Course Code: ES 1

Course Title: ENGINEERING DRAWING & PLANS

Learning Module 2
CHAPTER 7
The Civil Engineering profession relies heavily on design and the implementation of the said design in
construction and manufacturing. To be able to achieve the desired outcome of a project the communication
between the designer and the implementor must be clear and definite. The way designers communicate
the requirements of a project whether it is a construction project or a product is through plans. It includes
lines, notes, dimensions and other elements that is necessary for the implementors to create the desired
outcome of the designers. As an engineering student, one must be able to read and interpret Engineering
drawings to be able to understand what is required by the designers. Engineers create and implement plans
so it is necessary that Engineering students must be able to read and understand plans.
The purpose of this module is to describe the general principles of good drawing office practice, This module
should therefore prove a useful source of general reference for both the student and the more advanced
reader.
This module has different sections, Learning outcomes enumerates the different competencies the student
must acquire after every chapter. Module map is a learning guide for the topics that will be discussed in the
chapter. Introduction gives a brief description of the chapter. Self-assessment questions must be answered
to gauge the existing knowledge of the student. Lessons are the topics and is paired with activity to ensure
that the students are able to grasp the topics discussed and lastly reference where the references for the
chapter is listed. All the answers on the activities must be handwritten on a long bond paper. These are to
be submitted before the scheduled final exam.

After completing this chapter, the student shall be able to:

BIM Terms

Benefits of BIM

Commercial BIM Software

BIM Standards Processes

BIM Key Factors Technology

Behavior
Engineering drawing is a crucial subject for engineering students. In the practice of Engineering, the
professional will be looking at different kinds of plans. Drawing is considered to be a universal language, if
you show a drawing of a dog to a foreigner who speaks a different language they will easily understand
what it is despite of the differences in language. Plans are basically drawings that are prepared by a
designer detailing the specifications of a project. If a drawing is not complete, of the details presented are
not in order, plans may easily be misinterpreted and the outcome might differ from the design thought of by
the designer. Under this chapter, the students will be introduced to the different concepts in engineering
drawing that will be useful once they are already in the professional world either as a planner/designer and
implementor/contractor.

1. What is the importance of symbols in an engineering drawing?

Before the advent of BIM, the construction industry generally worked in silos, where each member of a project team
looked out solely for his or her own best interests and the project took a backseat (or was in the trunk) to other
priorities. Further compounding the isolation issue was the prevalence of the hard bid delivery method, which
contractually and financially isolated team members from one another. Both the culture and this standoffish
delivery method made for a litigious environment that was plagued with waste and cost overruns. According to the
book The Commercial Real Estate Revolution: Nine Transforming Keys to Lowering Costs, Cutting Waste, and Driving
Change in a Broken Industry (Wiley, 2009), by Rex Miller, Dean Strombom, Mark Iammarino, and Bill Black, the waste
created by “simple efficiency and not-sosimple bad behavior” in the United States alone in 2007 was an estimated
$500 billion. If we are to continue to function as a profession, we must ask ourselves, “Why should we ask
construction consumers to pay for our mistakes?” The promise of BIM is to build a structure virtually prior to
physically constructing it. This allows project participants to design, analyze, sequence, and explore a project through
a digital environment where it is far less expensive to make changes than in the field during construction, where
changes are exponentially more costly. Today, this promise is becoming reality. An array of BIM software and mobile
applications are delivering results that mitigate construction risk. Although some tools are more advanced than
others, we are rarely at an impasse where some function is simply “impossible” and not able to be achieved through
technology.

Where we find the majority of challenges nowadays in virtual building is that many teams fail to realize that the
integration of team members creates significantly better outcomes. For example, subcontractors who are allowed
to participate early in the scheduling process are able to leverage their expertise and share valuable information
such as material lead times, crew sizes and installation methods that can create a more meaningful model
simulation. Additionally, when a construction management team is allowed to participate in an architect’s design
review meeting, they are able to see what factors are important to the client and design team and use that
knowledge going forward as they prepare to build. In this book, I acknowledge these best practices and propose a
new way of evaluating technology and teams holistically by using integrated teams that are capable of keeping pace
with the rapid introduction of available technologies to deliver better construction outcomes. As George Elvin states
in Integrated Practice in Architecture: Mastering Design-Build, Fast-Track, and Building Information Modeling (Wiley,
2007): “Integration enables a team of designers and constructors to work together toward a common goal, allowing
design and construction activities to unfold in the best way for the project, rather than locking them into separate
phases required in over-the-wall delivery.” It is this collaborative, project-focused approach that allows teams to
function more efficiently and use BIM to get to better answers faster. Team integration moves the focus beyond
individual needs and shifts it to how information-rich models can be used to explore options and scenarios that
create better projects and remove risk.
BIM has evolved. The construction community is seeing a shift from the 3D or visualization aspect of BIM to
workflow-specific tools that are being directly applied to solve real-world problems, such as installation verification,
sequencing, and estimating. The industry dialogue is now moving to a general questioning of how we optimize the
effective capture, analysis, and dissemination of information in real time to make projects more successful.
As a result of this shift in focus, existing tools are adapting and new ones are being created to address these
challenges. The adoption of BIM into mainstream construction management practice has taken the typical
constructs of what it meant to be a construction manager and transformed them into a new way of looking at how
we work. We are now asking new questions such as:
What else can we do with all this information?
⦁ Who else can benefit from this data?
⦁ How can we use models to enable better decision making?
⦁ What is the right level of virtual augmentation on a project site to make our teams more productive?

