beginning, the history and
development of green roofs and facades have been outlined, the type of green roofs
and ways of facade greening, structures and systemic solutions, protection against
slide and drainage have been described, and the functions and benefits of green roofs
and facades have been estimated. Next part describes the measurement experiment
of the water vapour from green roof and the quantification of green roof cooling
effect. Finally, the Zero Carbon Facility has been described—an example from Brno
(Czech Republic)—The Open Gardens. The results from online monitoring have
been shown, and the roof and urban heat islands have been discussed.
There are many reasons for increasing green areas, especially in cities where the
construction of buildings displaced all the greenery practically only into parks. Green
roofs may become an almost integral part of roofs of new buildings in urban areas
just because of air purification from airborne particles and temperature reduction, as
well as the increase of humidity in the roof surroundings and partial water retention,
especially during summer months. The roof with vegetation cover, besides the funda-
mental function, which is the protection of the construction and the indoor environ-
ment from meteoric water, fulfils many specific functions related to the improvement
of the environment. The roof can be representative. It can be used for recreational
purposes and at the same time fulfils the many ecological functions. The most impor-
tant potential of green roofs though is their climate adaptation function. They help
to moderate urban heat islands and measuring their retention capacity approved that
even extensive green roof can significantly cut the peaks of run-off from extreme
storm rains. Increased financial costs, whether on the load-bearing structure or the
layers needed for the planting, will subsequently provide savings of the operating
means. Well-designed layers of green roof significantly increase the durability of
the membrane roofing as the vegetation, and vegetative layers protect against the
weather effects the damp course of the roof or facade.
Greenery and substrates, especially on the roof, improve thermal insulating and
reduce thermal extremes, and there is also smaller material expansion and thus the
durability, compared to flat roofs without vegetation. A great advantage is a protection
against UV radiation, which degrades the majority of materials, what contributes to
extending the durability of the entire roof again.
During the experimental measurements, the authors quantified the green roof
cooling effect using data acquired from meteorological station installed on the roof.
The cooling effect was quantified as the ratio between the energy input by the solar
radiation and the energy emitted on the evaporation of the lawn. The lawn evapo-
ration was quantified using Bowen’s ratio. Our results confirmed the importance of
green roofs in the urban environment. The green roof of The Foundation Partnership
6 P. Hlavínek et al.

Brno was able to evaporate 1–6 mm.m−2 of water during the day. The process of
evaporation depends on the actual conditions of potential evapotranspiration and on
the amount of available soil water. Monthly sums of vapour of green roof ranged
from 34 to 125 mm m−2 , and 46 to 69% of the solar energy input was consumed
during evaporation. If this energy was not draining away by evaporation, it would be
used to heat the city surface.
Chapter 4 discusses the different aspects of the infiltration of storm water in urban
areas. In this chapter, the review of the most used facilities for infiltration is presented
together with a brief description of the geotechnical investigation and hydraulic
approach recommended in the Czech Republic. An analysis of factors influencing the
process of infiltration is carried out, and related uncertainties influencing the design of
the storage volume of the infiltration facility are discussed. The chapter focuses on the
technically oriented problems affecting the infiltration of storm water in urban areas.
A typical and new approach to infiltration of storm water is presented together with
typical infiltration facilities. The chapter later focuses on the geotechnical survey,
where necessary laboratory and field tests are described. From those tests can be
obtained important soil properties for effective design of infiltration facilities. The
hydraulic design of the infiltration facility from Czech legislative is introduced, where
all uncertainties are combined in one coefficient. The new approach to hydraulic
design with coefficients that include uncertainties in input parameters for economical
and safe design is presented together with recommended values.
The reduction of surface run-off belongs to the topical tasks of urban water man-
agement. The efficient measures of storm water management are water retention and
infiltration at the place of its origin, i.e. just within the built-up areas. It is neces-
sary to install efficient arrangements at or close to individual estates such as private
dwellings, blocks of flats, industrial and agricultural facilities. The effect on the tech-
nical drainage systems such as sewerage and open channels may be considered if the
retention and infiltration capacities are efficiently planned, designed and performed.
It is recommended to perform careful and professional hydrological, geotechnical
and hydrogeological survey and analysis before the design to determine soil profiles
and infiltration rates. Hydrogeological investigations are required in cases when there
is a likelihood of groundwater discharge or high seasonal water tables. Experience
shows that saving money for the survey usually results in increased expenses for the
design, construction and performance.

1.4 Water Quality and Reuse

Chapter 5 is devoted to discussing the groundwater flow problems and their mod-
elling. In this chapter, the main groundwater-related issues and possibilities of their
modelling are discussed. Special attention is paid to the water supply problems
and groundwater protection, to the groundwater issues in urban areas during no
flood periods and at the flood events. The assessment of groundwater impact on the
hydraulic and civil structures is mentioned too. Numerous examples of groundwa-
1 Introduction to the “Management of Water Quantity and Quality” 7

ter flow modelling and its results are presented as well. The chapter focuses on the
technically oriented problems affecting the groundwater flow characteristics. Typical
problems in groundwater management are presented together with an overview and
applications of groundwater flow models. One-, two- and three-dimensional models
are briefly described. Related practical applications are listed and demonstrated in
examples from technical practice. These are namely the influence of hydraulic and
other structures on the groundwater regime, changes of the groundwater flow during
floods and an impact of flood protection measures.
Groundwater flow models significantly contribute to the sustainable management
of groundwater resources, on optimization of groundwater withdrawal and assess-
ment of negative impacts of phreatic surface drawdown due to groundwater exploita-
tion. They are necessary for contaminant transport modelling in aquifers. The models
are also a crucial part of soil stability calculations. In this chapter, the summary of
the models and assumptions for their use are shown.
As geological and hydrogeological conditions are complex, it is crucial to deal
with the uncertainties in the entering data. One of the tasks of modellers and inter-
preters is to estimate the error and uncertainty in the results achieved. Moreover,
the groundwater management and seepage modelling is a multidisciplinary issue at
which significant role is played by geologists and hydrogeologists, water managers,
hydraulic and civil engineers.
In the chapter, it is recommended to define objectives and formulate the problem
carefully. Relevant interpretation and explanation of results must be presented for
final decisions and technical proposals. All these items need experienced staff with
good knowledge about the necessary data for the solution and a clear vision about
the results and their application.
Chapter 6 discusses the different aspects of pharmaceuticals in the urban water
cycle. Pharmaceuticals are an integral part of modern society and had helped
humankind defeat many devastation population diseases. However, from the point of
view of environmental protection and water control, they can represent a dangerous
interference with the stability of the ecosystem. Medicines have been accompanying
humans since the prehistory when they tried to reduce the pain or heal wounds with
herbal extracts.
Pharmacology has undergone great development and has brought a lot of good to
our society. On the other hand, however, the massive use of the drug (or hormonal
contraceptives) and the relatively low degradability of many drugs has caused many
of these substances to spread to the environment where the most frequent entry
pathway is an outflow of sewage treatment plants.
Most drugs are present in the water cycle in the form of micro-contaminants and
have a concentration range of l ng–µg l−1 , often only with very low detection levels.
Moreover, due to the changing chemical, biological and physical conditions within
the water cycle, there may be different syntheses that produce conjugates of these
substances or different cometabolites of the original substances, and it is therefore
very difficult to make correct analyses of the substances.
Conventional treatment of wastewater without specific conditions is very poorly
effective and is capable of degrading only substances readily degradable such as some
8 P. Hlavínek et al.

