Low Cost Housing

LOW-COST HOUSING
TECHNOLOGY
An ·East- West Perspective
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HOWELL Your Solar Energy Home
EGGERS-LURA Solar Energy in Developing Countries
Solar Energy for Domestic Heating and Cooling
FAREED Industrial Housing Systems - An Evaluation
RAD IAHS International Symposium on Housing Problems 1976
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LOW-COST HOUSING
. . .
TECHNOLOGY
An East- West Perspe,ctive
Edited by
L. J. GOODMAN
R. P. PAMA
E. G. TABUJARA
R. RAZANI
F. J. BURIAN
East- West Center, Hawaii, USA
PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD . NEW YORK . TORONTO . SYDNEY . PARIS . FRANKFURT

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Copyright © 1979 The East-West Center

All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced. stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in
any form or by any means: electronic. electrostatic.
magnetic tape. mechanical. photocopying. recording or
otherwise. without permission in writing from the
copyright holders.
First edition 1979
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Low-cost housing technology.
1. Underdeveloped areas - Housing 2. Underdeveloped
areas - Poor
I. Goodman, L J II. East-West Center.
Resource Systems Institute
301.5'4 HD7391 79-40197
ISBN 0-08-023250- 7 Hardcover
ISBN 0-08-023249-3 FIexicover
In order to make this volume available as economically

and as rapidly as possible the authors' typescripts have
been reproduced in their original forms. This method has
its typographical/imitations but it is hoped that they in no
way distract the reader.
Printed in the United States of America

Con~n~
Acknowledgement viii
Preface ix
List of Contributors xiii
Introduction History of the East-West Center TDI Low-Cost Housing Project 1
I.l Background 1
I.2 Network of Cooperating Institutions 1
I.3 The East-West Technology and Development Institute Program 3
I.4 Programs at Cooperating Research and Development Institutes 8
I.5 Current and Planned Research - Network Institutions 9
Chapter 1 Low-Cost Housing: Guidelines and Issues

by Louis J. Goodman 15
1.1 The Need for Low-Cost Housing 15

1.2 Some Problems and Issues 16
1.3 Examples of Low-Cost Housing Research and Development 18
1.4 Summary 20
PART I LOW-COST HOUSING: BYCOUNTRY
Low-Cost Housing in the Philippines

by E. G. Tabujara and G. V. Manahan 27
2.1 Housing and House-Forms 27

2.2 Policy Formulation for Housing 29
2.3 Milestone Legislation in Housing 35
2.4 Urban Land Policy 38
2.5 Housing Finance 40
2.6 Rural Housing 42
2.7 Formal Housing for the Masses 50
2.8 Alternative Technologies 54
2.9 Building Materials 56
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Mass Housing in Indonesia: In Search of New Solutions

by Hasan Poerbo and Albert Kartahardja 67
3.1 Mass Housing in Indonesia 67

3.2 In Search of Alternative Concepts of Mass-Housing
Production 71
3.3 The Sukaluyu Project: Implementation of an Idea 77
3.4 Elements for the Development of a Dynamic Management
System for Mass-Housing 80
3.5 Concluding Observations 86
Appendix: Figures
Chapter 4 Low-Cost Housing in Thailand

by Seng-lip Lee, Tongchat Hongladaromp and Ricardo P. Pama 111
4.1 Overview of Housing Situation in Thailand 111

4.2 Research and Development on Various Aspects of Low-Cost
Housing at the Asian Institute of Technology 120
4.3 Studies on Conditions of Low-Income People Conducted
by Other Institutions in Thailand 130
4.4 Prognosis for the Future 132
Chapter 5 Low-Cost Housing in Korea

by Sung Do Jang and Hang Koo Cho 135
5.1 Country Overview 135

5.2 Current Housing Situation and Housing Policy 136
5.3 Public Housing Administration System and Housing
Industry in Private Sector 145
5.4 Case Study on Housing Development 151
5.5 Current R&D on Low-Cost Housing and Building Materials 162
5.6 Future Prospects 172
Chapter 6 LOW-Cost Housing in Hawaii

by David C. Firth 177
6.1 Introduction 177

6.2 Overview 179
6.3 Demographics 180
6.4 Factors 183
6.5 Private Non-Profit Housing Development 185
6.6 Needs 193
6.7 Trends 195
PART II LOW-COST HOUSING: BY TOPIC
Chapter 7 Materials
by Albert G. H. Dietz 201
7.1 Materials 201

7.2 Soil 201
7.3 Wood 211
7.4 Bamboo 219
7.5 Sulfur 232
7.6 Plastics and Composites 237
7.7 Concrete 245
7.8 Cement-Asbestos 253
Contents vii
7.9 Clay Products 254

7.10 Mortar 255
7.11 Future Trends 257
Chapter 8 Criteria for Seismic Design of Unreinforced Masonry and

Adobe Low-Cost Housing
by Reza Razani 259
8.1 Introduction 259

8.2 Earthquake Protection Criteria for Low-Cost.Housing
in Seismically Active Less Developed Countries 268
8.3 Design of Unreinforced Masonry and Adobe Low-Cost
Buildings Against Roof Collapse due to Earthquake 275
8.4 Proposed Seismic Spectrums for Unreinforced Masonry
and Adobe Buildings 277
8.5 Reducing Earthquake Damage to Unreinforced Masonry
and.Adobe Buildings 283
Chapter 9 Higher Education in Low-Cost Housing

by Floyd o. Slate 291
9.1 In troduction 291

9.2 Where We Are Now in Actual Housing Practice 292
9.3 Where We Are Now in Education and Research 293
9.4 Problems and Troubles with Present Systems 294
9.5 What Is Needed 295
9.6 The Cornell Program in Low-Cost Housing 295
9.7 Possible Educational Futures in Low-Cost Housing 303
9.8 How to Set up an Educational Program 305
9.9 Concluding Statement 307
Chapter lO Low-Cost Housing Information Exchange

by Fredrich J. Burian and Eduardo Q. Canela 309
10.1 In troduction 309

10.2 User-Initiated Linkage Establishment 311
lO.3 Implementing a Linkage Establishment Strategy 313
10.4 Subsystem 1: Setting up an Initial Information Sources
Bank 313
10.5 Subsystem 2: Initial Contacts and Profiling of
Information Sources 316
10.6 Subsystem 3: Expanding the Initial Information Sources
Bank 322
10.7 Subsystem 4: Generating Additional Information Sources 326
10.8 Subsystem 5: Initiating Information Exchange 329
lO.9 Summary 331
Appendix: Sources of Housing and Human Settlements Information

(Questionnaire) 333
Index 339
Acknowledgement
The East-West Center gratefully extends special acknowledgement to the East Asia
Regional Housing and Urban Development Office, U.S. Agency for International Deve-
lopment, Seoul, Korea, for the grant to support the publication of this book. The
grant also made i t possible to purchase 2,000 copies of a soft cover edition for
distribution to cooperating institutions by the Agency for International Development
and the East-West Center.
viii
Preface
The former Technology and Development Institute (TDI) now merged into the Resource
Systems Institute of the East-West Center is pleased to collaborate with its partners
in Asia and the United States in this two-part study of low-cost housing technology.
This book represents a timely and most unusual contribution to the state of the art
in supplying low-cost housing units to low-income families in a variety of socio-
economic settings in the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Korea, and the state of
Hawaii. The contributing authors are recognized experts in fields of direct concern
to providing adequate housing, including (1) innovative low-cost building materials
and design concepts, (2) safe water supply systems and sanitation, (3) relevant
information exchange systems, and (4) policy links within each country to implement
the results of research.
The collection of chapters represents a concerted effort by project directors and

their colleagues in the TDI network of cooperating institutions in the housing problem
areas, the history of which will be described in the Introduction. This network was
created in July, 1973 as a direct result of an international seminar on low-cost
construction materials, followed by a major workshop to establish specific priority
problem areas common to nations, East and West. It was agreed that low-cost housing
for low-income families was needed in aZZ countries in the world. It was further
agreed that a cooperative problem-solving ,approach to low-cost housing technology
was necessary, stressing the need for multinational and multidisciplinary research
and development on a cooperative and coordinated basis. An important ingredient
in this cooperative approach was the professional expertise of four senior fellows'
at TDI who followed up their research activities as contributing authors to cover
specialized areas of materials, housing design that takes into account natural hazards
such as earthquakes, strategies for in-country linkages and curriculum development.
These topics are covered in Part II.
The book is in two parts, with Part I covering Country Chapters, and Part II contain-
ing Special Topic Chapters. There are eighteen contributing authors, twelve from
Asia and six from the United States. It is truly an East-West book, cooperatively
produced, providing many insights for a vital global problem area.
The general focus of the text is on technological innovations in the low-cost housing
field with appropriate consideration to a number of economic and sociological factors,
such as:
ix
x Preface
1. Reduction of the cost of an acceptable housing unit, considering building

materials, design concepts and land use.
2. Creation of a significant number of new jobs through the net effect of

technological innovations on the combined building material and construction
industries.
3. Consideration of the attitudes of the people concerned, so that the final

product is both useful and usable.
4. Provision of low-cost water supply and waste disposal systems for public
health control measures.
As a result of discussions by the majority of the contributing authors in Honolulu

in October, 1975, it was agreed that each of the country chapters would focus on
the following four points:
1. The book should be envisioned as a resource, which implies that each contri-
buting author should deal with the various aspects of the housing field with
which he is most familiar.
2. Each author should emphasize what is unique to his country, or to his project,
or to any combination thereof.
3. Particular attention should be given to those aspects of country-specific

project areas which can be applied directly, or adapted to other countries.
4. Attention should be devoted to problems and activities, particularly in the

context of common problem areas and kinds of solutions being generated to
solve these problem areas. For example, each country chapter should give
some attention to the necessary in-country linkages between the R&D insti-
tution and policy-making/implementing groups such as national housing autho-
rities and construction industries.
The chapter by each of the senior fellows who have been intimately involved with
the project focuses on his particular area of knowledge and reflects his contribution
to the project. These areas are itemized in the Table of Contents.
The role of TDI was one of catalyst, coord~nator, and researcher. This included
(1) convening mini conferences and roving workshops to provide a forum for on-the-
spot effective exchange of results, problems and ideas, (2) providing necessary
input regarding new research ideas on low-cost construction materials and design
concepts, and a strategy for developing in-country linkages with various groups
from public and private sectors concerned with the housing problem, (3) initiating
cooperative evaluation of Research and development activities at network institu-
tions, and (4) implementing plans for relevant information exchange within the net-
work and with other organizations involved with similar activities in different
parts of the wor~d.
This volume represents one outcome of the project.
The coordination center for the entire project was shifted to the Asian Institute
of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand in October, 1977.
The general editors wish to extend warmest thanks to their many colleagues at the
cooperating institutions in Asia and the United States who have performed the
necessary research and development activities to make this manuscript a reality.
Special acknowledgment is accorded colleagues for their role in coauthoring a paper
Preface xi
from which excerpts were utilized both in the Introduction and Chapter 1, Louis J.
Goodman, Albert G. H. Dietz, Hasan Perbo and Fredrich Burian, "Problems and Issues
of Low-Cost Housing", East-West Center Technology and Development Working Paper,
September, 1974. The project book is consistent with the East-West Center's mandate
to foster better relations and understanding through cooperative study, research
and training. It is also consistent with the general goals of all Center programs,
with particular attention to enhancing the quality of life among the peoples of
Asia, the Pacific and the United States. Indeed, this book symbolizes a true part-
nership approach to solving a critical problem area, East and West.
Louis J. Goodman
Ricardo Pama
Ernesto G. Tabujara
Reza Razani
Fredrich J. Burian
List of Contributors
A. Country Chapters
1. Indonesia Prof. Hasan Poerbo Senior Lecturer

Department of Architecture
Institute Technology Bandung
Bandung, Indonesia
Ir. Albert Kartahardja Director, Directorate of

Building Research
Bandung, Indonesia
2. Korea Dr. Sung Do Jang Principal Investigator and Head

Ceramic Materials Laboratory
Korea Institute of Science
and Teclmology
Seoul, Korea
Mr. Hang Koo Cho Manager, Teclmical Division

Korea National Housing Corpo-
ration
Seoul, Korea
3. Philippines Dr. Ernesto G. Tabujara Professor of Civil Engineering

and Executive Officer
Building Research Service
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines
Prof. Geronimo V. Manahan Associate Professor of

Architecture and Planning
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City,
Philippines
4. Thailand Dr. Tongchat Hongladaromp General Manager

Expressway & Rapid Transit
Auth. of Thailand
Bangkok, Thailand
xiii
xiv List of Contributors
Dr. Ricardo Pama Associate Professor of

Structural Engineering
Asian Institute of Tech-
nology
Bangkok, Thailand
Dr. Seng-Lip Lee Professor and Head, Depart-

ment of Civil Engineering
University of Singapore
Singapore
5. united States
State of Hawaii Mr. David Firth Former Director
Hawaii Community Design
Center
Honolulu, Hawaii
B. Special Topic Chapters
1. Iran Dr. Reza Razani Professor of Civil Engi-

neering
Pahlavi University
Shiraz, Iran
2. Philippines Mr. Eduardo Canela Research Associate

Institute for Small-Scale
Industry
University of the Philippine~
Diliman, Quezon City
Philippines
3. u.S. Prof. Louis Goodman Assistant Director

East-West Center
Honolulu, Hawaii
Dr. Albert Dietz Professor of Building

Engineering
Massachusetts Institute
of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Dr. Floyd o. Slate Professor of Engineering

Materials
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
Mr. Fredrich J. Burian Research Associate

East-West Center
Honolulu, Hawaii
Introduction
HISTORY OF THE EAST-WEST CENTER TDI

LOW-COST HOUSING PROJECT
1.1. BACKGROUND
Today, low-cost housing represents a serious national problem in both developing and
developed countries. The acuteness and magnitude of the problem are obviously more
pronounced in developing societies, but increasingly the issue of low-cost housing
cuts across economic, social, technological and political issues. National govern-
ments must adopt and implement appropriate policies and priorities for housing, and
multinational cooperative research and development programs must be initiated and
coordinated to search for solutions to the multifaceted problems of providing decent
housing for the untold millions of people who are unable to own or rent minimal es-
sential shelter. The argument for multinational and (interregional) cooperation
rests on the premise that many unknown or little-known efforts are being made in
this field globally with too little and, in many instances, no interchange of prob-
lems and potential solutions.
Given this background, the East-West Technology and Development Institute (TDI)
stimulated the establishment of a network of cooperating institutions in Asia and
the United States to undertake an action-oriented project concerning low-cost cons-
truction materials and design concepts for low-income family housing units in a
variety of socioeconomic settings. This project included activities comprising
research, professional development, and graduate degree study. The objective of
this cooperative project was the provision of better housing 'for low-income family
groups. The cost of housing to be studied was based on a general "rule of thumb",
adopted by a number of agencies concerned with this problem, ,&hich states that the
cost should·not exceed 2 - 2.5 times the annual income of a family.
1. 2. NETWORK OF COOPERATING INSTITUTIONS

