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The Biology of Human
Behavior
Also by the author:
Exercise and Children’s Health
Children’s Exercise Physiology
Pediatric Exercise Medicine (with Oded Bar-Or)
The Athlete’s Clock
Biological Regulation of Physical Activity
Tennisology
A Philosophy of Tennis, or You Kant Be Serious
Controversies in Exercise Science
The Fatigue Chronicles. Searching for the
Limits of Human Physical Performance
The Biology of Human
Behavior:
A Brief Inquiry
By
Thomas Rowland
The Biology of Human Behavior: A Brief Inquiry
By Thomas Rowland
All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.
Preface ....................................................................................................... ix
1. Love ........................................................................................................ 1
2. Travelling ............................................................................................. 18
3. Jealousy ................................................................................................ 36
4. Meaning ................................................................................................ 51
5. Suicide .................................................................................................. 69
Entr’Acte II. Foucault for the Television Football Watcher .................. 140
exists for the input of science.1 And that’s it, the point of this book: in this
more elevated and meaningful atmosphere of scholarly inquiry, evidence
grows that biological science is beginning to shed light on the complexity
of human behavior.
Before embarking on this “brief inquiry,” let’s be certain we know what
we’re talking about. Science is essentially a method, a means by which the
reality of the natural world can be logically and accurately examined. The
scientific method is a step-wise approach which assesses a hypothesis (a
conjecture based on previous experience, observation, or studies) by a
careful structured and controlled experiment. This method, then, is based on
inductive empiricism rather than assuming that truths of the natural world
can be revealed by reason alone. The assumption here is that there exists in
any field of inquiry an objective truth, and that the scientific method is the
means for discovering it.
Despite its time-tested validity, a number of issues swirl about this
conclusion. To start with, does an ultimate truth actually exist? Is the human
brain—or even, by extension, a computer—capable of understanding this
truth? Does use of the scientific method to examine a hypothesis imply that
truth can be assumed only when there exists a test to determine if it is
“falsifiable”? Is there a “real” objective universe that surrounds us? Or, does
reality only exist in light of how we human beings observe it?2
The link of science and what constitutes the “real world” has undergone
a series of serious upheavals, beginning with the teachings of Euclid, which
held that the universe conformed to rules set forth by geometrical principles,
then Newton, who described a deterministic, mechanistic universe based on
physical laws of motion, which was superseded by Einstein’s theories of
relativity, by which reality depends on the condition and motion of the
observer, to, most recently the bizarre subatomic world of quantum
mechanics, where uncertainty rules, and chance replaces cause and effect.3
Even within the realm of deterministic behavior, chaos theory indicates that
minor differences in initial conditions can be manifest as random and
unpredictable outcomes (such as weather forecasting).
Each of these approaches truly describes an aspect of the “real world.”
But they reflect a reality only in a certain perspective, and these domains
are often mutually exclusive. The conclusion therefore is that the goal of
science as an endeavor to describe the natural world must be appreciated
only within certain restrictions of the form of “reality” being addressed.
Living beings share functions that obey the laws of physics and
chemistry, yet there exists the obvious observation that “something” sets
apart living systems, or biological truths, from those of other scientific
disciplines. Whether such biological “laws” exist (most would think so),
The Biology of Human Behavior: A Brief Inquiry xi
and of what these consist (no one yet knows) remain issues that have drawn
controversy for centuries. Particularly, for the discussion at hand, one can
reasonably ask (without expecting an answer) whether such unique
biological determinants are responsible for human behavior, or, on the other
hand, how we act is simply an outcome of the cerebral interaction of
molecular attractions, biochemical neurotransmitters, and ion-derived
electrical charges—all conforming to traditional physical and chemical
laws.
Defining human behavior proves to be even more problematic. Perhaps
one could start by thinking how one would respond to an alien visitor from
outer space who asks “What is it like to be a human being?” You might start
by answering “Well, I am a biological machine, although it remains a
mystery as to precisely how, as a living being, I differ from non-living
matter. This machine that I am has evolved through many millions of years
by a process of natural selection so that my working parts are in fine
harmony with each other and resist perturbations of environmental
disturbances. For the most part, this machine operates beyond my awareness,
automatically responding to my physiological needs. I have a brain inside
my head, though, that thinks, and since I can in this way “talk” within myself
(gratefully in my native language) I feel like I am the captain of a ship,
providing orders of where I should go and what I should or should not do.
