Lezione 1
Lezione 1
Lezione 1
241. Present Progressive and Simple Present: use, functions and examples
Present progressive (or continuous) (form of be +-ing form of verb): describes an action that is happening right now
or in the extended present time. Nicole is visiting her friend now.
To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact moment: We
are planning a trip to cuba.
Simple present (base form of verb+s): To describe a scientific fact. Whales live in the ocean
For repeated or regular actions. She visits them every day.
For habits: She only drinks water.
For things that are generally true in the present time period: She is my schoolmate
We use Simple Present for things that are permanent and Present Progressive for things that may change or are
temporary.
242. Simple Past: use, functions and examples
Describes finished actions, states or situation. It can be used with time expressions that refer to the past.
Finished events in the past with no connection to the present. Leonardo painted the Mona Lisa.
With a finished time word (yesterday, last week, in 2003). I went to the cinema yesterday.
For stories, list of events. He went to a cafè, sat down and lit a cigarette.
243. Past Progressive and Simple Past: use, functions and examples
Past Progressive describes an action or situation that was in progress at a specific time in the past. We use Simple
Past to talk about a completed action. They ran past me and jumped into a car.
When Simple past and Past Progressive (Past Continuous) appear together in a sentence, the S. P. describes the action
that interrupes the action in progress.
Past Progressive: form of be+ing form of verb People were shouting and screaming.
244. The uses of past continuous tense.
To talk about something that started before a certain time in the past and was still in progress at that time: At 10.30 I
was walking along King Street. I was going to the post office.
To describe a situation, to give the background to a scene that happened in the past. What were they wearing? They
were wearing jeans
Past Continuous can show that an activity was in progress for some time, not just for a moment: We were cleaning the
house all morning.
We don’t use P.P. with verbs not normally used in the continuous form (know, want etc)
We don’t use P.P. to talk about a repeated past in the past.
I was working
I wasn’t working
Was I working?
249. The uses of present continuous tense.
Present tense of the verb BE + -ing form of a verb.
When someone is doing something at this moment: Lucy is changing her shoes right now.
When something is happening at this moment: It is raining at the moment.
To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact
moment: We are planning a trip to Cuba.
It is used to describe dynamic actions that happen repeatedly, are currently happening or will be happening in the
near future.
250. The uses of simple present tense.
For facts: Whales live in the ocean.
For repetead or regular actions: We work every day of the week.
For habits: She only drinks water
For things that are generally true in the present time period: She is my schoolmate.
251. The imperative
Is used to tell or ask someone to do something. Is used often in directions, instructions, orders, commands,
suggestions, warnings, requests and formal invitations. We use the base form of the verb, for affirmative imperative:
Enjoy your lunch.
Don’t+base form of the verb, for negative imperative: Don’t be shy.
51. Simple present and present continuous to express future actions. Discuss
We use the present simple to talk about future actions when we are discussing at timetable or a fixed plan.
For example: School starts at nine tomorrow.
What time does the movie start?
The bus doesn’t arrive at eight. It arrives at seven
We also use the present simple to talk about the future after words like when ,until ,after ,before and as soon as.
These are sometimes called subordinate clauses of time.
For example: I will phone you when I have time.
I won’t go out until it stops snowing.
I'm going to make a cake after I watch the news.
Present continuous is used for definite future arrangements (with a future time word). In this case we have already
made a plan: For example:
I’m meeting my husband tomorrow.
We are going to the restaurant at the weekend.
I'm leaving at 1.
52. Wh- Questions: Subject and Object
• words (who, what, where, when, why, which, whose, how, how many, how much and how long).
•They are used to ask specific information.
•Wh- questions that ask about the subject need statement word order.
•Wh-questions that ask about the object need yes/no question word order.
Subject questions: wh-word + verb + subject (who saw you?)
Object questions: wh-word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb. (who did you see?)
53. Permission: Can, Could, May, Do you mind if...?
The use of Modals when you need to ask, give, or refuse permission.
They are Can and Could (which are less formal), May (which is more formal), and other expressions, such as Do You
Mind If.
We use modal verbs to express that something is certain or uncertain, probable or improbable, possible or impossible.
In addition, we use modals to do talk about ability, to ask for permission, to make requests and offers, to express
necessity or prohibition.
Modals are defective verbs. Therefore, they are followed by the base form of the verb (infinitive without “to”) in
affirmative sentences. In questions, the modal comes at the beginning of the sentence. For example: May I go to the
toilet, please?
As for the modals analyzed in this lesson, you use them to express permission (to ask permission, to give and refuse
it). In particular, you use:
1. the modals can, could, and may, in questions to ask permission.
2. May is more formal.
Can is less formal than could, and could is less formal than may.
Keep in mind that, the word please makes permission requests more polite. Please may be placed just before the main
verb, or at the end of a question.
There are also informal expressions, which you can use, such as sure, certainly, and go ahead: they are often used to
give permission. When you refuse permission, you usually apologize and give an explanation.
Do you mind if, is also used to ask permission. For example: Do you mind, if I turn up the TV?
How do you ask permission with do you mind?
You use “do you mind” + if + subject + simple present tense.
The affirmative short answer is “Yes, I do”. The negative short answer is “No, I don’t”.
Could cannot be used in short answers. Can is used instead.
Remember that could, does not have a past meaning in questions asking permission. Can I use this book? = Could I use
this book?
54. Ability: Can, Could, Be Able to: uses, functions and examples
•Can and can't express present ability. They also express future ability when talking about plans or arrangements.
•Could expresses past ability. Could can't be used for single past events was/were able to should be used instead.
•Different forms of be able to express present, future, and past ability.
We use modal verbs to express that something is certain or uncertain, probable or improbable, possible or
impossible. In addition, we use modals to do talk about ability, to ask for permission, to make requests and
offers, to express necessity or prohibition.
Modals are defective verbs: it means that they are different from ordinary verbs. In fact,
a. They don't add the ”s” for the third person singular in the present tense.
Example: he cans play the guitar, is not correct.
He can plays the guitar, is not correct either.
b. They are auxiliaries, so you make questions by inversion:
Example: Jane can swim, becomes: Can Jane swim?
c. They are followed by the base form of the verb.
Example: we must to call Jack, is not correct.
d. They do not have the infinitive form or the –ing form, so, in order to form other tenses, such as the past
simple or the future perfect, you need to use the so called modal-like forms, such as to be able to, to
express ability and substitute can and could; to be to or to have got to, to express necessity and substitute
must; to be likely, to express future probability and substitute may and might.
Example: She had to run home, because of an emergency.