The following institutions constituted the cooperative network for the action-
oriented project discussed in this book. Those shown with an asterisk (*) represent
the embryonic network in 1973 which consisted of five institutions. The number
increased to eleven, with the University of Singapore joining the network in October,
1975, and Pahlavi University in August, 1976. In some cases, the institutional
project team was multidisciplinary. For example, the team at the University of
the Philippines was represented by the Building Research Service, comprised of the
Colleges of Architecture and Engineering and the Institute of Planning.
1
2 Introduction
The first important meeting was the conference on "Relevance in Engineering Education
for Asian Needs with Workshop on Nature and Concept of Intermediate Technologyl*
held in February, 1972. This seminar-workshop involved a panel of eminent techno-
logists from key Asian institutions of technology. The main result was a summary
of defining characteristics of appropriate technology which covered some examples
of projects of common concern to both East and West, including low-cost housing.
The second conference was a research seminar on "Low-Cost Construction Materials 2
held in November, 1972.
Participants were invited from the Philippines (University of the Philippines and
Mindanao State University) , Thailand (Asian Institute of Technology), Korea (Korea
Institute of Science and Technology), Indonesia (Institute of Technology, Bandung),
India (Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee), and the United States (Uni-
versity of Hawaii, Cornell University, Georgia Institute of Technology's Industrial
Development Division, Agency for Inte!national Development, National Bureau of
Standards, Department of Housing and Urban Development, and Technology and Develop-
ment Institute, East-West Center) •
The participants were administrators, engineers, and architects who had relevant
practical and research experience with low-cost construction materials and designs
in their respective countries.
The seminar was conducted using case studies on both practical and research expe-
rience, presentation of country problems, open discussion on topics presented, and
a group report that considered future research and development needs as well as
institutional cooperation in the problem areas. The focus was on the following
specific objectives:
1. To exchange experiences and to generate innovative concepts in low-cost

construction materials and designs for housing and a variety of public
works projects.
2. To explore cooperative endeavours in these research and development areas.
3. To exchange information on country peripheral problems related to low-income

housing and low-cost public works projects.
4. To provide specific guidelines for a later workshop on low-cost housing

materials and design concepts.
As a result of participant interest and interaction in the November seminar, a work-

shop was planned and designed for July, 1973 with the theme "Feasibility, Design
and Implementation of LOW-Cost Housing for Low-Income Families." 3 There were 30
participants from 11 countries in Asia, the Pacific and the United States. The
July workshop had as its objectives:
1. To discuss a number of prepared case studies regarding low-income housing

projects from inception to implementation, including project feasibility
studies, related policy and decision-making, cost data, etc. Both successes
and failures were to be treated in this regard.
2. To exchange experiences and generate new ideas regarding low-cost building

materials and design concepts for low-income housing to include the following:
*Superscript numbers refer to notes and references at the end of each chapter.
Introduction 3
*1. Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand
*2. Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia
*3. Korea Institute of Science and Technology
*4. University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines
*5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii
6. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
7. Directorate of Building Research/United Nations Regional Housing Center,

Bandung, Indonesia
8. Hawaii Community Design Center, Honolulu, Hawaii
9. Korea National Housing Corporation
10. University of Singapore, Singapore
11. Pahlavi University, Iran
1.3. THE EAST-WEST TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

INSTITUTE PROGRAM
A. EvoZution of Program
Three research conferences and one workshop held at TDI were basic to the evolution
of the concept of a cooperative action-oriented research and development program in
low-cost housing materials, design and construction. In addition to these formal
activities, a series of in-house discussions between TDI staff and senior fellows
took place during the months of January and February, 1972 to explore in depth such
concepts as technology transfer, intermediate technology, adaptive technology, and
appropriate technology.
Earlier, one of the general editors had prepared a paper proposing a Technology
Adaptation Research Program (TARP) in concert with the University of Hawaii College
of Engineering. The primary objective of the TARP proposal was to establish an R&D
interdisciplinary program oriented toward the goal of improving living standards
in low-income countries. This was proposed in November, 1971 and became part of
the College of Engineering Six-Year Plan. TARP would initially focus on applying
technology within an interdisciplin~ry framework to meet the needs for low-income
housing in Asia and the Pacific. Structural, public health (water supply and waste
disposal), and electrification requirements were to be an integral part of the
research program. Attendant social and cultural considerations would ultimately
be included in the studies. Interdisciplinary interaction among architects, econo-
mists, engineers, and social scientists would provide the necessary framework to
view the totality of the numerous problems inherent in applying low-cost housing
technology to different socioeconomic environments. Linkages would be formed with
key institutions in Asia and the Pacific region to provide input for relevant
research and training in the utilization of indigenous materials and skills for
low-cost housing.
4 Introduction
(a) Selection of materials;
(b) Adequate structural design considering natural hazards;
(c) Efficient and economical construction methods;
(d) Functional roofing systems;
(e) Sanitary considerations.
3. To explore further cooperative endeavors in the above-mentioned research

and development areas.
Among the priority items identified by the workshop were (1) the need for a well-
coordinated cooperative research and development program in low-income housing,
(2) the need for realistic structural and sanitary standards, (3) innovations in
roofing systems, and (4) the establishment of an information exchange network among
the institutions involved in low-cost housing research and development.
Then, Dr. Albert Dietz of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Prof. Hasan
Poerbo of the Institute of Technology, Bandung, Indonesia joined TDI as senior
fellows in September, 1973 to assist in the preparation of a research proposal
seeking external funding for a cooperative research and development effort initially
linking five institutions. These institutions ,were the University of the Philippines
in Manila, the Bandung Institute of Technology in Indonesia, the Asian Institute of
Technology in Bangkok, the Korea Institute of Science and Technology in Seoul, and
the University of Hawaii.
A mini-conference 4 was held in May, 1974 to complete, on a cooperative basis with

the project directors from each of the aforementioned cooperating institutions, the
preliminary housing proposal prepared by Dr. Dietz, Professor Poerbo, and TDI staff.
Another objective of the miniconference was to initiate planning for an initial
Roving Workshop scheduled for January, 1975. The roving workshop concept was an
important component of a continuing series of programmatic activities in the low-
cost housing technology area designed to strengthen further the embryonic network
of cooperating institutions.
In summary, the TDI program concerning Low-Cost Housing Technology resulted from
two and a half years of careful planning and searching for relevant program orien-
tation in the context of establishing a network of cooperating institutions in both
East and West to perform the necessary research and development on a partnership
basis. It is noteworthy that the May 1974 miniconference resulted in complete
agreement on the final form of the housing proposal to be submitted to potential
external funding agencies. 5 ,6
B. Objective of Project
This cooperative action-oriented project was concerned with adapting, innovating,

and diffusing low-cost construction materials and design concepts for low-income
family housing units in different socioeconomic environments. The major objective
was to enhance the capabilities of participating institutions to develop their R&D
programs more effectively through oollaboratiye study and exchange of common problems
and solutions than by worki~g alone.
The vehicle to accomplish overall project objectives was the establishment of a

network of cooperating institutions in Asia and the United States to work as partners
on the necessary research and development. The project dealt primarily, but not
Introduction 5
exclusively, with the production aspect of housing as part of the formative processes
in the development of human settlements. Clearly, the system of influences and
constraints outlined previously strongly affects the production process. The prime
objectives were (1) the provision of better housing and (2) the reduction of costs,
through action-oriented research and development by research institutions in coop-
eration with other bodies associated with housing. Utilization of local materials
and skills, innovative designs, and application of the most appropriate technologies
were central problems in the project. In-country linkages with national housing
authorities, developers, construction industries and financial institutions were
considered essential.
c. Methods, Procedures, and Agenda of Activities
The project strategy was formulated to encourage country participants to decide for
themselves which area of research they wished to pursue within the general frame-
work of the cooperative research plan. It was felt that participating institutions
would have their own strengths and weaknesses, and conditions would be different
from country to country. Cooperation among the institutions was viewed as a con-
tinuous and systematic exchange of experience and R&D information, and, whenever
p~ssible, also an exchange of personnel and mutual assistance. The collective
increase in knowledge would be broadened to include a systematic gathering and
examination of experience in other parts of the world. The TOI project team,
including both staff and senior fellows, planned to follow through with cooperative
research endeavors with the institutions in the network to provide the necessary
input regarding new ideas on low-cost housing materials, design,. and construction;
this includes implementation of plans for the recommended information exchange
network. The following activities occurred in the fiscal years 1975 and 1976:
1. Research
A continuing review, evaluation and dissemination of available information in the

area of low-cost construction materials and innovative design concepts by each of
the cooperating institutions, concentrating on the following topics, which received
special attention in the past seminar and workshop series: (a) selection of materials,
(b) adequate structural design considering natural hazards, (c) efficient and eco-
nomical construction methods, (d) functional roofing systems, and (e) sanitary .
considerations.
Additional related research areas studied the role of national housing authorities
and other in-country linkages such as construction industries to create an awareness
and understanding of the functions and activities of each group concerned with the
housing problem.
2. Roving Workshops
The concept of a roving workshop was one of the recommendations TOI received from
the July, 1973 workshop participants. The primary intent of the roving workshop
was to provide on-the-spot observations of actual research and development activities
underway at each of the cooperating institutions, and to examine the capability and
potential of each to participate in an information exchange network.
Roving Workshop I convened in January, 1975 with a core group of two representatives
each from the five institutions involved in the embryonic cooperative network.
This core group of ten persons along with two TEl staff, one senior fellow and a
participant from Cornell University spent five days each in Indonesia, Philippines
and Hawaii. Wi thin each co un try, the core group was augmen ted by an addi tional
6 Introduction
30-40 persons coming from a representative cross section of university, government

and private sectors with demonstrated interest and competence in, concern for, and
power to implement housing for low-income families.? Roving Workshop II was held
in October, 1975, with a similar sequence of events in Thailand, Korea and Hawaii. 8
These two workshops were planned and organized in such a way that the representatives
from each of the cooperating institutions would have an opportunity to (a) mutually
explore and share the broad aspects of the numerous problems inherent in adapting,
innovating and diffusing low-cost construction materials and design concepts for
low-income family units in different socioeconomic environments, (b) delineate and
document through video tape and slides the kinds of. research and development presently
being carried on, both in the laboratory and in the field, (c) discuss the kinds of
information needed to implement the cooperative R&D in a meaningful way, and (d)
establish an effective method of coordinating efforts, including the exchange of
relevant information.
The participants agreed that Roving Workshop I was highly successful in satisfying
the basic objectives of the Workshop. Much of the credit for this success was due
to the administrative officials and project directors from the cooperating insti-
tutions in the countries involved with this first Roving Workshop. The Workshop
was also highly effective in pulling together the various institutions in the net-
work so that the cooperative project represented a block-building process in the
ultimate establishment of a world-wide network that must be organized for problem
solving in low-cost housing technology for developing countries. Related to this
most important matter was the twofold need for developing relevant in-country link-
ages, and expanding the embryonic network of cooperating institutions. A direct
result of the Roving Workshop was the Directorate of Building Research/UN Regional
Housing Centre in Bandung and the Korea National Housing Corporation in Seoul became
the first significant in-country linkages in the network. Cornell University and
the Hawaii Community Design Center also joined in the network, representing addi-i.
tional U.S. institutions to work as partners with our colleagues in Asia.
This experience of traveling, living, and working together for a 15-day period in
three countries was viewed as a most rewarding experience from both professional and
personal points of view. Indeed, this type of activity symbolizes· the mandated
goal of the East-West Center "to promote better understanding and relations among
the peoples of East and West through cooperative study, research and training."
Roving Workshop II took place in October, 1975 with scheduled visitation and seminars
in Thailand, Korea, and Honolulu. Again, this activity was evaluated by the parti-
cipants as highly successful in providing on-the-spot exchange of R&D results;
further strengthening the solidarity of the network; pulling together the various
groups from public and private sectors to assure implementation of relevant R&D
results; confirming the need for establishing an effective information exchange
system; and creating an awareness of the need for attention to sociological factors
in supplying low-cost housing for low-income families.
3. Documentation and Training
A systematic visual documentation strategy was employed for the duration of this
project. Selected features of the emerging cooperative R&D research conducted at
network institutions were documented, using a suitable range of audio-visual mate-
rials and methods. Audio and visual information collected periodically by appro-
priate network personnel together with comprehensive documentation during the
Roving Workshops were used to track project development. In 1976, professional
development interns from the network institutions spent four months at TDI developing
documentation skills, examining available low-cost housing documentation and planning
for collection of additional documentation, producing media presentations from
available materials, and developing a cooperative framework for inter-institution
information exchange.
Phase I Phase II Phase II Phase III
TOI
acthities
Common Phase in
activities of project
to new home H
in Asia ::s
rt
ti
o
0..
Country C
activities ()
rt
/-'.
o
::s
Research development
and dissemination of Implementation of
Subject low-cost housing information exchange system
scope construction materials
and design concept
Time November' July Sept-April May January February-May June October Jan-May June April June
1972 1973 19731974 1974 1975 1975 1975 1975 1976 1976 1977 1977
Fig. I. 1. Cooperatively designed plan for flow

of activities, 1973-1977
8 Introduction
D. Projeot Cyole
Figure 1.1 is a diagrammatic flow sheet that summarizes the various phases of the
projec"t from its inception, including future plans, and shows the relationships of
the various participants. TDI activities are at the top of the chart, activities
carried out by the countries and Research Institutes are at the middle, and common
activities are between. The scope of the activities is shown below the flow diagram
and the approximate times are at the bottom. The block at the left indicates the
activities already carried out and supported by TDI.
E. Projeot OU7;puts
The project was able to extend the impact of the initial Low-Cost Housing Network
of cooperating institutions through (1) site visits to network countries to evaluate
on-going R&D activities and meetings with a variety of individuals and groups in
each country involved in low-cost housing, and (2) the establishment of a practical
information exchange system to support the diffusion of low-cost housing technology
information wi thin and among Network countries. These mechanisms were designed to
enhance the viability of in-country and international linkages among relevant groups
such as national housing authorities and construction industries. The overall result
has been a pulling together of necessary forces from private and public sectors to
implement the results of the R&D institutions in a more effective manner than has
generally be~n the case.
1.4. PROGRAMS AT COOPERATING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

INSTITUTES
In the Asian countries initially involved in this program, the research and develop-
ment institutes were in a position to play a key role in the development and imple-
mentation of cooperative programs. They were unique in these areas because they
had the capability of doing the necessary research, taking promising research results
through the development stage, and bringing them to public and private agencies in
a position to implement them. Indeed, the research institutes could be actively
engaged in the implementation process.
TO carry out these functions successfully, th~ research institutes needed to stretch
their own scarce resources, which were limited legislatively primarily to technology
and design. They needed to draw on the resources of other agencies working on the
broad aspects of public policy, the social aspects of housing, labor, population,
economics, and finance. And they needed further to reach out beyond their own
particular regions to explore common efforts carried on in other regional institutes,
and to explore common requirements bearing on housing in those regions. Even beyond
this, however, they needed to be able to recognize similar problems in other parts
of the world, such as Latin America and Africa, where solutions which were applicable
to Asian areas might already have been sought and found. Finally, they needed to
draw upon the experience of areas where industrialization and technology of housing
are considerably advanced, such as Europe, North America, and Japan, to determine
not only to what extent the technology is applicable, but what the social, political,
and economic constraints have been, how the market has been aggregated, and how the
whole process has been organized and managed.
Various efforts in international cooperation in housing have already been made.

As matters now stand, however, the individual research institutes, although they
occupy potentially key positions in the housing picture in their respective countries,
Introduction
\, .. ./
tend to operate in isolation from each other and from the activities of the rest of
the world. They lack good mechanisms to bring about closer liaison among themselves,
and to obtain access to developments elsewhere. They are, therefore, less effective
than they could be in this critically important area.
The aim of the TDI program was to encourage the development of such links among the
research institutes and to extend these links to other institutes through collabo-
rative action-oriented research and development and the development of a common
information system.
The next two sections summarize current and planned research and development acti-
vities at the cooperating institutions, along with illustrative examples.
1. s. CURRENT AND PLANNED RESEARCH - NETWORK INSTITUTIONS

Although the network has only been in existence for a relatively short time, member
institutions have already begun to distinguish themselves in the vital area of
research and development. The Roving Workshop concept in particular has provided
an excellent forum for exchange of common problems and generation of solutions in
both innovative building materials and design concepts for appropriate low-cost
housing in a variety of socioeconomic settings. The general editors stressed the
need for continuing collaborative research in areas of innovative building materials,
design concepts, public health factors, in-country linkages and the necessary foun-
dations for an effective information exchange system in order to maximize the expertise
available from both East and West.
The following is a summary of a representative cross-section of research conducted

at each institution. The intent of this summary and the following section on
examples of low-cost housing in each of the network countries is to provide the
reader with a brief view of what each cooperating institution is doing in this vital
field. The details of country research and development will be covered in each of
the country chapters in the first volume.
Thailand - Asian Institute of Technology (AIT)

1. Mechanical properties of bamboo-reinforced slabs;
2. Design and evaluation criteria for low-cost housing;
3. Design of asbestos-cement houses for low-income families;
4.· Prefabrication of low-cost housing;
5. Mechanical properties of wood-cement composites;
6. Evaluation of a corrugated asbestos cement roof panel;
7. Performance evaluation and design of asbestos cement low-cost houses.
Korea - Korea Institute of Science and Technology

1. Utilization of coal wastes for building materials:
Ceramic Materials Lab;
2. Utilization of zeolite in waste treatment:

Environmental Engineering Lab;
10 Introduction
3. Foamed polystyrene (styrofoam concrete for building components:

Plastic Lab;
4. Study on thermal insulation and fuel economy in building units:

Chemical Process Development Lab;
5. Design and development of lime-sand brick manufacturing plant.
Indonesia - Institute of TechnoZogy~ Bandung (ITB)
Current Research Areas
1. Linkages in wood-based industries as context for identifying what kind of wood-

based components for housing can be developed;
2. Product development: wood-based components for housing.
Related Programs
1. Cooperating with regional housing center in Bandung;
2. Survey on linkages in wood-based industries;
3. Survey on housing markets and construction methods;
4. Formulation of performance specification for wood-based components;
5. Development and testing of wood-based components;
6. Prospective field lab: PN Jatilukur;
7. Promoting components for production and marketing.
Indonesia -; Directorate of Building Research/UN RegionaZ Housing Centre
1. Binding materials:
(a) Urea formaldehyde adhesives;
(b) Latex as binding agent for building board manufacturing.
2. Building element/component:
(a) Wood-wool board production;
(b) Development of prefab concrete building elements and components.
3. Housing units:
(a) Prefabrication of houses;
(b) Prototype houses.
4. Timber construction:
(a) Development of prefabricated timber structures.