It seems, though, that I am often deceived by this sense of free will and self-
determination by my thinking brain, because it is now understood that a
large part of how I behave is dictated by subconscious actions deep within
its gray matter that, in fact, often direct what I mistakenly feel are my own
thinking decisions and behaviors.”
You could continue: The relationship of my sense as an individual and
that of a member of an organized group, or society, is a complex one. For
example, although “civilized,” I still possess the instincts and drives of my
animal ancestors. So, I must channel my appetites, aggression, sexual
desires, and so on into socially acceptable ways. I have certain desires, or
goals, in my life, and I direct many actions towards satisfying these—
finding a love partner, raising a family, finding a satisfying life’s work,
financial security, seeking pleasure and courage in facing the challenges in
life’s ups and downs, and so forth. To accomplish this my behaviors must
satisfy the requirements of the culture in which I live. And this sometimes
requires that I sacrifice my desires as an individual for the collective good
of that society. At the same time, it is clear that I need a surrounding society
to provide me with an infrastructure—food, clothing, shelter, protection,
health care—that allows me to survive. So, the relationship between myself
as an individual and that of a constraining but nourishing society is a highly
xii Preface
It has not been lost on dramatists (including the Bard himself) that in our
daily lives we behave as if we are acting roles—father, boss, rock star,
spouse, best friend, and so on—in a giant play, which we adopt to satisfy
the complicated arrangements we have with personal goals and ego-
supportive activities consistent with our part in organized society. Think
about a list of what governs how we learn to behave, or act out our roles.
You might include:
Notes
1. Rothman T, Sudarshan G. Doubt and Certainty. Reading MA: Perseus
Books, 1998.
2. See Lewens T. The Meaning of Science. An Introduction to the Philosophy
of Science. New York: Basic Books, 2016; Holt J. When Einstein Walked
with Gödel. Excursions to the Edge of Thought. New York: Farrar, Straus
and Giroux, 2018.
3. Davies P, Gribbin J. The Matter Myth. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.
4. Wilson EO. Evolution and our inner conflict. In: Catapano P, Critchley S.
The Stone Reader. New York: Liveright Publishing, 2016, pp. 270-274.
1. LOVE
The French, as usual, have a better way of saying it: un coup de foudre.
To English speakers it’s “love at first sight;” for les Parisiens it’s a “bolt of
lightning.” Which is just what it is. Flash! Boom! Crash! It doesn’t much
matter if it’s “across a crowded room,” or “strangers in the night,
exchanging glances,” or just that you “saw her standing there.” It ranks
among the most supreme feelings of emotional euphoria that a human being
can experience.
Of course, romantic love often comes more gradually, too, in a sense
“sneaking up” on one unexpectedly. (In the standard cinematic fare this is
predictable by two oil-and-water protagonists at the beginning of the film,
who initially detest each other but then…) Thus one, in this more restrained
process, “falls in love,” so that “on est tombé amoureux.” It’s interesting
here that in both languages this process is considered in terms of “falling,”
perhaps a bit of insight that will be dealt with later in this chapter.
The reader will no doubt agree that the subject of romantic love has
always taken on a rather frivolous flavor. Not serious, somewhat amusing,
thanks to Cupid and shooting arrows, tunnels of love, puppy love, love
boats, lyrics of popular music, and so on. Add to this the fact that falling in
love is often first experienced in the pubertal throes of adolescence, with its
naivety, immaturity, and social awkwardness. The past several decades,
however, have brought a realization on the part of researchers, psychologists,
psychiatrists, and the like, that romantic love is, to the contrary, a very serious
business. Falling in love is attended by a suspension of normal social and
moral judgements, while rejection and/or termination of a romantic
relationship can be emotionally devastating and accompanied by very real
risks of non-frivolous matters such as severe depression, stalking, suicide,
and homicide. Indeed, in these features—ecstatic pleasure and insupportable
nightmare of withdrawal—the entire process of falling in and out of love is
not dissimilar to that of narcotic addiction, an affliction considered to be of
2 1. Love
much greater import and significance than that of “simply” falling in love
with the girl or guy next door.
