UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH IN NATURAL AND CLINICAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (URNCST) JOURNAL

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GUEST EDITORIAL OPEN ACCESS

Introduction to Qualitative Research for Novice

Investigators
Bismah Jameel, BSc [1], Saqib Shaheen, BSc Student [1], Umair Majid, MSc [2,3]*

[1] School of Interdisciplinary Science, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

[2] Managing Editor, URNCST Journal, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
[3] Institute of Health Policy, Management, and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Ontario,
Canada

*Corresponding Author: majidua@mcmaster.ca

Abstract
Qualitative research has been used for centuries in the discipline of social sciences to examine the experiences, perspectives,
and perceptions of individuals and communities. Recently, qualitative research has also emerged as a reputable paradigm of
research inquiry within the field of health sciences. Qualitative research may be considered a research approach complementary
to quantitative research, which is most commonly utilized in medical disciplines through the use of randomised controlled trials
and meta-analyses of treatment effectiveness. It aims to elaborate, explain, and describe social phenomena such as the relation-
ship between patients and healthcare providers, how medical interventions may affect long-term care and quality of life, and
how to contextualize the findings of randomized controlled trials to the complex lives of patients by considering the multitude
of factors that influence treatment effectiveness. Qualitative research seeks to answer the “why” and “how” of phenomena as
opposed to the “what” and “how much.” The majority of novice investigators will use the quantitative research paradigm for
an independent study course or their thesis dissertation. When these investigators encounter the qualitative research paradigm,
they are struck with the lack of simple and useful resources available that identify, clarify, and explicate the qualitative research
process. This article aims to serve as an introductory guide for novice investigators who wish to integrate the tradition of
qualitative research into their practices. The authors introduce the purpose, components, and process of qualitative research
including common methodologies, data collection methods, sampling strategies, and data analysis approaches.

Keywords: undergraduate research; qualitative research; quantitative research; research methodology; data collection; patient
perspectives; patient experiences; social sciences; data analysis; sampling

Introduction
“Quantitative analysis calculates mean. Qualitative Three Paradigms of Research
analysis calculates meaning” [1]. In general, there are three distinct paradigms of research
Taken from the Coding Manual for Qualitative Re- [2]. The first paradigm is quantitative research, which aims
searchers, this quote exemplifies an important distinction be- to measure numerical variables and create statistical repre-
tween the quantitative and qualitative research paradigms. sentations of these variables to test theories. This paradigm
Qualitative research has been used for centuries in the realm of research produces findings that are supposedly objective
of social sciences to examine the experiences, perspectives, and neutral by using laboratory equipment, measurement
and perceptions of people. Only in the last century, however, scales, timing devices, structured surveys, and meta-anal-
qualitative research emerged as a reputable and appropriate yses.
paradigm of research inquiry in the health sciences disci- The second paradigm, qualitative research, seeks to
pline. In this paper, the methodological literature is synthe- document individual perspectives, experiences, thoughts,
sized to provide a guide for novice investigators who may be and behaviours [3]. Qualitative research generates the narra-
searching for a brief introduction to qualitative inquiry in tives of individuals and groups by interacting with them, ob-
health care research. The objective of this article is to discuss serving their behaviour, and consider how the nuances of a
the foundations of qualitative research including the purpose context may influence their perspectives and experiences.
of this research paradigm and common methodologies, data This paradigm of research may be employed to explore the
collection methods, sampling strategies, and data analysis expressed needs of certain communities or ethnic groups,
approaches. clarify the perspectives of individuals about a specific event
or idea, and improve patients’ experience in the trajectory of

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Table 1: The Distinctions between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Paradigms

Quantitative Qualitative

● Outcome-oriented (e.g., treatment effectiveness, feasi- ● Process-oriented (e.g., why was a treatment effective)
bility, and impact) ● The generation of theories that may explain phenomena
● Testing the effectiveness, generalizability, validity, and ● The research process tends to be participant-driven and
accuracy of a theory iterative
● The research process tends to be data-driven and deter- ● Non-numerical data (words, concepts, phrases, themes,
mined a priori and categories)
● Numerical data (categorical and/or continuous varia- ● Data may be obtained from interviews, focus groups, per-
bles) sonal narratives, journals, documents, and more
● Data may be obtained from laboratory methods, meas- ● The focus of data collection may be to obtain rich descrip-
urement scales, and/or structured surveys tions of individual experiences to explain phenomena
● The focus of data collection is on precise and objective ● Data analysis involves interpreting data to explain or
measurement elaborate on events, experiences, and perspectives of per-
● Data analysis uses statistics to calculate effect sizes and sons
statistical significance ● The research methodology and methods may be repro-
● The research methods and data should be reproducible ducible but the data cannot be replicated due to the influ-
and replicable ence of the context on individual experiences
● The sample size is mostly determined a priori using ● Sample size may be determined iteratively depending on
statistical methods to achieve representativeness the explanatory power of the data collected
● External validity (i.e., generalizability) of the findings ● Transferability of the findings to other contexts is an im-
is a major objective portant objective but may not be essential for all qualita-
tive investigations