To express ability you use:
1. Can or can’t, to express present ability, and also future ability, when you talk about plans or
arrangements. You mustn’t use can to talk about the things you learn; use be able to.
For example, do not say: When I finish this English course, I can speak English fluently. Say: When I finish
this English course, I will be able to speak English fluently.
2. Could or couldn’t, to express past ability. In the case of a single past event, you cannot use “couldn’t”.
You should use “was or were able to”.
3. Be able to, when you need to express present, future, and past abilities. It can also be a gerund or an
infinitive. However, remember that can is used much more commonly in everyday language, when you
need to talk about present abilities.
55. Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and a particle (adverb and/or preposition) which often changes the meaning
of the verb.
Many phrasal verbs have the same meaning as one-word verbs. Phrasal verbs are informal and more
commonly used in every day speech.
There are two types of phrasal verbs. Separable phrasal verbs can be broken up by other words.
Inseparable phrasal verbs cannot be separated by other words.
Phrasal verbs can be transitive or intransitive. Many transitive phrasal verbs are separable.
TRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS
He also picked up an interest in plants.
...sick animals often pick out certain plants to eat.
INTRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS
Rodriguez grew up in Texas.
...he went on to college
Not all transitive phrasal verbs are separable.
Intransitive phrasal verbs are inseparable.
Keep in mind that a few transitive phrasal verbs must be separated. Here is a short list:
1. ask someone over, which means to invite someone to one's home;
2. bring someone down, which means to depress, cause to lower;
3. do something over, which means to redo, do again;
4. get something out of something, which means to benefit from;
5. keep something on, which means not to take something off;
6. see something through, which means to finish something;
7. start something over, which means to begin again;
8. talk someone into, which means to persuade;
9. turn someone or something into, which means to change from one form to another.
56. Used to: use, functions and examples
Used to: describes a past action or situation that no longer exists in the present.
It is often used in sentences that contrast the past and the present. Time expressions such as now, no longer, and anymore are
often used to emphasize the contrast.
Used to, to describe regular actions in the past
1. We use used to, to talk about a habit or regular activity in the past that doesn't happen now. Used to, emphasizes that the
activity was repeated many times.
Examples:
He used to collect soccer balls.
His dog used to find a lot of mushrooms.
Remember: If we describe a number of regular activities in the past, it isn't necessary to repeat used to
each time. We can use the past simple instead.
Example:
Jane took them home and put them in boxes.
2. We can also use would + infinitive without to, to talk about past habits. When we use would, we usually
say when or how often the action happened.
Example:
He used to walk with his dog on the local tennis course.
OR, He would walk with his dog every day on the local tennis course.
Remember: would is generally more formal and less common.
Used to, to describe situations in the past
1. We also use used to, to talk about situations in the past which don't exist now.
Example:
Jane used to be quite a good player.
The forms of used to Affirmative: used to, + infinitive
Negative: didn't use to, + infinitive
Questions: did + subject + use to, + infinitive
3. We use the negative form “never used to” for emphasis.
57. Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns: use,< functions and examples
Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, etc.) are used when the subject and object of a sentence refer to the
same people or things.
Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another) are used when the subject and the object of a sentence
refer to the same people, and these have a two-way relationship.
Reflexive pronouns canal so be used to emphasize a person or thing.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
We explain a problem to ourselves. Tom saw himself as helpless.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Why were their reactions so different from one another?
They talked to each other.
Be careful: Reciprocal pronouns are used with plural subject pronouns (we, you, they) because they
indicate a reciprocal relationship between two or more people
The main use of reflexive pronouns: We use a reflexive pronoun (myself, himself, etc.) when the subject
and the object of the verb are the same person. The action is directed back to the person who does it.
The reflexive pronouns are:
Singular
I myself
You yourself
He himself
She herself
It itself
Plural
We ourselves
You yourselves
They themselves
Note that when there is more than one person, the ending of the reflexive pronoun changes from -self to -
selves:
Yourself, one person (singular)
yourselves, two or more people (plural)
A few verbs in English are often used with a reflexive pronoun. The most common are:
to amuse yourself
to behave yourself
to blame yourself
to burn yourself
to control yourself
to cut yourself
to dry yourself
to enjoy yourself
to help yourself
to hurt yourself
to hill yourself
to look after yourself
to make yourself something
to keep yourself busy, warm, etc
We sometimes use a reflexive pronoun after an adjective + preposition:
to be angry with yourself
to be ashamed of yourself
to be pleased with yourself
to be proud of yourself
to be responsible for yourself
to be sorry for yourself
60. Types of future: uses, functions and examples
Be going to, will and the present continuous express future intentions or plans. The simple present
expresses scheduled future events.
1. Will, won’t, shall, and shan’t for simple predictions
We use will, or won’t, when we make simple predictions about future actions or situations.
Example: The hotels in Rome will be cheaper in November
The weather in Rome won’t be good in November.
After I and we, we can use will or shall in affirmative sentences. But we normally use the short forms
(I’ll, we’ll). In negative sentences, after I, and we, we can use won’t, and shan’t. Won't is more common.
We often use l (don’t) think, I (don't) expect, I'm sure, I'm afraid and probably, definitely, perhaps, etc.
with will, and won't.
2. Shall I, Shall we? for offers and suggestions
In questions, we use Shall I, Shall we (and not will) when we make suggestions or offers, and when we
ask for suggestions.
3. Will for intentions (sudden decisions and requests)
We use will, won't when we talk about something we decide to do or not to do at the moment of
speaking.
We use will to make a request
We use won't when we refuse to do something.
Going to or will?
1. Decisions about the future
We use be going to + infinitive (and not will) to talk about future actions we've already meditated upon.
In contrast, we generally use will (and not going to) when we decide to do something at the moment of
speaking.
2. Predicting future events: will or going to?
We normally use will, and won't, for simple predictions; but we use going to (and not will) for predictions about the future
when there's present evidence of a future event.
Example: It's going to drizzle. (The weather forecast says this).
The present continuous and the present simple with future meaning
1. The present continuous for arrangements for the future
We use the present continuous to talk about things that we've already arranged to do in the future. We don't use the
present simple here.
Be careful: be going to, suggests an intention more than an arrangement.
2. The present simple for arrangements and timetables
We often use the present simple when we talk about a programme of future events, or a timetable. The time is often
given.
Example: The train leaves at 9 p.m.
51. Advice: Should, Ought to, Had better: use, functions and examples
• Advice: Should
Should he use capital letters?
You shouldn't forget that people have feelings.
When should we post to the bulletin board?