This chapter will examine what this new research attention has revealed
regarding the nature of romantic love. Much of this scientific information
has served to simply confirm centuries-old ideas of what it means to fall in
love. But some fascinating new concepts have arisen as well, such as the
neurochemical basis of romantic love, its similarity to addictive behaviors,
why breaking up with a love object is, indeed, “hard to do,” and
relationships that may exist between emotions of love and hate. All of this
is witness, then, to the growing role of science in understanding human
behavior. The reader is forewarned, however, that the essential question
once posed by the young singer Frankie Lymon—“Why Do Fools Fall in
Love?”—will not be likely resolved in any satisfying manner.1
(The psychological and philosophical implications of this question
presumably were not appreciated by Mr. Lymon when he recorded this song
with The Teenagers in 1956. What causes one person to fall in love with
another? Does one, in fact, possess free will to choose or not to choose to
fall in love? Based on much of the evidence outlined in the discussions that
follow, perhaps the answer to the latter question is “probably not.”)
Neurophysiological Localization
The advent of neuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET scan)
has for the first time permitted key insights into brain function. Particularly,
these methodologies have identified links between subjective mental
processes (i.e., emotions) and anatomic localization. Both of these diagnostic
methods work by identifying areas of the brain demonstrating increased
metabolic rate, which is associated with neuronal activity. In a typical
investigation, then, the act of an individual falling in love is reflected in a
“lighting up” on a scan of a responsible brain regions by these techniques.
A number of such imaging studies have been performed in an attempt to
link the activity of specific brain regions to the act of falling or being in
love. These have quite consistently revealed that one particular area—the
ventral tegmental area (VTA)—is activated in individuals involved in a
passionate love affair, with close connections to the nucleus accumbens and
regions of the cerebral cortex that include the medial insula, anterior
cingulate, and hippocampus.7 The study of Aron et al. is typical.8 These
authors reported fMRI findings in 10 women and 7 men who reportedly had
recently fallen intensely (and happily) in love. (As proof of the
appropriateness of this cohort, all the subjects reported that they spent at
least 85% of their waking hours thinking of the object of their affection.)
When viewing a photo of their loved one, augmented activity was observed
The Biology of Human Behavior: A Brief Inquiry 5
in the VTA and caudal nucleus, “regions associated with pleasure, general
arousal, focused attention and motivation to pursue and acquire rewards.”
Importantly, such scanning studies indicate that areas associated with
other forms of love (including sexual arousal and maternal love) may
overlap regions associated with romantic love but remain distinct from
them. In 2010, Ortigue et al. reviewed the published literature which has
described fMRI studies indicating brain regions that are linked to different
forms of love (J Sex Med. 2010;7:3541-52). Although all types of love were
associated with activity of brain reward systems, this review “demonstrated
that different types of love involve distinct cerebral networks, including
those for higher cognitive functions such as social cognition and bodily self-
representation.”
The finding of similar but distinct areas of brain function for different
forms of love coincides with observations from common experience. That
is, one would not confuse the behaviors surrounding a mother’s love or that
of a couple on their 50th wedding anniversary with that of a college
sophomore experiencing a coup de foudre with his chemistry lab partner.
This does raise some interesting thoughts, though, regarding the possible
connection of romantic love, spousal love, and arousal of sexual drive,
which, again, are emotions which demonstrate distinctly separate, though
overlapping, areas of cerebral activity. Specifically, does the former lead to
the latter? And, by extension, if so, can we then ascribe an evolutionary
basis for romantic love as a kind of “jump start” to more mature, sustained
love, sexual activity, and reproductive preservation of the species? Here is
what S. Zeki had to say on the matter (FEBS Letters 2007;581:2575-2579):
“It is noteworthy that sexual arousal activates regions adjacent to—and in
the case of the hypothalamus overlapping with—the areas activated by
romantic love……This intimacy in terms of geographical location between
brain areas engaged during romantic love on one hand and sexual arousal
on the other is of more than passing interest. Judged by the world literature
of love, romantic love has at its basis a concept—that of unity, a state in
which, at the height of passion, the desire of lovers is to be united with one
another and to dissolve all distance between them. Sexual union is as close
as humans can get to achieving that unity. It is perhaps not surprising to
find, therefore, that the areas engaged during these two separate but highly
linked states are juxtaposed.”