types of analgesics or substance with the high adsorption abilities. Pharmaceuticals

represent a relatively wide spectrum of compounds that do not always have the same
physicochemical properties, as a result of which we can say that the efficiency of
different purification processes to the level of their degradation will be different and
for this reason non-exist only one best treatment solution.
The persistent and bioaccumulate nature of many pharmaceuticals substances
brings major risk to wild live plants and animals, except acute or long-term toxicity
may influence their endocrine systems and even transcript of DNA or RNA. Such
effects can cause mutagenic or teratogenic, cancer, changes in gender or adversely
affect on the behaviour.
The immediate danger to humans is primarily in the bioaccumulation potential of
these substances and their binding to a solid soil matrix where they can be leached
into groundwater and contaminant drinking water sources.
The most frequently observed pharmacological groups in spill water are anal-
gesics, antibiotics, hormonal drugs, pharmaceutical of mental illness or cytostatic
agents.
Chapter 7 presents and explain the biological audits in the system of water treat-
ment control. The whole water supply system from the catchment to the consumer
should be studied and monitored as one continuum with many interrelations. This
principle is one of the key points of water safety plans which are included in the new
WHO Drinking Water Quality Guidelines. In the water supply system, it is possible
to apply the risk analysis (HACCP; Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) that
should consider the entire supplied area including the raw water source, collecting
structures (reservoirs), water treatment (technology), distribution network together
with the structures located in it (pumping stations, accumulation, water supply tanks)
and the consumer endpoints in the network. It is needed to pay increased attention to
the system of production, transport and accumulation of drinking water because the
water quality may be affected at any point of the continuous water supply system,
both internally and externally.
Microscopic analysis can help to understand the sources and consequences of
eutrophication and the pollution of both treated and untreated water, thus affecting
the work of the designers, construction engineers and operatives, water managers,
water suppliers, health authorities and decision-makers involved. These methods
can provide rapid results and reliable data, that are useful in selecting appropriate
preventive measures or ecologically sustainable remedial actions. Water, in the sense
of the possible prognosis of the condition and development of water quality, is very
important and have a long-term history of practice in the Czech Republic. At the site,
in connection with the issues of applying (hydro)biological audits in practice, it is
certainly appropriate to state model examples of performed biological audits in the
water supply. For illustration, audits of distribution networks were selected, where
the supply was groundwater or surface water of various trophic levels, respecting the
zoning of the tank and the possibility of the selection of a suitable profile, various
arrangements of the distribution network and technological separation. The findings
from the biological audits and the recommendations stated below have been accepted
and gradually applied by the operators of water supply networks.
1 Introduction to the “Management of Water Quantity and Quality” 9

Microscopic analysis can provide information, which is inexpensively and rapidly

obtained, on many drinking water quality failures, to supplement other commonly
used analytical checks. This kind of information is difficult to obtain by chemical or
microbiological analyses (cultivation techniques). For this reason, it is suitable for
inclusion in the HACCP system. However, an essential precondition is to have people
well trained in the determination of microorganisms. Biological and hydrobiological
audits are discussed step by step in the context of risk analyses (HACCP), monitoring
of water treatment technologies and the water safety plans used in the Czech Republic.
Chapter 8 explain in more details the reuse of the greywater in urban areas. The
chapter provides the review of greywater reuse in urban areas, especially in buildings.
In Central Europe, the reduced quality and yield of surface and groundwater due to
droughts in the years 2015–2018 and changing climatic conditions lead to an increase
to reusing wastewater (WW). The concept of reused WW in buildings is based on the
treatment of low polluted greywater (GW) by greywater treatment system (GWTS)
which produces white water. GW represents WW from showers, basins, washing
machines, kitchen sinks and dishwashers. White water does not meet such strict
parameters as drinking water and can be used for toilet flushing, irrigation or for
other use. The WW reuse with GW in urban areas is implemented in the guidelines
of countries: UK, Germany, Australia, Canada, USA and internationally by WHO. In
the Czech Republic, reuse of GW has not yet been legislatively approved. The groups
of GW treatment processes were reported: simple, extensive, chemical, physical,
biological and MBRs treatment. The MBRs represent a modern treatment of WW
and also are associated with biological treatment and separation of solid and liquid
substances. GWTS has been provided data on MBRs technologies (microfiltration
or ultrafiltration) that seem to be the acceptable solution in the building. Further,
increase water and sewerage rates to allow a smooth recovery of predominantly
obsolete utilities and the rehabilitation or construction of new water resources. This
increase creates conditions for return on investment in the GWTS in the selected
buildings.

1.5 Water Supply and Sewerage Systems

Chapter 9 presents and explains the necessary documents for the design documen-
tation for water supply and sewerage systems in the Czech Republic. This chapter
describes the preparation of documents for the individual stages of project documen-
tation necessary for the designing of sewerage systems, water supply systems, sewer
connections and water-service pipes. The initial part of this chapter describes the
basic terms from the field of sewerage and water supply systems and the individual
connections for better orientation and understanding of the topic. Attention is also
paid to the basic requirements for the construction of sewerage systems and water
supply systems resulting from the valid legislation, which serve as an important basis
for both professional and non-professional public. It also provides the specifications
of the technical requirements for the preparation of design documentation for sew-
10 P. Hlavínek et al.

erage (sewage system) and water system design, which are based on the normative
documents valid in the Czech Republic and the European Union.
The following part of this chapter is focused on the design documentation and
designing activities in construction related to water supply and sewerage systems.
The location of the building is a very important aspect of this chapter. The location
of the construction of water supply and sewerage systems and their changes can be
made only on the basis of a zoning and planning decision or a zoning and planning
consent. A decision on the construction location determines the building site, places
the designed construction, determines its type and purpose, the conditions for its
location, the preparation of project documentation necessary for the issuance of a
building permit, the announcement of construction and the connection to the public
transport and technical infrastructure. Further attention is also focused on building
permits, building permits versus public contract and building permits versus autho-
rized inspector.
The following issues are described in this chapter as well:
• Use of water supply and sewerage system constructions—waterworks, the compe-
tent authority is represented by the Water Authority. It deals with the final inspec-
tion certificate, certificate of occupancy and notification of the use of construction.
It also describes terms such as premature use, trial operation;
• Construction removal permit;
• Construction passport and documentation of actual execution;
• Obligations of the owners of water supply and sewerage systems (waterworks);
• Obligations of the owners of water-service and sewer connections;
• Unauthorized water withdrawal and unauthorized discharge of wastewater with
respect to sanctions for such behaviour.
This chapter is intended for the professional and non-professional public interested
in the preparation of design documentation for the construction of water supply and
sewerage systems. After studying this chapter, students of universities focused on
the issue of technology and water management can also extend their knowledge.
Chapter 10 focuses on the evaluation of the technical condition of sewerage sys-
tems operated by municipalities in The Czech Republic. The presented chapter deals
with the comparison of the technical condition of sewerage systems in the Czech
Republic concerning water companies operating water management infrastructure
and operators—mostly municipalities themselves, i.e. the owners of sewerage sys-
tems.
The paper presents comparison and classification of various defects in the sewer-
age systems according to a norm EN 13508-2 standard used to assess the condition
of the sewerage systems. The assessed localities are municipalities up to 2000 inhab-
itants in the Czech Republic, which themselves operate sewerage systems.
This chapter offers a solution for assessing the structural and technical condition
of sewer systems using a multi-criteria analysis.
1 Introduction to the “Management of Water Quantity and Quality” 11

1.6 Hydrodynamics Modelling

Chapter 11 discusses how the numerical modelling of the fluid flow at the outlet
from narrowed space is used for better water management. In the water management,
events of significant changes in the running fluid flow space occur very frequently.
Such change influences the characteristics of the flow field significantly and thus
its effects on the environment. These might be effects on adjacent objects in close
proximity such as walls of the designated space, or effects on objects bypassed with
the running fluid. Such a situation frequently influences the surrounding area. The
flow run may affect the terrain of the land or even the ambient climate in some cases.
This chapter is dedicated to problems of numerical modelling of Newtonian fluid
flows in changing flow space. Showing a particular task, which is solved numerically
using CFD codes (Computational Fluid Dynamics) in ANSYS Fluent software, the
reader becomes familiar with both, problems of the mathematical specification of
fluid movements and principles of the correct choice of the numerical model. To
resolve this task, four numerical models are selected.
The flow filed change is monitored in the changing flow space. Results related to
flow velocity and turbulence intensity are presented. Some results could be verified
by experimental measuring performed in an aerodynamic tunnel of the experimental
research site of ITAM CAS, v. v. i., Centre of Excellence Telč.
As in any numerical solution, it is necessary to create a model for CFD (vir-
tual prototype of the examined system). Subsequently, mathematical procedures are
applied to it, so that selected data on processes running in the whole examined area
are acquired from the specified boundary and initial conditions. At the same time,
it is necessary to respect physical principles. Without the knowledge of turbulence
physics, the researcher cannot be sure about the right model selection. For this reason,
separate sections in this chapter are dedicated to methods of mathematical modelling
and specification of selected numerical models.
Chapter 12 is devoted to provide a theoretical background for the specification
of fluid effect on the liquid-filled rectangular channel during ground motion where
ground-supported liquid-transporting structures are used to store and transport of
fluid. Water flow in open channel deals with the equilibrium forces in the fluid. The
fluid develops pressure on the channel. During an earthquake, the fluid exerts hydro-
dynamic impulsive and hydrodynamic convective pressures together with hydrostatic
pressure on tank walls and bottom of the ground-supported fluid filling endlessly
long channel. The numerical model of the seismic response of the fluid filling of
endlessly long shipping channel was obtained by using finite element method in
software ADINA. The results from the numerical parametrization: mesh density of
2D fluid region, mesh parameter “PATTERN” of 2D fluid region or 3D fluid region
have influence for finally model of numerical simulation of water-filled channel
grounded on soil.
12 P. Hlavínek et al.