Introduction 11
5. Waste materials:
(a) Development of particle board from forestry waste material.
Phi~ippines - University of the Phi~ippines
Current Research
1. Information classification and building typology for typical house types in

the Philippines;
2. The Barangay as an operational system in the disposal of solid waste in urban

areas;
3. Application of methane gas/septic tank system in housing design and layouts;
4. User requirement study of a prototype urban workers' condominium in Metropolitan

Manila.
Research Proposals
1. Asphalt impregnated building material study;
2. Inyestigation of industrial waste materials for building purposes;
3. Identification and locational analysis of inorganic building material sources

in the Philippines;
4. Design of building and finishing hardware for low-income housing;
5. Evaluation of industrially produced bamboo laminates for building purposes;
(a) Long-term physical properties of KAWOOD
(b) Effectiveness of component designs of KAWMAT
6. Adaptation of traditional multiuse concepts to the development of multifamily

housing projects in urbanized areas of the Philippines.
United States - University of Hawaii

1. EW/TEI graduate student research in areas related to low-cost housing;
2. Development of graduate courses concerned with construction materials and

construction management and water supply/waste disposal;
3. Cooperating with TDI in developing an information exchange system for the

network;
4. Research program: materials (development and testing) and design concepts by

graduate assistants, preferably EWC grantees.
United States - Cornell University

1. Study of ways to organize, teach, and do research in a multidisciplinary mode
for low-cost housing;
2. Design of adobe and rammed earth houses to resist earthquakes;

12 Introduction
3. Modification of existing adobe and rammed earth houses to resist earthquakes;
4. Use of coconut hull fibers to make fibrous concrete for houses;
5. Survey of a Limon, Costa Rica squatter colony to be resettled to determine

demographic information and many such things as housing preference, ability
for self-help, and their suggestions for solving housing problems;
6. Housing delivery systems in Ghana;
7. Rural and urban basic systems in Ghana.
This list does not include the large number of one-semester projects (some are
research) being done by teams of advanced students as part of their course work.
United States - Hawaii Community Design Center
1. Waianae Self-Help Housing Proposal

A self-help housing funding and operational proposal for Model Cities Housing
Task Force to construct 180 houses in Waianae.
2. Waimanalo Church Roof

Drawings of roof structure and kitchen space to assist church in fund raising
and completion of existing addition.
3. Kokokahi YWCA Cottages Renovation

Using Community Quest Students help in repairing existing cottages, steps, hand-
rails, lanai and windows.
4. Kahuku Housing Corporation Plan

General planning assistance to aid residents in maintaining life-style community
and housing, for eventual construction of 244 self-help houses.
5. Solar Energy Proposal

Research and evaluation of different solar water heating systems for a CAP
proposal for 240 houses on Molokai.
United States - Additional Project Initiatives
A tripartite relationship involving TDI, the University of Hawaii Department of

Civil Engineering (UHCE) and the Hawaii Community Design Center (HCDC) has resulted
from a series of meetings catalyzed by Roving Workshop I. Plans are under way to
design and construct a prototype soil-cement house on State property utilizing a
self-help approach. This house will cost approximately $4,000 in an area where low-
cost housing starts at $25,000. This represents an excellent example of West learn-
ing from East (soil-cement housing has, of course, been developed extensively in
the Philippines) •
In fact, it was through contact with the Philippines delegation at Roving Workshop
I that HCDC first conceived the idea of soil-cement housing for the State of Hawaii.
TDI, UHCE, and HCDC feel that soil-cement housing has great potential in the State
of Hawaii for the development of low-cost housing. In addition to providing a
different type of housing,.it will conserve land and energy (this type of house can
be clustered, thus it is ideal for an urban setting), make use of cheaper building
materials (and eliminate the cost of transporting building materials), maintain
current lifestyles (design of the house is extremely versatile), and will make use
of ecological utility systems (in addition to providing excellent insulation, thus
Introduction 13
no energy consumption for cooling, and elimination of the normal upkeep on a wood
house) •
The labor force which will construct the houses will be composed of individuals
from low-income community groups. Commitments have been received from low-income
groups and individuals to do the actual construction work. In addition, the Project
participants hope that low-income people from their respective communities come
out and take part in the program.
NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. Report on Conference on Relevance in Engineering Education for Asian Needs with
Workshop on Nature and Concept of Intermediate Technology, February 23-26, 1972
(Honolulu: East-West Center Technology and Development Institute) •
2. Papers Presented at Seminar on Low-Cost Construction Materials, November 27-29,

1972 (Honolulu: East-West Center Technology and Development Institute) •
3. Proceedings: Adaptive Technology Workshop II, Feasibility, Design and Imple-

mentation of Low-Cost Housing for Low-Income Families, July 9-20, 1973, Vols.
I and II (Honolulu: East-West Center Technology and Development" Institute) .
4. Final Report: Mini-Conference on Cooperative Action-Griented Research and

Development in Low-Cost Housing Materi~ls, Design and Construction, May 16-18,
5. Project Proposal: Cooperative Action-Griented Research and Development in Low-

Cost Housing Materials, Design and Construction, July 1974 (Honolulu: East-West
Center Technology and Development Institute) •
6. Cooperative Action-Griented Research and Development in Low-Cost Housing Materials,

Design and Construction: Supplemental Report Series No.1, August 1974 (Honolulu:
East-West Center Technology and Development Institute).
7. Proceedings: Low-Cost Housing Technology ]?roject Roving Workshop, January 15-28,

8. Proceedings: Low-Cost Housing Technology Project Roving Workshop II, October

6-20, 1975 (Honolulu: East-West Center" Technology and Development Institute) •
1
LOW-COST HOUSING: GUIDELINES AI\JD ISSUES
Louis J. Goodman
1.1 THE NEED FOR LOW-COST HOUSING

Housing is a basic human need. Secure shelter therefore represents a basic human
right. On October 24, 1970, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the follow-
ing Declaration on the International Development Strategy for the Second United
Nations Development Decade:
Developing countries will take steps to provide improved housing and related
community facilities in both urban and rural areas, especially for low-income
groups. They will also seek to remedy the ills of unplanned urbanization and
to undertake necessary town planning. Particular effort will be made to expand
low-cost housing in both public and private programmes on a self-help basis,
and also through cooperatives, utilizing as much as possible local raw materials
and labour-intensive techniques. Appropriate international assistance will be
provided for this purpose.
Low-cost housing is clearly a high-priority program for all countries in the world.
Population growth, urbanization, and the attendant growth of slums and squatter
colonies all contribute to the urgency of the problem. The need for new housing
alone is so staggering that, according to estimates by the United Nations Center
for Housing, Building and Planning, the demand for construction of all kinds during
the last half of the twentieth-century will exceed the total volume of building
throughout the whole of human history. Their 1973 report on world housing conditions
reaffirms that conditions continue to deteriorate at an alarming rate. l
If the housing problem is to be solved in a practical way, programs must be formulated

that will utilize as many local materials and skills as possible. Only essential
materials that will not interfere with primary economic development should be imported.
Indeed, housing programs should complement such development wherever possible.
Finally, program planners must recognize that the problem cannot be solved by quick
recipe but instead requires a multifaceted approach considering (1) planned utiliza-
tion of land, (2) increased indigenous technical knowledge and skills, (3) increased
use of indigenous building materials, (4) promotion of labor-intensive construction
technologies, (5) the development of suitable public policy and finance mechanism.
The solutions will require interdisciplinary interaction among architects, economists,
engineers, and social scientists who will provide the necessary framework to view the
totality of the numerous problems inherent in applying low-cost housing technology
to different socioeconomic environments. Ultimately, the total spectrum of the
15
PREVIOUS PAGE BLANK

16 L. J. Goodman
problems ·of human settlements must be addressed, ranging from research and develop-
ment on building materials and designs to methodology of physical planning, social
and functional aspects of low-cost housing, and development of a viable indigenous
building industry base.
1.2 SOME PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

There is a vital need for developing and developed societies to conduct cooperative
research and development in the housing field on a partnership basis (see Introduction
for an example of such a multinational partnership program among research and deve-
lopment institutions). Furthermore, technological adaptations and/or innovations
must satisfy a number of economic and sociological factors. Among these are: (I)
reducing the cost of an acceptable housing unit, (2) creating a significant number
of new jobs through the net effect of technological innovations on the combined
building material and construction industries, (3) considering the attitudes of the
people concerned, so that the final product is both useful and usable, (4) providing
low-cost water supply and waste disposal systems for public health control measures.
Among the many problems and issues that must consequently be taken into account,
the following deserve special consideration. They cannot be considered as separate
from each other. Indeed, they form a system of influences and constraints that must
be viewed as a whole.
Materials 3 Transportation and Production

1. To the fullest possible extent, materials should be indigenous to avoid contri-
buting to the depletion of often-scarce foreign exchange. Where imported materials
can clearly contribute to ·lowered costs.an·d efficient use of indigenous·materials,
however, they should be considered.
2. A two-pronged approach to the most efficient use of materials, transportation,

and products seems to be indicated. Drawing on indigenous materials and keeping in
mind the limitation of transport, and utilizing local production facilities, plan-
ners can devise a system of housing components that can be assembled by low-skilled
or unskilled labor, with minimum supervision and training. The two prongs, therefore,
are (I) the application of labor-intensive but efficient field assembly methods to
the production of housing, with maximum use of indigenous resources of materials and
labor, (2) the shop production of simple, easy-to-assemble components.
3. Materials should be combi~d composites and assemblages to the fullest possible

extent.
(a) Tb make the most efficient use of materials and to obtain composite properties
not attainable with the individual materials acting alone;
(b) To reduce the number of components and parts that must be transported and
assembled in the field. If, for example, roof and ceiling can be combined
into one composite, the amount of material can often be reduced.
Aggregating the Market

If any building ·system based on components produced in a shop for assembly at the
site is to succeed, the housing market must be aggregated. Demand must be reasonably
16 L. J. Goodman
problems of human settlements must be addressed, ranging from research and develop-
ment on building materials and designs to methodology of physical planning, social
and functional aspects of low-cost housing, and development of a viable indigenous
building industry base.
1.2 SOME PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

There is a vital need for developing and developed societies to conduct cooperative
research and development in the housing field on a partnership basis (see Introduction
for an example of such a multinational partnership program among research and deve-
lopment institutions). Furthermore, technological adaptations and/or innovations
must satisfy a number of economic and sociological factors. Among these are: (1)
reducing the cost of an acceptable housing unit, (2) creating a significant number
of new jobs through the net effect of technological innovations on the combined
building material and construction industries, (3) considering the attitudes of the
people concerned, so that the final product is both useful and usable, (4) providing
low-cost water supply and waste disposal systems for public health control measures.
Among the many problems and issues that must consequently be taken into account,
the following deserve special consideration. They cannot be considered as separate
from each other. Indeed, they form a system of influences and constraints that must
be viewed as a whole.
Materials, Transportation and Production
1. To the fullest possible extent, materiaJs should be indigenous to avoid contri-

buting to the depletion of often-scarce foreign exchange. Where imported materials
can clearly contribute to lowered costs.and efficient use of indigenous·materials,
however, they should be considered.
2. A two-pronged approach to the most efficient use of materials, transportation,

and products seems to be indicated. Drawing on indigenous materials and keeping in
mind the limitation of transport, and utilizing local production facilities, plan-
ners can devise a system of housing components that can be assembled by low-skilled
or unskilled labor, with minimum supervision and training. The two prongs, therefore,
are (1) the application of labor-intensive but efficient field assembly methods to
the production of housing, with maximum use of indigenous resources of materials and
labor, (2) the shop production of simple, easy-to-assemble components.
3. Materials should be combi~ed composites and assemblages to the fullest possible

extent.
(a) To make the most efficient use of materials and to obtain composite properties
not attainable with the individual materials acting alone;
(b) To reduce the number of components and parts that must be transported and
assembled in the field. If, for example, roof and ceiling can be combined
into one composite, the amount of material can often be reduced.
Aggregating the Market
If any building system based on components produced in a shop for assembly at the
site is to succeed, the housing market must be aggregated. Demand must be reasonably
Low-Cost Housing: Guidelines and Issues 17
predictable if programmed production in the shop is to continue at a sufficiently

sustained level to obtain the potential cost reduction; sporadic operations can cost
more than conventional construction. Some means must be found to assemble enough
dwellings to be built as a group.
Labor
In many developing areas, labor falls into two more or less distinct categories.
The first consists of trained workers associated with established and growing
industries. These people, secure in their jobs and reasonably well paid, tend to
form a more or less exclusive group. The second, usually larger, labor category
comprises the unskilled or low-skilled underemployed workers, casual laborers with
no secure employment doing whatever they can, and receiving uncertain income. Often,
they badly need housing but do not have the skills or organization to provide it by
conventional building methods. On the other hand, their potential need is extremely
large, and they constitute an equally large potential labor pool to provide that
housing if the means to utilize. their abilities can be organized. A case study of
a successful housing subdivision in the Philippines demonstrates how such labor can
be organized and encouraged to provide its own housing on a partial self-help basis. 2
Customs, Preferences and Prejudices
Perhaps in no other phase of existence people have deeper emotions than those related
to their homes. They have spent their lives in a home, have become attached and
accustomed to it, and are not easily diverted from the way of life associated with
it. They are generally strongly conservative in their views respecting what cons-
titutes a home, especially if they own it. Thus, custom, preference, and prejudice
constitute strong constraints. They are not, however, insurmountable.
Perhaps no other aspect of housing design is so difficult and important as this.

