LQ1 Ab Structures

ABE 130: AB STRUCTURES ENGINEERING
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Instructor: Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

College of Agriculture rener.tandugon@msugensan.edu.ph
Mindanao State University General Santos +63907-1251-276
AB STRUCTURES ENGINEERING
Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
College of Agriculture, Mindanao State University General Santos City
INTRODUCTION TO AB STRUCTURES ENGINEERING
Farm structure plays a vital role in the food production, it provides shelter and conducive environment
for the preservation of quality and quantity of plants and crops, increase the productivity of animals and farmers,
and ensure safety and good working condition of machineries and equipment. They also protect livestock from
predator, help control disease and parasites in livestock, provide shelter against extreme weather conditions,
provide storage for farm inputs and produce and enhance efficiency in the production process. Different farm
structures are being constructed in different farms of different scales. Because farming systems differ widely,
there are important variations in the nature and arrangements of farm facilities.
This course will focus on the discussion of basic concepts, importance and parts of agricultural
structures, understand and employ the Philippine Building Code and other related laws, regulations and
standards, identify different reinforced concrete designs, solve the load calculation of the structures, identify and
illustrate different AB structures such as farm house, livestock housing, greenhouse, farm-to-market roads and
bridges and etc., identify and compare functionality of different AB structures, design AB structures according to
what is being set in Philippine Agricultural Engineering Standards (PAES), evaluate and measure the physical
and chemical properties of the different AB materials, identify different construction materials for AB structures,
describe the specification of different construction materials to be used, calculate and estimate the cost of
materials and most importantly to design AB Buildings based on the Philippine Building Code and PAES.
NOTES:

NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
Building codes serve as the foundation guidelines of architects, builders, developers, and engineers in
designing and constructing for any safe and secure built environment. Rather than serving as legally binding
regulations, building codes serve as prototypes for legal jurisdictions to refer to when composing new statutes.
They shall become laws upon being formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private
authority. However, it is important to note that the strength of their jurisdictions heavily influences the
competitiveness of builders and suppliers alike.
Since they primarily relate to the proper planning, construction, and occupancy of buildings and
structures, building codes, like the National Building Code of the Philippines, are also highly vital in protecting
public safety, health, and general welfare.
From 1970 to 1972 – RA 6541 to PD 1096
The Philippines’ thriving urbanization coupled with population growth made the 1970s a fluctuating era
for both its economic and physical development. It became a necessity to enact Republic Act No. 6541, which is
an act to ordain and institute a national building code of the Philippines. While RA 6541 exists to regulate the
construction industry, it still does not conform to the country’s developmental goals, infrastructure programs, and
technological requirements at that time.
To keep the country’s building standards at par with the on-going technological advancements in
building design and construction from all over the world, the nullification of RA 6541 took place in 1972. This
happened in the same year Martial Law took place, which dated September 21, 1972. The former was then
replaced in 1977 by Presidential Decree 1096, more commonly known as the official National Building Code of
the Philippines. All legalities were done by the now obsolete Ministry of Public Works, Transportation, and
Communications and later replaced by the Department of Public Works and Highways.
In its 1977 version, a huge emphasis was placed on enhancing the country’s technical expertise and
professional know-how both in the public and private sectors. Throughout the implementation of this code, it has
achieved its purpose of enforcing standardization on building requirements for their design, construction,
occupancy, and maintenance. These intentions were all geared towards the general goal of building codes for
securing better health, life, property, and public welfare.
From 1977 to 2005 Revised PD 1096
Nearly three decades later, the continuous rise in technological advancements both locally and globally
again placed the need to revise the then in-practice 1977 National Building Code. This led to the formulation of
its latest revision published in 2005, which is currently being used by the local building design and construction
industry.
For the spirit of continuity, homogeneity, and clarity, the latter was entitled “Implementing Rules and
Regulations of the National Building Code of the Philippines (PD 1096)” with its rules and regulations mimicking
the same formatting of its 1977 counterpart.
This time, PD 1096’s IRR serves as a realistic response to the present times’ technological
developments, rapid urbanization, and the advent of high-rise structures and mega-cities, among others. These
emerging changes in urban development inevitably affect the design, construction, and purpose of the built
environment.
Furthermore, this shall also alleviate two main urban planning issues of over-building and over-paving.
While over-building is one of the primary causes of urban congestion, over-paving equally results in widespread
flooding and ambient temperatures. Provisions on the integration of physical planning and design concerns
were also added to merge contrasting environmental design solutions.
The 1977 version of PD 1096 gives the Chief Executive Officer of the DPWH also known as the
Secretary, full authority in overseeing the implementation of the code. A professional team of highly-qualified
architects, engineers, and technicians must also be formed to assist the Secretary in fulfilling his duties and
responsibilities.
For PD 1096’s IRR, the Secretary, or the Chief Executive Officer of the DPWH, is likewise given full
authority of both the administration and enforcement of the code. Provided, the officer shall be assisted by the
National Building Code Development Office (NBCDO) formed through the DPWH Department Order.
Section 1.01.03 – Scope of the National Building Code
(a) The provisions of this Code shall apply to the design, location, siting, construction, alteration, repair,
conversion, use, occupancy, maintenance, moving, and demolition of, and addition to, public and private
buildings and structures.
(b) Additions, alterations, repairs, and changes of use or occupancy in all buildings and structures shall
comply with requirements for new buildings and structures except as otherwise herein provided. Only such
portion or portions of the existing building or structure which have to be altered to effect the addition, alteration,
or repair shall be made to conform to the requirements for new buildings or structures. Alterations should
preserve the aesthetic value of the building to be altered.
(c) Where, in any specific case, different section of this Code specify different materials, methods of
construction, or other requirements, the most restrictive shall govern.
Reference:
Fulgar, Ian, The Architect in the Philippines, National Building Code Of The Philippines – Its History, Current
State, and Future, https://www.ianfulgar.com/architecture/national-building-code-of-the-philippines-its-
history-current-state-and-future/

FARM PLANNING
A major constraining factor in the design and construction of farm and rural structures in the tropics is the
need to implement such projects in an environment where most farms are small and fragmented. Additional
limiting factors include severe financial constraints and the need for agricultural mechanization and rural
transformation. These challenges can be met, in part, by producing standard designs and case studies for
target groups. These case studies can be modified thereafter to suit each individual need.
What is planning? An overview
The term „planning‟ is a very general one. Its various definitions cover a wide range but do not provide a
consensus. Various scholars have come up with different definitions, such as:
“…. Planning is the making of an orderly sequence of action that will lead to the achievement of stated goals”
(Hall, 1974).
“…. Planning is an activity by which man in society endeavours to gain mastery over himself and shapes his
collective future through conscious reasoned effort”(Friedmann, 1966).
Forms of planning
a. Urban planning
Urban planning is the physical planning of concentrated human settlements designated as urban areas.
It is a special case of planning that indicates that a certain degree of detail is required of the planner. Urban
planning requires the designation of an urban planning region with a base resident population not less than that
stipulated in the policy document to indicate an official town or urban area. On a larger scale, it becomes city
planning.
b. Rural planning
A rural region, like an urban region, is another category of region for planning purposes. In developing
countries in particular, rural areas tend to be home to as much as 80 percent of the country‟s population, and
therefore urban planning becomes secondary to rural planning. Rural planning is carried out in the national
interest to improve living conditions, match agricultural production to demand and conserve natural resources.
Many factors in the national or regional plans may directly influence the choice of production on farms and thus
the requirements for buildings.
c. Infrastructure planning
Infrastructure planning involves planning for the provision of roads, water services, energy, health and
education facilities and other utilities that are necessary for the effective functioning of communities. Their
provision contributes greatly to rural transformation and improved standards of living for the population.
d. Environmental planning
The broad objective of the planning process is to promote the welfare of citizens through the creation
and maintenance of a better, healthier, more efficient and more attractive living environment. Economic forces
in a free-market economy are not a reliable guide for directing urban activities towards the desired healthier life
because they tend to maximize profits or individual wellbeing at the expense of societal wellbeing.
e. Economic planning and feasibility

