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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Interpretation of architectural identity

through landmark architecture: The case of
Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s
Teuta Jashari-Kajtazi, Arta Jakupin

University of Prishtina “Hasan Prishtina”, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Bregu i Diellit,
p.n. 10 000 Prishtina, Kosovo

Received 17 November 2016; received in revised form 11 July 2017; accepted 13 September 2017

KEYWORDS Abstract
Identity in architec- The period in Kosovo from the 1970s to the early 1980s is important yet insufficiently explored.
ture; The period is characterized by a liberal approach toward the development of the region. Such
Modern regionalism; development of Kosovo was evident in all spheres of life, including architecture, which
Critical regionalism; functions as an integral part of a society and its progress. This progress was “supported” with an
European identity;
intention to overpower the existing architectural environment and the overall identity of the
Architectural
region in some way. However, when this progress was realized wherein numerous buildings
traditional
considered important were materialized, an intention to have the earlier and “original” spatial
structures to be replaced became evident. In the case of Kosovo, the term “liberal” can be
understood negatively and positively. From the architectural viewpoint, designs tend to follow
technological advances and “trends” of the time. Consequently, the materialization of such
buildings, which are surrounded by symbolisms related to different types of identity and leading
toward regional modernism, is an important part to emphasize.
The current study aims to consider important thoughts about architectural identity and its
categories in general but specific to the context of Kosovo. The history of the region has a
critical story of influences toward its formation. Although several philosophies were accepted
by the mass, others produced the antidote of the actual input. This study considers the

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arta.jakupi@uni-pr.edu (A. Jakupi).
Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002
2095-2635/& 2017 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Jashari-Kajtazi, T., Jakupi, A., Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case
of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002
2 T. Jashari-Kajtazi, A. Jakupi

importance of finding the best possible interpretation of Kosovo's architectural identity, such
that Kosovo can be well known in the future as it was in the past.
& 2017 The Authors. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under
the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction beings experience their existence with profound meaning

and purpose, thereby helping them strongly remember who
The issue of identity can be approached in numerous ways. they are (Pallasma, 2007, p. 130).
It is an important element to identify in architecture. Regardless of the identity a building is meant to represent,
Architecture serves as a certificate and from the identity the architecture should be subject to a set of rules. These
perspective, represents the thoughts of its own people, rules should guide the work of an architect regardless of the
thereby creating distinctive architecture in various periods identity intended. This condition applies even in the case of
and locations (Torabi and Brahman, 2013, p. 106). In the national identity, where the implications are broad. Rules,
current study, the identity issue relates to the region of the and perhaps the architect's personal rules, must be set. As any
former Yugoslavia, which is an example of a country with other form of art, architecture can also be autonomous in the
multiple ethnic or national identities and inhabited by sense of personal artistic expression and culture bound in the
diverse ethnic and religious groups all attempting to find sense that tradition and the cultural context serve as the
representation in all spheres of life. In several urban areas basis for individual creativity. However, it should not remodel
of Yugoslavia these identities tend to weaken. The relation- the reality of everyday specifics but orient views toward
ships between these tendencies and architecture need to be another dimension, such as memories and the reality of
investigated. In this context, the modern industrial econ- images or even dreams (Pallasma, 2007, p. 139).
omy may be considered a reason to place regions that differ A building's identity needs to be determined in the devel-
from one another under one patronage; however, this idea opment phase and after its completion. This idea leads to a
cannot be generalized. Most of the recent developments in discussion on the various possibilities of interpreting identity.
the former Yugoslavia and the former USSR exhibit explana- Regardless of the type of building and its architectural
tions for the formation of modern nation states and the intention, it must adapt to changing conditions if it is to have
control of political power (Colquhoun, 2007, p. 153). a lasting effect in space and time. Numerous buildings are
Generally, all of the structures in Prishtina or Kosovo to be forced to undergo reshaping, reconfiguration, or renovation.
discussed in this paper were selected mainly due to the fact Such processes will particularly change their original identity,
that the same structures were built out of a necessity for the as was the case with one of the structures in Prishtina, that is,
society and with the allocation of funds for the development Rilindja Publishing Office Tower (Fig. 1 and 2). In modern
of Kosovo when it was part of the former Yugoslavia. The most society, having buildings with steady and committed public
important buildings that considered the necessity for the meaning, as in the case in earlier stages, seems no longer
progress of the region were the National and University
Library, the Rilindja Printing House, and the Youth and Sports
Center. These structures were selected as the main case
studies for this particular analysis.