Research is badly needed to determine what constitutes socially acceptable housing.
This entails searching for answers and gUidance in explorations that are presently
under way and it demands that new experiments be undertaken if these answers are
not forthcoming.
CZimate and Geography

If the cost of housing is to be kept as low as possible, undue reliance cannot be
placed on mechanical means of controlling living conditions, but the housing must
be designed to consider carefully the climate and weather, taking advantage of those
features that promote comfort, and minimizing those that do not. The sun, prevailing
winds, temperature and humidity variations, and natural shading or favorable exposure
must all be considered. Design must turn these factors to advantage to the fullest
possible extent or, where appropriate, minimize their effects. Similarly, geogra-
phical features such as terrain, soil, ground cover, earthquakes, and possibility
of flooding must be considered more closely than ever, and the simplest and least
costly methods of combating, avoiding, or taking advantage of them must be sought.
Much scattered and fragmentary information exists, but that information and methods
which have already been devised need to be gathered together and analyzed. If
necessary, further research and development must be undertaken to find solutions.
18 L. J. Goodman
Public Policy
Public policy is of crucial importance. It can encourage housing or i t can raise
formidable and even insurmountable barriers through public action or inaction.
Public policy can encourage or frustrate the development of the level of housing
production needed for combined industrialization and rationalized field operation
by action or inaction in such vital areas as availability of housing finances,
interest rates, establishment of housing banks and savings and loan associations,
encouragement of cooperative action, codes, planning and zoning, and provision of
sites and services.
Most important, if the political agencies, both nationally and locally, support a
steady policy, housing can proceed on an efficient cost-reducing basis. If not,
housing becomes erratic and costs rise.'
Many national, regional, and local housing authorities have been set up with variable
success. These, and housing policies generally, need to be studied and the elements
of successful ones analyzed for possible adoption.
Information Acquisition and Dissemination

The need for effective methods of information acquisition, processing, and dissemina-
tion is manifest in any organized research and development effort. To a large
measure, the internal viability of an R&D organization rests with its ability to
scan appropriate information environments, have access to information relevant to
its developmental objectives, and identify gaps in information preliminary to the
conduct of original research. To just as great an extent, the external viability of
an R&D organization depends upon its ability to communicate its findings to appro-
priate audiences and receive feedback from those audiences.
Access to the most complete information possible is essential to the efficient and
successful conduct of research and development. This is particularly true of the
complex field of housing. Relying on existing information acquisition and dissemi-
nation capabilities of institutions currently engaged in low-cost housing R&D, several
recently developed communication strategies (microforms, magnetic tape displays, film
projections, among others), may be employed to enhance information exchange among
R&D counterparts located at the far-flung corners of the world.
Project Management
There is need to improve the capabilities and skills of managers of a variety of
public works projects, including housing, in both East and West. Indeed, this is
such a vital issue in many countries that the East-West Technology and Development
Institute planned and designed a separate project area concerned with the management
of development projects. One of the objectives of this new programmatic activity
was to develop a cadre of effective indigenous project managers in a number of
countries with the necessary skills to implement successfully a specific project.
1.3 EXAMPLES OF LOW-COST HOUSING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

There are a number of examples of research and development efforts resulting in
low-cost housing units for low-income families in both Asia and the United States. 3
A project team at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) in Bangkok, Thailand is

investigating the use of locally produced asbestos-cement sheets for both exterior
walls and roofing systems. The results of this team effort are illustrated in
Fig. 1.1. The cost does not include land, which is on the AIT campus. The cost
of labor is approximately 20% of the total cost.
Fig. 1.1. One of two prototype duplex houses built on the

campus of the Asian Institute of Technology,
Thailand; utilizing corrugated asbestos cement
sheets for both roof and longitudinal walls. It
provides approximately 50 m2 in floor area for each
unit with a total construction cost in early 1974
of US $1,250 per unit, or $25 per m2 •
A research team at the University of the Philippines cutting across the Colleges of
Engineering and Architecture, and the Institute of Planning, is conducting research
on "development of design criteria and methodology for the low-cost, low-rise
buildings to better resist external winds". Figure 1.2 shows one 'of two experimental
low-cost houses designed and constructed as a part of this research study. In this
case, as in the AIT Prototype, the cost does not include land.
A low-cost housing unit in Korea, including a breakdown of the cost analysis

(excluding land) is shown in Fig. 1.3. The exterior walls are constructed of
stabilized soil building blocks, and the roofing system consists of asbestos-cement
tiles.
Indonesia has long been active in the area of low-cost housing development. A
prototype low-cast- house built in the early 1970s is illustrated in Fig. 1.4.
In one of the highest cost-of-living areas in the United States, the island of Oahu
in the state of Hawaii, the Hawaii Community Design Center, staffed by three VISTA
volunteer architects, has designed and built a prototype "Minimum House" intended
for self-help construction (see Fig. 1.5). The construction cost in 1974 was $5,500
including all materials but excluding the cost of labor and land. This is indeed
a remarkable feat in an area where low-cost housing for low-income families generally
falls in the $25-35,000 range.
20 L. J. Goodman
Fig. 1.2. The round sensor discs on the roof and walls of
this experimental house at the Science Garden,
University of the Philippines, monitor the wind
pressure on the house to test its resistance.
The double walls and ceilings are made of locally-
produced modularized chipboard panels and the
roof is made of galvanized iron sheets. The
direct construction costs of this 46 m2 house in
1973 were US $1,100.
An outstanding illustration of a pilot project adapting local soil and cement as

a low-cost bUilding material is found at Mindanao State University, Marawi City,
Philippines. A Cinva-ram was used to produce the soil-cement building blocks and
floor tiles. The total cost of the house shown in Fig. 1.6 was $600 (excluding
land) in 1969-70, for a floor area of 45 square meters. Labor accounts for approxi-
mately 30% of this total cost. Research is continuing, investigating soil-cement
hollow blocks, soil cement roofing panel systems and bamboo reinforcement.
1.4 SUMMARY
,Both the Introduction and Chapter 1 have shown that low-cost housing for low-income
families is a problem of prime and immediate importance. We have briefly summarized
the many interrelated problems and issues, stressing the need for multinational and
multidisciplinary research and development on a cooperative and coordinated basis.
The stage is now set for the following chapters in this unique two-part work.
NOTES
1. Report of the Secretary-General, United Nations Economic and Social Council
(Committee on Housing, Building and Planning), "World Housing Survey", September
1973 (New York: United Nations) .
2. "A Housing Cooperative for Industrial Workers in Iligan City", in Leadership

Strategy in DeveZopment Projects: PubZic Leadership Workshop II~ Part II~
October 15-26, 1973 (Honolulu: East-West Center Technology and Development
Institute) .
Fig. 1.3. This prototype house was built by the Bureau of

Housing and Urban Planning, Ministry of Construc-
tion, Government, Republic of Korea utilizing
stabilized soil blocks and asbestos-cement roof-
ing tiles. With a total floor area of 40 m2 , the
cost of construction was US $747 in 1970-71,
which cap be reduced to $600 with self-help labor,
and less than $500 with self-production of blocks.
The breakdown of costs is as follows:
Item Cost Percent
Foundation and footing $ 46.7 6.3

Blocks and Block-works 211.5 28.3
Wood works 156.8 21.0
Roofing 80.7 10.8
Hortar finishing 62.0 8.3
Door and windows 66.0 8.8
Water closet 35.5 4.7
Miscellany 88.2 11.8
(Painting, Wall papering,
Electricity, Heating-floors)
---
Total $747.4 106.0%
Self-help labor 122.0

Self-made blocks 150.0
Estimated Net $475.4

22 L. J. Goodman
3. Cooperative Action-Griented Research and Development in Low-Cost Housing Mate-

rials~Design and Construction: Supplemental Report Series No. 1~ August 1974
(Honolulu: East-West Center Technology and Development Institute) .
Fig. 1.4. This is one unit ofa prototype housing project

in Bandung, Indonesia. The project provides
housing for low- and middle-income families.- The
unit shown is one of the low-cost designs being
evaluated at the project site. Designed and built
by the Regional Housing Center, Bandung, the
house is 45 m2 in floor area, with walls of woven :
bamboo mats, burned clay tile roof and a total
construction cost Qf $550 in 1970; excluding land.
Fig. 1.5. The Hawaii Community Design Center staffed by three

Vista volunteer architects have built a prototype
"Minimum House" designed for self-help construction.
The house is 71m 2 constructed of wood with asphalt
sheets over plywood for the roof. The cost of the
house in 1974 was $5,500 inclusive of kitchen and
bathroom fixtures but excluding labor.
24 L. J. Goodman
Fig. 1.6. This house utilizing soil-cement building block

materials for both exterior walls and floor ,tile
has been constructed at Mindanao State University,
Philippines. The floor area is 45 m2 and total
cost of construction in late 1969 was somewhat
lower than US $600, excluding land. The galvanized
iron sheeting roof is sub-functional and research
is continuing to develop more functional and lower
cost roofing system.
Part I
LOW-COST HOUSING: BY COUNTRY

2
LOW-COST HOUSING IN THE PHILIPPINES
E. G. Tabujara and G. V. Manahan
2.1 HOUSING AND HOUSE-FOID1S

The Basic House
For ages the primitives of the Philippines used for their shelters rock caves very
similar to those of the ancient Tabon Man of Palawan. At times they would roam the
rain-forests seeking shelter in huge trees. In their further desire to protect
their abodes from intruders and the evil spirits, broad-leaf plants were ceremoniously
placed in the entrances. They later realized that these indigenous materials as well
as fibrous plants had some practical purposes in protecting their abodes from the
elements. It was simple enough for them to improvise the building of lean-to shacks
when they ventured into the plains and fertile flats by the banks of rivers along the
coasts of the country-side. During the lulls away from the hunt, they would improve
their shelters by devising contraptions by weaving long-leaved mattings. Whenever
they made use of these mattings as their shelter from the harsh sun, they would prop
the mattings, hence the early beginnings of the lean-to type of construction. This
led to the emergence of the nipa hut.
The Bahay Kubo

The nipa hut, or bahay kubo was and still is the typical house type in agricultural
areas of the country. The materials used vary according to the materials that abound
in the region. For example in regions where cogon, bamboo, nipa or rattan grow, these
are used to advantage.
Housing of the Filipino mountai~ dwellers vary from the cave dwellings of the Tasaday
tribe, the four-trunked house of the Ifugaos and the tree-houses of the Higaonons.
The Ifugao house consist of wall panels, floors, and framework of hardwood. Layers
of grass are used for thick thatchings. The area of the elevated house is from 16
to 20 m2 .
In the fishing village of Southern Philippines, away from the devastating typhoons,
the typical rural house is on stilts right above the water. Materials used are
grass reeds for walling and a thatch roof. Logs having a diameter of 10-15 cm are
used as framework.
27
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28 E. G. 'I'abujara and G. V. Manahan
Bi-sectoral View of Housing

The bahay kubo was standard house form for the masses even in old Manila. It was
only in the 1920s when the traditional building methods for housing the masses dras-
tically changed. Two strong development waves can be attributed to this phenomenon:
1. The adoptation of the Burnham Plan for Manila during the turn of the century,
and its consequent implementation in the 1920s when the country experienced
a monetary windfall from the coco excise tax. The Burnham Plan provided the
momentum for the modernization of the city on a broader geographic scale.
In effect the projects and improvements initiated in Manila became a model
to be followed by the smaller cities of the country.
2. The promulgation of the bUilding and zoning code of Manila in the 1920s
prevented the wide use of the nipa hut and thus inhibited the use of tradi-
tional materials which were very fireproof. The districts of Tondo, Santa
Cruz and Sampaloc which had dense communities of low-income families had
to use masonry and wood for their house instead.
These two techniques adopted by government of coping up with growing urbanization

in the private city resulted in viewing housing for the masses as a two-pronged
situation. House forms and materials for the urban sector has since then been
viewed differently from the greater majority of the people's housing situation.
Fig. 2.1. Typical Rural Nipa Hut (Bahay Kubo) in Luzon Island
Low-Cost Housing in the Philippines 29
Fig. 2.2. Typical Timber House of the 1950s Leyte Island.
2.2 POLICY FORMULATION FOR HOUSING

Policy-making with the respect to housing in the Philippines has been adopted and
pursued bY'government as far back as 1934. But for 40 years funding support has
been intermittent, for housing has been bereft of a comprehensive program in carrying
out the incipient state philosophy for housing the greatest number of the lowly as
implied'in the development of Barrio Obrero. Furthermore, the growing strength
gained by socially conscious housing policy-makers was disrupted and delayed by the
ravages of World War II. This was .further compounded by the country's loss in
housing inventory as a result of the war~ This was particularly true in the urban
areas of the country. The development effort was thus geared to economic ~d
social reconstruction. Consequently, .the economy at that time. was not in a position
,to support a viable housing program. These problems were complicated by the disparate
distribution of population which conglomerated towards the principal sources of
emploYment. By 'the mid-sixties the national housing need was established at 470,000
dwellings or 12 new houses per 1,000 population. Despite the absence of regional
dfsaggregates of the housing figures i t has been set that 140,000 units are needed·
in the urban areas and'330,000 units in the rural areas of the country.
An analysis of the census data of 1970, shows that there are some 6,308,632 house-
holds in the country which gives an average of 5.8 persons per family. On that
census year, there existed 5,186,873 dwelling units. There is an implication,
therefore, . that a housing deficit of 1,121,759 units exists. This figure is assumed
to bea high estimate because of the typical Filipino characteristic of extended
families and doubling up. Shortages therefore, are underestimated.
30 E. G. Tabujara and G. V. Manahan
Housing Shortage
Pursuing the assumptions made by the Social Service Unit of NEDA, with regards to
population, the urban-rural distribution that is based on actual household enume-
ration were then correlated with the available housing inventory, to wit:
Rural Urban
Households 4,300,794 2,007,838
Dwellings 4,097,545 1,089,328
Apparent shortage 203,249 918,510
Percent apparent shortage 4.6% 40.7%
Government has also pin-pointed that the housing shortage is more apparent in
Metro Manila where it is estimated that two-thirds of the country's shortage of
urban dwelling units are most needed.
It must, however, be recognized that the following phenomena must have to be included
to the annual housing deficits:
1. The creation of some 200,000 new families every year;
2. The existence of 389,873 "barong-barongs". Even though these structures

are habitable, these would have to be environm~ntally upgraded;
3. The reduction of the housing stock due to deterioration, calamities, and

poor habitability. The number can be anywhere close to 250,000 units.
Housing Supply
Housing supply in the Philippines is dependent on effective demand: The slow pace
of housing development is however attributed to the population's low-effective.
demand. This is greatly, due to the lack of financial resources of those who are in
need of housing as well as the lack of relevant institutions and systems that can
help.translate their housing problems in physical form. For the past decade,_ the
rate of housing supply is merely two dwelling units per 1,000 population. Most of
these are generated by the.private sector. It is estimated that this can amount to
80-90% of the supply. The housing market which various financial institutions of
the country services are categorized in the following:
1. Private banks and non-bank financial institutions cater to the upper income
bracket;
2. Social Security System and' GSIS-financially assisted p;ojects are often

grabbed by middle-income families;
3. Government Social Housing schemes which are supposedly for the low-income,
most often go to the lower-middle income families.
Thus far, the lower-income classes of the nation either rent or squat (if not caught)
in urban areas, or on the basis of the "bayanihan" system, with the help of their
friends and relations erect a traditional "kubo"in the rural areas. Government has
protected the renters with a rent-control law for tenants paying less than $40 a
month. On the other hand, rural families have been granted by the Development
Bank of the Philippines the opportunity to get loans up to $670 for their rural
houses.
Concept of Affordability
As a result of the insurmountable problems faced in financing the infrastructure

of housing for the country, the concept of affordability o~ the household has
cropped up in the policy-making levels of the government. In terms of existing
building quality and standards accepted by financial institutions, urban families
must have an annual income of $10,000 to afford open-market housing. Housing
analysts have estimated that these compose only 12% of the urban families of the
c~untry. The next bracket belong to the $533-$1,332, which number about 23% of
the urban families. They can afford home ownership if they are extended long-term
financial assistance at reasonable interest rates and with a minimum of land deve-
lopment and construction costs.
The residual consists of 65% or urban families who cannot afford adequate shelter
even at reduced rates. Government aims to provide for them social housing under"
subsidized or partially-subsidized schemes. Within given specific housing develop-
ment areas, cross-subsidies shall be tried as an alternative. In the rural areas
where over 70% of the Filipinos have annual incomes of $133 per family, housing costs
are not as high as in the urban areas. What is urgently required are sufficient
provisions for utilities and services as well as appropriate settlement patterns to
extend to the populace the benefits of modern service facilities. The use of indi-
genous materials will require better technology and intensive studies.
Fig. 2.3. PHHC (Philippine Homes & Housing Corporation) Houses

in Quezoncry.
w
N
Table 2.1 Summary Table on Affordability of Housing Benefits and Minimum Payment Terms
National Housing Authority June 1976
Annual income Distribution Monthly ave. Expenditure Weighted Interest Housing Amount % Fund
class of families~ income a for housing b expenditure rate benefit 100 hhlds. allocation
Indigent (hi) c (Yi) (qiYi) (ci) (hici)