How do you give advice with should? The structure is: should+ base form of verb.
Should does not change when the pronoun changes. It is the same for all pronouns because it is a modal.
How do you form the negative of should? The structure is: shouldn't OR should + not + base form of verb
How do you form yes OR no questions?: should+ subject + base form of verb
How do you form wh- questions? wh- word + should + subject +base form of verb
• Advice: Ought to
You ought to lurk a little first.
How do you give advice with ought to? ought to + base form of verb
Remember that ought to does not change when the pronoun changes. It is the same for all pronouns
because it is a modal.
Note that negative statements and questions with ought to are not common.
• Advice: Had better
You'd better use a screen name.
You'd better not reply right away.
Note that the d in you'd, stands for had.
How do you give advice with had better? had better + base form of verb
How do you form the negative of had better? had better + not + base form of verb
Just like Should and Ought to, had better does not change when the pronoun changes. Had better is not a
modal but it behaves like a modal.
Keep in mind that had better, is often contracted in everyday speech, and that questions with had better
are not common.
Although ought not to is not common in American English, it is used in British English.
Keep in mind that when we give advice, we often use maybe, perhaps, or I think, in order to sound gentler.
Moreover, remember that had better is used when you believe something bad will happen, if the person
does not follow the advice. The undesired consequence is often said, and it is introduced by or. For
example: You'd better keep your post short, or no one will read it.
Note that the negative form of had better is had better not.
52. Present Perfect: Indefinite Past
When the present perfect expresses that something happened at an indefinite time in the past, it means that the time
is not important. What matters is the action. When the time is important, the simple past should be used. For
example:
I have never visited the USA, but I visited France last year.
They've been to Rome.
Look at the example: What tense is this? It is present perfect
Is the action past, present, or future? It is a past action.
Do we know exactly when the action happened? No, we don’t.
• Now look at the following examples:
He hasn't been to Egypt.
He's never ridden a camel.
What tense do we use for something that did not happen at an indefinite time in the past?
We use the present perfect. What two ways are there to express this?
Have or has + not + present perfect OR
Have or has + never + present perfect
• Now look at the following examples:
She has just gotten back from a trip. She has recently made a trip.
She has made a trip recently. She has made several trips lately.
What adverbs can be used with the present perfect? just, recently, lately
What do the adverbs just, recently, and lately express?
They express that the action happened in the recent past.
Do we know exactly when the action happened? No, we don’t.
Now look at the examples again, and find:
• an adverb, that goes between, a form of have and the past participle, OR at the end of the sentence (the correct
answer is: recently)
• an adverb, that goes between a form of have and the past participle (the correct answer is: just)
• an adverb, that goes at the end of the sentence (the correct answer is: lately)
53. Requests: Can, Could, Will, Would, Would you mind...?: use, functions and examples
We use the modals can, could, will, would to make a request: can I open the door? (could/would for soften
request/polite). Please makes the request more polite. In affirmative answers to request, we usually use
expressions such as sure, certainly, of course, no problem. In negative answers, we usually apologize and
give an explanation. We also use would you mind+gerund to make polite request ((Would you mind
delivering it to me?). It means that you will do what the person asked you to do, because it means that you
don't mind doing it.)
54. Permission: Can, Could, May, Do you mind if...?: uses, functions and examples
We use the modals can, could, May, do you mind to ask permission: Can I open the window?
We use can or may in answer, but not could.
When we refuse permission, we usually apologize and give an explanation.
We use do you mind if to ask permission when our action may annoy or inconvenience someone: Do you
mind if I smoke?
55. Present Perfect: use and examples
Form of the present perfect with: have+past participle
We use the present perfect to talk about things that happened at an indefinite time in the past: They’ve
travelled to Germany
We can use the present perfect when we don’t know something happened or when the specific time is not
important.
We use the present perfect with adverbs like twice or often to talk about repeated actions at some
indefinite time in the past (twice, many times usually go at the end of the sentence/ always/often/never
usually go before the past participle)
Ever can be used with the present perfect to ask questions (never to answer negatively)
Just, lately, recently with the present perfect emphasize that something happened in the very recent past.
59. Suggestions: Let's, Could, Why don't...? Why not...? How about...?
1. Let’s, Could, Why don’t, and Why not, are followed by the base form of the verb;
2. How about, is followed by a noun, or gerund;
3. To agree with a suggestion, you can use several expressions (Good idea, OK, Great, Sure, I’d like that).
4. To disagree, you usually give an explanation, and make another suggestion.
1. Let's travel.
2. Maybe we could spend the night here.
3. Why don't we stay at a youth hostel?
4. Why doesn’t she come with us?
5. Why not stay in a city?
6. How about staying near the harbor?
7. How about a room on the af Chapman?
81. Present Perfect Progressive and Present Perfect: use, functions and examples
Present Perfect Progressive: Elephants have been living on this planet for years.
The elephant population has been dropping again.
How do you form the present perfect progressive? Have or has + been + present participle
How do you form the negative present perfect progressive? Have or has + not + been + present participle
How do you form yes or no questions? Have or has + subject + been + present participle Has the elephant
population been dropping again?
Present Perfect They have lived in many places
It has dropped to very low levels.
How do you form the present perfect? Have or has + past participle
Keep in mind that, for the present perfect to describe an unfinished action, it must be used with for or since
• To summarize:
Present perfect progressive: how long + unfinished action
Present perfect: how much, how many things, or how many times + finished action.
She has been working in Africa for a year. = She has worked in Africa for a year
Point out that with verbs such as live, study, teach, and work, plus since or for, the present perfect
progressive and the present perfect, have the same meaning.
Note that the present perfect progressive, can show that something is temporary, and that the present
perfect, can show that something is permanent.
82. Comparative and superlative adjectives
We use comparative forms of adjectives:
• to compare two things with than. Bears are bigger than dogs.
• to compare two things without than. Which are bigger, bears or dogs? Bears are bigger.
• to compare two things with than, repeating be, or the auxiliary from the verb. Mike is younger than you
are.
Laura looks thinner than I do.
• with a than-clause. This dress is more expensive than I thought.
NOTE! Don’t forgert the pelling rules to form comparisons and superlatives correctly:
one-syllable words add –er: short – shorter
one-syllable words ending vowel + consonant, double the consonant: fat – fatter
words ending in -y change -y to -i and add -er two-syllable words ending -y change -y to -i and add -er
saucy – saucier merry – marrier lucky -luckier
some two-syllable adjectives use -er or more. Use more if you are in doubt. more common / commoner
more narrow / narrower more pleasant / pleasanter
more polite / politer
more simple / simpler
most two- and three- syllable words put more in front more ancient
more interesting
more difficult
irregular adjectives good - better
bad - worse
far - farther or further
We make comparisons with: • a comparative form + than. A diamond is more shining than a sapphire.