2. Analysis

The sense of belonging in a community and the relationship

with architecture should always be considered, especially
when architects are the ones who change certain areas
depending on the location of their design (Adam, 2012). The
fact that architecture represents the identity of a community
is well supported by the idea that architecture depends on the
geography, traditions, behaviors, visions, and history of a
community and region (Torabi and Brahman, 2013, p. 107).
The first experience people have with a building, even
before entering it, is its architectural identity. This identity,
if interpreted correctly, can inspire confidence or even
comfort. The characteristic of a façade—when separated
from the function or constructive side of the building—is a
major element that emphasizes the idea of symbolism in
architecture. A building can symbolize a region (in the
general sense), cultural identity, an ethnic group or identity,
and even the identity of the architect. The most important Fig. 1 Rilindja Printing House Tower. Original design (Photo:
message the architecture should convey is to make human Petrit Rrahmani).

Please cite this article as: Jashari-Kajtazi, T., Jakupi, A., Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case
of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002
Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s 3

Fig. 2 Rilindja Printing House Tower Design after the refurbishment (Photo: Eris Kajtazi).

possible. However, after a renovation, a new identity will country's politics or other forms of regional and national
emerge with which the building will be identified for a certain identity (Jashari-Kajtazi, 2014).
time until an interest in re-interpretation emerges. The national identity and its representation in the form of
Other changes may have an impact on the characteristic buildings seem to have reached its peak during the nation-
of a building and on its original meaning. In the case of building phase that might be characterized by tributes to
buildings in a region with strong identity problems, this the “heroes” of the time. Conversely, the supposed post-
condition can be understood as system's implications, national or identity phase not only provides room for the
especially when a perceived need to defend a region's expression of national identity but also combines this
national and cultural identity persists. When a building is identity with other forms of identity (e.g., cultural, ecolo-
reconstructed after destruction, the building could possibly gical, and gender issues) and with the presence of the
be restored to its original shape (i.e., to restore its original multinational component. Generally, such combination can
identity, whereas in post-war reconstruction phase, the be described as a form of European identity. In the context
reconstruction of the landmarks of the city can recreate of the relationship between Kosovo and Western Europe,
the perception of familiarity and ordinariness; Jakupi, 2013, identities are built through memories in some way, while
p. 65). Another possible decision is to reshape the building the presence of the past cannot be denied. These state-
to meet current requirements; however, such decision ments raise the question of what is worth preserving. What
should only be made with great care. Certain elements can still be used to identify the originality of a region or
and components can be considered honest and logical; these nation when boundaries between countries are becoming
elements and components belong to the tradition or the increasingly porous and, in many cases, have ceased to
original design of the building that can also be used to exist? National identity can be replaced by a mere sense of
enhance the values of the most needed contemporary place and a collective memory. Thus, architecture should be
architectural intervention (Meem, 2007, p. 190). considered responsible for modeling collective memories
Another issue to be considered is that of a building that is and the use of cultural potential as a means to express new
still standing and has not outlived its structural soundness but identities, suggesting that a landmark architecture has
has lost its usefulness. This issue was well illustrated by become a metaphor for the place where it exists (Delanty
Winston Churchill who said immediately after World War II, et al., 2001, p. 464).
when the Commons Chamber in London had to be recon- Modern regionalism is an approach to architecture that
structed after suffering severe damage: “We shape our strives to counter “homelessness,” utilizing traditional
buildings, and afterwards our buildings shape us.” Churchill's elements in a building's structure or meaning in a site where
words came after a question was raised on whether the the building stands. Modern regionalism generally refers to
Commons Chamber should be reconstructed to its original two issues, that is, the building's material substance and its
shape. Churchill justified his opinion by arguing that the abstract concept. The concrete concept of regionalism
building should be kept in the shape in which it had served for focuses on expressions that replicate various features,
40 years, although several members pointed out that it was portions, or entire buildings, while the abstract part or
overcrowded (Truby, 2008, pp. 13–14). This case is a good concept expresses proportions, the use of light, the sense of
example of a decision to retain a building's identity; however, space, structural principles, and other abstract qualities
it may not always be possible with other types of building. (Ozkan, 1985, pp.13–14).
This condition leads to the conclusion that many region-
2.1. National identity and modern regionalism alist architects were against the idea of internationalism
and preferred modernism. This condition was specifically
National identity is sometimes expressed considerably more due to the fact that internationalism has a diminishing
emphatically abroad and beyond the region itself, such as effect on the reflection about local conditions, which by
by building housing diplomatic missions. In such cases, the contrast, constitutes the most important element of
architecture of the diplomatic building might express a regionalism.