health care. Finally, the third paradigm, mixed-methods re- propriate as it provides an insight into the lived experiences
search, attempts to integrate and coalesce the components of and perspectives of these patients [10]. On the other hand, if
both quantitative and qualitative paradigms into a form of investigators sought to determine the most effective source
research where both quantitative and qualitative data com- of information (e.g., health care providers) for determining a
plement and substantiate each other [4]. Table 1 summarizes treatment decision, then a quantitative survey study may be
the distinctions between quantitative and qualitative research more appropriate. To determine whether a qualitative or
quantitative approach is more appropriate, it is imperative
Why Qualitative Research? that investigators delineate their research questions and ob-
There are many reasons to conduct quantitative, qualita- jectives. Are they answering the “why” or “how” of phenom-
tive, or mixed-methods research. Some reasons may prompt ena (qualitative research) or the “what” and “how much”
investigators to consider one research paradigm over others. (quantitative research)?
Qualitative studies may be conducted for the following pur-
poses: the answer to a research question cannot be quanti- Qualitative Research Methodologies
fied, the research question is primarily concerned about In the study of qualitative research, a notable distinction
opinions and beliefs of individuals, the investigator’s desire is between methodology and method. On the one hand, a
for a complex and detailed understanding of an issue, the in- methodology is the package of approaches, processes, and
vestigators do not know what information they need to an- plans to hypothesizing, collecting, analyzing, and clarifying
swer their research questions, the emphasis is on exploration data [11]. Method, on the other hand, refers to the different
and explanation instead of effectiveness, accuracy, and va- data collection strategies that may be employed in a research
lidity, the research topic is sensitive in nature and requires study [11]. Similarly, it is also important to acknowledge
emotional depth, the investigators seek to merge activism that the method is one component of a methodology but a
and empowerment in their research by engaging participants methodology also includes data analysis, data storage, pri-
in the design, conduct, and analysis of the study, or investi- vacy and confidentiality, and how the findings may be pre-
gators seek to explain why interventions shown to be effec- sented in knowledge products. Moreover, any particular
tive in a clinical trial are not effective in the real world. [5, method may be a component of multiple methodologies. For
6, 7, 8, 9] example, interviews are a data collection method that may
For example, to describe the sources and types of infor- be employed in the majority of qualitative methodologies de-
mation patients with prostate cancer use to make a treatment pending on the research objectives. The most common qual-
decision, a qualitative study design may be deemed more ap- itative research methodologies are summarized in Table 2.

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Table 2: Most Common Qualitative Methodologies

Methodology Description
Case Study Research Describing, explaining, or elaborating a phenomenon in
different contexts (i.e., cases) [12]
Ethnography Identifying patterns and trends in the data to create themes
in order to understand the behaviours, interactions, atti-
tudes, and/or perceptions of certain groups and cultures
[13]
Grounded Theory The generation of a framework or explanation of a process
or action that is grounded in the data [14]
Narrative Inquiry Collecting and understanding narratives of certain events
and/or the experiences of individuals [15]
Participatory Action / Community-Based Research A solution-focused, collaborative effort between investiga-
tors and a community or group to improving their well-be-
ing through knowledge production, dissemination, and ac-
tion [16]
Phenomenology The study of clarifying how individuals make sense of
their lives by examining their experiences [17]

Table 3: Data Collection Methods in Qualitative Research

Data Collection Method Description
Body Mapping A creative form of data collection in which a life size body map of the participant is
created that represents their life history, physical sensations, and personal journey [19]
Diaries/Journals Personal accounts of experiences and reflections written in either an electronic or
video/audio format [20]
Focus Groups A “group interview” with the objective of identifying and examining how participants
interact with each other while sharing their accounts of a common experience [21]
Interviews The investigators allow participants to express their feelings and thoughts freely or
through a set of guided questions [22]
Participant Observation Investigators record observations regarding the behaviours of individuals in particular
settings or events [23]
Photovoice The use of photos to communicate feelings and experiences relevant to a particular phe-
nomenon [24]

Data Collection groups, and participant observation whereas the latter comes
Data in qualitative research consists of words, phrases, from methods such as document analysis [18]. For example,
concepts, themes, and categories [1]. In general, these forms in interviews, the discussion may be facilitated by an inter-
of data represent the experiences of persons or groups. There view guide prepared by the researcher; the data, in this case,
are two types of data in qualitative research: elicit (created is elicited. Qualitative research uses a variety of data collec-
with researcher participation or guidance) and extant (cre- tion methods, some of which are briefly described in Table
ated without researcher participation or guidance). The for- 3, followed by a more extensive discussion on interviews,
mer type of data is usually collected from interviews, focus focus groups, and participant observation.
questions that directs the discussion in a way that is relevant
Interviews to the research questions [22]. Although the questions are
Interviews are employed to gain insight into partici- designed before the interview, new questions may arise dur-
pants’ personal experiences and situations [25]. Qualitative ing the interview, which are then included in the interview
research interviews are either unstructured or semi struc- [27].
tured. In unstructured interviews, researchers engage in an
open-ended discussion led by the participant who is able to Focus Groups
freely express their perspectives, experiences, and thoughts A focus group refers to when multiple participants (usu-
[26]. In this interview type, the participant guides the discus- ally between 6 and 12) are interviewed together at the same
sion. place and time [28]. The purpose of a focus group is to elicit
In semi-structured interviews, on the other hand, par- information regarding the interactions, relationships, and
ticipants engage in an open-ended discussion facilitated by collective responses of group members who have a shared
the researcher [26]. There is an interview guide with a set of experience [29]. This data collection method is more cost-