It’s an exciting time in the AEC industry because just as applications are improving, so are many of the technologies
that support its use. Technologies such as cloud computing, which gives you the ability to use remote servers to
process data from any web-connected device, and the accelerated growth of mobile and wearable hardware
continue to shift the paradigm of practice in construction management for designers and builders alike.
Other changes are more incremental in nature. These improvements come in the form of better software features
based on user feedback as well as enhanced stability of these tools, which increases productivity and reliability.
Finally, the constant stream of new ideas and improvements in the form of innovative tools and processes entering
the marketplace continues to challenge the way in which teams work and build structures at a variety of levels. In
the midst of all of this change is the promise of a better way of working collaboratively with more useful information
to create value in the built environment.
Since BIM’s introduction, BIM software has progressed with new features and applications. Likewise, BIM has forced
many in the construction industry to evolve as well and challenge the way they previously thought about designing
and building projects. As a result, the construction industry began investing in new and better technology. The rapid
growth of new technology for the construction market is no coincidence. Construction hasn’t kept pace with other
industries in regard to automation and technological improvements over the last forty years, which has created
fertile ground for new tools and products that offer better ways of working. Although innovation is encouraged, new
tools require fast analysis and project testing before widespread adoption.
BIM is not just software—rather, it is a process and software. Taking that one step further, we now see that
successful BIM use requires three key factors:
⦁ Processes ⦁ Technologies ⦁ Behaviors

These three components can make or break a project using BIM and technology. Think of these as the three-legged
stool to the successful integration and use of BIM (Figure 1). Take one leg away and you are left with a pretty useless
object that isn’t good for much. So why are these three pieces so important?
 F IGURE 1. THREE - LEGGED STOOL OF BIM

Processes
Construction management and many other engineering-focused firms tend to take new technologies and try to
make them work in old processes. This approach creates waste by not taking into account the implications of the
new tool and what existing processes and workflows should change that would make an outcome more efficient. A
good example was the evolution of clash detection and resolution. As clash detection started to gain traction,
many teams would host a number of meetings each week that involved the entire project team to coordinate
among themselves using this new 3D environment. Although the technology was better, the process used was
similar to what had been done before in a 2D coordination review. As a result, many users found the new process
was not only inefficient but actually detrimental to a project’s efficiency. Because team members were tied up in
clash detection review meetings, response times for project related issues increased. They were also burning
through valuable time and found that their production declined steeply because of the lack of available hours.
Nowadays, these meetings typically focus on two or three particular trades or scopes at a defined 2-to-3-hour
timeframe to best use each team member’s resources. Additionally, teams are now looking at ways of eliminating
the clash detection process altogether by modeling in cloud-based tools that notify users in real-time when they
create clashes.
These process shifts are critical to improvement, because they allow users to continually think of ways to improve
and deliver work. In his book The Spirit of Kaizen: Creating Lasting Excellence One Small Step at a Time (McGraw-
Hill, 2012), Robert Maurer states that “When you need to make a change, there are two basic strategies you can
use: innovation and kaizen. Innovation calls for a radical, immediate rethink of the status quo. Kaizen, on the other
hand, asks for . . . small, doable steps toward improvement.” Successful BIM integrators realize that both large
innovation and smaller process step changes are needed when using technology. Innovative change is driven by
the speed at which technologies are deployed, and in order to stay relevant, you need to find ways to be nimble
and look at these tools as fast as they come. Kaizen change calls for patient, iterative improvements to current
tools and processes used and, at its core, require a cultural mind-set in order to work.
Keep in mind that, like a hammer or a saw, BIM is just a tool. Used with the right processes in place, BIM systems
can create tremendous value for an organization. When new tools are combined with old processes, they can
inhibit success as well as frustrate users. This is why it is so important to look at new tools as they become
available for what they are and treat the investigation of the processes required to enable a new tool with the
same rigor as that of the technology itself.
Technologies
The successful integration of BIM involves using BIM tools that work. Though this sounds simple enough, tools
need to be explored further “post sales pitch.” This means after the software or application salespeople have left
the room, we need to ask, “Does this product improve our organization or way of working?” The strategy for how a
team analyzes new technologies and selects them is important because it determines how nimble and responsive a
team will be. The method for selecting tools in the construction industry typically falls into three approaches, each
with different results.
The first strategy for selection and integration is the “pile on” method. In this approach, a company or organization
looks at tools consistently as an addition to their current systems. The main hypothesis in this method is that the
firm will begin by piloting the new tool and then look at how it interfaces with the company’s other systems to see
whether the product can meet its demands. If the tool looks like it is valuable and can be used, then the company
begins a broader series of pilots that explore it further. The intention is that the new tool will “weave” its way into
the fabric of the tools used within the company and ultimately the best tools will be used, while the others will
fade away.
This method is the least painful of the three strategies, mainly because it is easy and requires the least rigor and
thought. However, the constant addition of new tools creates confusion as to which tools are foundational and
which are being tested. The pile on method rarely evaluates new tools against the current tools a firm is using. This
type of diligence usually results in tools that overlap in functionality without a decision to remove one or another,
until absolutely necessary. The pile-on method does allow for iterative or Kaizen-like changes to be made with
little pain; however, a firm must be diligent about not selecting too many tools that inhibit the company’s ability to
perform.
The second strategy is a “swap out,” or a direct replacement strategy. In this method, a company examines a new
tool and its features and then looks internally to see which current tool or tools could be replaced. This one-to-one
analysis allows for systems to be upgraded and consolidated. Direction on which tools are to be used and which
aren’t are usually clearer than with the pile-on method. This method also creates the ability to continually optimize
the “toolbox” of a firm to stay relevant and competitive.
One of the shortcomings of the swap-out method is that the related processes and in-depth discovery of how a
team works together takes a backseat to the feature comparison of each piece of software. Additionally, this
method of selection is weaker against disruptive technologies that change the fundamentals in the way a company
works, because behind the tools there is usually an established way of working. The improvement cycle in this
methodology often follows industry trends, though this method does allow tool selection to be consolidated and
the toolbox of an organization to be focused.
The third strategy is less well known but is now growing in popularity due to the rise of lean concepts and
outcome-focused thinking. Using this method, known as the “process first” strategy, a team begins by looking at
their current processes and then asks “How do we want to work?” This question requires “blue sky” thinking and
assumes that the technologies needed to enable this new way of working will be there when they determine their
optimal working conditions. This method of selection is more tedious and time-consuming than the two previous
strategies and requires a significant investment of time and research to work. The outcomes from this effort vary,
but many firms come away with a plan that includes input from a broad crosssection of their stakeholders. The
difference is that the team understands the desired outcomes, and the selection of one tool versus another
requires considerably less effort.
In this method, the litmus test of value is whether or not the tool aligns with the firm’s vision. In some cases, no
tools exist that support how a team wants to work. This situation is a risk of the process-first strategy; however, it
is also fertile ground for customized solution development that meets the needs of the team. These custom
solutions can be developed internally or with a third-party developer, or information can be provided to software
vendors to develop and integrate into future releases of existing tools. This method of technology selection
provides a framework for identifying tools that help a team reach its desired end state, because it allows the most
flexibility in a rapidly changing environment and limits the “analysis paralysis” stage that many organizations face
when analyzing tools from too many perspectives.
Unless a firm truly hasn’t changed tools in some time, it will typically use one of these three methods or some
combination. Whether the methodology of selection was purposeful or less rigid, a firm that wants to continue to
adapt and improve should look at the way it analyzes and selects tools. Doing so determines the speed and efficacy
of that company to stay at the forefront of technology and market trends.
Overall, BIM in construction is seeing a trend of consolidation in quantity and a focus on cross-platform
integration. Some vendors are rising to the call of interoperability, application programming interfaces (APIs), and
open source information sharing that limits redundancy and starts to create interesting new ways of using BIM
information. This continued improvement in BIM software can largely be attributed to user communities and
feedback. Whether that feedback comes from online forums, consumer councils, or involvement in industry
organizations and committees, the lifeblood of improvement in BIM relies on users in our industry to take an
engaged stance in the future iterations of existing tools in these venues. Just as important is the willingness to be
“sold to” by new companies with new ideas to support a dialogue and cultivate a culture of innovation and
advancement within the construction community.