• less + adjective + than, not as + adjective + as A sapphire is less shining than a diamond.
A sapphire is not as shining as a diamond.
• (just) as + adjective + as when two things compare equally. I don’t mind which one is more shining. I’m
(just) as fond of them both.
•comparative adjective + comparative adjective We use two comparative adjectives joined by and for a
changing situation: Having fun gets harder and harder as people grow older.
•We use the + comparative, the + comparative for the same meaning: The older people get, the harder
having fun is.
Intensifiers We use intensifiers much, a lot, etc:
• to say how great the comparison is This soup is a lot better than yesterday
This book is much more interesting
superlatives and comparatives
How to form superlatives - the spelling rules are the same as for comparatives, but we add –est: short - the
shortest
fast - the fastest
sad - the saddest
- we form the superlative of longer adjectives by putting most or least in front: the most ancient castle in
the city
the least common animal of the species
Irregular forms good - the best
bad - the worst
We use the superlative forms of adjectives:
• to compare one thing with a lot of other things of the same kind. We put the superlative adjective
between the and (noun). Most experts say that Shakespeare is the best playwriter of the world.
The longest road in Italy is 500 km long.
• with ever and present perfect to talk about experiences. This is the best dish I've ever eaten.
83. Gerunds: Subject and Object
A gerund (base form + -ing) can be the subject of a sentence and is always singular;
• It can also be the object of certain verbs such as admit, avoid, consider, and deny;
• Go + gerund is often used to describe activities
The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb). It can be
used as the subject of the sentence: Hunting animals is dangerous.
Driving makes me nervous.
It can also be used as the complement of the verb to be: One of my duties as a secretary is
writing letters.
One of life’s pleasures is smiling.
Gerund as Subject: Gerund (Subject) Verb: Smoking causes lung problems
Gerund as Object: Subject Verb Gerund (Object): Mary should quit eating junk food.
84. Adverbs: As...as, Comparatives, Superlatives
As+adverb+as is used to compare actions and show how they are similar.
They’ve scored almost as frequently as the Lakers in the first half.
Non as+adverb+as is used to compare actions and show how they are not the same or equal;
Similarly, comparative adverbs+than show how the actions of two people or things are different;
They’ve been blocking Miles more effectively than any other team this season
How to form comparative adverbs
- adverbs ending -ly use more slowly- more slowly
- adverbs with the same forms as adjectives without -ly add -er : fast - faster
hard – harder
Irregular forms: well- better
We use comparative adverbs: • to compare two actions. Alfred studies harder than his brothers.
• without than. Who studies harder, Alfred or his brothers? Alfred studies harder.
• with than, repeating the auxiliary from the verb. I study harder than you do.
Superlative adverbs are used to compare one action with the actions of the other people or things in a
group;
I think they cheer the loudest of any fans in the games!
How to form superlative adverbs - adverbs ending -ly use the most / least slowly - the most slowly: Jim runs
the most slowly of anyone I know
We use superlative adverbs • to compare one action with a lot of other actions of the same kind, using of.
Everyone studied hard, but you study (the) hardest.
Comparative adverbs+and+comparative adverb shows how something is increasing or decreasing;
The+comparative adverb+the+comparative adverb shows cause and effect.
85.Adjectives: Superlatives
Superlative adjectives are used to compare one person, place, or thing with other people, places, or things
in a group.
Superlative adjectives are often used with words or expressions such as in and of, one of and some of; second, third, etc., and ever
plus the present perfect (one of the tallest wavers in the world, the second tallest tower in the in the word).
We use adjectives to describe or give more information about nouns, they usually go before the nouns, or
they can go after a non-action verb such as be, look, seem, appear, smell, taste.
We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons (we need a bigger car)
We use than when we want to compare one thing with another (John is taller than me)
When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives with and (My dog is
looking older and older)
We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on another (The faster you
drive, the more dangerous it is)
Adjective: comparison with as…as To compare people/place/thing that are similar
(NOT)AS+ADJECTIVE+AS+COMPARISON
Adjective: comparison with Than to show people/place/things that are different: Short adjective:
ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN+COMPARISON – Long adjective: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN+COMPARISON
Irregular forms: good/better bad/worse
We use superlatives adjective to compare one person/place/thing with other person/place/thing
Form: Short adjective: The+adjective+est – Long adjective: The Most + Advective
Irregular forms: Good/the best bad/the worst
88. Articles: Definite and Indefinite
We use Definite Article(“The”)with common nouns that are Definite.
We use Indefinite Article(“A”or“An”)with singular count nouns which are Indefinite.
You use a before a vowel sound and an before a consonant sound. We use “a”/”an” for singular count
nouns. The definite article “the” is used with most nouns. Remeber that indefinite plural count nouns, or
indefinite non-count nouns, can be used with some or no article at all.
Note that “a”, comes before a noun starting with a consonant sound. “An”, on the contrary, comes before a
noun starting with a vowel sound. It is the sound, not the letter, that determines this difference:
a horse--- an honest man
a union--- an umbrella
a European writer ---an excellent book
a house ---an hour.
437. You are going to read an article about counterfeit goods. Five sentences have been removed from the
article. Choose from the sentences (A-F) the one which fits each gap (1-5). There is one extra sentence
which you do not need to use.
SAVE MONEY WITHOUT BREAKING THE LAW
Fake brand-name goods have been popular for many years. Most people who buy them know that what
they are buying isn't really made by the company whose name is on the label. (1) They don't mind, as long
as they feel they have got a bargain. Although the quality can't be guaranteed, they can, at least for a short
while, pretend to themselves and their friends that they are wearing the same clothes, watches, perfume
and jewellery as the celebrities they admire.
Now, however, the problem is growing. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
estimates that the value of counterfeit goods crossing international borders is over $250 billion a year. (2)
(E) When you include the value of products which are sold in the country they are produced in, this amount
more than doubles. This reduces tax revenues for national governments and makes it more difficult for
them to finance schools, hospitals and other essential services.
However, the problems are not only financial. The Internet has seen potentially harmful fake products
being offered for sale. The most dangerous of all are fake medicines. (3) (A) Some people purchase cheaper
options deliberately, knowing they aren't genuine but hoping they won't do any harm.