Please cite this article as: Jashari-Kajtazi, T., Jakupi, A., Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case
of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002
4 T. Jashari-Kajtazi, A. Jakupi

Fig. 3 University Library. Specific volumes and domes (Photo: Eris Kajtazi).

Fig. 4 Youth and Sports Center. Main construction elements (Photo: Petrit Rrahmani).

The main reason for discussing modern regionalism in Prishtina’s Past, 2006) and by enforcing the “Brotherhood
architecture in this context is that in modern regionalism, and Unity” concept.
architects are strongly believed to have a chance to respect In Kosovo, modern regionalism offered an opportunity for
local culture and traditions by using modern ideas. This a different interpretation. This process can be conducted by
condition was not the case in the 1970s and 1980s when attempting to find elements that identify the region and the
historical and traditional contexts were either completely majority of the population. Therefore, these elements
disrespected or at most considered in an abstract form. Only should be emphasized when analyzing every building and
few cultural aspects were considered and implemented. As the possibilities it offers.
stated, modern regionalism can be expressed by referring to When looking at modern regionalism in Kosovo, several
its concrete or abstract sides. In concrete regionalism, indicators are considered valid. Two of the buildings, the
elements, components, or even the entire structure are National and University Library (Fig. 3) and the Youth and
produced from regional sources. It simply uses new materi- Sports Center (Fig. 4), can be interpreted in several ways
als and technology while retaining the form and space of under the following considerations: What was the original
architectural structures of the past. Conversely, abstract symbolism of the design, and what interpretation was
regionalism attempts to express a region's cultural elements placed upon them once the buildings became part of the
by applying them to new structures (Powell, 1985). regional landscape? The National and University Library's
This condition clearly expresses what architects should white domes are one example. They were interpreted as
understand and observe. However, in Kosovo for example, a Islamic components and as traditional white wool hats. The
dispute often exists between groups who desire to retain Youth and Sports Center has been interpreted as symbolizing
the region's originality and those who attempt to impose the eight Yugoslav federal regions but also as an eagle.
their own priorities even though they would lead to a In contrast to other manifestations of our society, archi-
complete loss of the region's identity. In Kosovo, the former tecture shows modernity in a recognizable manner. It is used
Yugoslavia's multi-nationality concept showed disregard for to demonstrate the ideas of being “contemporary” or even
90% of the region's population. The regime evidently “fashionable.” Every region has its own specific views of
attempted to subordinate this distinct majority by prevent- what is modern and contemporary and what sets it apart
ing it to keep its originality and identity (A Future for from other regions. This condition was exactly the case in

Please cite this article as: Jashari-Kajtazi, T., Jakupi, A., Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case
of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002
Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s 5