3,000 below 35.30 156.38 15.64 15.64 3% 25 years 3298.11 116423.28 6.68%
Social
3000-3999 15.1 35% 287.75 57.55 20.14 6% 25 years 8932.16
4000-4999 9.8 22 371.83 74.37 16.36 11542.73 tIl
5000-5999 7.7 18 453.50 90.70 16.33 14077 .26
6000-7999 11.0 25 592.58 114.52 28.63 17774.29 P
43.60 100% Average 81.46 6% 25 years12643.14 551240.90 31.16% t-3
38.29% ~
~
w.
Economic PJ
I"i
PJ
8000-9999 7.1 39% 742.75 185.69 72 .42 10% 25 years 20434.67 PJ
10000-14999 8.4 46 1007.17 251. 79 115.82 12% 25 years 23906.59 ~
p.
15000-19999 2.7 15 1435.17 358.79 53.82 14% 25 years 29805.75
p
18.20 100% Average 242.06 11. 7%25 yrs. 23437.42 426561.04 24.46%
~
Sub-Total 1094225.23 ~
PJ
Open Market (may be for co~nercial/industrial development aside from residential housing) if for residential housing: ~
PJ
::r
20000 over 2.9 2786.75 696.69 18% 25 years 45912.50 649534.71 c 37.25% PJ
~
100.0% population Average interest Earnings 12% 25 years C 1743759.94 100.00%
Funds
NOTES: aDistribution of Families taken from Table 5 BCS '71 Survey Hhlds Series 34; Average Monthly Income from
Table 2. Note, however, that if widely accepted '76 estimates were available, their use would be more appropriate.
bComputed at 10% of Monthly Ave. Income for INDIGENT, 20% for SOCIAL, 25% for ECONOMIC; these are the qi
referred to in note c 20% is guide used by NEDA Housing Sector Study, January '75.
cReference is made to FINANCIAL FRAMEWORK AND MODEL FOR FINANCIAL PLANNING which expresses the financial
situation of the Authority as the simultaneous occurrence of two equations: ~hici f a = A and ~hiqiYi f fa
= f'A where f is the annuity factor appropriate to the open market; a, the amount of open market funds, ft
the annuity factor for the average interest earnings of Authority funds and A the total amount of funds.
In this case ~ hici = 1094225~23 ~ hiqiYi = 8509.24; f = .015174 or 18% 25 years; and f' = .010532 or 12%
25 years. Solving the two equations simultaneously yields A = 1743759.94 and small a = 649534.71.
Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.6. Rural Houses, Llyte Island, Nipa roof, bamboo walls,
timber stilts.
2.3 MILESTONE LEGISLATION IN HOUSING

Government efforts in housing have proliferated among various agencies until
President Marcos on 31 July 1975, issued Presidential Decree 757 creating the National
Housing Authority and dissolving all existing housing agencies. The urgency to
concentrate all government housing efforts, resources, functions and activities was
thus realized.,
The Housing Program
Under Presidential Decree 757, a comprehensive and integrated ho~sing program shall
be prepared covering among others, housing development and resettlement, financing
schemes, delineation of government and private participation. Also, the program
called for specifying the priorities and targets in accordance with the 'integrated
National Human Settlements Plan prepared by the Human Settlements Commission. The
factors to be considered in the pr~paration of the program are the following:
1. The management of urban development to promote the economic and social well
being, stabilize the physica~ mobility of the people, and facilitate indus-
trial growth and dispersal;
2. The conservation of land for housing development as well as the regulation

of land use to achieve optimum urbanization patterns;
3. The organization of public and private resources into financial intermediaries

to meet the demand for housing, including provisions for incentives and
facilities to broaden the private sector's participation in housing invest-
ments;
4. The extensive use of building systems, which shall maXlmlze the use of
indigenous materials and reduce building costs without sacrificing sound
engineering and environmental standards.
Objectives of the Housing Program

The National Housing Authority was also giventhe task to develop and implement the
housing program for the country. It was organized as a government corporation
directly under the Office of the President having the following purposes and objec-
tives:
1. To provide and maintain adequate housing for the greatest possible number
of people;
2. To undertake housing development, resettlement or other activities as would

enhance the provision of housing to the people;
3. To harness and promote private participation in housing ventures in terms

of capital expenditures, land, expertise, financing and other facilities
for the sustained growth of the housing industry.
Basic Principles of the Housing Program

To give flesh to the objectives of the NEA, the agency has adopted tile following
basic principles:
1. Housing is a process of development. The approach should be group-oriented.

Emphasis must be given to environmental hygiene;
2. Housing is a concern of everybody. Slums are not the problems of government

alone;
3. The thrust of the housing effort is the very low-income group;
4. Land use must be maximized in urban areas;
5. Housing must be affordable;
6. All agencies of the government must contribute to the housing effort;
7. The private sector must be tapped for housing; and their resources coordinated.
The Authority was given an authorized capital of $500 million which shall be subscribed
by the Republic of the Philippines. Upon the approval of the decree, $50 million
has been appropriated, $5 million of which was released upon the organization of the
Authority and the balance when needed. Thereafter, the NHA shall recp.ive ~~n million
for every subsequent fiscal year for a period of 9 years which shall be included
in the General Appropriations Act.
Housing Agencies AboZished by the Decree

The decree abolished the following agencies and their functions, assets, and records
were transferred to NHA:
1. The People's Homesite and Housing Corporation (PHHC);
2. The Presidential Assistant on Housing and Resettlement Agency (PAHRA);
3. Tondo Foreshore Development Authority (TFDA);
4. Central Institute for the Training and Relocation of Urban Squatter (CITRUS);
5. Presidential Committee on Housing and Urban Resettlement (PRECHUR);
6. Sapang Palay Development Committee;
7. Inter-Agency Task Force to Undertake the Relocation of Families in Barrio

Nabacaan, Villanueva, Misamis Oriental;
8. All other agencies: task forces and ad hoc committees involved in housing.
All urban estates of the government, the Department of Agrarian Reform and the PHHC
were also transferred to the NHA.
Powers and Functions of the Authority

The Authority was also given the following powers and functions to be exercised by
the Board according to the Human Settlements Plan of the Human Settlements Commission:
1. Develop and implement the comprehensive and integrated housing program;
2. Formulate and enforce general and specific policies for housing;
3. Prescribe guidelines and standards for the reservations, conservation and

utilization of public lands identified for housing and resettlement;
4. Exercise the right of eminent domain or acquire by purchase privately owned

lands for the purposes of housing development, resettlement and'related
services and facilities;
5. Develop and undertake housing development through joint ventures or other

arrangements with public and private entities;
6. Issue bonds, or contract loans, domestic or foreign for the implementation

of its housing programs;
7. Discharge all responsibilities of government with respect to commitments

on housing and resettlement;
8. Promote housing development by providing technical assistance;

9. Prescribe and enforce guidelines, standards and rules designed to protect

the house and lot owners through the regulation of the real estate trade
and business;
10. Regulate the relationship between owners and lessees of residential properties.
Under the decree, the Board of Directors of the National Housing Authority are:
1. Secretary of Public Works, Transportation and Communication;
2. Directbr General of the National Economic and Development Authority;
3. Secretary of Finance;
4. Secretary of Labor;
5. Secretary of Industry;
6. General Manager of the Authority.
2.4 URBAN LAND POLICY

Urban Land Problems
In urban areas of the country, land as a housing resource has become very limited.
This has been brought about by:
1. Increasing demand for intensive land uses;
2. Private speculation which has forced useful land into idleness;
3. Absence of a land management policy for the country.*
Because cheap land within urban areas is not available in adequate sizes, the low-
income sectors of the community are priced out of the residential market. As a
case in point; within the inner core of Metropolitan Manila, residential land ranges
from $53 to $106 per m2 • This progressively goes down to $10.67 per m2 some 20 km
out. These are still expensive for low-income people. Furthermore, an added burden
in commuting from place-of-residence to place-of-work is shouldered by the working
members of the household.
For the past two years, government has moved towards the realization of a meaningful
urban land policy which can halt unjustifiably high land prices. Several existing
laws and recently promulgated decrees directed towards new concepts for land owner-
ship in the country are now being enforced. However, i t may take a generation before
these root in Philippine society. Under the Philippine Constitution, public lands
are controlled by the government. The "Regalian Doctrine" is followed. The Public
Land Act of 1936 is presently enforced. The law states the conditions and procedures
how a Filipino citizen can acquire lands from the public domain.
*The Human Settlements Commission, as early as 1975, had initiated studies towards
the promulgation of Presidential Decrees on Land Resource Management Systems.
Land Policy for the Future

A milestone in land policy formulation was the Presidential decree promulgated in
June 12, 1974. President Marcos during the Independence Day celebration stated
that henceforth all alienable and disposable land belonging to the public domain
are to be owned by all. It shall no longer be sold or transferred to private persons
but shall only be subject to lease or similar disposition which will result in greater
benefits for the citizens of the country. Due to this declaration, government
agencies affected by this policy have undertaken studies to quantify the effective-
ness of the policy directions on real property taxes and lease prices, as well as
the repercussions of policy on socioeconomic development and land resource manage-
ment. Transitory provisions have also been included in the policy so that owners
of agricultural lands who are in the process of acquiring the lands they cultivate
can have up to a given date to file applications for the confirmation of their title
to the land. After that date, it will be considered that the actual occupants hold
the lands under leasehold.
The policy of 1974 still recognizes the concept of private land ownership. However,
all land is treated as an instrument of national development. No one can do what
he wants on his land. The occupant cannot alter the original purpose for which the
land has been classified unless a permit is granted by a national government autho-
rity. Similarly, a new decree is in course of preparation which will control and
regulate the change of land use. This will all be embodied under a land resource
management decree being studied by the Human Settlements commission.
Under the Philippine Constitution government is authorized to expropriate private

lands upon payment of just compensation. Such lands can be subdivided into small
parcels and conveyed at cost to the people. Local government are also authorized
to do likewise. This provision is generally not resorted to by government agencies
because of the "just compensation" clause. Oftentimes the fair market value is very
difficult to be agreed upon. This has resulted in the promulgation of Presidential
Decree No. 76 which attempts to solve the predicament. It required all landowners
to declare what they consider as fair market value of their landholdings so that
the same shall be used as basis from pricing land; either for real property tax
purposes for payment of compensation if the lands are to be bought by government.
The idea of taxing idle urban lands has long been discussed in academic circles.
Currently, a number of policy studies spearheaded by the Bureau of Lands and the
University of the Philippines Law Center have made recommendations with regards the
controversial idea. The policy studies have added still another dimension on land
taxation. This is the idea of added tax assessment on lands which have risen in
value due to improvement made by government or utility companies. The concept has
assumed that the incremental value added due to public improvements will necessarily
control speculation.
Innovative Land Ownership Concepts

A new concept on land ownership now being experimented upon, although in a limited
scale, by private land developers is the concept of making land an expendable resource
and not as an ordinary commodity of trade. This concept, inhibits one to abuse his
property and be mindful of the ecological consequence of ownership. The idea embodies
certain rights to property like regulations on development rights as well as transfer
of rights to a large organization to manage and maintain land for the greater good
of the community. Trends indicate that Philippine society is receptive to this
revolutionary concept of land ownership as has been applied in the Caliraya Leisure
Community at Lagura. This can change development patterns for low-income housing.
Normally, the time-frame for such ideas to take root is about 20 years. However,
the Bagong Nayan concept of the National Housing Authority may be able to shorten
their time horizon.
2.5 HOUSING FINANCE

FinanciaZ Requirements
Currently government is encouraging the private sector to participate in formulating
the housing finance programs of the country. Issues are expected to be resolved
in this manner so that the appropriate policy programs can be immediately implemented.
This is a clear recognition of the role the private secto~ plays in the housing
industry of the country. As an example, in 1973, investment in housing is about
2.3% of the GNP. This is only about $116 million. But 80-90% of this has been
contributed by private investors, mostly the upper-income and middle-income levels
of Filipino society. Still UN housing advisers to the Philippines have stated that
the country has to increase housing investments to about 4% of the GNP if a genuine
effort is to be made in dealing seriously with the housing problem of the nation.
Just as in any country of the 'Third World, the estimated financial requirements for
the housing program in the Philippines are even below the "4% of GNP" dictum of the
United Nations. It can fall anywhere in the region of $133 million perannum~ This
estimate has been made by NHA financial planners and is based on a yearly incremental
demand analysis. Currently, the NHA is reevaluating the housing standards from
which funding requirements were based so as to match its rationality with national
housing policies. Similarly, funding sources which can sustain the strategies on
a long term are being identified.
Due to the lack of one unifying concept on how to reduce risks attendant to the
beneficiaries of indirect and social housing, the private financial sector has a
very minimal impact on this area. Private banking institutions and insurance
companies concentrate their resources for housing on the upper-income levels which
are considered less financially risky. This situation gives greater responsibilities
to the NHA in preparing the financial programs for housing. This is significant
because the indigent and social sectors of the country can range from 70% to 75%
of the urban areas. Concerns that the NHA.is considering in the design of its first
financial program are: the affordability by both the government and the people in
sustaining the housing program in the long term; the high credit risks involved if
financing concepts are to be based on traditional banking systems and institutions;
and the administrative costs involved in innovative methods are not introduced.
Cross Subsidy Approach

The National Housing Authority is strongly inclined to introduce the "cross-subsidy"
approach in its programs of financing a major segment of its operations. Instead
of merely developing the housing areas, the strategy that the NHA is developing is
that it shall get involved in complete developments of the community where industrial
and commercial land uses are considered essential elements of the development. On
this basis, the costs for development of the indigent and social housing segment
of the community are to be assumed by the earnings realized from the sale of commer-
cial and industrial developments in the community.
The "cross-subsidy" approach has required a deeper evaluation of the existing finan-
cial climate of the country so that breakthroughs can be identified, tested for
viability, and implemented as a total system.
/
Areas of Financial Concern
The areas of concern, as identified by the financial consultants of the NHA are:
1. For the low-income sector to afford the money for housing, it should be on a
long-term basis ranging from 20 to 25 years and at low-interest rates of 3-6% per
annum;
2. More innovative systems should be devised to replace traditional administrative

means of granting loans and collecting amortizations if these expenses are to be
reduced. These expenses are expectedly high if the NHA carries out the administrative
work attendant to collection of amortizations as practiced presently by the Authority;
3. It has been strongly recommended to the NHA that a system of indexing of amor-
tizations on housing be made regularly. The advantage of the method is that over
the long period, the NHAs capability to implement its program can be assured.
Furthermore, the beneficiaries of the NHAs program can. adjust their future payments
and consider inflationary increases in costs. This will allow the NHA to generate
more funds in order to accommodate higher replacement costs.
4. The NHA has now recognized that sites and services is a viable approach worth
considering in effectively spreading the benefits of housing to the lower-income
levels of the country. Inherent in this approach is the legitimization of certain
squatter communities in areas that are not inimical to overall national development.
In Metro Manila alone, this concept can effectively benefit 20% of the area's
population. The advantage of sites and services has long been validated by social
surveys as reflected in the following case:
In a survey conducted in a slum area of Manila, specifically in Tondo, a question

regarding preference for living in a single-family detached house, an accessoria,
or a multi-family walk-up unit showed an overwhelming choice for the single-detached
house. Some 85% chose the single-detached house. The accessoria comes second for
half of the respondents. A follow-up .query which shows values for building form
as against tenure status was then administered. Fully 74% opted for the apartment
that can be bought rather than a single-detached house that can be rented. The main
reason given is that 'ownership would be more of a priority than housing where one
would be worrying about payments every month. A further query as to relationship
of owning properties and place-of-livelihood showed clearly that the respondents
immediately preferred the latter.
In essence the advantage of the sites and services scheme are:
(a) The approach will avoid causing disruptive dislocation to many families who
are on the subsistence level of living in urban areas;
(b) The existing stock of housing can be prolonged by upgrading. Despite this,
caution should be expressed in matters of pricing the upgraded housing
stock so that there is a reasonable correlation of the amortization period
with the actual life of the structure. Otherwise the replacement costs
may be beyond the capacity of the beneficiaries.
5. Even with subsidized financing terms, the full cost of housing benefits cannot
be shouldered by the low-income groups. Of particular importance is the cost of
developed land. A more effective low-income housing program should assume costs
of land and its development, either fully or partially. A consequence of this is
the requirement for government to land-bank potential urban development areas and
that long-term arrangements for leasehold which appeal to the majority be analyzed.
42 E. G. Tabujara and G.V. Manahan
Because of the paucity of financial sources, managerial talents, and technical

expertise that the NHA can master in a short time, the strategy is for the Authority
to work jointly with the private sector. Today, money in housing is expensive.
There is not enough of it being channeled to the housing sector. No existing formal
system can effectively channel sources and other means of funding toward low-income
housing. Part of this lack is the absence of a mechanism for rediscounting housing
mortgage documents.
Recommendations for Financing Housing
The issues that NHA financial advisers have recommended for further evaluation are:
1. Because of the limited market for 20-year term bonds in the country, the
NHA cannot rely on bond sales as a continuous source of funds. The 20-
year maturity of NHA Bonds is ideal because it matches the amortization term
of the loan. Unless a secondary mortgage market is developed the ability
of the NHA to use bond issues will be severely reduced.
2. Another approach that the NHA is considering is the concept mentioned earlier
of cross-subsidies where earning and cash flows from commercial and/or
industrial developments are expected to support housing projects for the
low-income. However, the NHA realizes that it cannot rely fully on earnings
from developments that are incidental to its basic objective3. It cannot
commit a substantial part of its resources to commercial and industrial
developments.
2.6 RURAL HOUSING