Others, who would never deliberately buy any drugs not regulated by the government, are fooled by
authentic-looking websites. Whatever the reason, the purchase can be deadly. Large numbers of children
have been killed by fake drugs and baby products in countries such as China, Panama and Nigeria
in recent years. Almost certainly individuals have suffered in the same way in many other places.
It is easy to avoid fake products. (4) A Some people purchase cheaper options deliberately, knowing they
aren't genuine but hoping they won't do any harm. By careful searching, you can find which of these stores
is selling the products you want for the lowest prices.
You can save even more money, though, by searching for cheap, but legal alternative products. A quick search shows
that a Rolex Explorer II watch can cost from about $3,000 to over $5,000 depending on the model you prefer. A fake
Rolex is cheaper but it may not work or it may not even arrive. However, an original Steinhart Ocean II can be yours
for under £500 and it is reasonably similar to a Rolex. It doesn't have the more famous name on it and people may not
be as impressed by it as by a fake Rolex. (5) (B) However, unlike an illegal fake, you have got an item of superb quality
and you won't have broken the law by buying it. You will also have a receipt in case anything goes wrong.
We all like a bargain and some products are extremely expensive but buying counterfeit goods is not the best way to
find one.
C The problem with these products is that they look so similar to the real thing that police officers and customs
officials are unable to distinguish between them.
473. Preferences: Prefer, Would prefer, Would rather
prefer, would prefer, and would rather to talk about things or activities that you like better than other things or
activities:
• Prefer is often used to express a general preference;
• Would prefer and would rather are used to talk about a preference in a specific situation;
• A comparison with to can follow prefer or would prefer plus a noun or gerund;
• A comparison with than can follow would rather plus a base form.
Subject + Would prefer/prefer*+ Noun / Gerund / Infinitive: I would prefer/prefer TV news (to newspapers)
I would prefer/prefer Watching the news (to reading newspapers)
*Like modals, would rather does not have -s in the third-person singular.
He prefers (not) to watch the news.
Yes / No Questions
Do/Would + Subject + Prefer + Noun / Gerund / Infinitive TV news? watching the news? to watch the
news?
does + he/she + Prefer + Noun / Gerund / Infinitive TV news? watching the news? to watch the news?
Subject+Would rather*+Base Form of Verb: I would rather watch the news (than read newspapers)
I would rather not read newspapers.
Yes / No Questions
Would + Subject + Rather + Base Form of Verb: Would you rather read?
Short Answers: Affirmative (she would) Negative (She’d rather not).
474. Necessity: Have (got) to, Don't Have to, Must, Must not, Can't
the uses of have (got) to, must, don’t have to, must not, and can’t to express different degrees of necessity:
• The affirmative forms have, have got to, and must express necessity;
• The negative form don’t have to expresses lack of necessity;
• The negative forms must not and can’t express prohibition.
Subject + Have to / Have got to + Base Form of Verb: I have got to/have to leave
Negative statement: I don’t have to leave. He/she doesn’t have to leave
Subject + Must* (not) + Base Form of Verb: I must leave early. I must not arrive late.
Subject + Can’t + Base Form of Verb: You can’t sit here.
475. Gerunds after Prepositions
Prepositions can be followed by nouns, pronouns, or gerunds;
Many common expressions formed by verb + preposition or adjective + preposition can be followed by
gerunds;
Expressions with the preposition to (look forward to, object to) are followed by a gerund, not an infinitive
Preposition + Gerund: Do you have ideas about improving life at school?
Are the teachers against increasing tuition?
Verb + Preposition + Gerund: I plan on joining the Student Council. We’ll succeed in improving the school.
Adjective + Preposition + Gerund: I’m interested in studying math. Are you tired of hearing complaints?
476. Infinitives after Certain Verbs
Some verbs can be followed directly by an infinitive.
Some verbs need an object before the infinitive.
Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or an object+infinitive.
Many verbs and adjectives are followed by infinitive constructions, either with bare infinitive (for example:
go) or to-infinitive (to go). Some verbs followed by bare infinitive are make and let (make/let + object +
bare infinitive) and would rather: Parents make their children watch tv before going to sleep.
My parents don’t let me stay out late at night.
Do you want to eat pizza? No, we’d rather sleep.
verbs followed by bare infinitive or to-infinitive = help, dare (help/dare + object + bare infinitive/to-
infinitive): Computers can help us process/to process numbers.
Nobody dared to speak/speak.
verbs followed by to-infinitive = aim, fail, intend, learn how, long, manage, need, offer, plan, prefer,
refuse, try, want: Julie aims to complete the essay by next week.
Please try to arrive punctually at 9.
verbs followed by to-infinitive, or that-clause = decide, expect, hope, promise, threaten, warn:
We decided to leave early. I promise to tell you that secret.
NOTE! As these verbs often refer to the future, the that-clause often contains would: We decided that we
would leave early.
NOTE! With the verb pretend, the that-clause often contains a past tense verb: Phil pretended to be ill. Phil pretended
that he was ill.
verbs followed by an object and to-infinitive = advise, allow, dare, encourage, forbid, force, instruct, order, permit,
persuade, remind, teach, tell: Luke and Mary advised me to go back.
verbs followed by to-infinitive, or -ing form = begin, start, hate, like, love: After two hours, people began to leave the
cinema. After two hours, people began leaving the cinema.
477. Gerunds and Infinitives
Some verbs, are followed by a gerund (base form + -ing): appreciate, avoid, can’t stand, end up, fell like,
keep, mind, recall, regret
Some verbs are followed by an infinitive (to + base form): afford, agree, decide, expect, need, offer, plan,
want, would like
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive: begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer
The gerund is the only verb form that can follow a preposition
For general statement we can use: gerund as subject / it+infinitive
478. Infinitives with Too and Enough
We use too+adjective/adverb+infinitive to give a reason: she’s too young to drive
We can also use adjective/adverb+enough+infinitive to give a reason: My grandfather is old enough to play
football.
Too comes before the adjective or adverb
Enough comes after the adjective or adverb
479. Infinitives of Purpose
It’s used to explain the purpose of an action. A purpose can be expressed with an infinitive (to + base form
of verb) or in order to + base form of verb.
To + base form of verb is more common in informal speech and writing.
A negative purpose can be expressed with in order not to + base form of verb. Because + a reason is more
common in everyday spoken English.
Affirmative I left at 9:00 (in order) to be on time.
Negative I left at 9:00 in order not to be late.
• A to-infinitive can be used to express purpose: I'm calling to book a holiday
• In order and so as can be used before a to-infinitive for emphasis in more formal styles:
He took a friend in order to have a witness.