A Biochemical Basis
Readers owning a pet hamster will be quick to confirm the compulsive
wheel-running that these small animals exhibit in their cages, often for hours
at a time throughout the night. Why do they do that? The answer is that they
are motivated by a “reward” system within certain specific areas of the
brain, fueled by the neurotransmitter dopamine and other biochemical
agents, which provides a strong sense of “pleasure” (assumed but not
reported by the animal).10 (A similar explanation has been suggested for
humans who engage in obsessive distance running.)
Dopamine, an agent chemically related to adrenaline, has received a
good deal of popular attention for its reputation as a conveyor of sensory
pleasure—the “rush” from your morning coffee, the joy of sexual union, the
euphoria of falling in love. This chemical does, in fact, participate in a wide
variety of disparate physiological functions, including lactation,
vasoactivity of arteriolar walls, cellular immune responses, gastrointestinal
motility, and the salt content and volume of urine output (Figure 1.1).
In the central nervous system, dopamine serves to connects signals from
one nerve cell (neuron) to the next across a synaptic space. Dopamine-
secreting neurons are grouped within the brain in specific areas related to a
particular function, although a wide network of connections to other
portions of the central nervous system is typically evident. In the ventral
tegmental area (VTA), the nucleus accumbens, and other areas of the brain
dopamine participates in a “reward system” whereby certain behaviors are
reinforced and thereby motivated by providing positive feelings of pleasure.
Some researchers have contended, however, that dopamine does not
actually serve as a “pleasure chemical” in this regard but instead is
“necessary for ‘wanting’ incentives”.11 That this differentiation between
“wanting” a romantic partner and “liking” an attractive face (or sunset, or
Monet canvas) may have a neurophysiological basis was indicated in the
fMRI study of Aron et al. noted above. These investigators found that when
The Biology of Human Behavior: A Brief Inquiry 7
viewing an attractive face, study participants activated the left VTA, while
when looking at a photo of a love partner, the right VTA became activated.
Figure 1.1. So this is love? (Or rather cupid disguised in the molecular structure of
the neurotransmitter dopamine?)
Biological Meaning
The neurochemical mechanisms that likely underlie the process of
falling in love have been identified, but many questions remain to be
answered: can we confidently transpose animal experimental results to
human beings? Which way does the arrow of causation go? Do emotional
responses to visual stimuli trigger release of dopamine-based reward
systems? Or, conversely, are dopamine and its related chemical agents
responsible for the emotional reaction? In essence, then, what is responsible
for launching one into the throes of falling in love? Studies show that, not
surprisingly, visual triggers set it off. But how many strangers have you
exchanged glances with across a crowded room without inaugurating this
cascade of neurochemical events that would put you in the remarkable
mental condition of “being in love”?
If we accept that a coup de foudre is basically just a chemical event, we
are still left with the mystery of why does one fall in love in the first place?
It’s a very singular, irrational emotional state that defies common sense, one
that will typically self-destruct in a matter of months. And, in more cases
than not, that rupture fill one or both parties with pain and depression or
even worse. We again have to stop and wonder: why do fools fall in love?
The siren call of the coup de foudre appears to be irresistible, indicating that
some particular biological “meaning” is at play.