All countries carry out economic plans to forecast how the economy will manage the scarce resources
available to the population. Such plans may be yearly, two-yearly or five-yearly. Most nations have five-year
plans. Smaller regions of a country may also have economic plans for much the same reason as the country,
but on a much smaller scale and in greater detail.
Feasibility
There are three golden rules in formulating a project:
(i) Ensure that all the factors necessary for its success are taken into account from the outset.
(ii) Carry out careful pre-investment studies.
(iii) Build in flexibility.
When the scope of the project has been determined, five main aspects must be taken into account:
(a) Technical feasibility: Have all the alternatives been considered? Is there a need for the project at
all? For example, could better dry-farming techniques and moisture conservation increase output just as
much as irrigation? Are the proposed methods, design and equipment the best for the purpose? Are the
cost estimates realistic and can the successive phases of the project be carried out in the time allowed?
(b) Economic viability: Does the chosen technical solution offer the highest economic and social
returns of all the technically and financially feasible alternatives?
(c) Financial: Are the necessary funds available? Will the project be able to meet its financial
obligations when it is in operation? For example, will the farmer have sufficient income to cover
repayments and interest on a loan?
(d) Administration: Will the administrative structure proposed for the project and its staff be adequate
to keep the project on schedule and manage it efficiently? Will interdepartmental rivalries be an
obstacle and, if so, can the proposed coordination machinery ensure an organized flow of decisions and
the assignment of responsibilities within the chain of command?
(e) Commercial: What are the arrangements for buying materials for the project? Where will they come
from? How will they be funded? How will the output of the project be sold?
FARMSTEAD PLANNING
The farmstead forms the nucleus of the farm operation where a wide range of farming activities takes
place. It normally includes the dwelling, animal shelters, storage structures, equipment shed, workshop and
other structures. A carefully organized farmstead plan should provide an arrangement of buildings and facilities
that allows adequate space for convenient and efficient operation of all activities, while at the same time
protecting the environment from such undesirable effects of odor, dust, noise, flies and heavy traffic.
Types of Farmstead
1. Concentrated -this type, all structures are in close proximity, in many instances, will all or most of
the buildings joined together or connected by sheds or covered walks.
2. Plantation or Ranch -often consists of two or more separated groups of buildings; one group
includes the residence, garage and attendant service buildings; the other group includes barns,
storage houses, and principal service buildings and workers' houses.
3. Suburban type -consists primarily of residence and small service buildings, where the
essential farm operations area carried on with hired services.
4. Distributed type -the most common type of farmstead where buildings are located sufficiently far
apart to allow adequate room for road drives and yards, reasonable fire safety, and sanitation,
yet sufficiently close together to be effective for farm operation.
Factors to be considered in Farmstead Planning
 Good drainage, both surface and sub-surface, provides a dry farm courtyard and a stable foundation
for buildings. A gentle slope across the site facilitates drainage, but a pronounced slope may make it
difficult to site larger structures without undertaking extensive earth-moving work
 Adequate space should be provided to allow for maneuvering vehicles around the buildings and for
future expansion of the farm operation
 Air movement is essential for cross ventilation, but excessive wind can damage buildings. Since wind
will carry odors and noise, livestock buildings should be placed downwind from the family living area
and neighboring homes. Undesirable winds can be diverted and reduced by hedges and trees or
fences with open construction
 Solar radiation may adversely affect the environment within buildings. An orientation close to an east-
west axis is generally recommended in the tropics
 An adequate supply of clean water is essential on any farm. When planning buildings for an expanded
livestock production, the volume of the water supply must be assessed. Where applicable, the supply
pipe in a good building layout will be as short as possible
 Similarly, the length of electric, gas and telephone lines should be kept to a minimum
 The safety of people and animals from fire and accident hazards should be part of the planning
considerations. Children especially, must be protected from the many dangers at a farmstead
 It is often desirable to arrange for some privacy in the family living area by screening off the garden,
outdoor meeting-resting places, verandah and play area
 Measures should be taken for security from theft and vandalism. This includes an arrangement of
buildings so that the farm court and the access driveway can be observed at all times, especially from
the house
 A neat and attractive farmstead is desirable and much can be achieved toward this end, at low cost, if
the appearance is considered in the planning, and effective landscaping is utilized.
An approach to building planning
Once the building requirements have been established in the economic planning, it will be the task of
the farm-building engineer to work out the functional and structural designs and deal with the farmstead plan.
While there are laws, regulations and guidelines enacted by the central or local governments that govern the
building and construction industry, most are only applicable to areas that have been designated as urban
(townships, municipalities and cities).
a. Background information
An economic plan for the farming operation will provide much of the background information
required by the farm-building engineer. As this is often missing, such information will have to be obtained by
interviewing farmers and by studying similar farms in the area.
b. Calculations
The standardized economic calculations used to determine the gross margin in a farm operation are
often limited in scope and therefore a more detailed examination of the enterprise housed in the building
may be of use. Knowing the expected production volume, additional data are calculated using the
background information.
In the case of a building to be used for storage, the expected volume of the crop to be stored is
determined, as well as the required handling capacity. In a multipurpose store where several different
commodities are held, a schedule of the volumes and storage periods will be useful to determine the
maximum storage requirement.
c. Analysing the activities

Activity analysis is a tool used for planning production in large, complex plants such as factories,
large-scale grain stores and animal-production buildings, but it can also be a useful instrument in smaller
projects, particularly for the inexperienced farm-building engineer.
d. Room schedule
This is a brief description of all rooms and spaces required for work, storage, communication,
servicing of technical installations, etc. As variations in yield and other production factors are to be
expected, an allowance is added to the spaces and the volumes. It would be uneconomical, however, to
allow for the most extreme variations, particularly if a commodity to be stored is readily marketable and can
be bought back at a reasonable price later. The total space requirement is then obtained by simple addition.
Also, partial sums indicate how the production operations can be divided into several houses.
e. Communication schedule
This describes the requirement and frequency of communication between the various rooms and
spaces within the building and between the building and other structures at the farmstead. A schedule for
movements between the farmstead, the fields and the market is also essential. It may also include
quantitiesto be transported. Based on this information, the rooms between which there is frequent
movement of goods and services can be placed close together for convenience and work efficiency when
the building is being designed.
f. Functional design of the building

Sketching alternative plan views of the building is mainly a matter of combining and coordinating the
requirements that have been analysed in earlier steps.
Some general guidelines are as follows:

1. Concentrate functions and spaces that are naturally connected to each other, but keep dirty
activities separate from clean ones.
2. Communication lines should be as straight and simple as possible within the building and, to reduce
the number of openings, they should be coordinated with those outside, as shown in the farmstead
plan.
3. Avoid unused spaces and long communication corridors.
4. Provide for simple and efficient work. Imagine that you are working in the building.
5. Use as few handling methods as possible and choose methods that are known to be reliable, flexible
and simple.
6. Provide a good environment for labourers and animals or produce.
7. Provide for future expansion.
8. Keep the plan as simple as possible within the limits of production requirements.
g. Finalization of sketching
After a number of sketches have been produced, they are carefully analysed to select the one that
best reflects the farmer‟s objectives. However, because a farmer‟s objectives are usually complex and
difficult to elicit, it is common to use more readily evaluated criteria such as total construction cost or cash
expenditure.
The selected building plan is then drawn to the correct scale, sections and elevations are sketched
and, where applicable, the building is positioned on the master plan. In many cases, the results of earlier
steps in the planning process, such as the activity schedule or room schedule, may have to be reviewed
and adjusted as the work progresses.
f. Final design
When all sketches (farmstead plan, functional plan and structural concept) have been corrected,
coordinated and approved by the farmer, the final building documents are prepared.
Zone planning
Zone planning can be a useful tool, but it is most effective when planning a new farmstead. The
farmstead is divided into zones 10 metres to 30 metres wide by concentric circles.
Reference:
Rural Structure in Tropics

BUILDING PRODUCTION PROCESS
Methods of construction
The methods of constructing rural buildings refer to the way in which units and components of the
building structure are produced and assembled. The manner of organizing this process differs from region to
region and depends on the level of technology and the materials available.
source: rural structures in the tropics
Construction Costing
Throughout the building production process, costs will have a major influence when choosing between
alternative designs. An excessively high cost may even cause the whole project to be abandoned. In the initial
stages, when rough sketches are evaluated, general guideline costs based on building area or volume may be
sufficient. In the final design stage, when the farmer has to decide whether or not to proceed with construction,
a more detailed cost estimate based on a simplified bill of quantities is usually prepared.
A contractor will need the most accurate cost estimate based on a bill of quantities, as the quotation
should be low enough to be competitive but still generate a profit. On large projects, the bill of quantities is also
used to determine interim payments for work that has been completed.
Related terminologies:
1. Quantity surveying- provide an accurate bill of quantities, which is a list of the amounts of all
materials and labour necessary to complete a construction project.
2. Taking-off- produce a detailed list of all materials and work. The quantities are assessed on the
basis of detailed project drawings and specifications and listed, as far as possible, in
the order that building construction will proceed.
-The first items are site clearing, excavation and foundations and final items are
finishings and external works. The dimensions of each item are obtained from the
drawings and then the quantity is calculated in the units in which the item is customarily
sold or priced.
3. Bill of quantities- grouped together under headings for either the main operations (excavation,
foundations, walling, flooring, roof structure, roofing, finishing and external
works) or the trades involved (earthwork, masonry, concrete work, carpentry
and painting). Work normally carried out by subcontractors (wiring, plumbing,
installation of equipment and furnishing) is listed separately.
Sample of Bill of Quantities and Materials of a poultry house (adopted from rural structures
in tropics)
Bill of Quantities:
4. Costing- it is necessary to continuously assess the building costs for a proposed structure
throughout the planning stages of the building production process.
-In addition, costing is carried out during construction to ascertain how the project is
progressing from a financial point of view and to determine any interim payments to the
contractor.
Three levels of accuracy in costing:

 General guidance cost- case of rough estimates, simply giving the scale of
costs, are derived by experience and analysis of a
number of other similar projects.
 Specific guidance costs- comparing similar projects, it may be possible to

obtain reasonably accurate estimates before taking time to design the building
and work out the bill of quantities. In this case, the costs of other buildings
should be assessed in three components:
1. Established costs: costs that either have a fixed value or a

uniform-unit value regardless of the size of the building. Examples are
windows and doors.
2. Variable costs: costs that vary with the size of the building. As the
length of a building grows, its total cost will grow but, at the same time,
the unit cost may decrease so that even though a building is 50
percent longer the cost increase may be only 40 percent.
3. Additional costs: costs such as fees for consultants, architects,
lawyers and accountants. Interest, insurance, fitting costs and losses
should also be included.
 Accurate costing- done in conjunction with the bill of quantities.

-An accurate total cost of a job can be derived from the rate
column in the final bill of quantities, together with the cost rate
for each item. This requires each individual item of material,
volume or labour to be costed.
5. Physical life-all building components have a limited life. After a time, materials will deteriorate to a
point where they can no longer fulfil their function. While repair, replacement and
maintenance can extend the life, eventually the overall deterioration becomes
excessive.
6. Economic life-although a building may last for many years, it may cease to be economically sound
at an earlier time for any of several reasons. It may be that the design has become
obsolete and is not suitable for new mechanization; or perhaps it is too small because
the farm has grown; or a new enterprise requires a new layout or interior partitions, but
supports simply cannot be moved to accommodate the new requirements.
7. Write-off life-it is impractical to expect any enterprise to pay the full cost of a new building in the
year immediately following construction. Therefore the capital cost of the building is allocated or
depreciated over several years. The number of years is determined by the write-off life, that is to
say, the number of years over which it seems feasible to spread the original cost, but never fewer
than the duration of a loan. In addition, the write-off life must not exceed the estimated physical or
economic life to avoid being in possession of a useless building for which the original cost has not
yet been fully paid.
Tendering/Bidding
The objective of tendering is to obtain proposals for construction work from different contractors and
quotations for building materials from different suppliers. Competition between suppliers to submit the most
favourable offer should result in a less expensive building for the farmer.
Tendering/bidding Methods
1. Open tendering: the prospective employer advertises in the press, giving brief details of the work,
and issues an open invitation to contractors to apply for the necessary
documents. The advertisement should state that the employer is free to select
any or none of the bids that may be tendered.
2. Selective tendering: competitive tenders are obtained by drawing up a list of three to five serious
contractors or suppliers in the area and inviting them to submit quotations.
3. Negotiated contracts: are obtained by contacting one or two contractors or suppliers who have
been found satisfactory in the past.
The tendering/bidding procedure

STEP 1: When the farmer has decided to proceed with the proposed structure, the farmer and the
advisors will prepare the tender documents, which usually comprise a letter of instructions, the
necessary drawings and specifications and perhaps a bill of quantities, and will send them to
various contractors and suppliers.
STEP 2: A contractor, or an estimator, will cost all building materials, volumes and labour and, after
adding an allowance for supervision, overheads, insurance, contingencies and profit, will
prepare a tender that is sent to the prospective employer in a sealed envelope.
STEP 3: During preparation of the tender, the contractor will visit the proposed building site to consider
possible difficulties, in particular: access to the site and the need for temporary roads; storage
of materials; type of ground; arrangements for siting any temporary office or welfare buildings;
availability of labour in the area; arrangements for protecting the works against theft and
vandalism. The contractor may also request fuller written documentation from the employer
and, where subcontractors are to be employed, obtain tenders for their work.
A supplier of building materials or equipment will require less documentation and usually will
not have to visit the site in order to prepare a quotation. The offer may or may not include
transport to the site.
STEP 4: When the reply period specified in the tender instruction has expired, all the sealed envelopes
containing the offers from the contractors and suppliers are opened. The contractors/suppliers
may be invited to attend the opening of bids and be given names, prices and other relevant
information contained in the offers.
STEP 5: After careful evaluation of the offers, the most favourable, which will not necessarily be the
cheapest, is accepted and a contract is prepared.
Contract
A contract is a legal document signed by both parties before witnesses. The essence of a contract for
construction work is the promise of a contractor to erect the building as shown on the drawings, and in
accordance with the detailed specifications, in return for a specified amount of money known as the contract
sum.
Reference:
Rural structures in Tropics