• The negative is always in order not + to-infinitive or so as not + to-infinitive:
He whispered so as not to be heard.
The infinitive of purpose can only be used if the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive is the
same as the subject of the main clause. If the subjects are different, we can use so + that-clause with
the present simple tense or with the modal verbs may, can, will, might, could or would:
Bobby makes two jobs so that his daughter can attend college.
In order + that-clause is also possible in this case; however, it is more formal and less common. In the
that-clause, we can use the modal verbs may, shall, might or should:
Our company does everything in order that the clients will be totally satisfied.
With come and go, we can use the infinitive of purpose with the verb in any present or past tense or
with the gerund form of the verb: I'm just coming to open the door
NOTE! But if come and go are used as infinitives or as imperatives, we use and instead of to:
I must go and buy the milk.
52. Write an email to your friend Albert and tell him about the city/town/place you live in. Write 100 words
Hi Albert,
How are you? I hope you’re all right…
I came back to Cardano Al Campo a week ago from my holiday in Alghero. I would rather have stayed in Alghero. I
don’t know if I told you, but I live in a small town near Malpensa Airport.
It is a safe and quiet town distant 35 km from Milan. It counts more or less 15.000 people.
In this “town” there are a Church, a kindergarten, elementary school and a middle school and my favourite Ice Cream
shop. We also have some shops, a supermarket, a couple of bars and a few tobacco shops. I really like the fact that
behind my building there is a park where I can take my child to play every evening.
53. Write a brief report about a topic of your choice
54. Choose one of the articles you have studied and provide a short summary covering the key points.
Write 100 words
55. What did you do last weekend? Write 100 words.
56. How do you think the world will be different in 50 years' time? Write 100 words
The world is changing with technological advances as well as the development of artificial intelligence, so what kind of
world will we see in 2073? Smart robot servants or flying cars.
Underground roads: Underground means of transport that are capable of traveling at the speed of sound
will be developed.
Self-cleaning houses: When you are not at home or you are sleeping, technology will be developed that will
clean the house via a button.
Space hotels: Journeys to the moon and other planets will be possible. These journeys will be performed
with a system that will adapt to the gravity of each planet.
Body implants: These implants will be used to learn how the health of our bodies is and to measure our
body values. Moreover, they will work as translators.
57. What kind of holiday do you like best and why? Write 100 words
58. What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a student? Write 100 words
59. Describe a festival that is celebrated in your local area. Include information about when and where it
happens, what it is for and what people do during it. Write 100 words.
The Ambrosiano Carnival celebrated in Milan starts on the first day of Lent (Ash Wednesday) and ends on
the following Saturday. The Milan Carnival takes its name from Sant ‘Ambrogio, bishop and patron of Milan,
who, being out of the city for a pilgrimage, asked to postpone the end of the carnival by 4 days just to allow
him to return in time to start to the liturgical rites of Lent. In various locations throughout the city, there
are usually events and activities for all, including families and children. Piazza Duomo and the surrounding
areas are the main locations for festivities. Street performers, clowns parades and concerts all day and
evening long.
60. What do you do to relax? Write 100 words
61. What would you do if you had more free time? Write 100 words.
62. Your friend James is coming to visit your town/city/village for the first time. Write him an email and tell
him what he should do and see during his trip. Write 100 words.
63. Describe your typical Sunday. In your description, include information about where you go, what you do
and who you see. Write 100 words.
64. Write an email to your friend Helen and tell her how you celebrated your last birthday.
Write 100 words.
65. Write a short review of the last film you saw.
In your review, include the following information: the title, the main characters, the plot/story, your
opinion of the film. Write 100 words.
Title: Anna Karenina by Joe Wright
Main characters: Keira Knightley
Anna Karenina
Aaron Taylor-Johnson
Vronsky
Jude Law
Karenin
Domhnall Gleeson
Levin
Alicia Vikander
Kitty
Matthew Macfadyen
Oblonsky
Story: Anna Karenina (Keira Knightley), the wife of a Russian imperial minister (Jude Law), creates a high-society
scandal by an affair with Count Vronsky (Aaron Taylor-Johnson), a dashing cavalry officer in 19th-century St.
Petersburg. Anna's husband, Alexei, offers her a difficult choice: Go into exile with Vronsky but never see her young
son again, or remain with her family and abide by the rules of discretion. Meanwhile, a farmer named Levin pines for
Princess Kitty, who only has eyes for Vronsky.
In my opinion this movie is a very successful version of the book. I really liked the choice of the actors, the costumes
and the ambience.
66. How do you usually spend your free time? Write 100 words.
67. If you could go anywhere in the world, where would you go and why? Write 100 words.
69. Describe a member of your family. In your description, include information about: his/her appearance, age,
personality and job. Write 100 words
70. Describe a typical week day in your life. Write 100 words.
71. Write an email to your friend David and tell him about your plans for next weekend.
Write 100 words.
Title: plans for the next weekend
Greetings: Hello David,
Body: •Update them on your life or require an update on their life; I don’t know if I already told you that I
started working since November last year. It’s been quite busy and didn’t really had time to write to you in
a long time.
•Write about the purpose of your message; I decided to take a weekend away to relax and I am thinking to
go at the SPA. If you don’t have any plans already maybe you would like to join.
•Apologize for not having written before;
•Express your feelings («I’ve been missing you since the day you’re gone»)
Closing: Send wishes; The SPA is called Primia and if you would like to know more about the services you
can check it online.
Let your addressee know that you’ll wait his answer; I can’t wait for it and hope to see you there.
Tell your addressee you hope to see him/her soon.
How are you? I was so surprised to hear that you are coming to visit me.
I would like to inform you first of all that in Cardano Al Campo there is not much to do, but fortunately
we have the lakes not far away and also Milan is 30 minutes by train distant from my town.
I believe that when arrive on the first day you can catch the bus from the train station, after 3 stops you
get off and walk straight until you reach the church of the town and take the first right. Go straight for 5
minutes and when you reach Via Trento check for number 11.
I will organize the trips to do and you will tell me if is interesting for you. Do not hesitate to write if you
have any specific place you wanna visit.
Bianca
97. You have decided to enter a short story competition. You should write a story ending with the words:
"It was only then that I realiszed they had mistaken me for someone else". (180 words)
98. Write a note for each of the examples we studied in the previous lesson: celebratory card - condolence
card - birthday card. ?Use no more than 80 words for each note (including opening, closing and signature).
Dear Jane,
HAPPY BIRTHDAY!