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Table 4: Most Common Types of Purposive Sampling in Qualitative Research

Type of Purposive Sampling Description
Heterogeneous/Maximum Variation Recruiting participants who are able to provide similar
perspectives and experiences
Homogenous Recruiting participants who can provide distinct perspec-
tives and experiences
Snowball Consenting participants provide the researchers with con-
nections to others who may be eligible and interested in
participating in the qualitative study

effective than interviews because multiple participants may to achieve a breadth of understanding. Table 4 provides an
share their experiences about a phenomenon in a shorter pe- overview of common types of purposive sampling.
riod of time [21]. Moreover, for some phenomena that are
sensitive in nature, a focus group discussion may provide a Data Analysis
higher level of comfort for participants to share their experi- Qualitative data analysis is an inherently creative pro-
ences [29]. Focus groups may be used as a data collection cess that is frequently met with analytic blocks and literary
method in their own right or to pilot test the design, method- successes. Qualitative data analysis consists of several com-
ology, and effectiveness of a qualitative study. ponents one of which is to ensure that the data is available in
an organized format. To this end, memos may be created by
Participant Observation investigators to document their understandings of the find-
Investigators who use participant observation will rec- ings and any apparent patterns. This analytic device ensures
ord what they see while being present in the daily life and that the investigators comprehend the presentation of the
activities of participants [23]. Participant observation is a findings, reflect upon the organization and content of the
unique data collection method because it occurs in natural, data, or communicate to other members of the research team
real-world settings as opposed to experimental [23]. There throughout the research process [34].
are two types of participant observation. In indirect obser- Coding is an important analytic approach to qualitative
vation, investigators observe participants without being ac- data analysis. It is the process of naming a portion of the data
tively engaged in the research setting. In direct observation, with a label that describes, summarizes, and categorizes the
on the other hand, investigators observe participants by being data [14]. Moreover, a code is a “word or short phrase that
actively engaged in the research setting. There are several symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing
advantages of using participant observation. For instance, and evocative attribute for a portion of language or visual
participant observation is useful if participants do not feel data” [1]. The process of coding involves organizing differ-
comfortable in sharing their personal experiences with re- ent parts of the data into themes that will eventually emerge
searchers. Moreover, by closely following the daily life and into overarching categories that represent the entirety of the
activities of participants, this method may also reduce the dataset. These categories then form interpretations of the
discrepancy between participants’ attitudes and beliefs and findings and represent them through different mediums such
their behaviours. Finally, participant observation may also as academic presentations, artwork, poetry, and more [35].
provide investigators with information about how partici- There are three types of coding. Descriptive coding answers
pants interact with each other [30]. the ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘what’ and ‘how’ of the data. Topic cod-
ing refers to coding different topics of the narrative or inter-
Sampling view responses that are related to the research question. Fi-
In a previous editorial, sampling was defined in the con- nally, analytic coding is when the researcher organizes the
text of quantitative clinical studies as the process of selecting dataset based on their own interpretations of the findings
a sample of individuals that is statistically representative to [36].
the population of interest [31]. Sampling in qualitative re-
search, however, follows a different set of assumptions and Conclusion
objectives. Qualitative research seeks to answer questions related to
Purposive sampling is the most commonly employed social behaviour and interpersonal interactions that drive cer-
sampling approach in qualitative research [32]. Unlike sam- tain social phenomena. It may involve the art of using empa-
pling in quantitative research, the objective of purposive thy and compassion to understand human emotion. From
sampling is to seek information-rich cases that are able to gaining and understanding information about the perspec-
provide individual perspectives and experiences that are rel- tives and experiences of different individuals and communi-
evant to the research questions. According to Morse and ties, qualitative research has great potential to influence pol-
Niehaus (2009) purposive sampling intends to achieve a icy, program development, and research protocols that are
depth of understanding whereas probability sampling seeks better suited to meet the needs of communities. All forms of

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Article Information
Managing Editor: Jae Hyun Byun
Article Dates: Received May 19 18; Accepted Jun 09 18; Published Jun 27 18

Citation
Please cite this article as follows:
Jameel B, Shaheen S, Majid U. Introduction to qualitative research for novice investigators. URNCST Journal. 2018 Jun 27:
2(6). https://urncst.com/index.php/urncst/article/view/57
DOI Link: https://doi.org/10.26685/urncst.57

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