GRAPHICAL TECHNIQUES
Graphics are essential for planning buildings, completing engineering designs, estimating quantities of
materials and relative costs and, lastly, communicating to the builder all the information that the designer has
formulated.
Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD)
CADD is an electronic tool for preparing quick and accurate drawings with the aid of a computer instead
of the traditional tools (pencils, ink, rulers and paper). Unlike the traditional methods of preparing drawings on a
drawing board, CADD enables high-precision drawings to be created on a computer.
AutoCAD stands for Computer Aided Design. This software used for designing and drafting. It allows a
user to conceptualize ideas, product designs and drawings to the required level of technical accuracy, perform
rapid design calculations and simulations in the field of manufacturing industries. One example in CADD tool is
the Auto-CAD.
Using CADD to produce a building drawing has the following advantages:
 The drawings are clean, neat and highly presentable.

 The drawings can be subdivided into smaller parts that can be reused or worked on by several people.
 Updating drawings is much faster than with hand drawn plans that would have to be redrawn.
 Drawings can be presented in different formats, thereby facilitating transfer from one system to another.
 Several integrated tools are used to check drawings for errors.
 It is possible to work with real world units – the CADD system performs scaling automatically to fit any size
of paper.
DESIGN DRAFTING BEFORE DESIGN DRAFTING TODAY
Common CADD Tools:
1. Drafting: AutoCAD (Automatic Computer Aided Design):
Most popular software in the world of civil engineering. Designed by Autodesk, it helps in
creating 2D and 3D designs, drafting, modelling workflows, architectural drawing, and more. It allows
you to evaluate and understand the project performance, responds quickly to changes, and maintains
data and processes consistently. Some of the important features it includes are:
 A powerful set of intuitive design and documentation tools to explore and visualize 3D concepts
 A user friendly interface that works across a range of integrated devices including desktop,
mobile and cloud
 Eliminates the need of manual drafting to boost accuracy
 Provides the ability to share your work through TrustedDWG™ technology
2. Analysis and Design: STAAD Pro
This is a structural design and analysis tool developed by Research Engineers which was later
acquired by Bentley Systems, a CAD/CAM software company based in Pennsylvania. STAAD Pro is
considered as the best structural analysis software and adopted by over a million structural engineers
around the globe. It features ease of use and an array of essential tools required for accomplishing an
analytical process on different structures.
STAAD Pro further integrates with a number of other Bentley products. The models created
using STAAD Pro can be imported to OpenSTAAD so as to make the models transferrable to other
third-party tools.
3. Analysis and Design: SAFE
This software is mostly used in designing foundation slab systems and concrete floors. SAFE is
a comprehensive package that combines all the aspects of engineering design process – from creating
layout to detail drawing production in a single, intuitive environment. It enables highly advanced local
assessment of foundation systems within larger structures and imports files from CAD, ETABS, and
SAP2000. Some of the other benefits it offers are:
 Wide-ranging templates to quickly initiate a model

 Post-tensioning
 Support conditions and loadings
4. Analysis and Design: RISA

This is another popular 3D analysis and design tool for creating general structures such as
buildings, bridges, arenas, industrial structures, crane rails, and more. It is fast, productive and
accurate. It has an intuitive interface that integrates with many other products like RISAFloor and RISA
Foundation. It comes packed with the latest steel, cold-formed steel, concrete, aluminium, masonry and
timber design codes. This, in turn, provides the tools you need to manage the multi-material projects
with ease.
5. 3D environment: Navisworks
This is a comprehensive project review solution mainly used by design, engineering and
construction management professionals to gain detailed insight into the project and enhance
productivity and quality. It is developed and marketed by Autodesk and allows users to open, combine,
review and share 3D design models in various file formats. It lets you import all file formats and merge
all the files to create a model.
6. 3D environment: SketchUp
A 3D modelling computer program for a wide range of drawing applications such as architectural,
interior design, landscape architecture, civil and mechanical engineering, film and video game
design.
Projections
Projections are often useful in presenting a proposed building to someone who is not familiar with a
presentation in the form of plans, sections and elevation drawings.
1. Isometric projection- with isometric projection, horizontal lines of both the front view and the side view of
the building are drawn 30° from the horizontal using dimensions to scale. Vertical lines remain vertical and
the same scale is used. Simple 2D functions can be used and lines drawn at specific angles to complete an
isometric drawing. Polar coordinates are particularly helpful for measuring distances along an angle.
2. Oblique projection- starts with a front view of the building. The horizontal lines in the adjacent side are
then drawn at an angle, usually 30° or 45°, from the horizontal. The dimensions on the adjacent side are
made equal to 0.8 of the full size if 30° is used, or 0.5 if 45° is used.
3. Axonometric projection- the plan view of the building is drawn with its side inclined from the horizontal at
any angle. Usually 30°, 45° or 60° is chosen because these are the angles of a set square. All vertical lines
of the building remain vertical and are drawn to the scale of the plan view.
Perspective
The different technical terms used in perspective drawing can be explained by imagining that you are
standing in front of a window looking out at a building from an angle where the two sides of the building are
visible technique used to depict spatial depth, or perspective. In other words, it allows you to accurately draw a
three dimensional object onto a two dimensional plane.
Terms used in Perspective Drawings:
1. Station point- the viewing point, supposedly occupied by the eye of the observer. The
viewing point is also determined by the eye level, usually assumed to be 1.7 metres
above ground level.
© Paintings by Chas Rowe
2. Ground plane- is a horizontal plane on which the object is stationed. When drawing a
perspective, the ground plane is the horizontal plane representing the ground on which
the viewer is standing.
© Handprint
3. Picture Plane- imaginary plane located between the station point and the ground plane
on which the perspective is projected. The position of the picture plane relative to the
object determines the size of view.
4. Eye level/Horizontal plane- an imaginary plane at the eye level of the viewer above
the ground plane. In geographical terms, the horizon is the line at which the sky and
and the earth appear to meet. Located at the eye level of the viewer. In perspective
drawing, the horizon line is also known as the eye level.
© Encyclopaedia-The Free dictionary
5. Horizon line- Always at eye level. Line generated by the horizontal plane.
© Terese Bernard
6. Vanishing point- point where an object goes out of sight and should be within the
horizon line.
7. Cone of vision- the conical field of view if the persons eye is looking at an object, it
also sees all the other objects without difficulty that are less than 30 degrees from the
direct line of sight.
©Alvalyn Lundgren
Types of Perspective:
1. One-point perspective- is often used for compositions that look at objects from the
front. Lines extending from the foreground to the background gather (converge) at one
point. The point of convergence is called the “vanishing point”. The vanishing point will
always be on the horizontal line, or “eye level” of the scene, which represents the
height of the eye or camera of the observer.
2. Two-point perspective- is used for compositions that look at objects at an angle. As it