The traditional, seemingly-obvious Darwinian biological explanation
for the experience of falling in love (as defined in this chapter) lies in its
support of evolutionary natural selection of reproductive fitness. As Fisher
et al. proposed, “romantic love is a …survival mechanism to encourage
human pair-bonding and reproduction, seen cross-culturally today in Homo
sapiens….Its [evolutionary] purpose may have been to motivate our
forebears to focus their mating time and energy on a single partner at a time,
thus initiating the formation of a pair-bond to rear their young together as a
team. Thus, as products of human evolution, the neural systems for romantic
love and mate attachment could be considered as survival systems among
humans.”12
Reproduction and successful child-rearing—the obligate markers of
human evolution—require a coupling of humans with subsequent sexual
congress and long-term attachment. So, would go the proposal, the magnetic
attraction of one person to another via romantic love serves as the initial
catalyst which eventuates in these other critical forms of love necessary for
propagation of the species. It is difficult to argue persuasively against this
idea. Still, a number of thoughts provide some hesitancy—or even a
soupcon of skepticism. That euphoric high experienced in the sudden rush
10 1. Love
of romantic love has not, by itself, been considered to driven by a desire for
sexual relations. Typically, such romantic love is short-lived, and it would
be expected that the frequency of a transition to a more mature, committed
spousal form of love is not high. That is, romantic break-ups must well
outnumber—by multi-fold—those that proceed to marriage. Consider: an
experience of romantic love is characterized by emotional instability,
irrational obsessions, anxiety, towering feelings, anorexia with weight loss,
and insecurity, as well as a suspension of a rational awareness of the
qualities of the love object. Hardly, it could be argued, does this sound like
a mental state that should serve as a valid basis for coupling in order to
maintain the species.
Are there other possible means of providing a biological “meaning” to
falling in love? Here’s one idea: in the end, despite obsession with another
person, falling in love could be considered as a egocentric, self-centered act.
That is, the ultimate desire is that this magnetic attraction be reciprocated,
that the loved object will respond with love and undying affection as well.
In this way, falling in love might be considered as an ego-supportive, self-
affirming search to bolster a sense of self-worth. In this sense, the insecure
individual with a poor self-image, full of self-doubts, might be particularly
vulnerable to falling in love, as displayed by a pattern of repeated attempts
at romantic liaisons.
Perhaps a more central question would seek the biological meaning of
the dopamine-based pleasure-reward system in the brain itself. In animals,
to secure pairing and reproductive success for propagation of the species,
yes. But why should the same system trigger obsessive wheel-running by
caged rodents for hours at end? The concept that similar reproductive
outcomes in human beings via marriage are proffered by this system seems
logical. But one immediately runs head on into the fact that the same reward
system is responsible for the life-destructive, tragic scenario of drug
addiction. Within this spectrum of effects, one’s morning coffee habit, not
usually fatal, is driven by the brain’s pleasure-reward system as a mildly-
addictive, pleasurable, but not a convincing Darwinian exercise. The same
could be said for other “obsessive habits” driven by dopamine—gambling,
eating, shopping, promiscuous sex, and the like. Where would these fit into
a drive for reproductive survival of the fittest? It is evident that the dopamine
reward system plays out in both positive adaptive and negative outcomes.
In essence, then, the biological meaning behind a coup de foudre may
not be as straightforward as it would seem. Certainly, there is much to be
learned.
The Biology of Human Behavior: A Brief Inquiry 11
Breaking Up is Hard to Do
The euphoria and “soaring feelings” of falling in love come with a price.
No one who has experienced the spirit-crushing anguish of rejection of
unrequited love or break up of a love relationship needs (nor desires) to be
reminded. What goes up must come down. Breaking up with a love partner
is not only simply hard to do; it is, for all, at least painful and for some,
emotionally destructive and even dangerous. Of course, most romantic
breakups are survived with eventual resolution over time of the incurred
emotional wounds. For some, however, the insult to self-esteem leaves
chronic scars of depression and other mental disorders. The frequency of
incapacitating, extended emotional distress following a romantic breakup is
not known. Anecdotal reports would suggest, however, that the magnitude
of such outcomes is grossly underestimated and has been overlooked as a
significant mental health issue.