1.7 Water Structures

Chapter 13 presented the various aspects connected with the flood protection in the
Czech Republic. In this chapter, the main flood protection and flood risk-related issues
are discussed. Firstly, the historical background in the Czech Republic is mentioned
and discussed. Special attention is paid to the process of flood risk methodology and
its applications at practical flood protection solutions. The present state of flood pro-
tection in the Czech Republic is briefly mentioned too. This chapter is focused on the
flood risk techniques practised in the Czech Republic. The recent procedures used for
the development of flood hazard and flood risk maps together with the development
of danger and vulnerability maps are mentioned. The assessment of economic effi-
ciency should be a necessary part of flood risk management plans. Therefore, methods
for estimating flood damage and annual economic risk are mentioned together with
multi-criteria analysis.
From previous floods is shown the importance of large dams with significant
flood attenuation volume in flood routing. The most efficient is the management and
real-time operation of the system of dams based on real-time rainfall measurement
and data processing using adaptive models. The important issue is the technical
surveillance of flood protection structures.
The chapter recommends focusing on further research into flood risk techniques
to improve and refine results and outputs obtained. Those possible research topics
should be: more detailed multi-criteria flood risk assessment, non-structural flood
protection measures and the evaluation of their effectiveness, inclusion of risks from
the exposure of inhabitants to flood hazards, assessment of environmental risks and
risks due to the flooding of sensitive facilities and historical monuments, estimation
of indirect losses and more comprehensive uncertainty analysis in risk management.
The chapter shows that, in the present, it is important to continuously informing,
educating and training of the population at flood-prone areas together with the flood
rescue services.
Chapter 14 is concerned with the technical and architectural design of small
hydropower plants in the Czech Republic. This chapter aims to present selected
small hydropower stations realized in the Czech Republic for about 16 years, which
are interesting both from a technical point of view and from the point of view of the
architectural design. The chapter offers an overview of the current use of hydropower
potential in the Czech Republic in small hydropower plants. Between 2002 and 2016,
we have seen a relatively significant increase in the number of small hydropower
plants in the Czech Republic by 162% and installed power by 93%.
The primary consideration in deciding on the realization of a SHPP is still the
aspect of the economic efficiency of the investment invested. For this reason, most
of the newly built hydroelectric power plants were implemented using existing weirs
or dams. Besides the new buildings, a number of general reconstructions of the
technological and construction part of the SHPPs were also carried out, aiming to
increase the efficiency of these sources.
1 Introduction to the “Management of Water Quantity and Quality” 13

At present, most of the localities suitable for the economically efficient execution
of the SHPPs are already exhausted in the Czech Republic. Most sites are now avail-
able offering under current conditions low economic efficiency for any investment in
the SHPP. Further developments in the field of small hydropower plants can, there-
fore, be expected to be significantly slower than in the past 16 years. We expect the
gradual redevelopment of new hydropower plants in previously unoccupied localities
and the reconstruction of end-of-life historic hydroelectric power plants. Assessing
the economic efficiency of a possible reconstruction of a power plant is based on a
reliability assessment of its components.
Generally, in the Czech Republic, in the field of hydro-energy, the development
of mainly pumping hydroelectric power plants in the future depends on the use of
unstable electricity sources (wind, sun). The main obstacle to the implementation of
pumped-water power plants is the fact that suitable locations are located in naturally
valuable localities of the Czech Republic. It will be necessary to look for suitable
technical solutions to minimize possible impacts on nature and landscape.
The book ends with the conclusions and recommendations, Chapter 15.

Acknowledgements The editors would like to acknowledge the authors of the chapters for their
efforts during the different phases of the book including their inputs in this chapter.
 Part II
Rainwater in Urban Areas
Chapter 2
Stormwater Management in Urban Areas

Jakub Raček and Petr Hlavínek

Abstract In an anthropogenically intact country, almost all stormwater (SW) is

infiltrated, and it is absorbed by plants or evaporated. While SW in urbanized areas
hardly finds an unaffected path to reach the natural water cycle, the natural water
cycle has changed due to the buildings and roads associated with the growing pop-
ulation and also due to agricultural and forest management. This leads to a gradual
change of underground water with a structural change and in extreme SW leads to
local flooding. The current dry weather in the Czech Republic (CR) accompanied by
extreme weather fluctuation provides the necessity to deal with stormwater manage-
ment (SWM). Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the surface runoff and then consider
connecting the SW to the sewer system or the watercourse. The implementation of
the water policy of the European Community is subsequently the basis of legislation
in the CR with technical measures for SWM: SW pretreatment, SW retention, and
SW infiltration. The average demand for drinking water is over 100 L water per
capita per day. However, about 50% of this need does not need to be drinking water.
Thus, SW can be used as a replacement for toilet flushing, irrigation, washing, and
other use.

Keywords Stormwater · Infiltration · Green roof · Water quality · Water reuse

J. Raček (B) · P. Hlavínek (B)

Faculty of Civil Engineering, AdMaS Research Centre, Brno University of Technology,
Purkyňova 651/139, 612 00 Brno, Czech Republic
e-mail: racek.j@fce.vutbr.cz
P. Hlavínek
e-mail: hlavinek.p@fce.vutbr.cz

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 17

M. Zelenakova et al. (eds.), Management of Water Quality and Quantity,
Springer Water, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18359-2_2
18 J. Raček and P. Hlavínek

2.1 Introduction

In urbanized areas, stormwater (SW) does not return unaffected to the natural water
cycle. This leads to a gradual change of underground water with a structural change
in soil properties in urbanized areas, which is also related to the change of chemical
and biological processes in the soil environment. Extreme SW leads to local flooding
caused by the insufficient capacity of the sewage system and water streams. Thus,
SW in urban areas has the impact on the pollution of watercourses due to the outfalls
of the sewage system and the wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The current dry
weather in the Czech Republic (CR) accompanied by extreme weather fluctuation in
the years 2014–2017 [1] provides the necessity to deal with stormwater management
(SWM). Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the surface runoff by taking into account
the local conditions and then consider connecting the SW to the sewer system or the
watercourse. When SW is not disposed of, but it is managed [2] with the principles
of sustainable development of the urbanized area. It means SW is used in current
buildings where the property owners are responsible for the quantity and quality of
water from its own estate.
In selected countries of the European Union (EU), SWM has been described for
many years in legislation with validation in practice with a comparison of envi-
ronmental and economic indicators [3]. In CR, these principles are also success-
fully used, especially in newly urbanized areas. These newly urbanized areas fur-
ther increase the dimension of sewers and restrain river beds, and it is necessary
to purchase land for SW tanks and to force the owners to change the approach to
designing measures for the SWM. Directive 2000/60/EC [4] defines the conditions
for the implementation of the water policy of the European Community, and it is
subsequently the basis of legislation in EU countries and also in the CR.
In Switzerland, the 1991 Federal Act of the Protection of Waters GSchG [5]
requires the infiltration of SW. If this is not feasible, it is possible with the consent
of the cantonal authority to regulate SW into the watercourses. Waters Protection
Ordinance GSchV [6] of 2018 defines contaminated and uncontaminated wastewater
(WW) suitable for the watercourse and its condition. Decree on soil pollution, VBBo
[7] of 1998 describes the requirements and limits on the accumulation of pollutants
in the soil after infiltration of SW.
In Germany, SWM is described in the WHG Water Act [8] of 2009 and refused
SW rapid drainage in urbanized areas, and it is required to infiltrate on the property.
Soil protection in SW infiltration is defined in the act to protect the soil BbodSchG
[9], provincial laws and regulations. The Technical Directive DWA-Arbeitsblatt A
138 [10] of 2005 describes the procedures for the design, construction, and oper-
ation of SW infiltration devices. The Federal Decree NWFreiV [11] of 2000 and
the Technical Specification TRENGW [12] of 2000 define the conditions for SW
infiltration without requiring authorization. Recommendations for dealing with SW
ATV-Merkblatt M153 [13] of 2007 assess the need for retention and SW pretreatment
with respect to the junction to the watercourses.
2 Stormwater Management in Urban Areas 19