Behaviors
Of the three key components to successfully integrating BIM, behaviors are the most difficult to change. As Scott
Simpson of design firm Kling Stubbins says, “BIM is 10 percent technology and 90 percent sociology.” The core of
BIM is far more than updating software—it is a cultural shift in the mind-set in the way construction management
teams collaborate. So, what do we mean when we say “behaviors”? When we consider what makes BIM work
within a construction project, the core component becomes enabling behaviors. Think about it. Would you rather
work with a team that is excited to work in a cutting-edge environment—or a team that is overly skeptical and
limits further progress by being closed-minded? Not a tough decision to make.
Teams need to fully realize that a future forward mind-set is just as important as the technologies and processes
behind it. Those who misunderstand this principle will quickly find themselves irrelevant in the design and
construction market. As the philosopher Eric Hoffer says, “In times of change, learners inherit the Earth, while the
learned find themselves beautifully equipped to deal with a world that no longer exists.”
Although we have discussed the importance of personal behaviors, it is also important to note that organizational
behaviors can impact the successful integration of technology as well. A company that has a culture of innovation
and a nimble attitude to begin with will create a persisting dynamic where change is a constant and improvement
and analysis are to be expected. Conversely, an environment that is resistant to change and that stifles innovation
will become exponentially more difficult to create that enabling dynamic that supports the successful analysis
selection and use of the right tools that may translate to process changes.
One of the main themes in Finith Jernigan’s Big BIM, little bim (4Site Press, 2008) is the concept that truly
successful BIM is much more than just BIM software (little bim); rather, it is the assemblage of the tools, processes,
and behaviors (BIG BIM) required to make BIM truly effective. Just as BIM tools are becoming more collaborative,
so must our behaviors and mind-sets. We as an industry have a significant opportunity to capitalize on what has
the potential to revolutionize the way construction is delivered going forward by shifting our attitudes and mind-
sets to more enabling behaviors.
BIM TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS
To explain the benefits and opportunities offered by BIM and integration, it is essential to develop a consistent
vocabulary and set of definitions as a basis for the discussion. The following definitions are given in the context of
their use in this Guide. Definitions used in this document are presented to promote understanding in a narrative
fashion and in a manner such that they build upon and support one another in the description of BIM, integration
and interoperability. They are not presented in alphabetical order and do not try to describe every possible use of
the word or term. Where the definition has been taken or adapted from a dictionary or other published material,
the specific reference is indicated at the end of this Guide.
BIM - A Building Information Model is a digital representation of the physical and the functional characteristics of a
facility. As such it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility, forming a reliable basis
for decisions during its life cycle from inception onward. Creating a BIM is different from making a drawing in 2-D
or 3-D CAD (see subsequent definitions). To create a BIM, a modeler uses intelligent objects to build the model.
Building Information Modeling - Building Information Modeling is the human activity of using BIM software and
other related software, hardware and technologies to create and use in a building information model.
3-D BIM- See the definition of Building Information Model. A model that includes three dimensional (3-D) shape
information and does not include the 4-D and 5-D characteristics described below.
4-D BIM - A 3-D BIM that has objects and assemblies that have schedule and time constraint data added to them.
The information can be contained in the BIM or can be linked or otherwise associated (integrated and/or
interoperable) with project design and construction activity scheduling and time sensitivity estimating and analysis
systems.
5-D BIM - A 4-D BIM that has objects and assemblies that have a cost dimension added to them. The cost
information can be contained in the BIM or can be linked or otherwise associated to the building objects.
2-D/3-D CAD - Two dimensional or three dimensional, Computer Aided Drafting is equivalent to conventional
drafting, only performed on a computer. Unintelligent points, lines and symbols are used to convey design intent
or detail construction means and methods. Most often plotted onto paper media and published in that form for
drawings and specifications and delivered to the owner, contractor and reviewing authorities and agencies for
approval and actual construction.
Parameter - A quantity that is constant under a given set of conditions (rule set), but may be different under other
conditions. For example: a duct penetrates a non-rated steel stud and gypsum board wall, and the annular space of
the penetration is sealed only with caulk. If you change the wall to a 2-hour rated concrete fire barrier (new
parameter) the duct still penetrates the wall, but in a different way, with a UL listed fire damper.