One of the largest yet long unrecognized groups of home-builders in the country is
the informal rural sector. This is the unquantified area of housing in the country.
Most of the building approaches for this sector are traditional, generic and gene-
rative. It will require informal support mostly geared to improve their traditional
concepts for building without disrupting their cultural beliefs about what is a
home. There is need to provide this sector with better techniques and methods to
make their abodes more hygienic, constructively stable and appropriately located
for more effective use of utilities. Government likewise will have to provide infra-
structure support, rationalization of house sites to employment sources in order
to make new settlements usable. On the whole what this informal sector will require
is substantial information for a self-reliant approach to housing: a how-to-do
it approach to rural building. This is imperative as most of the skills needed in
rural house building have been dissipated by the influx of construction workers in
urbanizing areas of the country and the export of construction labor to the Middle
East and Africa.
In rural Philippines, a house can mean a lowland farm house made of bamboo, timber
and thatched roof, a timber house in the mountain regions, or stilt houses along
the foreshore or marshlands or a boathouse by the sea as that of the Badjaos. The
early Filipino's response to the need for shelter is simple in origin. His basic
requirement was to be assured of protection from depredations of the elements and
surprise attacks from animals.
SECTION
,- - -- - - ---.---- ---- ------ - ---- .......
-f2:-"j : T- - - - - r- 1
• • •
1
,
I /
~ -~! -
I /
~__
" I
---", n
- - - - -~
, u~
2
• HIGAAN
• HARAPAN
•
+-- ~ UP I
I
1110 I
I
I
,. •
I
_ . • I
I ROOF LINE .l:_JI
_______________________
L _
TYPICAL PLAN
Fig. 2.7. A simple "Bahay Kuba"