It’s been a year since we ate that huge chocolate cake on your last birthday, but what now? here I am to
celebrate your special day again! With another cake, of course!
I can’t believe all the fantastic things we did together this year: our holidays in Croatia, your move, your
first car! It’s been a terrific year and I’m sure that the next will bring you lots of happiness too!
You are the best sister of the world and I’m looking forward to making a lot of exciting things together!!
With all my love,
Ozzy
Dear Luke,
Congratulations for your new job! I knew you would make it!
This is a very special day for you and for your family. Your parents and your brother has always supported you. This is the best reward
for all your efforts and also for the sacrifices your family made to make your dreams come true! You deserve it!
Maybe you’re a little scared because you don’t know what to expect, but rememb er: I’ll always be with you! If you can’t stand the
pressure, just call me and everything will be ok!
I wish you all the best that life can give you, buddy!
Dear Misha,
There are no words to express the pain you’re going through. I am so sorry for your mom, she was an
excellent woman.
I remember the breakfast she made for us when we were kids and visited France all together: she was so
sweet!
Bonnie was such a wonderful person, and I’m sure she will never leave our hearts and our thoughts.
I think about you every day, and I know that no letter will wash the pain away from your heart, but thank
God you have a beautiful family! Your husband and your children will help you to go on, and Bonnie will
watch over you from the most shining star in the sky.
I’ll come back home next week. Meanwhile, know that my heart is with you.
Your friend
Margery
99. Your English teacher has asked you to write a story. Your story must begin with this sentence. "I was
walking along the path by the river when suddenly I saw a small silver box on the ground!". Write about
150 words.
100. A health magazine has asked its readers to write an article giving their opinion on junk food (150
words)
102. What do you plan to do immediately following graduation?
Include the following details: where you plan to go, what you plan to do, who you plan to do it with.
Write 100 words
103. This is part of a letter you received from your English friend, Jo. Write an email to Jo, answering her
questions. "I recently went on a class trip to the science museum in our town. It was fantastic!
Tell me about a great trip you went on. Where did you go and why? What did you do there? And did you
enjoy it?". Write about 150 words.
104. You would like to get some work experience during your last year at school and you have seen this
advertisement in the local newspaper. Write a letter of application for the position.
WORK EXPERIENCE STUDENTS REQUIRED AT CITY HOSPITAL
We can offer work experience for one month in the following areas:
delivering meals and drinks to patients
working in the visitors' café
helping visitors at our Information Desk
Send an email to Mrs Sharp, HR Manager, giving information about yourself, and saying which area of the
hospital you would like to work in and why.
Don’t forget to add at the bottom of your e-mail:
•Your full name;
•Your address;
•Your e-mail address;
•Your mobile phone number;
•Your home phome number;
•Your fax number or any contact details.
For the opening greetings: “Dear Sirs, or Dear Sir / Madam” or “Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms+ Surname + comma”
For the body: 1. For example: I am writing to apply for the position (or, I am writing in response to your
advertisement) of Hotel Manager advertised in The Times on 2 February 2017.
2. After explaining how you got to know about this opportunity, use the second paragraph to talk about
your skills, your scholar and professional carrier (if there are any) and what do you expect from this job.
3. For the last paragraph, inform the recipient about the documents you’ve attached to the e-mail and
thank him/her for reading you application.
For the closing: Yours sincerely (if you have opened the letter with Dear Mr /Mrs / Ms + the surname of the
person;
Yours faithfully (if you have opened the letter with the general “Dear Sirs”, or “dear Sir / Madam”, or “To
Whom It May Concern”.
I am writing in response to your advertisement in the local newspaper for a student required at the city
hospital.
I would like to get some work experience during my last year of school. I believe I can fit in any of the areas
you advertised. If I can choose I would prefer to help visitors at the Information Desk.
You can find attached to this email my resume with additional information.
Looking forward to hearing from you.
Yours Sincerely
Bianca Avram
105. You travel to college by bus every day. However, the bus service is not very good and you often have problems
getting to college. Write an email of complaint to Mr Jones, the manager of the bus company. In your email, you
should:
give details of your usual bus journey to college
give examples of the problems you have on your journey
tell Mr Jones what you would like him to do
Write about 150 words.
106. Where can you picture yourself in three years?
Include the following details: where you will be living, what you will be doing, what will be different.
Write 100 words
107. The newspaper you are working for has asked you to write an article on a recent disaster which hit a
capital city you have recently been in. (150 words)
108. You have seen an advertisement in the newspaper for the position of English teacher at a popular
College in Manchester. Write a letter of application giving information about yourself, your qualifications,
and your previous experience, as well as explaining why you would be suitable for the job.
109. You have recently travelled by train and have been really disappointed with the service provided by
the staff, and the delays you encountered. Write a letter of complaint to the company to complain and
demand compensation. (150 words)
110. Cars are the greatest danger to human life today. Write an opinion essay.
111. Your teacher has asked you to write a composition giving arguments for and against owing a mobile
phone.
112. A local sports team in your town needs new facilities where they will train for national competitions.
As assistant coach of the team, you have been asked to visit a new sports centre and to write a report
assessing the suitability of the centre. Write your report in no more than 150 words. Use the structure and
the useful phrases highlighted in the previous lesson.
67. Identify all the IPA symbols below which represent a) plosives b) fricatives c) voiced sounds
[b]; [s]; [ʊ]; [w]; [ʃ]; [x]; [k]; [l]; [θ]; [ŋ]; [d]
Manner of exemple
articulation
plosives b, d, k,
fricatives s, [θ], [ʃ],
Voiced sounds B, d , l, k, w, [ŋ], ,
Nominal suffixes are often employed to derive abstract nouns from verbs, adjectives, and nouns: -age (This
suffix derives nouns that express an activity (or its result) as in coverage, leakage, spillage,)
-al (Several verbs take -al to form abstract nouns denoting an action or the result of an action, such as
arrival, overthrowal, recital, referral, renewal)
-ance (with its variants -ence/-ancy/-ency) Attaching mostly to verbs, -ance creates action nouns such as
absorbance, riddance, retardance.