Intelligent Object - The object (or set of objects) represents not only the geometry required to represent the
component or assembly graphically (visually) but also has the ability to have much more information about that
object associated with it or related to other intelligent objects associated with it. Think of the geometric
parameters of the object as being only one of many fields in a database that describes the visual features and
characteristics of the object. Other parameters might include variables such as how the object may change (a rule
set) when something with which it is associated changes. For example, if a relationship is established between a
duct and a diffuser that are connected in the model and assigned a specified airflow and the modeler (engineer,
designer, etc.) decides to change the specified airflow of the diffuser then the duct size and diffuser, neck size
automatically (parametrically) are adjusted to accommodate the new specification, and pressure loss calculations
throughout the entire duct system are automatically updated at the same time.
Parametric - Rule based relationships between intelligent objects that enable related properties to be updated
when one property changes.
Integrated - Integrated data processing is that which has been organized and carried out as a whole, so that
intermediate outputs may serve as inputs for subsequent processing with no human intervention. The same can be
said for any human activity or process (see integrated practice). Note that integrated and interoperable are not
mutually exclusive, but they can be. A system or process can be integrated within its own boundaries, yet still not
be interoperable with other external systems or processes that could benefit from the use of data or information
contained within the first system.
Integration - Human activities and data processing—The incorporation of working practices, methods, processes,
and tools that creates a culture in which individuals and organizations are able to work together efficiently and
effectively.
Integrated Practice - Uses early contributions of knowledge through utilization of new technologies, allowing
Architects (Engineers, Owners, Contractors, Manufacturers, Firms, Individuals, Communities) to realize their
highest potential as designers and collaborators while expanding the value they provide throughout the project life
cycle (adaptation of definition in original publication cited). Essential to integrated practice is the elimination of
waste and duplication by capturing knowledge and information one time, using it for any purpose necessary
without losing it in the process and adding to it (creating new knowledge) over time.4
Interoperability - In the context of BIM, IBD (Integrated Building Design) and IPD (Integrated Project Delivery),
defined as the ability to manage and communicate electronic product and project data between collaborating
firms’ and within individual companies’ design, procurement, construction, maintenance, and business process
systems.
Data Exchange Specification - An electronic file format specification for the exchanging of digital data. They can be
proprietary or open source and can be developed and promulgated by anyone.
Data Exchange Standard - A data exchange specification developed and balloted by a standards developing
organization for the purpose of standardizing electronic data transmitted between different software applications.
IFC - Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) is a vendor neutral, open data exchange specification. It is an object
oriented file format developed for the building industry and is commonly used in Building Information Modeling to
facilitate interoperability between software platforms. IFC was originally developed in 1995 by a group of
American and European AEC firms and software vendors through the International Alliance for Interoperability
(IAI). Since 2005 it has been maintained by building SMART International.7
XML - Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a general-purpose electronic text tagging specification for creating
custom markup languages. XML was recommended by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) as an internet
standard in 2008. It is classified as an extensible language, because it allows the user to define the markup tags.
XML’s purpose is to aid information systems in sharing structured data, especially via the Internet, to encode
documents, and to serialize data. XML is a free and open standard. There are many extensions and proprietary
adaptations that exist.
GbXML - The Green Building XML schema (gbXML) was developed to facilitate the transfer of building information
stored in CAD building information models, enabling integrated interoperability between building design models
and a wide variety of engineering analysis tools and models available today. gbXML has the industry support and
wide adoption by the leading CAD vendors and HVAC software vendors. With the development of export and
import capabilities in several major engineering modeling tools, gbXML has become a defacto industry standard
schema. Its use dramatically streamlines the transfer of building information to and from engineering models,
eliminating the need for time consuming plan take-offs. This removes a significant cost barrier to designing
resource efficient buildings and specifying associated equipment. It enables building design teams to truly
collaborate and realize the potential benefits of Building Information Modeling.
LCA - Life-Cycle Assessment is the process of evaluating a component, product, assembly, building, etc., and their
development from the moment of extraction of raw materials, transportation, processing, manufacturing, use,
recyclability and disposal and assigning a value or assessment of its cumulative and ultimate social, environmental
and economic costs, benefits and impacts. This is often referred to as a “cradle to grave” or “cradle to cradle”
assessment.
The Benefits of Building Information
To understand the benefits of BIM to our industry and ASHRAE, we must explore some of the global benefits of
BIM and discuss the direct benefits to ASHRAE and its members of embracing and adopting BIM, integration and
interoperability.
Globally one of the great advantages of Building Information Modeling is the ability to create an accurate model
that is useful throughout the entire life of the building, from initial design through occupancy and operation (see
definitions). Ideally, a BIM would be created in the early stages of the design, updated as the design is refined and
used by the construction team, and refined continuously as the facility is built. Post-occupancy, the BIM would be
used by the owner and owner’s maintenance team to improve understanding of building operation and to make
adaptations, renovations, additions and alterations to the building faster and for less cost than through traditional
processes. Future benefits may include linking manufacturers’ R&D databases, which will be discussed later in this
guide. In addition, operating level BIMs may be linked through integrated and interoperable pipelines to local and
national emergency response and disaster management systems to help improve life-safety, save lives and
mitigate damage.
The power of BIM can be realized though its ability to allow the whole building to be optimized in lieu of optimizing
individual components. Each discipline and trade benefits through integration and optimization within a BIM and
becomes more efficient by providing parametric responses to single discipline changes through the use of
consistent data sets for calculation and decision making. The work of the HVAC industry has an impact on every
other design and construction discipline and trade including the following: architecture, electrical engineering,
lighting design, roof and envelope consultation, food service, fire protection, civil engineering, structural
engineering, security consultants, acoustical engineering and others. BIM can benefit these associated and
complimentary disciplines and trades through precise interdisciplinary coordination using parametric geometric
modeling. However, much of the existing software, such as load calculation, plumbing, piping, lighting design and
life-cycle assessment tools, only receive input data from the BIM at this time and are not fully parametric. Software
and hardware developments that will allow adjustments and fine tuning of the calculations via changes in the BIM
and vice versa that would result in optimizing the BIM in real time will be available in the near future.
The benefits of BIM are evident in its capability of capturing, organizing, integrating, maintaining and growing the
vast amount of knowledge, data and information required to conceive, plan, design, construct, operate, maintain,
adapt, renovate and, finally, beneficially deconstruct a building at the end of its life cycle.
The HVAC&R industry impacts building owners, users, regulatory agencies, legal, finance, operation and
maintenance, the environment, and community. BIM can benefit project participants and these entities through
improved multidiscipline collaboration to achieve optimal solutions, interference checking prior to construction,
reduced errors and omissions, automated code/regulatory reviews, accelerated permitting, and earlier beneficial
occupancy, leading to enhanced return on investment (ROI) for the building owner/developer.
Real-time monitoring of a building’s temperature, humidity, ventilation, air quality, pressurization, isolation,
compartmentation, and occupant location integrated into the BIM can benefit first responders in public health,
safety, fire, law enforcement and disaster recovery to help save lives, protect property, and mitigate
environmental and property damage.
During design and construction all disciplines and trades involved on a project can benefit from using BIM through:
Early Collaboration
BIM fosters collaboration in the early phases of a project between team members through the use of consistent
and more complete information more effectively than do traditional approaches. This allows design decisions to be
made that optimize the whole building at a stage when they are far less expensive to analyze, rather than the
traditional approach of optimizing individual components. This should minimize the need to make changes later in
the design or during the construction process when even small changes can have enormous effects on both the
construction cost and life-cycle cost of the building. Figure 2. Effort vs. Cost Curve illustrates this concept.