In the CR, the main legislative regulation is Water Act No. 254/2001 [14] and
this law sets out the obligation for new buildings and renovated buildings according
to Act. No. 183/2006 [15] with SWM to implement the infiltration, retention, and
regulated flow of SW. The Plan of Main River Basins [16] as a national planning
document introduced a framework for implementation of sustainable SWM.
Act No. 274/2001 [17] defines the obligation for legal entities to pay for the
drainage of SW into a sewage system with runoff at the WWTP. The SWM priorities
are described in Decree No. 501/2006 [18] (amended by Decree No. 269/2009 [19])
and in Decree No. 268/2009 and are defined in the following order: infiltration,
retention, and controlled flow rate into a watercourse, regulated bleed into a unified
sewage system. According to the aforementioned priorities, infiltration should be
addressed as a priority. If infiltration on the land is not possible because there are
the clay soil and high groundwater levels, hydrogeology report according to Czech
standard ČSN 75 9010 [20] is necessary for the design of SWM [21]. Czech technical
standard TNV 75 9011 [22] of 2013 defines alternatives for decentralized drainage
and also provides a central solution for larger urbanized units and individual areas.
This standard is a guideline for the design of a technical SWM solution and the
operation of collecting and retention objects including safety overflows.
The concept of nature-friendly SWM in urbanized areas represents designs cor-
responding to natural SW drainage before urbanization. Generally, SWM is a decen-
tralized drainage system that is characterized by SW at the point of natural production
and its use in the natural water cycle. Therefore, acceptable solutions for SWM are
evaporation, infiltration, and regulated runoff to watercourses. These solutions can
be implemented as the accumulation of SW and its use for irrigation and flushing
toilets. Another implementation of SW is retention and slow, regulated drainage into
a watercourse or in limited cases into the sewage system [23].
It is necessary to separate the low-polluted and high-polluted SW. Low-polluted
SW is usually from roofs, car parks, and unfrequented roads. High-polluted SW
requires pretreatment in the local treatment system or connection to the sewage
system and subsequent treatment in the WWTP.
This chapter provides the basic overview of SWM in urban areas in Central Europe
connected with SW runoff, and the potential solutions are defined.

2.2 Surface Runoff Quantity

At present, SW in urbanized areas hardly finds an unaffected path to reach the natural
water cycle. In an anthropogenically intact country, up to 99% of SW gets infiltrated,
and its absorbed by plants or evaporates [24]. The natural water cycle has changed
due to the buildings and roads associated with the growing population. Moreover, the
change also occurred due to agricultural and forest management. Paved areas such
as roads, pavements, and urbanized areas prevent natural water infiltration into the
native soils [25] and thus adversely affect groundwater replenishment. SW is polluted
by substances from paved areas and thus represents relatively high pollution.
20 J. Raček and P. Hlavínek

With the increasing amount of paved surfaces also the surface runoff increases
while the value of groundwater recharge decreases. These situations cause extreme
differences between excessive flood flows and drying watercourses which leads to
flooding, erosion, water pollution, and reducing the groundwater level [26].
The increasing speed and volume of SW surface are characterized by the frequent
occurrence of local floods [27] which are significant if the urbanized area is situated on
a small watercourse [23]. In the CR were popular morphological changes associated
with flow straightening and hardening watercourses which have a negative impact
on the ability to transform the flood wave. Higher frequency of local floods due
to landscape urbanization has a negative impact on the watercourse. Thus, these
situations lead to hydraulic stress and pollution with effects on flora and fauna [28].
Hydraulic stress in the watercourse causes erosion and wash off aquatic organisms.
The hydraulic overflow of the sewer system is another consequence of excessive
SW. In these situations, the pressure mode of the water flow in the sewer can cause
the discharge to the terrain through the manholes and discharge into basements. The
frequency of intense SW with the hydraulic overload of the sewer system is indi-
vidual. Usually, these situations occur in the spring and summer months. Often it is
local flooding, so there is no flooding of the entire urban area. It is usually the com-
bined sewage system containing both municipal WW and SW which represents an
increased flow and often causes the hydraulic overload of the WWTP. Then turbidity
effluent from WWTPs is common for biological activation WW treatment tanks [26].
Disruption of the natural hydrological regime in cities has a negative impact on
the environment during dry periods as well. During dry periods, vegetation is low and
does not absorb solar energy which leads to further drying of the soil. Soil dryness
and deficiency of capillary water have a negative impact on the development of the
root system of vegetation. Also, the dry vegetation cannot transpire and thus does
not much positive impact on the quality of life in urbanized areas [23].

2.3 Stormwater Quality

In the atmosphere, SW comes into contact with various chemicals. Its quality in this
environment is influenced by air pollution. SW also combines with CO2 in the air.
After passing through the Earth’s atmosphere, SW has a pH value of about 5.5; in
some locations, it is below 4.5 [29]. SW pollution occurs in the following ways:
• combining with dissolved and undissolved substances at atmospheric level;
• accumulated pollution at the surface of the territory during dry period that is mixed
with SW;
• pollution arising from the contact of SW with materials on the surface where the
water falls.
2 Stormwater Management in Urban Areas 21

Table 2.1 Average Parameter Unit 2000 2006a 2012a

composition of selected SW
parameters in the atmosphere pH − 4.65 4.57 4.91
in the CR from 2000, 2006,
NH+ mg L−1 0.94 0.82 0.81
2012 [29, 40] 4

NO− mg L−1 2.74 3.80 2.11

3

SO2− mg L−1 2.17 1.69 1.37

4
F− mg L−1 0.02 0.01 0.02
Pb µg L−1 4.30 4.30 1.31
Cd µg L−1 0.22 0.13 0.04
a Average composition for Prague 4-Libus

2.3.1 Pollution at Atmospheric Level

Pollutants in the atmosphere are one of the causes of SW pollution, especially in

large cities and industrial areas. During the rain, the atmosphere is being treated, and
the pollutants are trapped in SW. The chemical composition of precipitation depends
on the composition and air pollution in the lower and middle level of the atmosphere.
This composition may fluctuate considerably in terms of rainfall, duration, and inten-
sity. Most polluted is the precipitation in industrial areas, the least in mountainous
areas. According to Table 2.1, the long-term pollution monitoring of the atmospheric
precipitation in the CR shows that there is a gradual reduction of pollution.
Regarding the anthropogenic sources of pollutions, acids and acidic substances
are predominantly higher than alkali substances. Acids are predominantly present in
sulfur compounds, especially in SO2 and H2 S. Furthermore, acids are contained in
nitrogen compounds such as N2 O, NO, and NO2 from the combustion of fossil fuels,
motor vehicles, and microbial denitrification in soil and water. Chlorine compounds
are from the combustion of PVC plastics in incinerators. Ammonium ions in fertiliz-
ers and carbonates used in agriculture are the pollutant source of alkaline substances.
Other atmospheric pollutants are heavy metals and organic substances [26].