is close to what the human eye normally sees, it is the most used perspective when
drawing manga backgrounds and illustrations.
In one-point perspective, lines converged on one point from the background to

the foreground. In two-point perspective, in addition to depth, lines representing width
also converge. As seen in the example below, two lines going in different directions
converge on their respective vanishing point. Hence the name “two-point perspective”.
Even in two-point perspective, vanishing points are on the eye level.
3. Three-point perspective- used for drawing compositions that are looking up at a large
object or looking down from a high place.
In two-point perspective, lines representing depth and width converge on two

separate vanishing points. In three-point perspective, lines representing height stretch
toward a third vanishing point. For compositions that are looking up, the height
vanishing point is above the object.
When looking down, the height vanishing point is below the object.
Printing and Plotting Process
CADD drawings are printed using a printer or a plotter. The printing process is as simple as selecting
the print or plot function from the menu. This action sends data from the computer to a printer or plotter, which
produces the final drawing. The drawings are neat, clean and – depending on the quality of the printer – highly
accurate.

Architectural Symbols
These are graphical representations of different features that appear on blueprint plans or elevation
drawings of buildings. The graphics themselves can vary in appearance from one plan to another, but can
usually be distinguished fairly easily by anyone with a basic understanding of their meaning.
Reference:
Reference:

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Continuation
COLUMNS-A column can be defined as a vertical structural member designed to transmit a compressive load.
A column transmits the load from ceiling/roof slab and beam, including its own weight to the
foundation. Hence it should be realized that the failure of a column results in the collapse of the
entire structure. The design of a column should therefore receive importance.
Types of Columns
Columns can be classified bases on its Shape, Slenderness ratio, type of loading and Pattern of lateral
reinforcement.
A. Based on Slenderness Ratio

1. Long Column or Slender [The length is greater than the critical buckling length and it fails by
buckling.]
2. Short Column [The length is less than the critical buckling length and it fails by shearing.]
3. Intermediate Column
B. Based on Shape Note: column means a solid upright

1. Rectangle structure designed usually to support a
2. Square larger structure above it, such as a roof or
3. Circular horizontal beam, but sometimes for
4. Polygon decoration, whereas post means a long
dowel or plank protruding from the ground.
C. Based on Type of Loading
1. Axially loaded column While:
2. Axial load and un-axial bending column
3. Axial load and biaxial bending column Technically, poles are long and relative to
their length thin and not strong. Posts are
thick and sturdy and support significant
D. Based on Pattern of Lateral Reinforcement weight. Many people use the words
1. Tied columns interchangeably.
2. Spiral columns
RCC COLUMNS (REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS)

A reinforced concrete column can be defined as a structural member with a steel frame (reinforcement
bars) composed of concrete that is been designed to carry compressive loads.
BEAMS
A beam is a structural member which spans horizontally between supports and carries loads which act
at right angles to the length of the beam. They are small in cross-section compared with their span. The
width and depth of a typical beam are “small” compared with its span. Typically, the width and depth are
less than span/10.
Generally a beam is subjected to two sets of external forces and two types of internal forces.
The external loads are the loads applied to the beam and reactions to the loads from the supports. The
two types of internal force are bending moments and shear forces. The internal shear force and the
internal bending moment can be represented as pairs of forces. The Figure below shows a Typical
Beam with Internal and external forces acting on it.
A. Types of Beams Based on Support Conditions

1. Simply supported Beam- one of the most simple structures. It features only two supports, one
at each end. One is a pinned support and the other is a roller support.
2. Fixed Beam- a beam supported on both ends, which are fixed in place. Fixed beam is also
called Encaster beam or Constraint beam or Built in beam. In a fixed
beam the fixed end moments develop at the end supports. In
these beams, the supports should be kept at the same level.
3. Cantilever Beam- a cantilever beam is a member with one end projecting beyond the point of
support, free to move in a vertical plane under the influence of vertical
loads placed between the free end and the support.
4. Continuous Beam- are those that rest over three or more supports, thereby having one or
more redundant support reactions. is a statically indeterminate
structure
5. Overhanging Beam- the overhanging beam is a beam which has unsupported length on one
or both sides.
Support Conditions in Beams

1. Roller
2. Pinned
3. Fixed
B. Types of Beams Based on Construction Materials

1. Reinforced Concrete Beams
It is constructed from concrete and reinforcement as shown. Sometimes reinforced
concrete beam is concealed in reinforced concrete slabs and it is called hidden beam
or concealed beam.
2. Steel Beams
It is constructed from steels and used in several applications.
3. Timber beams
The timber beam is constructed from timber and used in the past. However, The
application of such a beam in the construction industry significantly declined.
4. Composite Beams
Composite beams are constructed from two or more different types of materials, such
as steel and concrete. Fig. 8 shows Different valid cross-sections for the composite
beam.
C. Types of Beams Based on Cross-Section Shapes
1. Concrete
ii. Rectangular beam
This type of beam is widely used in the construction of reinforced concrete buildings
and other structures.
iii. T-section beam

This type of beam is mostly constructed monolithically with a reinforced concrete slab.
Sometimes, Isolated T-beam is built to increase the compression strength of concrete.
Added to that, inverted T-beam can also be constructed according to the requirements
of loading imposed.
iv. L-section beam

This type of beam is constructed monolithically with a reinforced concrete slab at the
perimeter of the structure,
2. Steel
There are various steel beam cross-sectional shapes. Each cross-sectional shape offer
superior advantages in a given condition compare with other shapes.
Square, rectangular, circular, I-shaped, T-shaped, H-shaped, C-shaped, and tubular are
examples of beam cross-sectional shapes constructed from steel.
D. Types of Beams Based on Geometry
1. Straight beam
Beam with a straight profile and the majority of beams in structures are straight beams.
2. Curved beam
Beam with curved profile, such as in the case of circular buildings.
3. Tapered beam
Beam with tapered cross section.
E. Types of Beams Based on Equilibrium Condition
1. Statically Determinate Beam

For a statically determinate beam, equilibrium conditions alone can be used to solve
reactions. The number of unknown reactions is equal to the number of equations.
2. Statically indeterminate beam

For a statically indeterminate beam, equilibrium conditions are not enough to solve
reactions. So, the analysis of this type of beam is more complicated than that of
statically determinate beams.
F. Types of Beams Based on Method of Construction
1. Cast In-situ Concrete Beam

This type of beam is constructed on the project site. So, forms are initially fixed, then
fresh concrete is poured and allowed to hardened. Then, loads would be imposed.
2. Precast Concrete Beam

This type of beam is manufactured in factories. So, the construction condition is more
controllable compare with on-site construction. Consequently, the quality of the
concrete of the beam would be greater. Various cross-sectional shapes can be
manufactures such as T- beam, Double T-beam, Inverted T-beam, and many more.
3. Prestressed Concrete Beam