F IGURE 2. E FFORT VS . COST CURVE

Parametric Modeling
Certain features, objects and components represented within a BIM can be related parametrically. (See definitions
of parameter, parametric and intelligent objects.) Therefore, a number of related conditions can be updated by
changing only one property. For example, if a diffuser is associated with a certain low-pressure duct, and that
diffuser is moved, the associated duct will automatically relocate to the appropriate new position relative to the
diffuser. Thus, not only can design changes be made earlier, they can also be made much faster and easier. This
provides the designer greater certainty that all views have been updated with current information.
Quality
The ability of BIM to integrate multiple disciplines with the use of a common model means that coordination
between team members is made easier, and design optimization and interference checking can be performed
more frequently. This can be achieved through proprietary, single vendor solutions or through viewers and model
checkers that can take advantage of interoperability and read, translate and understand multiple vendor file
formats, possibly through IFC interfaces, domain specific XML tagging and other data exchange specifications and
standards. This ability offers the potential for more thorough quality control in the design phase prior to
construction activity beginning, which should result in fewer requests for information (RFIs) and change orders. For
example, early interference checking and clash avoidance between ductwork and structural members facilitated by
better 3-D visualization by designers and automated clash detection and model checking features that exist in the
BIM or through interoperable applications can result in HVAC systems operating at lower static pressures, lower
noise levels and lower horsepower than a system where the clashes are resolved in the field, by the “first trade
there” method of clash detection, which can result in multiple offsets, cumbersome “work-arounds,” changes in
duct dimensions, waste and re-work in the field. Another benefit of BIM is the potential for ongoing
commissioning. Realtime performance data gathering, verification and management allows for effective
adjustments to systems to improve human comfort and safety and to optimize performance while minimizing
environmental impacts
Economics
BIM can provide economic benefits for all stake holders. For example, investing in BIM technology by the design
team frequently involves some initial expense; however, there is great potential to reduce design and production
cost through more efficient use of time and better visualization. Contractors can benefit from the use of BIM
through better coordination, better cost estimating and procurement management, use of the BIM for automation
of off-site fabrication, and for better scheduling, which can provide cleaner and safer construction sites and
shorter construction duration. The owner can benefit from the BIM through achieving greater certainty in
outcomes with respect to project cost and time that can be better estimated when 4-D and 5-D BIM are integrated
into the process earlier.
Sustainability and Climate Protection
BIM will play a major role in helping us meet the world’s need for sustainable construction and climate protection.
HVAC&R systems are one of the largest users of energy in a building. BIM will allow a design team to better take a
“reduce and optimize” approach to reaching a client’s and building project’s sustainability and climate protection
goals by focusing on reducing energy first. The most important aspect of providing sustainable high performance
buildings is the attention to detail that can be given to the selection, optimization and use of materials and
components based on whole building life-cycle assessment (LCA). A large component of an LCA is the building’s use
of nonrenewable energy sources. BIM allows the rapid and economical (relative terms) consideration of
alternatives, what ifs, and game scenarios early in the evolution of a building to optimize the building’s life-cycle
impact. For buildings to be sustainable, they must be adaptable. A building’s materials, components, contents and
systems should ultimately be 100% recyclable either through adaptive reuse, preservation, restoration, salvage,
and/or traditional recycling processes. A building that serves as a school today should be able to function as an
office building or medical facility in the future. A BIM is a living historical database of every material, component,
assembly, and system used in the building. The BIM can contain design, construction, and life-cycle assessment
information; operation, service and maintenance data; along with energy use down to the system and component
level that could be used for intelligent strategic planning for the adaptive reuse or recycling of a building should
renovation, restoration or demolition become necessary. The popular mantras “reduce, reuse, and recycle” will be
better served through the use of BIM, integration and interoperability.
Overview of commercial BIM software
To reiterate, BIM is a digital representation of a facility that is to be built, is being built, or has been built (i.e., the
latter two define as-built BIMs). The digital representation is materialised in BIM software packages/solutions.
Many people mistakenly equate BIM with such software packages/solutions themselves. A suitable analogy could
be typing an electronic document in Microsoft Word. Word functions as the platform from which one sees and
produces the document. Word (i.e., the software) is not the same thing as the document (i.e., the BIM). As BIM
grows in popularity, more and more software packages calling themselves BIM software enter the market.
According to the Illinois Institute of Technology, there are more than 30 BIM programs, and each serves different
purposes.
Revit and Navisworks
Revit is probably the best-known BIM software and current market leader in architectural, structural, and
mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) design. A start-up company originally developed it as an architectural
design and information documentation platform for parametric 3D modelling. Acquired by Autodesk in 2002, Revit
began to pervade the AEC market. Multiple specialised versions were released over the coming years to enable
BIM use for specific disciplines (e.g., Revit Structure in 2005 and Revit MEP in 2006). These various disciplines were
then rolled into one product under the blanket Autodesk Revit in 2013, an integrated BIM platform that facilitates
collaboration amongst different stakeholders.
Revit aims to provide a user-friendly platform for a quick BIM process and analysis based on the BIM. It not only
supports the creation of predefined and parametric BIM objects but also provides embedded rules (e.g.,
constraints on distances, angles, and the number of objects arranged) to ensure the models form realistically.
These rules, by and large, shape the hierarchical relationship of various BIM parameters. In this regard, an object in
Revit can comprise a class of sub-objects with parametric connections. Revit also provides bidirectional
associativity between drawings, models, components, views, annotations, and schedules, making it much easier to
edit the model and extract its information. The final products of Revit can be viewed, modified, and stored in a
number of file formats such as .dwg, .dwf, and .rva.
Also included in Autodesk’s BIM product package, Navisworks is a project review software that facilitates a
comprehensive appraisal of aggregated models and data. Navisworks animates for architects, engineers,
contractors, and other stakeholders the construction process over time (i.e., 4D simulation) and any detected
clashes, underscored by colour. Navisworks can merge different 3D models, source comments and mark-ups,
measure distance, and export photorealistic rendering.