2.3.2 Accumulated Pollution During Dry Period

The important parameters to determine SW pollution are the period of drought,

the amount and intensity of atmospheric SW, and the volume of rain runoff. Higher
concentrations of pollution are determined at the start of drainage by the first flushing
effect. Thus, mobilized dry deposition of corrosion pollutants and impurities are
leached at the start of the rain [26].
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 At this time Porter’s brigade occupied a line considerably in
advance of that first occupied by the left wing of the rebels. The
battery was pouring its withering fire into the batteries and columns
of the enemy wherever they exposed themselves. The cavalry were
engaged in feeling the left flank of the enemy’s position, in doing
which some important captures were made, one by Sergeant Socks,
of the Second Dragoons, of a General George Stewart, of Baltimore.
The cavalry also did brave service.
General Tyler’s division was engaged with the enemy’s right. The
Twenty-Seventh was resting on the edge of the woods in the centre,
covered by a hill upon which lay the Eleventh and Fifth
Massachusetts, occasionally delivering a scattering fire. The
Fourteenth was moving to the right flank, the Eighth had lost its
organization, the marines were moving up in fine style in the rear of
the Fourteenth, and Captain Arnold was occupying a height in the
middle ground with his battery. At this juncture there was a
temporary lull in the firing from the rebels, who appeared only now
and then on the heights in irregular masses, but to serve as marks for
Griffin’s guns. The prestige of success had thus far attended the
efforts of the inexperienced but gallant Union troops. The lines of the
enemy had been forcibly shifted nearly a mile to their left and rear.
The flags of eight regiments, though borne somewhat wearily, now
pointed toward the hill from which disordered masses of the rebels
had been seen hastily retiring.
Rickett’s battery, together with Griffith’s battery, on the side of the
hill, had been objects of the special attention of the enemy, who had
succeeded in disabling Rickett’s battery, and then attempted to take
it. Three times was he repulsed by different corps in succession, and
driven back, and the guns taken by hand, the horses being killed, and
pulled away. The third time the repulse seemed to be final, for he was
driven entirely from the hill, and so far beyond it as not to be in
sight. He had before this been driven nearly a mile and a half, and
was beyond the Warrenton road, which was entirely in Federal
possession, from the Stone Bridge westward. The engineers were just
completing the removal of the abatis across the road, to allow
reinforcements (Schenck’s brigade and Ayers’ battery) to join in. The
enemy was evidently disheartened and broken.
 But at this moment, when everything pointed to a speedy victory,
orders came through Major Barry of the Fifth artillery, for Griffin’s
battery to move from the hill upon which the house stood, to the top
of a hill on the right, with the “Fire Zouaves” and marines, while the
Fourteenth entered the skirt of wood on their right, to protect that
flank, and a column, composed of the Twenty-seventh New York,
Eleventh and Fifth Massachusetts, Second Minnesota, and Sixty-
Ninth New York, moved up toward the left batteries. It had taken
position, but before the flanking supports had reached theirs, a
murderous fire of musketry and rifles opened at pistol range, cutting
down every cannonier, and a large number of horses. The fire came
from some infantry of the enemy, which had been mistaken for
Union forces; an officer in the field having stated that it was a
regiment sent by Colonel Heintzelman to support the batteries.
As soon as the Zouaves came up, they were led forward against an
Alabama regiment, partly concealed in a clump of small pines in an
old field.
After a severe fire they broke, and the greatest portion of them fell
to the rear, keeping up a desultory firing over the heads of their
comrades in front; at the same moment they were charged by a
company of rebel cavalry on their rear, who came by a road through
two strips of woods on the extreme right. The fire of the Zouaves
dispersed them. The discomfiture of this cavalry was completed by a
fire from Captain Colburn’s company of United States cavalry, which
killed and wounded several men. Colonel Farnham, with some of his
officers and men, behaved gallantly, and many of his men did good
service as skirmishers later in the day. General Heintzelman then led
up the Minnesota regiment, which was also repulsed, but retired in
tolerably good order. It did good service in the woods on the right
flank, and was among the last to retire, moving off the field with the
Third United States infantry. Next was led forward the First
Michigan, which was also repulsed, and retired in considerable
confusion. They were rallied, and helped to hold the woods on the
right. The Brooklyn Fourteenth then appeared on the ground,
coming forward in gallant style. They were led forward to the left,
where the Alabama regiment had been posted in the early part of the
action, but had now disappeared, and soon came in sight of the line
of the enemy drawn up beyond the clump of trees. Soon after the
firing commenced, the regiment broke and retired. It was useless to
attempt a rally. The want of discipline in these regiments was so
great that the most of the men would run from fifty to several
hundred yards in the rear, and continue to fire, compelling those in
front to retreat.
During this time Rickett’s battery had been captured and retaken
three times by Heintzelman’s forces, but was finally lost, most of the
horses having been killed—Captain Ricketts being wounded, and
First Lieutenant D. Ramsay killed. Lieutenant Kirby behaved
gallantly, and succeeded in carrying off one caisson. Before this time,
heavy reinforcements of the enemy were distinctly seen approaching
by two roads, extending and outflanking Heintzelman on the right.
General Howard’s brigade came on the field at this time, having been
detained by the General as a reserve. It took post on a hill on
Heintzelman’s right and rear, and for some time gallantly held the
enemy in check. One company of cavalry attached to Heintzelman’s
division, was joined, during the engagement, by the cavalry of
Colonel Hunter’s division, under the command of Major Palmer.
Colonel W. B. Franklin commanded the first brigade of
Heintzelman’s division. A portion of that brigade rendered
distinguished service, and received official commendation from the
commanding general.
General Tyler, who kept his position at the Stone Bridge, to
menace that point, and at the proper moment to carry it and unite
with the turning column, had sent forward the right wing of his
command to co-operate with Hunter as soon as he was discovered
making his way on the flank.
Two brigades (Sherman’s and Keyes’) of that division had passed
the Run. Colonel Sherman joined himself to the divisions of Hunter
and Heintzelman, and was soon engaged in the hottest part of the
action.
The famous Irish regiment, 1,600 strong, who have had so much of
the hard digging to perform, claimed the honor of a share in the hard
fighting, and led the van of Tyler’s attack, followed by the Seventy-
ninth (Highlanders), and Thirteenth New York, and the Second
Wisconsin.
 It was a brave sight—that rush of the Sixty-ninth into the death-
struggle—with such cheers as proved a hearty love of the work before
them! With a quick step at first, and then a double-quick, and at last
a run, they dashed forward and along the edge of the extended forest.
Coats and knapsacks were thrown to either side, that nothing might
impede their work. It was certain that no guns would slip from the
hands of those determined fellows, even if dying agonies were
needed to close them with a firmer grasp. As the line swept along,
Meagher galloped toward the head, crying, “Come on, boys! you’ve
got your chance at last!”

BRILLIANT CHARGE ON A REBEL BATTERY.