SECTION
r - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - --.----,
I
I •
I
TALI PASAMANO
TUMALI
PANGKOL
DING DING
I.
L
PASAMANO.
~~~
•
PLAN
J
SIDING
Fig. 2.8.
CuUu.ra"l BeZiefs
Superstitious beliefs enter in the selection of construction materials and in orienting

the hut. For example, in some places in, the Southern Tagalog Region, the steps
leading to the ground must face the Southern Cross so that the house will always be
"occupied". In the traditional Muslim areas, the slopes of house sites must be
towards Mecca. For good luck, the number of steps must follow numerological beliefs.
A simple "bahay kubo" is mainly the "higaan" - an enclosed and elevated space that
functions as sleeping area and storage space. The "silong", the space underneath
is where animals and farm implements· are kept. The roof extension in front, called
the "harapan", serves as social and entertainment space. Occupants of the "kubo"
are supposed to sleep with their head towards the east.
Roof Layouts
Space expansion of the "kubo" means extending the roof which is called "pahulog".
This increases the covered ground area which is sufficient to protect daily activities
that take place around the hut. Should an additional room be needed for the increasing
number of the family, it is built adjacent to the existing room. The new room will
have to be under its own "balangkas" (hip roof) and not a "pahulog". The building
mass assumes a different silhouette as two ridges are formed. Being under a "pahulog"
is avoided because it would imply that the new family is "nakikisunong" (being
carried on the head), or a burden to the first family.
"Balangkas" means framework, but it also refers to a type of roof - the hip roof.
Other types are the "pasibi" (lean-to) and the "pakamalig" (gable roof). The roof
of the hut is constructed first, before any other frame of the house. The roof
frame is assembled on the ground. Roof pitch is high, to facilitate drainage.
Framework
Two ways of setting up the posts are by the "papatong" (placed on) and the "pabaon"
(to bury) methods. In the first method, the horizontal members ("sikang", "kahab-an",
"yawi" and "patukuran") are attached to the posts ("haligi"); then the assembly is
raised so that flat stone slabs which serve as the foundation can be placed under-
neath each post. In the second method, holes are dug, posts set in, and the hori-
zontal members attached on to the posts.
The people believe that all the posts should be of the same species. If different
materials have to be used, posts of the same kind should come in pairs-coupled or
"married" ("magkakaasawa"). If there are odd number of posts, the odd one would
have to be paired with a "kilo" or a "soleras" of the same species. The posts are
made in pairs so that the couples "would not be lonely". Wood species used for
posts are the local baraba (Lagerstroemia speciosa), malaruhat (Eugenia calubcobJ 3
mulawin (Vitex parviflora), yakal (Shorea gisokJ and guyong-guyong (Decaspermum
fru tico sum) .
Bamboo Flooring
The floor or "sahig" is made of one-inch wide bamboo slats spaced at about 3 cm on
cen ters. The "gililan" (sole or floor sill) frames the "sahig" and supports the
walls. The "soleras" (floor joists) which support the "gililan" and "sahig" are
supported by the "patukuran" (girder). The "yawi" on which the "patukuran" rests
completes the frame. Should the span between posts be too wide, an intermediate
post or "tukod" may support the "patukuran".
Sidings
Placing the walls would present a problem if they had to be attached directly onto
the crooked posts. Instead, they are attached to the "tumali" (wall studs) that rest
between the relatively aligned "gililan" (floor sill) and beams.
-------- - ------ PALUPO

KILO
--_ _ BARAL N6 KILO
PAHULOG
SECTION
SIKANG - - ,
1-
~
KILO
--
r;;; J.
f-
1___
a:
'" .....
'"
-- ~7
./
f-
c:t
-I
a:
l -I-
U
,- i '-- 'I
z ~
c:t Z
I c:t
CD I
c:t CD
I c:t
c:t l/ ..... I
~ c:t
V
VI' " ~
~
II '" I
KILO MAYOR ..-J
PLAN
ROOF FRAMING
Fig. 2.9.
PAMALUPO
KABALYARETE
COGON BUNDLES
TALI
PITPITAN _-~~~!P"
~---- KILO( RAFTER)
--.- PALATPAT (PURLING)
DETAILS OF ROOF
Fig. 2.10.
FOUNDATION
YAWl
PABAON
Fig. 2.11. A trench dug around the house keeps the ground
area from being flooded during rains. The earthen
floor is " g inagstiya" which means treating the
shaded ground area with a mixture of carabao
manure, dried grass and water.
PAPATONG
•
r TREI\JCH L11'JE
LAYOUT OF POSTS
Fig. 2.12.
SEE .
DETAIL ~I
SECTION
r - - - - - ---- --"'"\""'""'-- ----- ------1 HALIGI
~- GILILAN 1 GILlLAN
I
I
I
U • I
\
SAHIG
I SAHIG I
I I
I PATUKURAN I
I I
I \
I SOLERAS
I
I YAWl I PATUKURAN
\ • I YAWl
I I
I
I
-, I
I
I
I I \
I I I
I I
I 1
I I
I SOLERAS
I 1--.. _ - I
\ YAWl I
!sEE I • I
I
DETAIL'
A L------------ ----_--J
FLOOR FRAMING PLAN
DETAIL A
Fig. 2.13.
The most cornmon siding material is "sawali". This is a bamboo mat made by weaving
and framing the thin and flattened bamboo strips. The "sawali" wall is light and
cool but i t burns easily. Some rain may be blown through i t during storms. However,
if i t is not exposed to the elements, i t could last up to 20 years. It may be used
for ceilings, partitions, doors, and window shutters.
Research for rural housing as promulgated by the National Science and Development
Board have the following objectives:
1. Improving the material to make the rural house more durable and resistant
to fire, decay and wear;
c= ~ ~ ~~ ~:: 11
__ Jl
PAKDAY -1 __
LALA
----
SALA SAWAll
Fig. 2.l4a. Sidings
2. Improving the design of the rural house and its components to better resist
storms, adapt to increasing industrialization processes, and anticipate the
higher quality of life for the rural inhabitants.
Research that shows promise is the use of composite cladding of traditional house
materials made of an inner panel of bamboo matting (sawali), as the structural layer;
a core of light material, and an outer face of aluminum sheet. All three surfaces
act as a sandwich panel which can be used as a wall or a roof. Another sandwich
panel using ring segments of bamboo culms to form a hollow core was also tested for
service characteristics. Results revealed that applications were not found market-
able for the intended low-income market. .
2.7 FORMAL HOUSING FOR THE MASSES

Formal approaches to low-income housing now being tried in the Philippines range
from those with high technological inputs in both the soft and hard sciences, to
those with large amounts of intermediate technology and citizens participation.
Some cases in point are the experiments of the Philippine Business for Social Progress
and the Pleasant Hills Housing and Service Cooperative, Inc. Both are cases for
actual research laboratories to find new alternatives to urban housing for the masses.
,\
r-n- U If)'·~'l··
I :1'. . • J:.
"!rf
(J) I (J)
w , w
::J : <:[:J
I
<:[
I : I
o I 0
I
I I
om ! 0m
.~
"h~
- -- - - -- -0
I_ 1- -- B Ifni:', or..
~ ....
PAPANGKOL PAGATGAT/PAUKIT
SIDINGS
Fig. 2.14b.
As the country is regularly visited by disasters, government has initiated mechanis~s

for sustaining services when communities are wrecked by disasters. One such procedure
is that being tried in Mindanao by the National Housing Authority.
The Sambahayan Concept
The most notable condominium project designed particularly for the low- and middle-
income families is the Sambahayan Condominium of the Philippine Business for Social
Progress, a non-profit foundation organized by the private sector and the Social
Security System.
The PBSP-SSS Sambahayan project is intended to house 353 low-income families whose
breadwinners work within one bus ride from the housing complex.
During the initial stages of construction, there was a noticeable resistance from
prospective buyers due to the "bad image" attached to condominium living in the
Philippines. People then tended to associate condominiums, especially those for
low-income households, with loss of privacy. Also, they believed then that since
various families are housed in one tall building, they would be easy prey to delin-
quents and the bad elements of the community.
However, the PBSP has since launched an intensive education campaign that made
extensive use of mass media. The PBSP says that the campaign has been successful
and it is now on its second phase of monitoring this major social experiment.
Sixto K. Roxas III, who was chairman of the PBSP board of trustees at the time the
project was initiated, emphasized that the PBSP, in conducting the Sambahayan
project, seeks to demonstrate that the low-cost housing venture for urban workers
is one that can be replicated if proper infrastructure services such as drainage,
roads, water mains, power lines, and sewerage can be assumed by government in
support of the project.
The Sambahayan, he explained, is designed to become a community that can reach a

stage where the members can be able to sustain themselves. The Sambahayan, which
is located in Mandaluyong, is expected to become a model that other similar under-
takings in the future may follow.
The Sambahayan project was started with a ?960,000 loan from the SSS. However,
rising prices and the oil crisis pushed the cost up.
The PBSP had originally expected to recover only about p8 million to p9'million of
the investment and give away the rest. The project is composed of five buildings
along Sacrepante Street in Kandaluyong. The project provides living areas ranging
from 34 to 56.64 m2 having nine standard types of residential units. Several units
in the upper floors have mezzanines.
The cost of each unit which ranges from a socialized price of $2,000 to a high
$5,730 is payable in 30 years through the Social Security System Housing Loan
Assistance. A 10% down payment is also required. One-half of this 10% down payment,
however, can still be paid in 36 equal monthly installments interest free but
guaranteed by the employers where the prospective resident works. The total monthly
payments, on the other hand, will be from $20.00 to $57.30 a month. This monthly
amortization includes the monthly dues payable to the SSS, Real Estate Tax, Fire
Insurance Premium, Mortgage Redemption Insurance (the insurance which automatically
pays in full the unpaid balance of the applicant's loan in case he dies), water,
light, and contributions to the maintenanqe and repair of the common facilities in
the Sambahayan.
Eco-settlement Concept for Self-help Housing

Recognizing the need for an integrated approach to housing development for the in-
digent families of Metro Manila, the Samahang Bagong Buhay Foundation, Inc., a
Catholic welfare organization undertook a housing project for resettling residents
from Mandaluyong. This organization, founded in 1975, is composed of Salesian Fathers,
social workers, seminarians from Christ the King Seminary, and volunteers from '
various professions. The aim of the project was to "build socially and economically )
self-sustaining communities through multi-purpose cooperatives with the development '
of the whole man and a Christian community". The model that was adopted for the
"resettlement community is the so-called "ecology settlements" which aim for a high
level of interdependence between human and other environmental resources. The
development process was tried for the displaced residents of Mandaluyong.
A pilot project in Antipolo, consisting of 5 hectares, was chosen to settle some

350 squatter families from Mandaluyong. The development process included parti-
cipative planning as well as surveys of the client families so as to determine needs,
aspirations and resources available. The people involved in the process were Fr.
Leo Schmitt, SVD, the Director of SBBFI, the squatter families, community development
wo~kers, volunteer architects, volunteer engineers, skilled workers, architecture

students from U.P. and A. Bruce Etherington, the Director of Asia-Pacific Housing
and Development Research Corporation of University of Hawaii.
The planning process included study and research, interviews, staying with the client
families to study patterns of living, behavior circuits and spatial needs. A cyclical
process to generate design solutions was made so that filtering of ideas, dialogue
with the displaced people presenting the proposed design, and developing a technology
feasible for the development can be accomplished in the shortest time possible.
Both resettlement and housing construction are expected to be carried out by the
settlers themselves. Through the process of generative planning, the settlers will
assist in determining the qualitative and physical characteristics of the new settle-
ment. To train settlers ·in construction methods for housing, the "pyramid" concept
of skills training was adopted.
Selected settlers will construct, under professional supervisors, a model house.

After mastering techniques of construction, and the procurement of building materials
in proper quantities, the settlers with new building skills will then be dispersed
to train and supervise predetermined groups of settler households in the construction
of their homes. Each group will be located in a physically defined area called a
compound and will cooperatively construct all houses for their group. This will
permit certain amounts of building specialization within the groups.
'When the first compound group has completed their homes a selected number of settlers
from these new settled groups, who have mastered the techniques of house construc-
tion, will then undertake to train and supervise succeeding compound groups. This
process is then repeated until all settlers to be resettled are housed. Construction
techniques will include a structurally sound building system which will permit expan-
sion of the core house either horizontally or vertically. Costs of dwellings are
expected to be highly competitive with current low-cost housing projects. Each
house will also have its own independent sewage system and water supply system.
House plots will have a minimum density of 70 families per ha. and will be of
sufficient size to accommodate a family of 6-8. A garden sufficient to supply
the household's nutritional needs, except for 80% of carbohydrates and 75% of protein
requirements is also incorporated in the site. The typical compound designed for
6-20 families will include facilities for compatible cottage industry, children's
playground, a landscaped circulation and public area, a place for a sari-sari store,
to name a few. An enclosing wall will provide security and control within the
community. An integrated automatic irrigation system will provide water to all
private and public areas. This is possible because the physical features of the site
are so disposed as to ensure gravitational flow of water. The eco-settlement will
provide communal fish ponds and reservoirs, within a flood control/drainage system.
This provision for communal food production facilities will help reduce the protein
and carbohydrate production shortfalls of the private gardens.
The socioeconomic program for the community will include the development of community-
based commerce and cottage industry, and manpower training through rehabilitation
~d skills re-education. At present, the Samahang Bagong Buhay housing project for
resettled people, known as an eco-settlement is at its first phase of development.
The people are in the process of producing the materials needed for house construction.
Disaster and Emergency Housing

The National Housing Authority has adopted a three-phase policy for providing housing
in disaster-stricken areas of the country. Initially, the work is being coordinated
by the National Disaster Coordinating Center. The activities are divided into three
phases. Phase I is primarily geared to provide emergency housing assistance to
hopeless victims of fires, earthquakes, or insurgency. In the August 1976 earth-
quake that hit southern Mindanao, 11,399 of 11,500 homeless families have been given
housing assistance worth $67 each. Coupons worth $53 were used to purchase basic
building materials from accredited suppliers in order to build temporary shelters.
A cash grant of $13 was also given to the household for transportation and sundry
expenses. Dwelling units made of nipa, bamboo, and other locally available materials
were used. Construction was done on the spirit of self-help and "bayanihan". Com-
munal toilets, open spaces, pathways and other community facilities were also cons-
tructed by the residents with the Authority providing the technical assistance.
Phase II begins with the granting of loans to homeowners for the rehabilitation of
damaged houses. This is started as soon as the emergency housing of Phase I is
completed. Up to $667 loan can be granted per family by the NHA. This is intended
to be payable in 10 years.
Phase III consists of a housing development program which will provide permanent
settlements for homeless families. Coordination is made directly with the Commis-
sioner of the Region, but under the direct technical supervision and control of the
NHA through the General Manager.
This policy has now been used for sometime in the Muslim areas of Mindanao.
2.8 ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Owing to the urgent need for applicable alternative solutions to the energy problems
of the country, new sources of power are at present being studied. Geothermal
energy is expected to be operational by the 1980s in Bicol, southern Luzon and
Leyte with the power grid entirely linked-up for the whole of the Island of Luzon.
Despite apprehensions of risk of pollution, the government had to take the painful
decision to establish a nuclear power plant in the growing industrial region of
Bataan. Wave power, solar power and tide power have also been studied by several
agencies of the government. But the most promising for the low-income families
in the rural areas is bio-gas. The Energy Development Board, the National Science
Development Board and the Bureau of Animal Industry have coordinated their research
and development activities very closely.
Energy, if not fully harnessed for community development will go for naught. The
UNEP has in Tondo an on-going applied research which demonstrates what alternative
technologies can do in an integrated approach to development.
Bio-gas
Felix D. Maramba, Sr., is the pioneering Filipino in bio-fuels and agriculture

recycling. He says that the bio-gas system is a fourfold answer to human survival
problems. And he talks from experience as he has built an operational bio-gas plant
at the Liberty Flour Mills Maya Farms in Rizal.
Maramba states that by a process of fermentation, the bio-gas system produces a

versatile fuel. Then it is a source of disease-free organic fertilizer. Thirdly,
i t controls pollution by disposing of organic waste such as animal manure, crop
waste and garbage. And lastly, i t is an effective way of conserving natural resources
The first bio-gas plant at Maya Farms was initially intended for pollution abatement
only. However, it was discovered that the sludge was an excellent fertilizer for
the farm's vegetables and sweet corn. This saved about 75% on fertilizer cost and
increased yields by approximately 50%. Continuous cropping became a possibility
because the soil conditioning value of sludge made water absorbity of the soil more
efficient so that water pretention is facilitated during the dry season.
Bio-gas was utilized as fuel at ~1aya Farms in the meat processing, canning, and
rendering plants. By the time the Philippines experienced a shortage of LPG, the
company had sufficient bio-gas to convert most of their equipment using LPG to
bio-gas. Today bio-gas is used as a direct substitute for LPG, gasoline and diesel
fuel in the heating, drying, cooling and lighting requirements of the company. Maya
Farms now operates a bio-gas plant producing 850 m3 per day. This saves the company
some 20-25% of ordinary power consumption. The cost of constructing and installing
small-scale bio-gas plants of different sizes is approximately as follows:
1. A capacity of 1.7-2.0 m3 of bio-gas/day which is sufficient for lighting

and cooling, plus 16 tons of fertilizer pEr annum will cost $267-$320;
2. A capacity of 4.25-5.10 m3 of bio-gas/day which is sufficient for lighting,

cooling and pumping water, plus 40 tons of fertilizer per annum will cost
$400-$480;
3. A capacity of 7-8.5 m3 of bio-gas/day which is sufficient for lighting,

cooking, pumping water and running a gas refrigerator, plus 65 tons of
fertilizer per annum will cost $667-$880.
The UNEP Project at Tondo

Another area where alternative technologies are being studied in the country is the
UNEPs demonstration in Tondo. The project deals with the improvement of the envi-
ronment by using an integrated approach on the social, economic, physical and envi-
ronmental aspects of communities.
The project is a joint undertaking by NHA with UNEP on a 3-year demonstration scheme
that commenced last July 1976. The project is concentrating its efforts on squatter
areas with the objective of looking at new ways to improve living conditions of the
urban poor by selecting concepts that are ready for massive applications but still
require to be demonstrated. These are:
1. The utilization of renewable materials for building such as agricultural

products and other plant materials;
2. The use of industrial waste as building materials particularly from the oil,
mining and refining industries;
3. The Use of recycled building materials rather than discarding them at the
end of the useful life of the building;
4. The use of other sources of energy such as wind and sun to produce power
and to utilize the minimum quantity of water for washing and cleaning by
fine-droplet spraying;
5. The use of rainwater and means of extracting water from the air by the
phenomenon of condensation;
6. The use of solar power to purify sea-water as well as a prime mover for
cooking, heating and cooling;
7. By recycling water and separating it by functions for potable use, cleaning,

conveying and cooling or watering plants;
8. The use of practical modular coordination to avoid waste of materials;
9. The production of protein foods through aqua-culture.
Attempts at correction of environmental disruptions are at present concerned with

reducing the rural migration to the Tondo area. The land tenure problem is in
course of solution. Work opportunities and improved sanitary conditions are being
tried. It is expected that better opportunities can then be afforded to the squatter
area as environmental conditions are improved.
2.9 BUILDING MATERIALS

Recognizing the need for building materials that are locally available, replenishable
and reusable, research on these is aimed at import substitution, technology transfer
and the use of agricultural waste products. In addition, the government of the
country and its research agencies are showing interest in composite products combining
synthetic and natural materials, prolongation of the life of traditional materials,
and improvements in constructional techniques.
Cement Products
Concrete hollow blocks are considered the typical low-cost construction materials
in urban areas of the country. Several manufacturing concerns have established
huge enterprises· for the production of approved quality concrete hollow blocks which
generally satisfy international standards for testing of materials. It has also
become a cottage industry in the countryside when the cimva-ram was introduced
sometime in the 1960s. Where sand and gravel abound these have become the aggregates
used with cement. However, in inland areas of the country, where sand and gravel
are scarce or very expensive, the National Science Development Board has launched
a coordinate research project to determine other substitutes for sand and gravel.
The hollow blocks produced were aimed at providing a low-cost housing material for
single storey detached houses that do not require the same high mechanical properties
as those sought when concrete hollow blocks are utilized for multi-storied structures.
Below is a corporative table of results of tests made on normally manufactured
cement hollow blocks. Based on an acceptable compressive strength of 7.05 kg/cm 2
for non load-bearing blocks it can be easily seen that several substitutes for sand
and gravel can be used in the manufacture of low-cost cement blocks.
Ferro'-Cement
In 1974 the Patent Office of the Philippines granted a utility patent to a ferro-
cement product called HYPAROOF. This product invented by Tolosa & Mejia of Iligan
City is now being used in some housing projects in the south. It measures 3.80 x
8.80 m which can be pre-cast or cut on one side. The form follows a hyperbolic
paraboloid which weighs i ton. Reinforcements used are woven 6.1 wires. No
special equipment is necessary except a crane for erecting the structure.
Table 2.2. Results of Tests on Manually-manufactured

Hollow Blocks (Prepared by FORPRIDECOM)*.
Compressive Strength
Range of indi-
Mixture No. of vidual values
proportion specimens Ave.
by volume tested weight Ave. Min. Max.
Soil~cement (lOx 20 x 40 cm)
1:1 5 20.4 443 410 466

1:2 5 20.2 259 206 309
1:3 5 19.1 268 177 357
1:3~ 5 17.8 167 134 247
1:4 5 17.8 178 82 286
1:4 5 18.3 175 158 201
1:4~ 5 17.8 129 99 158
1:5 5 18.8 173 147 221
1:6 5 18.1 127a 106 144
Soil-cement (15 x 20 x 40 em)
1:3 5 25.2 109 a 57 198

1:3~ 5 24.4 113 76 153
1:4 5 23.6 114 74 160
1:4~ 5 24.6 145 119 191
Sand-cement (10 x 20 x 40 cm) Control
1:3 5 22.7 222 100 352

Sawdust-cement (15 x 20 x 40 cm)
1:3 5 15.1 75 53 117

Baggage-sail-cement (10 Yo 20 x 40 cm)
I II I
1:3 5 20.9 119 76.8 141

1~ l~ 1
1:3 5 19.4 189 104 227
2 2 1
1:4 5 20.2 232 164 287
2~ 1
1:5 5 17.5 142 95.9 193
3 3 1
1:6 5 17.0 94.2 70.3 145
Coconut Coir-soil-cement
2 2 1
1:4 5 11.0 156
*Sampled from those actually used at ~he FORPRIDECOM Housing Site.
aAcceptable for non-load-bearing tallow blocks is of gross area.

NOTE: 100 psi = 7.05 kg/cm 2 ; 1 kg = 2.2 pounds.
58 E. G. Tabujar a and G. V. Manahan
Fig. 2.15 Hyparoo f by To1osa

SuZphur Concrete
Sources
Elemental sulphur in the Philippines is associated with volcanic rocks, mostly

pyrites and marcasite. To date most of the sulphur bearing ores have no commercial
value to the chemical industry due to high extraction and processing costs. However,
refined sulphur is not necessary in the production of sulphur concrete for the housing