The pre-stressed concrete beam is constructed by stressing strands before applying
loads on the beam. Pre-tensioned concrete beam and post-tensioned concrete beams
are variations of pre-stressed concrete beam.
G. Special Type of Beams
1. Lintel Beam- beam placed across the openings like doors, windows etc. in buildings to support
the load from the structure above. The width of lintel beam is equal to the width
of wall, and the ends of it is built into the wall
Above: (Left) lintel beam with stiffener columns for wide span doors and
windows.
2. Roof Beam-a load-bearing member that is integral to the strength of the building. It supports
the floor or roof above while adding integrity to walls. It also supports joists,
trusses and other roofing elements.
3. Floor beam-a large beam, typically steel or concrete, that spans the width of a house at the
centre and gives support to the floor joists.
4. Joists-horizontal structural member used in framing to span an open space, often between
beams that subsequently transfer loads to vertical members. When
incorporated into a floor framing system, joists serve to provide stiffness to the
subfloor sheathing, allowing it to function as a horizontal diaphragm. It can be a
floor joists or ceiling joists.
5. Girder-a support beam used in construction. It is the main horizontal support of a structure
which supports smaller beams.
6. Plinth Beam- is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its
foundation. Plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of
cracks from the foundation into the wall above when the foundation suffers
from settlement
7. Tie Beam- also a type of plinth beam. When tie beam is provided at plinth level it is known
as plinth beam. That means the only difference is the height at which they are
provided. Plinth beam is only provided at plinth level but tie beam is provided
anywhere above the plinth level and floor level.
8. Cantilever beam -is a rigid structural element that is supported at one end and free at the
other. The cantilever beam can be made of either concrete or steel whose one end is cast or
anchored to a vertical support. It is a horizontal beam structure whose free end is exposed to
vertical loads.
FLOORS
Flooring is the general term for a permanent or temporary covering of a floor, or for the work of installing
such a floor covering. Both terms are used interchangeably but floor covering refers more to loose-laid
materials.
Types of Floors
1. Solid or grade floors- Floors may be built at ground level, i.e. on the soil within the
Building
2. Suspended floors- supported on joists and beams. Also called as above grade floors
Difference between two-way floor slab and one-way floor slab
In two-way slab, the crank is provided in four directions. The one-

way slab is supported by a beam on two opposite side only.
The two-way slab is supported by the beam on all four sides.
In one-way slab, the load is carried in one direction perpendicular
to the supporting beam.
WALLS
Walls support roofs, floors and ceilings; to enclose a space as part of the building envelope along with a
roof to give buildings form; and to provide shelter and security. In addition, the wall may house various
types of utilities such as electrical wiring or plumbing.
Walls may be divided into two types
a. Load-bearing walls - support loads from floors and roof in addition to their own weight and which
resist side pressure from wind and, in some cases, from stored material or
objects within the building
b. Non-load-bearing walls - carry no floor or roof loads. Each type may be further divided into
external or enclosing walls, and internal dividing walls. Good quality walls
provide strength and stability, weather resistance, fire resistance, thermal
insulation and sound insulation.
Types of Building Walls
1. Masonry wall - wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as brick, clay or concrete blocks,
or stone, usually in horizontal courses bonded together with some form of mortar
2. Monolithic wall - wall is built of a material placed in forms during the construction. Examples are
traditional earth wall and the modern concrete wall. The earth walls are inexpensive
and durable if placed on a good foundation and protected from rain by a rendering or
wide roof overhangs.
3. Frame wall - wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members, usually of timber, at close
intervals which together with facing or sheeting on one or both sides form a load-
bearing system.
4. Membrane wall - wall is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or sheets of reinforced plastic,
metal, asbestos-cement or other suitable material bonded to a core of foamed plastic to
produce a thin wall element of high strength and low weight.
5. Retaining Walls- structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil, when
there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil. A
basement wall is thus one kind of retaining wall.
Factors which will determine the type of wall to be used

a. The materials available at a reasonable cost
b. Availability of craftsmen capable of using the materials in the best way
c. Climate
d. The use of the building - functional requirements
In dwelling houses with ceilings, wall height of 2.4m is suitable. Low roofs or ceilings in a house
create a depressing atmosphere and tend to make the rooms warmer in hot weather.
Wall Nomenclatures of Typical Walling Methods
Type 1: Wood Frame walls
Type 2: Masonry Walls
Type 3: Steel/ metal furring with hardie flex as membrane
CEILING
A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that covers the upper limits of a room. It is not generally
considered a structural element, but a finished surface concealing the underside of the roof structure or
the floor of a story above
Typical Ceiling Nomenclatures
ROOFING
A roof is an essential part of any building in that it provides the necessary protection from rain, sun,
wind, heat and cold. The integrity of the roof is important for the structure of the building itself as well as
the occupants and the goods stored within the building.
The roof structure must be designed to withstand the dead load imposed by the roofing and framing as
well as the forces of wind and in some areas, snow or drifting dust. The roofing must be leak proof,
durable and perhaps satisfy other requirements such as being fire resistant, a good thermal insulator or
high in thermal capacity.
Types of Roof
1. Flat Roof – used only to a limited extent on farm buildings. Maintenance is high since the roof has
little slope for water to run off
2. Shed Roof – the simplest and easiest to construct and maintain. It is common sight on single story
poultry houses, open sheds for cattle or swine, and similar buildings
3. Gable Roof – one of the most universally used roof shapes on farm buildings. This type of roof is
commonly seen on two-story poultry houses, dairy barns, and single-story buildings
that are too wide for shed type of roof.
4. Hip Roof – more desirable from an architectural standpoint than from utilitarian value. It requires
more complicated framing than the gable roof and is consequently more expensive to
build. One of the most common uses of hip roof is on garages.
5. Monitor and Semi-Monitor Roof – special types of roof with additional height to give more room
for storage. The extension above the main roof was often used for ventilation, and
windows in the vertical walls give additional light.
6. Gambrel Roof – used to gain more space for the overhead storage of hay and feed. This roof is
common sight on two-story dairy barns and other livestock shelters where overhead
storage of hay is desired.
7. Arch Roof – also known as gothic roof. Prefabrication of laminated arched rafters has made the
construction of arched roofs simple and easy. Its uses are the same as for the gambrel
roof.
Typical Roof Nomenclatures
TRUSSES
A truss is a structure with straight pieces forming triangles to support a load. The members of the
triangles are placed under tension and compression but do not bend.
A truss is a jointed frame that is used to support loads over a relatively long span. In general, the loads
are applied to the truss in a direction transverse to its length and the loads are applied only at the joints.
Parts of the truss
a. chords are the outer truss members

b. web members (diagonals and verticals) are the interior members
c. joints or panel points are the joints where members of the truss meet
d. bays are the spaces between trusses
e. purlins are beams spanning from truss to truss that transmits to the trusses the roof loads
f. panels are portion of the truss that occurs between two adjacent joints of the top chord
Types of Truss
a. Howe c. Pratt e. Warren
b. Fink d. Shawver f. braced-rafter
Typical Truss Nomenclatures
Pitch = rise / span Slope = rise/ (span)/2 = 2 pitch
Note: Additional Reading on Basic Roof Framing PDF source
TYPES OF STRUCTURES BASED ON MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Reinforced Concrete Structures
©civilengineering
2. Steel Structures
© Indiamart
3. Wooden Structures
©Bonestructures
STEEL REINFORCEMENTS
Rebar, also known as reinforcement steel and reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or mesh
of steel wires used in reinforced concrete and masonry structures to strengthen and hold
the concrete in tension. To improve the quality of the bond with the concrete, the surface of rebar is
often patterned.
Typical Nomenclature of Steel Reinforcements

1. Footings and Foundations
©theconstructor
2. Columns and Beams
© pinterest
© pinterest
3. Floor slabs
© pinterest
© www.scielo.org.za
Common Mistakes in Steel reinforcement installations

Source: https://youtu.be/tyHfmrOO_fk
SCAFFOLDINGS
Scaffolding, also called scaffold or staging, is a temporary structure used to support a work crew and
materials to aid in the construction, maintenance and repair of buildings, bridges and all other man-
made structures.
©masoncontractors.org
FORMWORKS
Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into which concrete is poured
and formed. Traditional formwork is fabricated using timber, but it can also be constructed from steel,
glass fibre reinforced plastics and other materials.
1. Shuttering-formwork for columns, retaining walls, footings are known as shuttering.