Sherman’s brigade thus moved forward for half a mile, describing

quite one-fourth of a circle on the right, Colonel Quimby’s regiment
in front, the other regiments following in line of battle—the
Wisconsin Second, New York Seventy-ninth, and New York Sixty-
ninth in succession. Quimby’s regiment advanced steadily up the hill
and opened fire on the enemy, who had made a stand. The regiment
continued advancing as the enemy gave way, till the head of his
column reached the point where Rickett’s battery had been cut up.
The other regiments followed under a fearful cannonading. At the
point where the road crossed the ridge to the left, the ground was
swept by a fire of artillery, rifles, and musketry. Regiment after
regiment were driven from it, following the Zouaves and a battalion
of marines.
When the Wisconsin Second was abreast of the enemy, it was
ordered to leave the roadway and attack him. This regiment
ascended the hill, was met with a sharp fire, returned it gallantly, and
advanced, delivering its fire. But the response was terrific, and the
regiment fled in confusion toward the road. It rallied again, passed
the brow of the hill a second time, and was again repulsed in
disorder. By this time the New York Seventy-ninth had closed up. It
was impossible to get a good view of the ground. In it there was one
battery of artillery, which poured an incessant fire upon the
advancing column, and the ground was irregular, with small clusters
of pines, which afforded shelter to the enemy. The fire of rifles and
musketry grew hotter and hotter. The Seventy-ninth, headed by
Colonel Cameron, charged across the hill, and for a short time the
contest was terrible. They rallied several times under fire, but finally
broke and gained the cover of the hill.
This left the field open to the New York Sixty-ninth, Colonel
Corcoran, who, in his turn, led his regiment over the crest, and had
in full open view the ground so severely contested. The firing was
terrific, the roar of cannon, musketry, and rifles, incessant. The
enemy was here in immense force. The Sixty-ninth held the ground
for some time with desperate courage, but finally fell back in
disorder.
At this time Quimby’s regiment occupied another ridge to the left,
overlooking the same field, fiercely engaged. Colonel Keyes, from
Tyler’s division, had formed in line with Sherman’s brigade, and
came into conflict on its right with the enemy’s cavalry and infantry,
which he drove back. The further march of the brigade was arrested
by a severe fire of artillery and infantry, sheltered by Robinson’s
house, standing on the heights above the road leading to Bull Run.
The charge was here ordered, and the Second Maine and Third
Connecticut regiments pressed forward to the top of the hill, reached
the buildings which were held by the enemy, drove them out, and for
a moment had them in possession. At this point, finding the brigade
under the fire of a strong force behind breastworks, the order was
given to march by the left flank, with a view to turn the battery which
the enemy had placed on the hill below the point at which the
Warrenton turnpike crosses Bull Run. The march was conducted for
a considerable distance below the Stone Bridge, causing the enemy to
retire, and giving Captain Alexander an opportunity to pass the
bridge, cut out the abatis which had been placed there, and prepare
the way for Schenck’s brigade and the two batteries to pass over.
Before this movement could be made on the enemy’s battery, it was
placed in a new position; but Colonel Keyes carried his brigade, by a
flank movement, around the base of the hill, and was on the point of
ascending it in time to get at the battery, when he discovered that the
troops were on the retreat, and that, unless a rapid movement to the
rear was made, he would be cut off. At this moment, the abatis near
the Stone Bridge had been cleared away by Captain Alexander, of the
engineers, and Schenck’s brigade (the third of Tyler’s division) was
about to pass over and join Keyes.
But one rash movement had decided the day—that movement the
last change of position given to Griffin’s battery, throwing it helpless
into a murderous fire, which no protecting force could encounter.
When the Zouaves broke on that fatal hill, the Union cause for that
day wavered. When hordes of fresh troops poured in upon the Union
battalions, beating back as brave regiments as ever trod the battle-
field, one after another, overwhelming them with numbers, and
driving them headlong into utter confusion, the battle was lost; and
after this any description of it must be wild and turbulent as the
scene itself—in no other way can a true picture of the tumultuous
fighting and more tumultuous retreat be truly given.
 THE CLIMAX AND THE RETREAT.
We have described the battle of Manassas, Stone Bridge, or Bull
Run, as it is variously called, in its plain details, giving each
regiment, so far as possible, its share in the glorious fight; for up to
mid-day and after, no braver fighting was ever done than the Union
troops performed on that 21st of July. Now a wilder, more difficult,
and very painful effort taxes the pen. The heat, turmoil and terrible
storm of death rolls up in a tumultuous picture—troops in masses—
stormy action—the confused rush of men—all these things have no
detail, but hurl the writer forward, excited and unrestrained as the
scene to be described.
At high noon the battle raged in its widest circumference. The
batteries on the distant hills began to pour their volleys on the Union
troops with terrible effect. Carlisle’s and Sherman’s batteries
answered with tremendous emphasis, while the great 32-pounder
hurled its iron thunderbolts first into one of the enemy’s defences,
then into another, tearing up everything as they went. The noise of
the cannonading grew deafening, and kept up one incessant roll.
Compared to it the sharp volleys of riflemen were like the rattle of
hail amid the loud bursts of a thunder tempest. The people of
Centreville, Fairfax, Alexandria, and even Washington, heard the
fearful reverberations, and trembled at the sound.
Five powerful batteries were in operation at once, joined to the
hiss and hurtle of twenty thousand small arms! No wonder the sky
turned black, impaled with death-smoke—no wonder the sun shone
fierce and red upon the pools of warm human blood that began to
gather around those batteries, where the slain were lying in heaps
and winrows!
Still amid this roar and carnage, the Federal forces were making
sure headway, and driving the enemy before them. Except one
brigade of Tyler’s division, the entire force of eighteen thousand men
was in fierce action. As the Union forces pressed upon the enemy,
approaching each moment to the completion of their plan of battle,
the rebels grew desperate. The batteries on the western hills poured
forth their iron tempest with accumulated fury. The Union guns
answered them with fiercer thunder. The roar of the cannonading
was deafening, drowning the volleys of riflemen, and sweeping off in
one overpowering sound the rattle and crash of musketry. The
clamor of the guns was appalling—the rush and tumult of action
more appalling still. The whole valley was like a vast volcano, boiling
over with dust and smoke. Through this turbid atmosphere
battalions charged each other and batteries poured their hot breath
on the air, making it denser than before. Now and then the dust
would roll away from the plain, and the smoke float off from the
hills, revealing a dash of cavalry across some open space, or a charge
of infantry up to a fortified point where the struggle, success, or
repulse, was lost or vaguely seen through volumes of rolling smoke—
columns of ruddy dust trailed after the infantry, broken now and
then by the fiery track of a battery masked in foliage. A sullen report,
and horrid gaps appeared in what a moment before was a living wall
of men. A curl of blue vapor rose gracefully from the trees, and it was
only the dead bodies blackening the ground that made the sight so
awful.
But the fight gathered fiercest on the westward hill, from which the
booming thunder rolled in long incessant peals. Its sides swarmed
with armed men, changing positions, charging and retreating.
Curtains of smoke, swayed by the wind, revealed the horses around a
battery, rearing, plunging and falling headlong, dozens together, in
one hideous death. Then in mercy the smoke drifted over the hill
again. The enemy were giving ground at every point. The
Mississippians had fled in dismay from the batteries, and desperately
taken to the field in wavering columns. Other regiments were
actually fleeing before the Union troops, but they were generally
moving with sullen steadiness to the rear. The entire line which
arrayed itself against Tyler in the morning had been relinquished,
except one fortified elevation. Still their peculiar mode of warfare
was kept up. Masked batteries were constantly opening in
unexpected places, leaving heaps of slain in the track of their fiery