Bentley Systems
Bentley Systems incorporate a series of functions to provide a full cover for the business of architecture, engineering,
infrastructure, and construction. Expressly launched for BIM design purposes in 2004, Bentley builds up a good
standard for the predefined parametric objects, allowing the predefined parametric objects to be extended via the
MDL Application Programming Interface (API). The built-in Parametric Cell Studio module support customised
parametric objects. Equipping the B-spline surface and strong modelling capabilities reinforces 2D detailing and
annotation on a 3D modelling. The solid drawing capabilities of Bentley makes it simple to showcase the actual line
weight and text, as well as modify the properties of object classes. The drag-over operation hints, smart cursor, and
the user definable menu setups provide a customised interface in Bentley.
The operations conducted in Bentley are built upon file-based systems such that all actions documented in a file can
quickly respond to the system. In this regard, Bentley helps the computer shoulder lower loads on memory and thus
run more efficiently. Although the versatile features of Bentley Systems can support nearly all aspects of the AEC
industry, its strengths particularly suit civil engineering projects.
ArchiCAD
First introduced by the company Graphisoft in the 1980s, ArchiCAD has a long history of supporting architectural
design. After 2007, a German CAD organisation acquired Graphisoft, as result of which ArchiCAD application lean
more towards European market needs and solid civil engineering projects.
Similar to the previous two BIM systems, ArchiCAD interface engages smart cursors, context-sensitive operator
menus, and drag-over operation hints. Designers’ sketches in the model translate into records catalogued in the
document layouts, which update as the model changes. As such, the user can easily and freely merge drawing
details, different model sections, and 3D images into different layouts. The user’s experience of drawing via
ArchiCAD mirrors the non-bidirectional process of generating reports. ArchiCAD incorporates a large collection of
predefined parametric objects, including modelling capabilities for site planning and space planning. The
customised parametric objects through the Geometric Description Language (GDL) are supported in ArchiCAD. The
built-in object libraries provide extensive resources, such as metals; precast concrete; wood; masonry; thermal and
moisture protection; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); plumbing; and electrical for modelling
users.
The well-developed system of ArchiCAD allows multiple accesses to different domains. Internally, the home page
of ArchiCAD website provides meticulous instructions on how to conduct Industry Foundation Classes (IFC)
exchanges. To compensate for its shortcomings with reference to bidirectional exchange, ArchiCAD also supports a
direct link to the external toolbox and other instruments, such as SketchUp and Express. Users can apply the
ArchiCAD system to almost all phases of a project except fabrication. In addition, ArchiCAD has some trivial
limitations concerning its modelling capabilities, as the memory inside the system is not always sufficient to handle
large projects.
Dassault Systèmes and CATIA
Dassault Systèmes (DS) is a multinational software company that develops 3D design, 3D digital mock-ups, and
product lifecycle management (PLM) software. Its BIM roots trace back to the production and manufacturing
industries. DS officially commenced in 1981, but its history dates back even earlier to a group of engineers
specialising in aircraft design. Whilst developing their own 3D CAD software (i.e., CATIA), the engineers broadened
their scope to include automotive and AEC sector components.
CATIA was the PLM solution for 3D collaborative creation. CATIA addresses the product development process,
from early product concept specification to product in service. Similar to Autodesk, DS also initiated a series of
company acquisitions to integrate new products. For example, DELMIA, the company’s PLM digital manufacturing
software, allows manufacturers to virtually define, plan, create, monitor, and control all production processes,
from early process planning and assembly simulation to complete definition of the production facility and
equipment. ENOVIA furnishes a framework for collaborative management. SIMULIA is for virtual testing and
simulation, automating standard simulation processes. It can be deployed across an organisation, distributing
workload across computing resources and managing the simulation results to improve collective decision-making.
It is widely accepted that the AEC industry differs from its manufacturing counterpart in the sense that works are
organised as projects instead of production. DS is designed to meet companies’ needs for realistic product and
process simulation software and to make lifelike project mock-ups more readily accessible through integration and
collaboration.

Tekla
Tekla software offers a range of programs for design and detailing, project team review, and communication. Unlike
Autodesk or DS, the family comprises several software packages, which work together but individually support
clearly defined functions. For example, Tekla Structures is 3D BIM software used in the AEC industry for steel and
concrete detailing, precast, and cast in situ. The software permits users to develop and control 3D structural models
in different materials (e.g., concrete or steel), guiding them through the process from concept to fabrication. Tekla
Structural Designer is a software solution devised for the analysis and design of buildings and thus favoured by
structural engineers. Tekla Tedds is an application for automating repetitive structural and civil calculations. The
software is used in engineering to create outputs, such as calculations, sketches, and notes. Tekla BIMsight is a
software application for BIM-based construction project collaboration. It can import models from other BIM
applications using the IFC format. With Tekla BIMsight, users can perform spatial coordination (i.e., clash or conflict
checking) to avoid design and constructability issues and communicate with others in their construction project by
sharing models and comments.
Glodon
Glodon Software is a China-based software company focused on BIM software development relating to the life
cycle of a construction project. Founded in 1998 and listed on the Shenzhen small- and medium-sized enterprises
(SME) Board in 2010, Glodon’s products include construction engineering cost management software and project
cost management software.
Glodon rebranded its flagship BIM solution as Cubicost, which aims to provide the construction industry with a
more precise and expedient BIM-integrated solution through its four major products, namely, TAS (take-off for
architecture and structure), TRB (take-off for rebar), TME (take-off for mechanical), and TBQ (cost estimating and
creation of BoQ). One can discern that Glodon targets BIM based cost management, which closely relates to the
theme of this book. China has a relatively short history of using BoQ. First piloted in 2000 in the regions of
Guangdong, Jilin, and Tianjin and three years later adopted into the National Standard (Guo Biao, GB) of BoQ for
Building Projects (GB50500 – 2003), BoQ has circulated countrywide. Nevertheless, the Standard, similar to others
prevailing in other economies, has its own peculiarities, which necessitates the development of BIM-based cost
management solutions suitable for China. It is against this backdrop, together with China’s high-speed economic
growth, that Glodon is also developing rapidly. According to Flannery (2015) of Forbes,
Glodon, an IT platform provider that serves design institutes and property related businesses, had
revenue of 1.8 billion yuan, or US$284 million, in 2014, an increase of 26% from a year earlier. Net profit
was 596 million Yuan or US$96 million up 22%.
Based on its success in its indigenous market (i.e., China), Glodon has in recent years started to establish an
international presence. Overall, it implements a focus strategy on niche markets (Porter, 1980, 1985) (i.e., BIM-
based cost management) to develop its BIM businesses.
RIB iTWO
RIB is a German-based public listed company focused on construction-related software and technologies. Its
flagship product, iTWO, integrates the virtual and physical worlds of a construction project. According to RIB, with
iTWO, one can build a construction project virtually from beginning to end before any physical construction.
Figure 3 shows how iTWO concentrates on project cost management, although it can serve early design, bidding
and tendering, project management, finance control, and operation. iTWO can provide virtual cost simulation from
design to operation, with the whole construction process fully visualised and coordinated on screen prior to
physical construction. iTWO’s end-to-end virtual construction platform constitutes a 5D interface (i.e., the three
given geometric dimensions plus time and cost dimensions). Curiously, RIB rarely cites BIM in its production
introduction. However, in practice, iTWO accepts BIM from the designer as a point of departure for ensuing cost
management functions.