2. Centering -formwork for slabs and floor beams is known as centering.
©cornermetal.com.ph
Above: Formworks that uses phenolic boards
FINISHING
The most basic type of concrete finish is a smooth surface created through the use of screeds and
trowels. Immediately after concrete has been placed in forms, concrete finishers utilize a screed to level
out the concrete surface. Screeds often consist of long pieces of metal or wood that are pulled and
pushed across the concrete surface to remove excess concrete and fill in gaps in the concrete surface.
Types of concrete finishing techniques

1. Troweling or Floating
2. Edging
3. Broom Finish
Concrete Texture
1. Exposed Aggregate Finish
2. Salt Finish
3. Stamped Concrete
Concrete Coloring
1. Pigments
2. Concrete Stain
CONCRETE CURING
©civileblog.com
Curing of concrete is defined as providing adequate moisture, temperature, and time to allow
the concrete to achieve the desired properties for its intended use.
Curing plays an important role on strength development and durability of concrete. Curing takes place
immediately after concrete placing and finishing, and involves maintenance of desired moisture and
temperature conditions, both at depth and near the surface, for extended periods of time.
Curing is the process where the concrete surfaces are kept wet for a certain period after placing of
concrete so as to promote the hardening of cement. It consists of a control of temperature and of the
moisture movement from and into the concrete.
Purposes of curing of concrete

Following are the objects or purposes of the curing of concrete:
1. Curing protects the concrete surfaces from sun and wind.

2. The presence of water is essential to cause the chemical action which accompanies the
setting of concrete. Normally, there is an adequate quantity of water at the time of mixing to
cause the hardening of concrete. But it is necessary to retain water until the concrete has
fully hardened.
3. The strength of concrete gradually increases with age, if curing is efficient. This increase in
strength is sudden and rapid in early stages and it continues slowly for an indefinite period.
4. By proper curing, the durability and impermeability of concrete are increased and shrinkage
is reduced.
5. The resistance of concrete to abrasion is considerably increased by proper curing.
Period of curing
This depends upon the type of cement and nature of work. For ordinary Portland cement, the
curing period is about 7 to 14 days. If rapid hardening cement is used, the curing period can be
considerably reduced.
Effects of improper curing

Following are the major disadvantages of improper curing of concrete:
1. The chances of ingress of chlorides and atmospheric chemicals are very high.
2. The compressive and flexural strengths are lowered.
3. The cracks are formed due to plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and thermal effects.
4. The durability decreases due to higher permeability.
5. The frost and weathering resistances are decreased.
6. The rate of carbonation increases.
7. The surfaces are coated with sand and dust and it leads to lower the abrasion resistance.
The above disadvantages are more prominent in those parts of structures which are either
directly exposed or those which have large surfaces compared to depth such as roads, canals,
bridges, cooling towers, chimneys, etc. It is therefore necessary to protect the large exposed
surfaces even before setting. Otherwise it may lead to a pattern of fine cracks.
Methods of curing
Following two factors are considered while selecting any mode of method of curing:
1. The temperature should be kept minimum for dissipation of heat of hydration.
2. The water loss should be prevented.
Thus all the methods of curing of concrete are derived from the basic principle of lowering of
the surface temperatures and prevention of water evaporation. Several specialized curing
techniques are employed in the modern construction work, but the most commonly employed
methods of curing are as follows:
1. Ponding with water.

2. Covering concrete with wet jute bags.
3. Covering concrete with water-proof paper of polythelene sheets and holding it in position.
4. Intermittent spraying with water and continuous sprinkling of water.
5. Applying curing compounds.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Important Terminologies
RCC- Reinforced concrete (RC), also called reinforced cement concrete (RCC), is a composite material
in which concrete's relatively low tensile strength and ductility are compensated for by the
inclusion of reinforcement having higher tensile strength or ductility.
-it means the main structural members of the building, viz, slabs, beams, columns and
foundations are made up of reinforced cement concrete.
PCC- stands for plain cement concrete-
-mixture of cement, sand and coarse aggregate.
-also defined as Cement Concrete or Blinding Concrete.
-the main reason of providing PCC is to provide a rigid impervious bed to RCC in the foundation
before starting any RCC or masonry work directly on the excavated soil, PCC is done to form a
levelled surface and to avoid laying concrete on soil directly so as to avoid mixing with soil and
also to prevent soil extracting water from RCC thereby weakening it.
Precast concrete- is reinforced concrete that is cast away from the building site in reusable mold or
"form" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction, and
assembled on site. (see vs. standard concrete)
Standard concrete- is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site.
Pre-stressed concrete- is a form of concrete where initial compression is given in the concrete before
applying the external load so that stress from external loads are counteracted in the desired
way during the service period. This initial compression is introduced by high strength steel wire
or alloys (called ‘tendon’) located in the concrete section.
Geospatial Techniques
Geospatial technology is an integration of various technologies in the mapping, visualization and

recording of phenomena in the Earth system and space.
Geospatial technology encompasses the following specialist areas:
1. Engineering survey- involves the preparation of maps and plans for planning and designing
structures, as well as ensuring that they are constructed in accordance with the
required dimensions and tolerances.
2. Geographic Information Systems- involves collecting and manipulating geographic information

and presenting it in the required form.
3. Cartography- accurate and precise production of maps or plans and the representation of
the information in two or three dimensions.
4. Photogrammetry- involves obtaining information from photographic images in order to produce a

plan of an area.
5. Hydrographic survey- This involves measuring and mapping the Earth’s surface that is covered by
water.
Survey of a building site
A simple survey of a building site provides accurate information needed to locate a building in relation to
other structures or natural features. Data from the survey are then used for drawing a map of the site, including
contours and drainage lines if needed. Once located, the building foundation must be squared and leveled.
Surveying in construction site involves:
1. Measurement of distances
2. Measurement of angles
3. Measurement of vertical alignment
4. Measurement of horizontal alignment/ levelling
Volume of earth removed
The labour and expense involved in moving soil can be substantial. Careful planning and volume
estimation will minimize the amount that needs to be moved.
If the slope is not as uniform as illustrated in the above figure, the slope line must be averaged as
shown in figure. In this example the volume to be moved is estimated to be 45.6 m3.
V =1/2 h x b x w
= 1/2 × 1.9 × 4.8 × 10
= 45.6 m3
When excavated, the volume of firm soil will increase by approximately 20 percent. If this soil is used for
fill, it must either be allowed to settle for some time or be compacted to reduce it to the original volume before
any construction work can begin.
Load Calculations
The process of building construction involves an understanding of the nature and characteristics of a
number of materials; the methods to process them and form them into building units and components; structural
principles; stability and behaviour under load; building production operations; and building economics.
Classification of loads based on the area over which they are applied
Concentrated load – load applied at a point or along a line