hail.
On the uplands whole regiments, seen from the distance, seemed
to drive against or drift by each other, leaving beautiful curls and
clouds of smoke behind; but under this smoke lay so many dead
bodies that the soul grew faint in counting them.
Through all this the Federal troops progressed toward a union of
their attacking columns. Tyler had already spoken to McDowell, and
the two forces were drawing nearer and nearer together. Victory
appeared so certain that nothing but a junction of the two columns
was wanting to a glorious result, and this now seemed inevitable.
The clamor of the artillery was checked for a little time on both
sides. Red-handed death cannot rush panting on the track forever.
Black-mouthed guns will get too foul for belching fire, and the
swarthy men who feed them must have breathing time. As the fight
flagged, and the men paused to draw breath, their terrible suffering
was apparent in the parched lips that had tasted water but once
through all that hot day, and the bloodshot eyes with which each
man seemed to beseech his comrade for drink which no one had to
give. Still, with dry lips and throats full of dust, they talked over a
thousand details of valor performed on the field. They spoke sadly of
the loss of brave Cameron, the wounding of Hunter, the fall of
Haggerty and Slocum, the doubtful fate of noble young Wilcox. They
discussed the impetuous dash and resolute stand of the Irishmen,
the murderous shock sustained by the Rhode Island regiments, how
the Hignlanders had done justice to their own warlike traditions, and
the Connecticut Third had crowned its State with honors. They told
how Heintzelman had stooped down from his war-horse to have his
wounded wrist bound up, refusing to dismount—of the intrepid
Burnside, and of Sprague, the patriotic young Governor, who led on
the forces his generosity had raised, to one victorious charge after
another, till with his own hands he spiked the Rhode Island guns
when compelled to leave them to the enemy.
So tranquil was the field during this short period of rest, that the
soldiers who had foreborne to throw their rations away in the march,
unslung their haversacks and sat down upon the grass to share the
contents with their less prudent companions; those who had been
fortunate enough to pick up the enemy’s haversacks, cast off in
retreat, added their contents to the scanty store.
While a few thus snatched a mouthful of food, others climbed up
the tall trees and took a triumphant view of the vast battle-field their
valor had conquered. The scene of carnage which it presented was
awful. Dead and dying men heaped together on the red earth,
crippled horses struggling desperately in their death-throes,
wounded men lying helplessly on the grass to which they had been
dragged from under the hoofs of the war-chargers—all this grouped
where the angry waves of battle had rolled down the beautiful valley,
with its back-ground of mountains, looking immovable and grandly
tranquil against the sky, was a picture which no man who saw it will
ever forget.
The army, far advanced within the enemy’s defensive lines,
believing itself victorious, was thus falling into quiet. The great
struggle of the contending forces, each to outflank the other, had
ceased. The prestige of success belonged to the Union, whose stars
and stripes shone out triumphantly as the smoke which had engulfed
the combatants rolled away.
All at once those in the tree-tops saw a commotion in the far
distance. Columns of troops were moving toward them with flashing
bayonets, and Southern banners, unfurling the stars and bars to the
sun. On they came—rank after rank, column after column, one
continuous stream of armed men, pouring down upon the battle-
field with bursts of music and wild shouts of enthusiasm.
It was Johnston’s reinforcements, marching up from the railroad.
On they rushed, fresh, vigorous, and burning with ardor, through
masses of wounded soldiers that lay by the road. The infantry broke
from the double-quick to a swift run—the cavalry rode in on a sharp
gallop—the artillery wagons were encircled with men eager to get
their ordnance in place against the thrice-exhausted Union troops. In
a continuous stream these columns swarmed into the woods, the
greater force centering around the hill about which the storm of
battle had raged fiercest.
In an instant the whole battle commenced again. The officers
sprang to their guns, anxious but not appalled. The men fell into
rank ready for a new onset, tired as they were.
Then it was that Griffin’s battery changed position, and the Fire
Zouaves coming up under a terrible fire, broke and scattered down
the hill-side, but rallied again in broken masses to rescue Rickett’s
battery, dragging the guns off with their own hands from amid the
pile of dying horses that lay around them. Then it was that the Sixty-
ninth and Seventy-ninth New York swept through the meadows from
the north across the road, and charged up the hill with such daring
courage, resisting the shock of battle fifteen minutes, and breaking
only when mortal valor could withstand the storm of bullets no
longer.
Then the bold Connecticut regiments charged up the hill.
Thousands of the impetuous enemy fell upon them, but in spite of all
they planted the star-spangled banner and sent its folds sweeping
out from the crest of the hill. Not till this was done, and a long last
shout sent ringing after the banner, were these heroic regiments
driven from their position. But beaten back at last, they retired step
by step, fighting as they went.
Then the Zouaves broke into the fight once more, scattered on the
ground, some prostrate on their faces, others with limbs huddled
together as if dead—while many stood with their eyes to the sun,
waiting the onset of the Black Horse cavalry that came galloping
upon them from the woods. A few of these eccentric warriors were
making a feint of defending themselves while the cavalry stood
hesitating on the margin of the wood, but the rest seemed to have
been cut down by the sweep of some deadly cannonade, and lay in
the grass like a flock of partridge shot down in full flight.
Out from the woody cover the Black Hawks thundered on, their
arms flashing and the jetty necks of their horses flinging off the
sunshine. The handful of Zouaves now flocked together in front of
their prostrate comrades, seeming doubtful whether to fight or flee.
On the black chargers came, champing the bit and tossing their
heads angrily, the riders ready to trample the scattered Zouaves
under hoof, as too easy a conquest for their flashing swords. A
sudden, sharp ringing yell, and the dead Zouaves sprang to life,
confronting the horsemen in a wall of bristling steel. A sharp volley—
the horses reared, plunged, and ran back upon each other, some
falling dead with quivering limbs as the fatal bullets rent their vitals,
and gushes of blood crimsoned their coal-black chests; others
staggering from a dozen wounds, rushed madly through the broken
ranks of the terrified cavalry.
Before the chargers could again be brought into line, the Zouaves
flung away their rifles, and sprang like tigers upon them. Seizing
them by the bit, they wound themselves up over their arched necks—
a flash of bowie-knives gleamed like chain-lightning across the ranks,
and many a wild black horse plunged on riderless with burning eyes,
streaming mane, and ringing empty stirrups, headlong through the
already half-disorganized ranks, and scouring over the battle-field,
scattering dismay as they went.
A last struggle now ensued, with desperate men and broken forces
—then a retreat, so wild, so impetuous and reckless, that all
organization was given up. Regiments lost their officers, broke,
mingled into others, and rushed across the field a headlong torrent,
which no human power could arrest. On they went, plunging through
the sea of carnage that surrounded the hill—the surging, angry
broken waves of a brave army hurrying tumultuously from what had
been a victorious field but an hour before.
Down from the hills, broken into frightened masses, pallid, reeling
with exhaustion, they swept onward like a whirlwind, bearing the
protesting officers with them, or trampling them under foot; for
human life was nothing to them in that hot, mad race. The contagion
of retreat spread like a prairie fire, from one point of the battle-field
to another, scattering the army in wild confusion.
Still it was not quite a panic; two regiments, the Seventy-first New
York and Second Rhode Island, kept their ranks in all this confusion,
and were led in order from the field, over the road they had passed in
the morning. Other regiments were led off in a wild, scattered way,
but most of the great army was broken up, battalions and regiments
surging together, and dashing through each other, till they became
one mighty scene of confusion.
 THE ENEMY LARGELY REINFORCED—DESPERATE
FIGHTING OF THE UNION TROOPS AGAINST SUPERIOR
NUMBERS.