F IGURE 3 ILLUSTRATION OF INTEGRATING THE PHYSICAL AND VIRTUAL WORLD USING RIB I TWO. (P ERMISSION OBTAINED
FROM RIB.)
RIB adopts an internationalisation strategy. Headquartered in Stuttgart, Germany, RIB has been listed on the
Frankfurt Stock Exchange since 2011. It established 5D Labs in Guangzhou, Shanghai, Sydney, Copenhagen, and
Madrid. RIB collaborates closely with research institutions and universities, such as Stanford University, Georgia
Institute of Technology, and the University of Hong Kong, in order to cultivate knowledge and business strategies
relating to BIM. In 2018, RIB collaborates with Microsoft to embark on a joint project called MTWO. MTWO is a
cloud solution that is specifically tailored to the construction and real estate industries, offering optimised cloud
performance for BIM, optimised data management of construction projects on Azure virtual machines, and
creating new artificial intelligence (AI) solutions to support the work of construction and real estate professionals.
To summarise, many software packages can be called BIM software and be developed to target different professions,
such as architecture, structural, MEP engineering, project management, cost management, and facilities
management (FM) involved in a construction project. Although most claim to offer a complete life cycle platform for
AEC projects, they thrust in a specific area, and thus different professions retain different preferences. In the authors’
opinion, these companies unnecessarily compete against one another. Rather, they should seek to supplement their
competitors’ inadequacies and mutually benefit from the enormous and global BIM demand.
INFORMATION ON BIM
The keyword of BIM is ‘information’. Increasingly, BIM is mystified as a panacea to the problems of the construction
industry. Actually, without ‘information’, BIM cannot perform anything. BIM contains both geometric and non-
geometric information about a project (Pratt, 2004). Geometric information includes size, volume, shape, and spatial
relationships, whilst non-geometric information includes the type of individual construction component, material
specifications, construction schedule, and cost. Schlueter and Thesseling (2009) suggested another taxonomy of BIM
information to include geometric, semantic, and topological information. Geometric information directly relates to
the building form in three dimensions; semantic information describes the properties of components (i.e., more
advanced rule and function information); and topological information captures the dependencies of components. In
contrast, Xue et al. (2018a) argued that there are generally two types of semantic information contained in the BIM.
Semantic information of individual construction components includes geometric information, such as size, position,
shape, and textures, and non-geometric information, such as type, material specifications, and meanings of
functions. Then there is semantic information of relationships between components, such as dependency, topology,
and joint information. Regardless of classification, semantics are invariably important BIM information.
Semantic information in BIM
The semantics of BIM help to interpret detailed aspects of BIM implementation, especially the aspects not visually
discernible through a 3D computer presentation. Semantics includes all information concerning scopes,
requirements, design (e.g., geometric, mechanical, thermal, and material properties), production, schedule and plan,
maintenance, altering, and demolition. In other words, semantics explain what a BIM component was, is, and will
be. Like the semantics in linguistics and philosophy, the semantics of BIM comprise the meanings and relationships
of BIM elements (e.g., materials such as wood, components such as doors, and subsystems such as vertical conveying
systems).
Meanings, such as the purpose of the function, geometry, and timestamps in the life cycle, of a component, explicitly
describe what it is or will be. The meaning of an external wall, for example, can typically be recorded as a list of its
properties within a BIM software, as shown in Figure 4. BIM software usually has a limited set property list, but users
can input additional properties for specific purposes as needed.
 F IGURE 4. E XAMPLE OF PROPERTY LIST IN REVIT
Standards relating to BIM semantics
There are several prevailing standards in relation to BIM semantics. Uniclass2015 organises and classifies the
meanings and relationships throughout all phases of the design and construction process. IFC, also ISO16739
standard now, is a data format for exchanging information between different software systems. COBie (Construction
Operations Building Information Exchange) is a spreadsheet data format above the IFC standard. COBie can support
operations, maintenance, and FM once in service. The delivering information, such as preventive maintenance
schedules, equipment lists, spare parts lists, and warranties, instead of geometry, is focused in COBie. NBS BIM
Toolkit can provide work plans to help define roles and responsibilities for preparing information. The toolkit can
also verify correctly classified objects and required data in the model.
The importance of BIM semantics
The semantics of BIM, which contains all actual values and relationships, establishes the essential information
foundation for BIM analysis. Various BIM-enabled analyses, such as clash detection, ventilation, daylighting
simulation, buildability checking, and cost management as the focus of this book, all require detailed semantics in
each model. Consider simulating the thermal performance of a house, the thermal properties and the topological
relationships of all key elements of the house must be presented in the model so that the simulation can be
performed. Another important BIM aspect, interoperability, relies on the semantics of BIM as well. Different BIM
software solutions have different native properties and file formats. For example, the same door often has different
identifiers in the architectural, the manufactural, and the FM models. IFC specification is one of the best formats for
information exchange and interoperability. The data in IFC format provide interoperability in type level between IFC
compatible BIM software. Working with BIM at a level 2 minimum helps to resolve other issues of interoperability.
Notably, the UK government mandated in April 2016 the application of BIM level 2 for all centrally procured
government contracts.
LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT (LoD)
LoD is an important factor related to BIM model development in terms of the information that they should contain
(Solihin and Eastman, 2015). The LoD indicates the geometric and other information contained in the BIM model
and the degree to which stakeholders can rely on the contained information (BIMForum, 2017). It is thus similar to
a ‘common language’ for BIM users to understand the information in BIM more specifically. The acronym LoD can
stand for either level of detail or level of development, sometimes used interchangeably in BIM applications despite
their meanings differing. Throughout the project life cycle, the BIM model can be updated, and its LoD increased as
information becomes available.