Distributed load – load spread over a large area
Uniformly distributed load – load is equal over all portion of the contact area
Loads are usually divided into the following categories:
A. Vertical Loads
1. Dead loads- result from the mass of all the elements of the building, including footings,
foundation, walls, suspended floors, frame and roof. These loads are
permanent, fixed and relatively easy to calculate.
2. Live loads- result from the mass of animals, people, equipment and stored products.
-gravity loads which are not permanently applied to the structure
i. roof live loads – include loads imposed during building construction (e.g.
roofing process) and after construction (e.g. re-roofing operations, air
conditioning and mechanical equipment installation and servicing)
ii. floor live loads –based on the occupancy or use of the building (human
occupants, furniture, stored materials, etc.)
B. Lateral loads -include wind loads and seismic loads
Wind Loads- occurs when structures block the flow of wind converting wind’s kinetic energy
into potential energy of pressure.
Methods of determining wind loads for primary lateral-force- resisting system (LFRS)
a. Normal Force Method

 gives more accurate description of wind forces
 used for buildings with gable rigid frames
b. Projected Area Method

 simple and produces satisfactory design for most structures
 not applicable to gable rigid frames or to structures greater than 200 ft
in height
Although the mass of these loads can be calculated readily, the fact that the number or amount
of components may vary considerably from time to time makes live loads more difficult to estimate than
dead loads. Live loads also include the forces resulting from natural phenomena, such as wind,
earthquakes and snow.
Foundation
Foundation is defined as a base upon which a building rests and through which the loads on the
building are transmitted to the ground. It is a common practice to place footings under foundation of buildings in
order to enlarge the bearing area between the foundation and the ground, thus distributing the load over a
larger area and reducing the unit pressure. The combination of foundation and footing keeps the building level
and plumb and reduces settling to a minimum.
Types of Foundation
1. Continuous wall foundation - may be used either as basement walls or as curtain walls
2. Pier foundation - often used to support the timber frames of light buildings with no suspended floors
3. Pad and pole foundation - consists of small concrete pads poured in the bottom of holes which support
pressure treated poles
4. Floating slab or raft foundation - consists of a poured concrete floor in which the outer edges are
thickened to 20 to 30cm and reinforced
5. Pier and ground level beam foundation - commonly used where extensive filling has been necessary
and the foundation would have to be very deep in order to reach undisturbed soil
6. Piles - are long columns that are driven into soft ground where they support their load by friction with the
soil rather than by a firm layer at their lower end
Foundation Materials and Construction
Stone Foundations
Concrete Foundations
A curtain wall may be poured directly into a carefully

dug trench 15 cm to 25 cm wide. To have the finished
wall extend above the ground, forms built of 50 mm ×
200 mm timber can be anchored along the top of the
trench.
Soil bearing
The top layer of soil is seldom suitable

for a footing. The soil is likely to be loose,
unstable and contain organic material.
Consequently, the topsoil should be removed
and the footing trench deepened to provide a
level, undisturbed surface for the entire building
foundation.
Foundation Footings
A footing is an enlarged base for a foundation designed to distribute the building load over a larger area
of soil and to provide a firm, level surface for constructing the foundation wall.
Design Formula
Footing area = Total Load / Soil bearing capacity
Note: total load = building load + weight of footing

Site Drains
Construction Layout
Also known as construction staking or site layout survey, is the process in which the contractor reads
the building plans (blueprints) and then marks with stakes the locations of all elements on the build site. The
building corners are staked, as well as the interior grid lines.
1. Batter boards- (or battre boards, Sometimes mispronounced as "battle boards") are temporary
frames, set beyond the corners of a planned foundation at precise elevations.
These batter boards are then used to hold layout lines (construction twine) to indicate
the limits (edges and corners) of the foundation.
Materials needed:
Nylon String, hammer, nails, plumb bob, try-square, leverl bar or the
builders level, clear hose, 2x2 or 2x3 wood and a steel tape.
Assignments:
1. Assignment 5: Computation of the dead load and live load of the building (farm house).
Make assumptions and use the formula and your basic engineering knowledge.
2. Assignment 6: Floor Plan
3. Assignment 8: Foundation Plan
4. Assignment 9: Create a sketch of the construction lay out of the building in Sketch up.
Assignments:
1. Assignment 5: Computation of the dead load and live load of the building (farm house).
Make assumptions and use the formula and your basic engineering knowledge.
2. Assignment 6: Floor Plan
3. Assignment 8: Foundation Plan
4. Assignment 9: Create a sketch of the construction lay out of the building in Sketch up.

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ABE 130: AB STRUCTURES ENGINEERING

Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering Instructor: Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

INTRODUCTION TO AB STRUCTURES ENGINEERING

Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES

From 1970 to 1972 – RA 6541 to PD 1096

From 1977 to 2005 Revised PD 1096

Section 1.01.03 – Scope of the National Building Code

Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

What is planning? An overview

e. Economic planning and feasibility

Factors to be considered in Farmstead Planning

An approach to building planning

c. Analysing the activities

f. Functional design of the building

Some general guidelines are as follows:

Rural Structure in Tropics

Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

BUILDING PRODUCTION PROCESS

source: rural structures in the tropics

source: rural structures in the tropics

Three levels of accuracy in costing:

 Specific guidance costs- comparing similar projects, it may be possible to

1. Established costs: costs that either have a fixed value or a

 Accurate costing- done in conjunction with the bill of quantities.

The tendering/bidding procedure

Rural structures in Tropics

Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

Computer-aided design and drafting (CADD)

Using CADD to produce a building drawing has the following advantages:

 The drawings are clean, neat and highly presentable.

DESIGN DRAFTING BEFORE DESIGN DRAFTING TODAY

Common CADD Tools:

1. Drafting: AutoCAD (Automatic Computer Aided Design):

2. Analysis and Design: STAAD Pro

 Wide-ranging templates to quickly initiate a model

4. Analysis and Design: RISA

Terms used in Perspective Drawings:

© Paintings by Chas Rowe

© Encyclopaedia-The Free dictionary

2. Two-point perspective- is used for compositions that look at objects at an angle. As it

In one-point perspective, lines converged on one point from the background to

In two-point perspective, lines representing depth and width converge on two

Printing and Plotting Process

source: rural structures in the tropics

source: rural structures in the tropics

source: rural structures in the tropics

Rural Structure in Tropics

source: rural structures in the tropics

Rural Structure in Tropics

Engr. Rener B. Tandugon

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Continuation

A. Based on Slenderness Ratio

B. Based on Shape Note: column means a solid upright

RCC COLUMNS (REINFORCED CONCRETE COLUMNS)

A. Types of Beams Based on Support Conditions

Support Conditions in Beams