The enemy pursued them in a broken, hesitating way, like men

astonished at their own success; wanting confidence, they did not
venture in force to follow the retreating army, but captured many of
the scattered bands dispersed over the wide field of conflict. One
detachment of cavalry charged on a helpless crowd of wounded, who
were gathered near a hospital building; when a handful of
unorganized men, mostly civilians, seized upon the first weapons at
hand, and repelled it bravely.
Up to this time Schenck’s brigade had kept its position at Stone
Bridge. Captain Alexander, with his sappers and miners, had just cut
through the abatis by the side of the mined bridge, that Schenck
might lead his forces after those of Sherman and Keyes, when the
torrent of retreat rolled toward him; his protecting battery was taken,
and a force of cavalry and infantry came pouring into the road at the
very spot where the battle of the morning commenced.
The first battery attacked that day had been silenced, but not
taken; and there, in the woods which protected it, four hundred
South Carolinians had been concealed during the entire battle, to
swarm out now and fall upon the Union infantry in this most critical
moment. A sudden swoop of cavalry completed that unhappy day’s
work. The Union infantry broke ranks, and plunging into the woods
fled up the hill. A crowd of ambulances and army wagons had
concentrated close to this spot, and civilians, led to the field by
curiosity, blocked up the ground. The panic which had swept the
battle-field seized on them. Kellogg of Michigan, Washburne of
Illinois, and it is said, Lovejoy of Illinois, flung themselves in the
midst of the fugitives, and entreated them to make a stand. Ely, of
New York, was taken prisoner in a rash effort to restore confidence to
the panic-stricken masses of men. But the maddened crowd plunged
on. The teamsters urged their frightened horses into a headlong rush
for the road; everything and everybody, brave or craven, were swept
forward by the irresistible human torrent. It was a stampede which
no power could check or resist. From the branch road the trains
attached to Hunter’s division had caught the contagion, and rushed
into the staggering masses, creating fresh dismay and wilder
confusion.
It was a frightful scene, more terrible by far than the horrors of the
battle-field. Broken regiments, without leaders, filled the road, the
open fields, and skirted the fences, in one wild panic. Army wagons,
sutler’s teams and artillery caissons rushed together, running each
other down, and leaving the wrecks upon the road. Hacks were
crushed between heavy wagon wheels and their occupants flung to
the ground. Horses, wild with fright and maddened with wounds,
galloped fiercely through the crowd, rearing and plunging when the
worn-out fugitives attempted to seize them and save themselves from
the destruction that was threatened at every step.
Wounded men, who had found strength to stagger off the battle-
field, fell by the wayside, begging piteously to be taken up. Now and
then a kind fellow would mount a wounded soldier behind him, and
give the horse he had caught a double load; most of the poor fellows
were brought forward in this way. Sometimes a wounded man would
be picked up by two passing companions, and carried tenderly
forward—for the sweet impulses of humanity were not all lost in that
wild retreat.
Then came the artillery—for much was saved—thundering through
the panic-stricken crowd, crushing everything as it went, dragged
recklessly along by horses wild as the men that urged them on.
Rifles, bayonets, pistols, blankets, haversacks and knapsacks were
flung singly or in heaps along the way. Devoured by intense thirst,
black with powder, famished and halting, these stricken men
plunged into the fields, searching for water. If a muddy pool
presented itself, they staggered to its brink with a pitiful laugh, and
lying down on their faces, drank greedily, then arose with tears in
their eyes, thanking God for the great luxury.
As they passed by the few houses on the road, women—God bless
them!—would come out, some with curt, but genuine hospitality,
others with tears streaming down their cheeks, and gave drink and
food to the wounded men as they halted by. Those who fell upon the
wayside were taken in and tended kindly till the next day. Boys came
from the wells, bearing pailsful of water, which their little sisters
distributed to the jaded men in their own tin cups.
But this panic, like all others, was of brief duration. When the
fugitives reached Centreville, they found Blenker’s brigade stretched
across the road ready to guard the retreat. Some of the fugitives
rallied and formed into line, but they had flung away their arms, and
the highway from Stone Bridge to Centreville was literally covered
with these cast-off weapons and munitions of war, hurled from the
army wagons by reckless teamsters. In places the road was blocked
up by the wagons themselves, from which the drivers had cut their
teams loose and fled on the relieved horses.
Blenker, of Miles’ division, whose duty up to this time had been
one of inaction at Centreville, now did good service at his important
post. With three regiments he kept the road, expecting every moment
to be assailed by an overpowering and victorious enemy, eager to
complete his fatal work. As the darkness increased, the peril of his
position became imminent. At eleven o’clock the attack came upon
the advance company of Colonel Stahel’s rifles, from a body of the
enemy’s cavalry, which was, however, driven back, and did not
return. At this time Richardson and Davies were both in Centreville
with their brigades, which composed the entire left wing, all well
organized and under perfect command. These troops were put under
the command of Colonel Davies, who led them off the field—
Blenker’s brigade being the last to leave the town it had done so
much to protect.
 The cause of this stupendous stampede no one ever has or can
explain. Cowardice it certainly was not. Those men had fought too
bravely, and suffered too patiently for that charge to be brought
against them. They were in fact victorious soldiers, for the rout of a
single half hour, disastrous as it proved, should have no power to
blot out the deeds of heroism that had marked the entire day. Was it
excitement, acting on an exhausted frame?
Let those answer who bore the flag of our Union through the long
hours of that July day, carried it under the hot sun through the fierce
fight, the dust and smoke and carnage, when the sky was one mosaic
of flame, and the earth groaned under the vibrations of artillery.
They had marched twelve miles fasting, and with but one draught of
water; marched without pause straight on to the battle field, and for
nearly five hours fought bravely as men ever fought on earth. Many
who had food found no time to eat it till the battle was at its close,
but in the rash eagerness for the field, these men, new to the
necessities of war, had flung their rations away, restive under the
weight. They had started not far from midnight, from camps in a
tumult of preparation, and therefore lacked sleep as well as food.
To all this was added THIRST—that hot, withering thirst, which
burns like lava in the throat, and drives a man mad with craving.
Panting for drink, their parched lips were blackened with
gunpowder; and exhausted nature, when she clamored for food, was
answered by the bitter saltness of cartridges ground between the
soldiers’ teeth.
Think of these men, famished, sleepless, drinkless, after fighting
through the fiery noon of a hot day, suddenly overwhelmed in the
midst of a positive victory—called upon to fight another battle, while
every breath came pantingly, from thirst, and every nerve quivered
with the overtax of its natural strength. Think of them under the
hoofs of the Black Horse cavalry, and swept down by the very
batteries that had been their protection. Think of all this, and if men
of military standing can condemn them, war is a cruel master, and
warriors hard critics.
It is very easy for civilians, who sit in luxurious parlors and sip cool
ices under the protection of the old flag, to sneer at this panic of Bull
Run, but many a brave man—braver than their critics, or they would
not have been in the ranks—was found even in the midst of that
stampede.
What if all along the road were the marks of hurried flight—
abandoned teams, dead horses, wasted ammunition, coats, blankets?
Were there not dead and dying men there also? brave and hardy
spirits, noble, generous souls, crushed beneath the iron hoof of war—
sacrificed and dying bravely in retreat, as they had fought in the
advance?
Never on this earth did the proud old American valor burn fiercer
or swell higher than on that day and field. And a reproach to the
heroes who left the impress of bravery, and gave up their lives on
that red valley, should never come from any true American heart.
 THE BATTLE ON THE LEFT WING.
On the morning of the 21st, according to McDowell’s plan of battle,
the left wing, composed of Colonel Miles’ division, was stationed at
Centreville and at Blackburn’s Ford, the scene of Tyler’s disaster on
the 18th. Thus during the heat and struggle of that awful day the
greater portion of the left wing was six miles from the centre of
action. But notwithstanding, no better service was rendered to the
country on that day than that of this comparatively small handful of
men. The first brigade of this command, under Colonel Blenker,
occupied the heights of Centreville.
The second brigade, under Colonel Thomas A. Davies, of New
York, and Richardson’s brigade, were ordered by Colonel Miles to
take position before the batteries at Blackburn’s Ford, near the
battle-ground of the 18th, to make demonstrations of attack. In
pursuance of General McDowell’s order, Colonel Davies, being
ranking officer, took command of Richardson’s brigade.
On his route from Centreville in the morning, when about half way
to Blackburn’s Ford, Colonel Davies, while conversing with the guide
who rode by him, saw a country road, apparently little used, leading
through the woods to the left. “That road,” said the guide, a fine,
intelligent fellow, “will give position farther left and nearer the
enemy, for it runs directly to Beauregard’s headquarters.”
Colonel Davies, who had graduated at West Point and served in
the Mexican war, was prompt to recognize the importance of a point
which might enable the enemy to move upon his rear. He ordered a
halt, and detailed the Thirty-first New York regiment, Colonel Pratt,
and the Thirty-second, Colonel Mathewson, with a detachment of
artillery, to guard the road at its junction, and deployed another
regiment with a section of artillery on the road, which was shaded
and hedged in on both sides by a heavy growth of timber.
This duty performed, the troops continued their march. Davies
took his position in a wheat field with what was left of his brigade,
leaving Richardson to make his own arrangements to defend the
position in front of the enemy’s batteries at Blackburn’s Ford, the
battle-ground of the 18th. Richardson posted his command in this
place, on the road from Centreville heights to Blackburn’s Ford.
The wheat field which Davies occupied contained a hill which
overlooked a ravine, thickly wooded, on the opposite slope. On this
hill Hunt’s battery, commanded by Lieutenant Edwards, was placed,
having been exchanged from force of circumstances for Green’s
battery, which belonged to Davies’ command, but was now with
Richardson. The battery was supported by Davies’ own regiment, the
Sixteenth New York, and the Eighteenth, Colonel Jackson. This hill
commanded a broad view of the country on every side. The battle-
ground of the right wing, six miles off, was in full sight. Opposite his
position, across the stream, was the road which led from Bull Run to
Manassas, and also to Beauregard’s extreme right. Parallel with the
river to his extreme left, it was plainly traced, except where groves
and clumps of trees concealed it. This road, with all the high grounds
sloping from Manassas, covered with broken ridges, rich pasture
lands and splendid groves, lay before the men as they placed their
battery.
On their rear the Centreville road stretched along a beautiful tract
of country, hidden by a waving sea of luxuriant foliage. Indeed all the
converging roads that threaded the vast battle-field were plainly
visible from that point.
Posted in this commanding position, Davies opened his
demonstration with two twenty-pound rifle guns from Hunt’s
battery. The first shot hurled a shell into Beauregard’s headquarters,
which sent the rebels scattering in every direction. Richardson also
commenced firing across the Run, producing the desired effect of
keeping the enemy at their defences in the neighborhood.
At ten o’clock Colonel Miles visited the command. Finding the two
regiments and artillery posted at the country road, he ordered the
regiments to move forward one-fourth of a mile, and the artillery to
join Davies’ command, leaving the road exposed. He then sent two
companies to reconnoitre the enemy’s position. They had a skirmish
on the stream, at Blackburn’s Ford, and came back with little
damage.
The moment Miles rode back to Centreville, Davies ordered out his
brigade pioneer corps, all sturdy lumbermen of the North, with
orders to fell trees and block up the country road thus left exposed.
 For two hours these sturdy men swung their axes among the heavy
timber, answering the distant roar of the battle-field with a wild,
crashing music, that broke with a new and more startling expression
of war through the familiar roll of cannon. With sharp, crashing
groans, the great trees were hurled to the earth, locked their
splintered and broken boughs across the road, and covered it with
mangled foliage, forming a barricade one-fourth of a mile long,
impassable as a thousand cactus hedges. The roar of cannon afar off,
and the batteries belching iron close by, failed to drown the groaning
rush of these forest monarchs; and when the near guns were silent
for a little time, as often happened, the almost human shiver of a
tree, in its last poise before it rushed downward with a wail in all its
leaves and branches, conveyed an idea of death more thrilling than
any noise that battle-field had to give. At twelve o’clock, just after the
pioneers had returned to position, a body of the enemy came down
this road from Bull Run, intending to march on Centreville and take
Miles’ division in the rear. Clouds of red dust rising from the trees
betrayed them just as they had discovered the barricade, and a storm
of shell and shrapnel hastened their backward march.
About this time the road on the other side of Bull Run was one
cloud of flying dust. It was Johnston’s forces, a close line, going up to
snatch victory from the brave army at Stone Bridge. The advance of
these forces became visible at first in tiny curls of dust rising from
the woods. Then it swelled into clouds, through which jaded horses
and tired men seemed struggling onward in a continued stream.
At this time the distant cannonading became louder and more
continuous; the far-off woods rolled up vast volumes of smoke, and
where the battle raged, a black canopy hung suspended in mid-air.
How those brave men, chained to their post by inevitable military
law, panted to plunge into that hot contest! The inaction forced upon
them when a struggle of life and death was going on in the distance,
was worse than torture. They suspected the character of those troops
moving forward in the red cloud, and followed them with eager,
burning eyes. But they soon had work of their own to do!
The firing on the right slackened between three and four o’clock,
growing fainter and fainter. About five, Colonel Davies received a
line from Richardson, saying: “The army is in full retreat;” but the
line was written in the haste and agitation of bad news, and was