Kosovo when the landscape was attempted to be trans- style and identity, every architect should pay attention to
formed into a modern and “fashionable” environment. regional climate conditions and to aspects of the human
Contemporary architectural designs wavered between the environment (Turner, 2003). These parameters or summar-
symbolic elements “imposed” and the clear intention to ized groups of features or attitudes of critical regionalism
create buildings in harmony with what the most recent are not necessarily specific, especially if we consider
technology had to offer at the time. With this statement, Frampton's opinion that the term “critical regionalism” is
we provide a metaphorical interpretation of these buildings, not intended to denote the vernacular because this concept
which represented an intentional break with traditional was once spontaneously produced by the combined inter-
architecture, striving toward a contemporary cultural action of climate, myth, and craft, but rather to identify
identity. those recent regional “schools” whose primary aim has been
to reflect and serve the limited constituencies in which they
are grounded (Frampton, 2004).
2.2. Critical regionalism and architectural
expression
3. Results shown through connections:
Critical regionalism can be described neither as interna- regional architecture and regionalism
tionalism nor as an architectural expression of a region's
history. It considers specific elements of certain buildings Harwell Hamilton Harris's “Regionalism and Nationalism in
and interprets them from a reflective rather than an obvious Architecture” addresses both these issues in architecture
point of view (Frampton, 2004). It pays more attention to a and creates connections and correlations between them.
building's meaning than to its atmosphere, and the atmo- The book begins with a general description of regional
sphere would be appropriate if the architect's design had architecture, and continues to explain regionalism as “fun-
been traditional. The essential approach of critical region- damentally, the state of mind” (Harwell, 2007, p. 57). He
alism is to mediate the influence between worldwide based his opinion on isolated localities where the choice of
civilization and the individualities of a place (Canizaro, building materials is limited and native to the region itself.
2007, p. 395). The culture of a region and its elements, as This condition used to be the case with traditional buildings
well as its sustainability (especially in terms of architectural and construction in Kosovo but was disrupted once the
form), depends on the skills or capabilities needed to create “modernization” period began. Many of these buildings
forms on the basis of regional culture. A readiness to accept could not be saved or preserved. This type of regionalism
international influences and the ability to implement cul- can be described as against cosmopolitan and progression.
tural elements while being in touch with progress in the rest In any case, if this perspective is to be applied in the
of the world need to exist. Particularly, several contempor- situation in Kosovo, then one could find that no negative
ary buildings in Kosovo were designed in their external form reaction on the region's modernization existed but on the
and impression to contain components of regional culture destruction of traditional (historical) structures that had to
(Fig. 3), such as domes and the symbolic representation of yield to modernization. The use of traditional construction
the eight constitutional parts (Fig. 4) of the former Yugo- methods and designs had vanished long before moderniza-
slavia (Brotherhood and Unity), using either a concrete or tion began; however, a desire to maintain and preserve
an abstract interpretation and expression. existing structures remained. No indications that anyone in
Within few categories, critical regionalism is expressed Kosovo intended to interfere with and interrupt the process
using certain features, such as marginal practice, con- of modernization and catching up with the rest of Europe
sciously bounded architecture, architecture as tectonic existed. During the 1970s and the early 1980s in Kosovo,
fact, regional climate conditions, and reinterpreted verna- specifically in Prishtina, several buildings were constructed
cular elements (Frampton, 2004, p. 327). Among all the because of planned investments for the progress and
summarized features of critical regionalism, this analysis is modernization of the area. All the contemporary buildings
concerned with the feature that can be used to explain how mentioned in this study were designed and built during that
contemporary buildings, such as our subjects, were period with the same general intention, that is, moderniza-
designed. Examples are the white domes of the National tion. Although their appearance in the existing environment
and University Library and their interpretation as either was influenced by the strategy to make traditional influ-
traditional white hats or traditional oriental structural ences “invisible,” indicators reveal that liberal regionalism
elements. In addition, this building's design belongs to a in architecture existed as defined by Harris, who also
supposed “imported” style, that is, brutalism, if the netting mentioned that “to express this regionalism architecturally,
over the facade is disregarded. However, in view of the it is necessary that there be a building–preferably a lot of
aforementioned “regional” elements while demonstrating buildings–at one time” (Harwell, 2007, p. 58). This case
the building's contemporary architecture, this idea is con- happened in Kosovo, particularly in Prishtina, at the time
sistent with four approaches to regionalism in architecture, when the idea of modernization was accepted. Such condi-
namely, folkloric, ideological, experiential, and anthropo- tion explains how buildings, including the National and
logical regionalism, which summarizes that architecture University Library (Fig. 3), the Youth and Sports Center
responds to distant and nearby influences simultaneously (Fig. 4), and the Rilindja Publishing and Office Tower
(Pavlides, 2007, p. 166). (Fig. 1), emerged as a representation of progress in the
All these parameters do not directly and strictly correlate region and its capital city. These buildings certainly play a
with the subject itself. However, given that they are crucial role in the region. A genuine need to have them built
important separately and regardless of the architectural existed, and their creation met the need. A limiting factor

Please cite this article as: Jashari-Kajtazi, T., Jakupi, A., Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case
of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002
6 T. Jashari-Kajtazi, A. Jakupi

for the design of these buildings was definitely the require- distinguish its architectural identity clearly and the use
ment that they had to express the symbolism of Brother- of traditional components. However, the aforementioned
hood and Unity, which was extremely important to the thoughts and notions imply that several other studies on
former Yugoslavia. This period occurred when the region's Kosovo's architectural identity could emerge to be spe-
national commitment, the requirement by Yugoslavia as an cifically elaborating on other landmarks or buildings and
entity, surfaced to coincide with Harris’ idea about the distinguishing them individually out of the entire con-
national versus the regional expression of architecture, glomerate of identities disguised under the concept of
stating, “A national expression, on the other hand, is, at regionalism.
its highest, the expression of consolidation. This is because
a nation is a people consolidated. The purpose of a national
architecture is to further unite people as citizens. Since the
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Please cite this article as: Jashari-Kajtazi, T., Jakupi, A., Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case
of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002
Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s 7

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Please cite this article as: Jashari-Kajtazi, T., Jakupi, A., Interpretation of architectural identity through landmark architecture: The case
of Prishtina, Kosovo from the 1970s to the 1980s. Frontiers of Architectural Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foar.2017.09.002