Unfortunately, in some cases the mental disturbance accompanying
unrequited love or break down of a romantic relationship can eventuate in
homicide, stalking, or suicide. Such tragic outcomes are the stuff of legend,
but also, sadly, of the everyday.18 Romantic breakup is commonly assumed
to be responsible for suicidal behaviors, but statistical confirmation of this
relationship is hard to come by. In one study of 142 successful suicides
among youth 10-17 years in the state of Utah between the years of 2011 and
2015, 37 (26%) were said to be related to “intimate partner problems” or
“dating partner problems.”19
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, in a given year
around 10% of murders in the United States are committed by the lover of
the victim.20 Excessive jealousy in a romantic relationship may serve as a
source of such tragedies, even before a romantic relationship is severed.21
Many of these, too, are sad outcomes of stalking, in which a jilted lover
obsessively haunts a former romantic partner. Such situations are not rare,
estimated to have affected 8-15% of women and 2-14% of men. As
Marazitti et al. have remarked, “the deactivation of cognitive processes that
take place when we fall in love (even though this is a short lived process!),
may imply a sort of stalker blindness to understand the risks involved and
the consequences of his/her behavior, and the misconception that he/she
might be able to change the victim’s feeling via the persistence, harassment,
and constraints.”22
12 1. Love
Notes
1. Frank Zappa would not be pleased with this author’s employment of lyrics
of popular music in discussing romantic love. Zappa felt that such songs of
love’s joy and lament to vulnerable youth were sadly disillusionary. As the
iconoclastic musician expressed in The Real Frank Zappa Book (Poseidon
Press, 1989), “I detest love lyrics. I think one of the causes of bad mental
health in the United States is that people have been raised on ‘love
lyrics’…It’s a subconscious training that creates a desire for an imaginary
14 1. Love
situation which will never exist for you. People who buy into that mythology
go through life feeling that they got cheated out of something.”
That said, it must be admitted that popular music has remarkably-well
documented the highs and lows, the ecstasy and the anguish, the futility and
inescapability of romantic love. Indeed, a connoisseur of popular music
lyrics—particularly of songs written during the early rock ‘n roll era—would
be well-acquainted with the majority of concepts presented in this chapter.
(It would seem that more recently popular music has largely moved on to
more mundane themes—learning to fly, consuming margaritas, shooting
sheriffs, and the like.)
2. This quote is from Fisher HE, Xu X, Aron A, Brown LL. Intense, passionate,
romantic love: a natural addiction? How the fields that investigate romance
and substance abuse can inform each other. Front Psychol. 2016;7:687.
Helen Fisher, from the Kinsey Institute at Indiana University, is also author
of a comprehensive book entitled Why We Love (New York: Owl Books,
2004) which provides an excellent overview of this field.
3. Many colorful expressions have described the exhilarating experience of
falling in love. Andrew Christy and his colleagues at Texas A&M University
noted that many of these involved the idea of physical force—such as love
“sweeps us off our feet, causes sparks to fly, and ignites flames of passion.”
Of course, too, the entire coup de foudre is based on attraction of one body
to another. According to what is known as conceptual metaphor theory,
“activating the concrete concept in a metaphor should alter perceptions and
judgements related to the linked abstract concept.” (Translation:) These
researchers performed a study (PLoS ONE 2016; 11:e0155943) in which 80
female college students (78% who were currently in a romantic relationship)
held blocks together for one minute which were either magnetized to attract
or not-attract each other, followed by a questionnaire seeking subjects’
interpretation of their romantic relationship (past or present). They found
that, overall, subjects who held the attracted magnetic blocks reported higher
levels of satisfaction, attraction, intimacy, and commitment with their
romantic partner. One possible explanation for this result, suggested Christy
et al., was that “exposure to magnetism may actually have changed
participants’ experience of romantic attraction in certain ways that led them
to report greater satisfaction” in their love relationships.
4. Choukas-Bradley et al. (J Adolesc. 2015;45:112-26) compiled questionnaire
data from 18,392 American adolescents ages 12-19 years which asked for
their expected desires in a hypothetical romantic relationship. The most
common behavioral temporal sequence was “holding hands, going out alone,
telling others they were a couple, kissing, saying ‘I love you,’ sexual
touching, and finally having sex.” Several other authors have emphasized
that individuals having fallen in passionate love are, at least initially,
obsessed with an emotional union rather than sexual intercourse. That is, the
romantic love being detailed in this chapter would—at least initially—
appear to not overtly driven by concupiscent goals.
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EYE FOR FISH- SPRING REPAIR HOLDS BUGGY
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BOX HOLE
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These Eight Examples of How an Ordinary Safety Pin can be Used for
Practical Purposes Are Suggestive of Many Others
It is surprising to note how many uses can be made of an ordinary
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Moving Heavy Objects with a Broom
The Broom Is Slippery and Rides over the Floor or Even Carpets without
Trouble
The finished billfold is shown with the cardcase side up; folded,
and with the bill compartment open, in Fig. 2. Begin the making of it
by cutting a pattern of stiff cardboard for the main portion, or body
part No. 1, as shown in Fig. 1.