-ant This suffix forms count nouns referring to persons (often in technical or legal discourse, cf. applicant,
-dom The native suffix -dom is semantically closely related to -hood, and -ship, which express similar
concepts: professordom
82. Provide a definition as well as meaningful examples of: 1. clipping; 2. coinage; 3. Blending
English has constantly undergone lexical change throughout its history, some ways in which this type of change
occurs: clipping: where a word is extracted from a longer one with the same meaning, as in phone from telephone,
photo from photograph, bra from brassiere, fridge from refrigerator, pram from perambulator, and flu from influenza.
blending: Blending is another process which involves a sort of combination of clipping and compounding, as can be
seen in brunch (breakfast+lunch), smog (smoke+fog), motel (motor+hotel). Coinage is a type of word formation
process that involves the invention of a totally new word. This often occurs with scientific names and trade names of
new products For example: Google. nylon, aspirin
83. Provide a definition as well some meaningful examples of bound morphemes
Some morphemes,such as plural endings, or the morpheme un- in words such as unkind, only appear in combination
with free morphemes and never on their own. Therefore, they are defined bound morphemes. All bound morphemes
are affixes, that is to say, morphemes that are attached to other morphemes. Affixes play an important role in various
morphological processes. On the one hand, we use affixes to express grammatical information such as in books. On
the other, we use affixes to build new words. For instance, the noun reader is derived from the verb read by adding
the affix -er.
84. Open and close word classes: discuss and provide some examples.
In morphology, we have 2 groups of word classes: open classes that frequently adopt new members(noun, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs), also known as content words or lexical classes; and closed classes that
usually do not adopt new members(contains word classes such as determiners (e.g. the), prepositions (e.g.
from), quantifiers (e.g. every) and conjunctions (e.g. and).), also known as function words or grammatical
classes.
Let’s consider the word book, which consists of one morpheme. If we want to convey the idea that a
particular book is a really small book, we may turn it into a minibook adding mini- at the beginning of book.
If we want to consider more than one book, we add the plural marker -s at the end of this noun, so that we
can talk about books. Book, mini- and -s are all individual morphemes. The morpheme mini- is used to
create a new word from an existing word by adding lexical information, whereas the morpheme -s is used
to add the grammatical information [plural].
85. Provide a definition of Morphology and of morpheme
The linguistic term for any smallest meaning-bearing unit of language is morpheme.
Morphemes may carry lexical information but also grammatical information
86. Provide a definition as well as meaningful examples of: 1. back.formation; 2. conversion; 3.
Reduplication
• Back formation: A word (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a
verb). Backformation are words (usually verbs) formed by removing from a noun what is thought to be a
suffix, and adding a verb ending. Basically it is the opposite of what we do when we add an affixe to obtain
a derived word.
Emotion emote
Enthusiasm enthuse
Liaison liaise
Priority prioritise
Television televise
editor edit
donation donate
burglar burgle
zipper zip
television televise
babysitter babysit
•CONVERSION when a word changes its word class
to swim (verb) a swim (noun)
to rain rain
to bicycle a bicycle
to cheat a cheat
•REDUPLICATION a lexeme with two identical, or very similar, constituents : ping-pong, teeny-weeny
87. The following words are made up of either one or two morphemes. Isolate them and decide for each
one whether it is free or bound, what kind of affix is involved and (where applicable) if it is inflectional or
derivational.
a) cats: 2 M(CAT+S), inflectional; b) unhappy: 2M (un+happy), derivational; c) milder: 2M(mild+er)
inflectional; d) bicycle:2M(bi+cycle), derivational; e) signpost: 1M; f) rejoin: 2M (re+join), derivational; g)
greedy: 2M(greed+y), derivational; h) hateful: 2M(hate+ful), derivational.
88. Provide a definition as well some meaningful examples of free morphemes
some morphemes are identical with words, such as mail. They can combine with other morphemes or
stand alone. Consequently, these morphemes are called free morphemes. Other example, eat, date, weak.
51. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of symbol and icon.
Symbol type of sign for which the form of the linguistic expression or other meaningful representation is
related to what it refers to by cultural convention (The dove is a symbol of peace)
Icon type of sign for which the form of the linguistic expression or other meaningful representation
resembles what it refers to (woof, meow)
52. Identify the presupposition in each of the following sentences:
a sentence presupposes or takes for granted another statement.
e.g. Would you like another cup of tea? presupposes that the addressee already had a cup of tea.
1. Some books written by Chomsky are not very expensive;
Chomsky wrote some books
2. The present pope is German;
There is an alive pope/ there is just one pope
3. I am glad that my colleague sent me an e-mail;
The speaker has a job or asked for an email .
4. They intend to close more libraries.
They already closed some libraries.
53. One of the two sentences in each of the following pairs of sentences contains a presupposition.
Decide for each pair which sentence contains the presupposition and identify the presupposition-trigger:
1a) Anna thought she was in debt - 1b) Anna realised she was in debt;- Anna is in debt
2a) Have you stopped running marathons? -2b) Have you tried running a marathon? You had ran
marathons before.
54. Provide some meaningful examples of: synonymy, antynomy, and hyponymy.
Synonymy: two or more lexemes have the same meaning (even if they may differ stylistically):
e.g: correct; right
present; gift
unhappy; sad
The relation of synonymy depends on the context; this means that two lexemes may have the same
meaning in one context, but not in all contexts. We can say
The colour of that skirt is pale/light
but not
The weight of that book is pale/light.
Some synonyms may differ in intensity, such as rain;downpour;shower.
Antonymy (or oppositeness): two lexemes have opposite meaning. There are three relations of
oppositeness. The opposites can be gradable(hot-cold / large-small), relational (husband/wife, son/father
or buy/sell) and complementary (male/female; dead/alive).
Hyponymy or entailment: it is the semantic relation between a superordinate, more general, term (the
hypernym) and a set of more specific terms (cohyponyms) which are subordinated and included into it. For
instance, the hypernym tree includes several cohyponyms, such as oak, maple, willow, pine, birch, so that
we can draw a sort of hierarchy of lexemes.
If in a sentence a hyponym is replaced by its hypernym we can say that the superordinate entails its
subordinate lexeme.
E.g. Susan planted tulips versus Susan planted flowers.
55. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of: metonymy and antonymy.
Part-whole (or metonymy): a lexeme describes a part of a whole, as in leg to body or branch to tree.
56. Provide a definition of presupposition and paradox.
presupposition: In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or PSP) is an implicit
assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in
discourse.
Examples of presuppositions include:
Jane no longer writes fiction.
Presupposition: Jane once wrote fiction.
Have you stopped eating meat?
Presupposition: you had once eaten meat
Have you talked to Hans?
Presupposition: Hans exists.
A presupposition must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the utterance to
be considered appropriate in context. It will generally remain a necessary assumption whether the
utterance is placed in the form of an assertion, denial, or question, and can be associated with a specific
lexical item or grammatical feature (presupposition trigger) in the utterance.
Paradox
81. "Those unhappy students failed the final exam". Draw the tree diagram of that sentence.