Level of Detail
James H. Clark, a famous American computer scientist, first introduced the concept of level of detail in 1976. Clark
(1976) proposed a visual hierarchy for viewing the 3D model. In this hierarchy, the 3D model should become more
detailed as it approaches the viewpoint of the viewer and vice versa. By actively adjusting the number of primitives
(e.g., polygons) of a 3D model based on the distance of the viewpoint, this hierarchy aims to reduce the workload of
the graphics-processing unit (GPU) so as to increase the processing efficiency of 3D model software.
Compared with distance-based perspective in computer graphics, when the level of detail is introduced to BIM, its
definition has been modified as a feature of a certain model object. The level of detail is defined as the quantity of
the information carried by each model. This definition relies on an indispensable assumption that all the provided
information is tightly correlated with the project. Therefore, the level of detail of the evaluated model is valid, and
the information from that model can be certainly relied upon (McPhee, 2013). Various academic institutions have
endeavoured to initiate the classification and interpretations of the level of detail, whilst a universally accepted
version has yet to be agreed. Table 1 presents two examples, which were developed by the AEC (UK) Committee
(2012) and Computer Integrated Construction Research Group (CICRG) (2010), respectively.
T ABLE 1. E XAMPLE OF LEVEL OF DETAIL
Level of development
In this book, LoD refers to the level of development if not otherwise stated. Compared with the level of detail, the
LoD is not necessarily a measure of the amount of information but should indicate the amount of information usable
and reliable (McPhee, 2013). The most well-known LoD schema was developed by the American Institute of
Architects (AIA) in its G202-2013 Project BIM Protocol Form (AIA, 2013a). The AIA’s LoD schema provides a
systematic way of indicating the extent of reliable information of individual objects in BIM, but the provided
definitions are relatively brief and narrative. Therefore, the industry would benefit more from the LoD Specification
published by BIMForum (2017) that further expands upon the AIA’s LoD schema. The LoD Specification provides a
detailed reference to help improve the quality of communication amongst stakeholders about the information in
the model. It addresses LoD100-400 of the AIA’s LoD schema and adds a new level, that is, LoD350, between LoD300
and LoD400. However, the LoD Specification does not consider LoD500 since LoD500 relates to field verification but
does not necessarily indicate that it contains a higher level of information. Table 2 presents one example of LoD
mentioned in the LoD Specification and shows relevant cost estimating tasks of different LoDs.
T ABLE 2. E XAMPLES OF L O D
BIM STANDARDS
Many industries operate based on a set of standards, but construction is an industry that particularly relies on
standards to govern its procedures, activities, and deliverables. Standards, as defined in the Merriam-Webster
Dictionary, are principles devised and established ‘by authority as a rule for the measure of quantity, extent, value,
or quality’. To facilitate the implementation of BIM in the AEC industry, governments, institutes, and organisations
throughout the world have published a number of BIM standards and guidelines. These standards and guidelines
written for various professions in the AEC industry cover different aspects, including effective model building, digital
file exchange, data compatibility, and so on. The above LoD can also be perceived as a standard to provide an agreed
rule to define the information in BIM. By following these standards and guidelines, all participants can enjoy a clearer
understanding of their roles in a BIM-based project.
Entering ‘BIM standards and guidelines’ in a search engine returns about 350,000 results. Such phenomenon
illustrates a near crusade to standardise BIM implementation, and at the same time the near impossibility of
discussing all BIM standards and guidelines within a single book chapter. Therefore, the authors present only those
that are representative and prominent.
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) publish ISO 29481-1:2016 Building information models—
Information delivery manual—Part 1: Methodology and format in 2016. The intention of this manual centres on
enabling interoperability between various software applications during all stages of a construction project’s life
cycle. The manual’s methodology maps business processes with the information required by these processes.
Another fundamental set of BIM procedures, the International BIM Implementation Guide published by the RICS, is
designed for all types of projects regardless of size and complexity. Its purpose, to formulate best practices for BIM
implementation, helps to transform and complement current practices for better project performance.
In the US, the National BIM Standard-United States is the most widely adopted BIM standard, which stipulates
consensus-based standards by referencing existing standards, documenting information exchanges, and delivering
best business practices for all building and site types. The BIM Guide Series published by the US General Services
Administration (GSA) also provides guidance and conditions to ensure GSA projects utilise BIM efficiently with value
added (GSA, 2007).
In the UK, AEC (UK) BIM Technology Protocol has been widely adopted by the British AEC industry since its 2015
publication. It builds on the guidelines and frameworks defined by other UK standards documents, such as the PAS
1192-2 Specification for information management for the capital/delivery phase of construction projects using
building information modelling. This protocol aims to maximise efficiency by adopting a coordinated approach to
working towards the UK government set levels of BIM maturity. A BIM maturity describes levels of maturity with
regard to the ability of the construction supply chain to operate and exchange information (Liang et al., 2016). The
widely cited one is the Bew-Richards maturity model (https://goo.gl/eT1usc). The Government 2011 Construction
Strategy requires that, Government will require fully collaborative 3D BIM (with all project and asset information,
documentation and data being electronic) as a minimum by 2016. The Technology Protocol also seeks to define best
practices that guarantee information exchange in a collaborative environment across a project life cycle.
In Australia, the NATSPEC published the National BIM Guide in 2011. This guide is an important reference document
that assists clients, consultants, and stakeholders to clarify their BIM requirement in a nationally consistent manner
by restricting all editing to a Project BIM Brief. It also helps to define roles and responsibilities, collaboration
procedures, software, and digital deliverables.

Please see plates

Madsen, D. P. (2012). Engineering Drawing and Design. New York: Cengage Learning.