Make a second pattern for body part No. 2, as shown in Fig. 1.
Trim the leather to fit the patterns, a straight edge of metal being
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cutting the leather.
Cut pieces of lining slightly larger than the patterns. If skiver is
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stretch the lining, but merely smooth it gently, as otherwise it may
cause the leather to buckle. Place the glued parts under a light
weight to dry. In fitting the silk lining into place, apply a thin stripe of
glue around the edges only, and permit them to extend beyond the
leather. Then trim them off neatly.
Part No. 1 is to be folded to form the back of the billfold and also
the two pockets for cards. The parts are glued as shown in Fig. 3.
Weight the billfold and permit the glue to dry. The sewing may then
be undertaken.
Fig. 2. The Photographs Show the Cardcase Side, the Folded Billfold, and
the Silk-Lined Money Compartment
Fig. 3. Glue the Parts Together Carefully along the Edges, and Fold the
Ends as Indicated
The neatness of the billfold will depend largely on the care with
which the sewing is done, and the finish on the edges. Draw a
straight line with a blunt-point tool along the edges to be sewed, ³⁄₁₆
in. from them. Mark the spacing for an inch of the stitches on a strip
of paper and transfer them to the stitching line. Punch the holes,
making certain that each is made with the awl held vertical, as
shown at D. Back the open ends with strips of cardboard when
punching holes in them. Heavy, waxed silk of a color to match the
leather is used for the sewing. The work may be done by hand
without a holder, clamped between two boards. Thread the two
needles and start them from the right side, as at E. Pass the needle
from the first hole through the second as at F. With the needles then
in position, as at G, continue this stitch. Tie the ends of the thread
neatly at the end of the stitching. Trim the edges and tool them to a
smooth finish with a suitable metal tool, or rod, heated moderately,
applying water with the finger tip.
¶The taper of a key is generally ¹⁄₈ in. per foot of length, and keys
having a head are preferable because of greater ease in removing
them. The width of a key is usually ¹⁄₄ the diameter of the shaft, plus
¹⁄₈ inch.
Lawn Mower Sharpened Efficiently with Simple
Rigging
With this device, one can quickly sharpen the lawn mower, or
perhaps earn money sharpening the neighbors’ machines. Because
several knives in a lawn mower work against the cutting blade, it is
difficult to sharpen a mower satisfactorily with a file or stone. A usual
method is to reverse the cutting-wheel cogs, turn the mower upside
down, and run it backward over the ground. By the use of grinding
paste on the cutting blade the cutting wheel tends to sharpen itself.
This process can be improved by supporting the mower, as shown at
A, the blocks permitting the mower’s driving wheels to rest outside
them. A block, B, supports the wooden roller. Remove the driving
wheels, and the gears which turn the cutting wheel. Take the gear
from one end and put it in the other end, replacing the driving wheel.
By revolving the latter backward, the cutting wheel will also turn
backward. Apply a paste of emery powder and lubricating oil to the
cutting blade, and adjust the blade so that it comes fairly into contact
with the cutting wheel. Turn the driving wheel backward, and
gradually tighten the adjustment until a good edge on the cutting
blade and the knives is produced.
A handle fixed on the driving wheel, as shown at C, makes turning
it easier. After sharpening, replace the gears, clean the bearings
thoroughly, and replace the driving wheels.—Ed. M. Hawes, Everett,
Wash.
Rubber Pads for Opening Screw Watch Bezel
The modern screw case for watches is primarily for the purpose of
keeping dust from getting into the delicate works. Unless one is
possessed of a strong grip, it is hard not only to set the case tight
enough to keep out dust, but also to open the watch when
adjustment is necessary. To make this work easy, a jeweler has, as a
part of his tool kit, several rubber dies to fit the different sizes of
watch cases. He made them from old rubber heels, cut to fit the
watch cases closely. Danger of breaking the crystal is also
overcome.—C. E. Drayer, Cleveland, Ohio.
Spring Roost Releases Poultry-House Door Latch
The Door is Opened Automatically When the Fowl Leave Their Roost