industry. Ores with as little as 30% sulphur can be utilized for making sulphur concrete.
SUlphur can be recycled without any expensive equipment. Only 30 k cal/kg of energy
is needed to liquify sulphur. The Philippines has some 59.3 million metric tons of
sUlphur reserves. These are related to the action of inactive sulfataric-fumerolic
activity. The location, volume and purity of the known sulphur deposits are as
follows:
Table 2.3. Deposits with Over 35,000 Metric Tons.
Location MT % Analysis
Camiguin Island 61,100 10-15
Mt. Pinatubo, Botolan, Zambales 35,000 over 10
Mt. Malinao, Tiwi, Albay 4,940,000 0.39-10.45
Mt. Mandalagan, Talisay Negros Oriental 1,209,000 16.19 Ave.
Pamplona, Negros Oriental 52,590,000 17.19 Ave.
Cabiran, Biliran Island, Leyte 490.091 7.98 Ave.
'IDTAL 59,325,191
PhysicaZ Properties
The density of sulphur is 2 tons m3 . It has a compressive strength which can be as
high as 464 kg/cm 2 depending on the aggregate use. Tensile strength is 47 kg/cm 2
and this can be increased by the addition of fibrous reinforcements, glass fibers
0 0
or organic fibers. The melting point of sulphur ranges from 110 to 119 C depending
0
upon environmental conditions. Its boiling point is 440 C and its combustion temp-
0
erature is 248 C. However, its burning is not sustained. Sulphur fires can be
easily detected by smell, and are best put out by dry chemical sprays. Hot sulphur
is capable of producing severe burns.
Sulphur has high bonding strength, impermeability to water, good insulation value
and mixes with a variety of aggregates like sand, gravel, earth or clay. Sulphur
has a tendency to develop static changes thereby presenting a fire and explosion
hazard. Unless a fire-retardant to sulphur is used it should be avoided in places
where there is a fire hazard. Similarly, despite its non-toxic qualities, the odor
of sulphur may be disagreeable to people.
Table 2.4. Deposits with Smaller or Maximum Reserves.
Location MT % Analysis
Gonzaga, Cagayan n.a.
Bontoc, Mt. Province
Mercedes, Camarines Norte n.a.
Mt. Isarog, Goa, Camarines Sur ltd.
Malino, Albay 65 51.2~
Bacon, Sorsogon ltd.
Sorsogon, Sorsogon 755 40.75 Ave.
Tinambacan, Samar 100 39.92
Burawon, Leyte 2,250
Bacon-Dawin, Negros Oriental 2,333 34.34 Ave.
Taya san, Negros Oriental n.a.
Valencia, Negros Oriental n.a.
Mt. Hibok-Hibok, Camiguin n.a.
Mt. Apo, Cotabato n.a.
Sarangani Island, Davo Sur n.a.
Balut Island Davo Sur n.a.
SuZphur Concrete in Tondo
Sulphur concrete is formed by mixing molten sulphur with different types and grade
of aggregates. Experiments are being carried out on these substances as a building
material for low-cost housing in the Philippines. The procedure being applied in the
manufacturing sulphur concrete is as follows:
0
1. Heat the sand or aggregate to a temperature of 106 C;
2. Simultaneously heat the sulphur up to its melting point;
3. The rrol ten sulphur is added to the hot sand;
4. The mixture is poured into molds.
A prototype housing module is now being implemented in Tondo with blocks weighing
13 kg. A block has 50% gravel, 20% sand and 30% sulphur. For low-cost housing,
studies done in the Philippines show that only 105-175 kg/cm 2 is needed to resist
most loads in residential construction.
To date, the problem of extraction of sulphur and the transportation expense attendant
of it have limited the uses of sulphur for low-cost housing in the Philippines.
PotentiaZ Uses of SuZphur in Housing

Remelting sulphur does not diminish its physical properties. It can be used to
waterproof bamboo mats, thatch, earth walls and other indigenous materials. The
method in applying molten sulphur is by immersion or by painting. If the melting
temperature can be maintained, it can also be applied by means of spraying.
The following inherent potentials of sulphur are being studied by the scientists
of the country to determine the suitability of the material as:
1. A bonding agent for building blocks;
2. A substitute for portland cement;
3. An agent to increase moisture resistance.
Cement-asbestos Boards
Cement-asbestos materials are not new in the Philippines. They were introduced in
the country by Eternit Corporation, when in early 1959, the Philippine Homesite and
Housing Corporation undertook a massive housing project in and around Manila. At
that time cement-asbestos was used as a corrugated roofing material. Today, one
can still see several roofs still covered with the original corrugated cement-asbestos
sheets in the housing projects of Quezon City. There was a time that cement-asbestos
sheets could not compete in the housing market which was cornered by the cheaper
corrugated galvanized iron sheets - this is no longer the case. The higher costs
of imported iron sheets made cement-asbestos viable as a low-cost roofing material.
Late last year (1976) Eternit Corporation introduced in the market the Placa Ondula
type of roofing. Since it is ideal for the climate of the country which experiences
adverse weather conditions ranging from strong typhoon winds to long, dry spells,
the Placa Ondula has advantage of lightness when compared to ordinary clay tile
roofs and is more durable than ordinary G.I. roofing sheets. Each tile is pre-
painted and is supplied with its own fittings, composed of metal straps, self-tapping
screws and a leak-proof vinyl washer. In between the tile is a strip of polyethy-
lene foam which is compressed when the strap pulls the laps tightly together. The
unit cost of one tile 1.07 x 0.813 x 0.0045 m including accessories is $2.19. When
in place it can withstand a pressure of 22 kilos/6.5 cm 2 and wind velocities of up
to 220 km/hr.
Placa Ondula is primed with various colors in the factory. Each tile is given a
tough, non-fading highly adherent and water-resistant color treatment.
An account of the need for the Philippines to import asbestos fibers, attempts are
being made to replace them by long-fiber organic materials. Examples of these are
bamboo fibers, abaca fibers and ramie. Abaca appears to be a good potential subs-
titute. Today a manufacturing process is available in the Philippines wherein
abaca fibers are converted into pulp - principally for disposable linen and for
security printing. At this time, research and investigation are concerned with
studying the weathering resistance of cement-orbitor brand and the reaction of
abaca pulp when mixed with cement.
Water Hyacinth
The Philippines is blessed with innumerable water bodies which are the natural
habitat of the water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes). This plant was originally
introduced into the Philippines as an ornamental. It has, however, become widely
spread throughout the Philippines and grows in abundance. Until recently the water
hyacinth, despite its beautiful giant blossoms, has always been regarded as useless
and a nuisance. Along lakes and rivers they are considered navigation hazards.
sometimes it enters rice paddies near lakes in such quanti ties as to interfere with
the growing of rice. During the rainy season, these aquatic plants are said to clog
the normal flow of flood waters. Children bathing in creeks avoid these plants
because of the bodily irritation they cause when touched.
In the fishing regions of the country it is used very extensively in the building
of fish traps. The bases of the leaves, particularly under certain conditions form
conspicuous rounded bladders. These are uged as feed meal or poultry and livestock.
The plant has fairly large potash content and can be used for soil conditioner.
It is expected that the water hyacinth which is now entering the handicrafts market
will have uses in the low-cost housing field. Today the plant is being used to
manufacture bags, mats, slippers, belts and other items which are exported from the
Philippines. In 1976, the price of processed stalks was p3 per thousand. A patent
has been granted to a Filipino for the "process of producing fiber strands from
water hyacinth leaves and fiber strands produced thereby".
The process converts the long water lily stems into sturdy and pliant fibrous
strands after proper treatment. In general the process is as follows:
1. The dried water hyacinth stalks are subjected to compression to expel air
from the hollow cellular structure of the stalks;
2. The pressed stalks are trimmed at the edges of the entire length on both
sides to produce the needed strands;
3. Braiding and plaiting or weaving is introduced at this stage;
4. Stalks are finally treated chemically to eliminate the poisonous coating

of the fibers that causes body itch and which produces molts.
Rattan
Relatively less popular than bamboo or coconut trunks for housing materials is Rattan.
This plant is a climbing vine usually found in thickets or second-growth forests
at low and medium altitudes. Rattans are currently used by the furniture and
interior design fields. Rattans are now used for beds, riggings for hauling medium
weight materials, room partitions, ceiling panels and even suspensions for short-
span bridges.
In the Philippines, the rattans are represented by 61 species of two genera.* Canes
are harvested on the 15th year when their sterns attain an average length of 25-35 m
and a diameter of 1.5-3.5 cm. Thereafter, selective cutting of the matured canes
may be done at intervals of 3-4 years. Harvesting of the canes is more favorable
during the dry season when the poles can be treated with fungicides.
The processing of canes starts when these are scraped to remove the thin silicious
coating. Once this is removed the yellowish luster of the material is brought out.
This could be done either by rubbing vigorously a wet "sinamay" cloth and ground
over the canes or by pulling the half bent canes back and forth around a bamboo
stake. To minimize fungal attack the canes are dried to not more than 20% moisture
content based on oven dry weight. Chemical treatment is done by soaking the canes
overnight in a 5% solution of commercial zinc chloride. Care must, however, be
taken at all times because areas treated with this chemical corrode iron easily.
Bamboo
Bamboo belongs to the same family as corn, wheat, and other grasses. There are
about 700 known species of bamboo allover the world. Thirty-two of these are found
growing in the Philippines. They are distinguished from other members of the
Gramineae family in that they are woody perennials. Bamboo varies in height from
15 cm to over 30 m at maturi ty. More than 30 cm a day is not an unusual rate of
height growth. After attaining full growth, the culms may require 2-5 years to
harden and mature. If left standing too long, or until they became even-matured,
bamboos are reported to lose much of their resiliency.
Today the botanical character of bamboo is still not well established. The reason
is that most bamboos produce flowers and fruits at intervals of 30 years or longer.
Soon after flowering, many species die.
In the use of bamboo as a reinforcing material in concrete, the elastic strength

of bamboo is of prime importance. Kauayantinik (Bambusa bluneana), have been used
as reinforcements for beams and columns.
Bamboo is used as a framework of a great majority of rural houses in the country.

"Sawali", a common bamboo matting in tropical Asia is very attractive as an interior
finish. Currently, bamboo is being processed as a laminated product by a private
company in the Philippines with the trade name KAWOOD. However, most of its produc-
tion is now absorbed by the furniture and the building interiors industry. Its
potential as a house component is very great. It can be used as a parquet floor
tile which has wearing characteristics comparable with those of wood used for the
same purpose.
*The following species are commercially exploited:

Larnbutan (Calamus halconensis, Becc.)
Limuran (Calamus ornatus, Becc.)
Lokuan (Calamus reyesiamus, Becc.)
Padlos (Calamus microsphaerian, Becc.)
Palasan (Calamus maximus, Becc~)
Panus (Calamus ramo lusus)
Sika (Calamus spinifolius)
Tagiktik (Calamus fiZispadix)
Tumalyn (Calamus mindoreneis)
Ditaan (Darmonorops mollis)
As a plant material for house construction bamboo is most important because it is

strong in relation to its weight; easy to transport due to its lightness; available
everywhere in the developing countries of Asia; has good thermal properties and is
relatively cheap.
In the Philippines, a plantation made of 3-4 years old erect-bamboo species yields
about 5,991-6,900 kg of air-dry bamboo per ha per year. FOREPRIDEOOM has developed
a kind of bamboo-wood tile, 22 cm 2 consisting of wood-veneer crossband and back,
and bamboo-veneer face. It has retained excellent glue bond between the plies after
a number of years of exposure to foot traffic and stresses brought about by moisture
changes. The wearing characteristics of the bamboo face are comparable to those
of wooden tiles of similar construction.
The uses of bamboos are innumerable and on account of their workability, they are
employed for almost every purpose as wood. They are commonly used for bridges,
houses, forces, rafts, vessels for carrying and storing water, water pipes, cooking
utensils, splints for baskets, mats, vehicle shafts, furniture packing and shipping,
poles, masts, sporting goods, phonograph needles, nails, handles, toys, and the like.
Young shoots of many species are relished for food.*
Coconut Trunk
Coconuts grow extensively in the Philippines and mature at the age of 35 years.
The present area planted to it is over 2.1 million ha or about 7% of the total
land area of the country. Density would be from 100 to 144 trees to a hec~are.
Tb date, several coco plantations are reaching diminishing productivity particularly
those planted before World War II. In Quezon Province alone, some 14 million coconut
trees are 69-80 years old. These have to be replaced with new growth. Research
on how to make use of the potentials of coconut trees that are no longer productive
has been conducted by the National Science Development Board. Of relevance to low-
cost housing is the utilization of the coconut trunk. Each tree has an average
potential trunk volume of 0.5 m3 , but only one-third of the volume, usually the lower
portion or the butt, has the coco hard portion suitable for low-cost housing materials.
*Erect species of bamboo growing in the Philippines:

Anos (schizostachyum lima (Blanco) Merr.)
Arundinaria (Arundinaria niitakayamensis Hayata)
Bayog (Dendrocalamus merrilianus Elm.)
Bolo (Gigantochloa levis (Blanco) Merr.)
Botong (Dendrocalamus latiflorus Munro)
Buho (Schizostachyum lumampso (Blanco) Merr.)
Giant bamboo (Gigantochloa aspera Kurs.)
Guadua (Guadua philippinensis Gamble)
India bamboo (Bambusa arundinacese Wild.)
Kalbang (Schizostachyum textorium (Blanco) Merr.)
Kauayan-china (Bambusa multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch.)
Kauayan-tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schultes f.)
Kauayan-kiling (Bambusa vulgaris Schrad.)
Kauayan-tinik (Bambusa blumeana Schultes f.)
Lopa (Bambusa cornuta Munro)
Merrill bamboo (Bambusa merrillii Gamble)
Palawan schizostachyum (Schizostachyum brachyladum Kurz.)
Pole-vault bamboo (Phyllostachys nigra Munro)
Spineless India bamboo (Bambusa tulda Roxb.)
Yellow bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. var. striata (Lodd.) Gamble)
Coco trunk is not commercially available in the country. Problems of technology

have yet to be solved, particularly the milling of coco trunk into lumber.
Cross-section
The gross physical character of the cross section of a coco trunk in terms of color
are different from those of wood. The darker portions (coco hard) are found on the
outer portion near the bark. On average, coco hard occupies 47.43% of the cross
sectional area. Coco soft (the soft core) is 52.5%. There is also a variation of
the coco hard/coco soft ratio from stump height to the upper portion of the trunk.
In most cases, coco hard occupies 55% of the cross-sectional area at the stump height
to 28% (0.77 m from the ground) at the level 2 m below the origin of the leaves.
Table 2.5. The Strength and Related Properties a of Green Coconut

Trunks from Ti aong, Que zan.
Species mean
Property unit position along cross-section
Hard outer layer Core
Moisture content Present 121 287

Specific gravityb 0.530 0.299
Static Bonding
Stress at proportional limit kg/cm 2 310 144
Modulus of rupture kg/cm 2 527 242
Modulus of elasticity 1,000 kg/cm 2 73.6 30.6
Compression Parallel to
Grain
. Stress at proportional limit kg/cm 2 169 73.7
Maximum crushing strength kg/cm 2 294 123
Modulus of elasticity 1,000 kg/cm 2 109 47.8
Compression Perpendicular
to Grain
Stress at proportional
limit kg/cm 2 38.4 18.6
Shear Parallel to Grain
Maximum shearing stress kg/cm 2 53.1 22.5
Hardness c
Side kg 524 137
End kg 488 117
Toughness kg cm/ 323 175
specimen
aAll tests conducted followed the procedures of the ASTM Standard Methods of
Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber. STM Designation: D143-52. Part 16,
1970 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, Pa.
bBased on oven-dry weight and volume attest.
cLoad required to embed a 1.128 cm steel ball to 1/2 its diameter.
Coco hard is the most important building material to obtain from coco trunks. Coco
hard has higher strength properties and greater decay resistance. Coco soft is
susceptible to drying defects like cupping and warping. The appropriate saw milling
techniques should, therefore, take the above-mentioned factors into consideration.
Sawing with the use of stellate-typed saw blade was found to be the most efficient
and practical.
Particle board
Experiments on particle-board-making with use of coco trunk has also been undertaken
by FORPRIDECOM. Mixtures of 100% coconut trunk, and a 50:50 ratio of coconut trunk
and wood particles, manufactured into particle-board, using urea formaldehyde at 8%
and 10% resin-content levels, has been found to be technically feasible.
FORPRIDECOM has arrived at a recommended proportion of 50:50 coconut trunk and wood-
particle mixture at 8% resin which appears to be the optimum condition, both in
point of strength and economy in production cost.
Other research and development ~ork
(a) Coco trunks are sawn into lumber in the form of stone-cut sidings and as
flooring in the form of tongue and groove sections. The soft core of the
coconut trunk is being studied for ceilings in the form of T & G boards,
as well as for window jalousie blades.
(b) Coconut-trunk sawdust has been studied as an ingredient in hollow blocks
having a proportion of 1 part cement to 3 parts sawdust by volume.
(c) Exploratory studies undertaken by the National Science Development Board
at the factory of the Aras-Asam Timber Co. indicate the technical feasibility
of producing slice-veneer plywood from coconut trunk. The trunk-bolts
were steam-heated for 12 hours in order to produce satisfactory slice
veneers.
(d) An attempt was made by some wood scientists to produce shingles out of
coconut trunk. Prospects for production are bright but studies are still
being done on the preservative treatment of coco-shingles.
(e) To attain more utilization of the coconut trunk, a trial test was made to
utilize the trunk for parquet flooring. Service tests are still being
> done so that significant information is not yet available.
(f) An exploratory study has been made on the use of coco lumber for low-cost
roofing. The roof was made'of a modified T & G profile. A sealing compound
was used on the joints of the pieces and then sprayed with a water-proofing
solution. An accelerated service test is now being conducted at the
FORPRIDECOM Housing Site.
REFERENCES
Casin, R. F., Ordinario, E. B. an~ Tamayo, Jr. G. Y., Solar Drying of Apitong Narra 3
Red Lauan & Tanguile, FORPRIDECOM, Laguna, 1976.
Tamolong, Francisco, Studies on the Potential Uses of Coconut Trunk in the Philippines.
FORPRIDECOM, Laguna, 1976.
Tamolong, Francisco, The Utilization of Coconut Trunk and Other Parts in the
Philippines3 FORPRIDECOM, Laguna, 1976.
3
MASS HOUSING IN INDOI\JESIA:
IN SEARCH OF I\JEW SOLUTIONS
Hasan Poerbo and Albert Kartahardja
3.1 MASS HOUSING IN INDONESIA

Housing is a large and unwieldy subject which has been already much explored. Yet
new concepts are always emerging as new premises, perceptions and insights replace
old ones.
This Chapter concerns itself with one of the many aspects of housing: productions
of mass-housing for the low-income group in Indonesia. The paper addresses itself
to the problems of the management of building processes, institutional and manpower
development and the development of appropriate building technologies within the
context of the Indonesian situation.
The ideas set forth are not novel in industrialized countries. However, the transfer
of these ideas into an entirely different cultural and industrial setting brings
to our attention new dimensions in the problem of mass-housing production. It is
our hope that our limited experience may contribute to a better understanding of
the prospects and pitfalls of the transfer of mass-housing technologies in different
settings.
The Setting
Indonesia is a country with about 130 million population in 1971, spread out over
thousands 6f islands. However, population distribution is very uneven, Java having
the largest population of around 76 million. Population densities are therefore
also very uneven. Kalimantan for instance has a population density of less than
20 persons per km 2 . By contrast Java has a density of more than 700 persons per km 2 .
These imbalances govern national development policies in Indonesia, which put heavy
emphasis on population redistribution coupled with control of population growth and
natural resource development to attain an economic growth of around 7-8% annually,
to sustain a growing population which has a rate of annual increase of around 2.5%.
67
68 Hasan Poerbo and Albert Kartahardja
Mass-housing
Mass~housing, in the sense of production of houses in large quantities as an orga-
nized effort, has now become more and more a common phenomenon.
Population redistribution has brought with it the need for creating new settlements
as part of the transmigration program, in which families from overpopulated islands
such as Java and Bali are resettled in newly opened areas in other less populated
islands. Transmigration housing is a mass-housing problem with unique characteristics,
as the areas in which the new settlements have to be built are usually isolated in
remote areas, are rural in character anq have to be built with minimum standards
of quality and costs.
On the other 'hand, resource development such as oil, mining, modern agriculture and
forestry have induced the development of new settlements in the form of company
towns. These are usually settlements with higher standards of quality, compared to
transmigration settlements, even for their labor housing.
Then there is a third category of mass-housing which has now become part of national
development programs. As the national economy improves, funds have become available,
both public and private, to ,be channeled into housing. Social housing development
is now being undertaken by the National Urban Development Corporation (NUDC). Pri-
vate commercial estate developers are now also ~ctive in several large cities. At
present, plans are being prepared to stimulate the growth of private non-profit
housing organizations, such as housing cooperatives and associations.
This Chapter is intended to deal with mass-housing in urban areas, which comes under
the third category.
Mass-housing by NUDe
The NUDC has been established as an executive arm of the National Housing Authority
(NHA). The NHA itself is an interdepartmental Board, responsible to the President.
It has as chairman the Minister of Public Works and Power. Its members are the
Ministers of Social Affairs, Interior, Industry and Finance. Its function is to
coordinate housing policies and programs.
The NUDC operates in the regions, where it cooperates with local governments and
private non-profit organizations ,to develop "low-cost housing", next to its other
statutory duty to manage the implementation of the Sites and Services and Kampung
Improvement Programs.
In these activities the NUDC cooperates with the National Mortgage Bank, whose
function is to finance loans to middle-low and low-income families to acquire houses
built by the NUDC.
NUDCs mass-housing program for the Second Five-year Plan can be seen in Table 1.
Various types of houses have been developed by the Directorate of Building Research
(UN-Regional Housing Center) in Bandung, which are now used as standard by the NUDe.
The houses are designed for the lower-middle income group, which corresponds to an
income of between Rps. 30,000-Rps. 60,000 per month ($74-$148). There are basically
four standard types of approximately 36, 45, 60 and 70 km 2 , designed as detached,
semi detached and row-houses (one and two story), flats and masonites. Building
cost (excluding land and infrastructure) is put at around Rps. 22.000-Rps. 25.000
per km 2 ($53-$60).
Mass Housing in Indonesia 69
Table 3.1- Targets for "Low-cost Housing" in the Second Five-

year Plan 1974-1979.
Total
Location 74/75 75/76 76/77 74/79
I. Jabotabek
(Jakarta and surround-
ings) 1,200 23,800 25,000
1. Klender 1,000 1,000
2. Cengkareng 5,000 5,000
3. Depok 1,100 3,900 5,000
4. Tanggerang 5,000 5,000
5. Bekasi 5,000 5,000
6. Bogor 100 3,900 4,000
II. Outside Jabotabek 120 880 24,000 25,000

7. Surabaya 7,000 7,000
8. Bandung 250 4,000 4,000
9. Semarang 380 2,500 3,000
10. Cirebon 250 1,500 2,000
11. Yogya/Solo 2,000 2,000
12. Medan 3,000 3,000
13. Ujung Pandang 2,000 2,000
14. Padang/Palembang 2,000 2,000
Soupce: Saleh Amiruddin, ME. Dipl. DP. Low-cost Housing in Upban Apeas~
Directorate for Building Research (UN Regional Housing Center), 1975.
PY'ivate "Low-cost Housing"

The oil boom in the early 1970s has induced investment in housing by real estate
developers. Bright economic prospects at that time and an acute housing shortage
in the large urban centers, even for the higher income group, was instrumental in
the development of housing estates for the speculative market. The luxury housing
market flourished. Houses of Rps. 50-Rps. 100 million ($125,000-$250,000) were
built, but as the market for these types became'increasingly restricted, houses of
Rps. 10-30 million ($25,000-$75,000) became the bulk of private speculative housing
development. The oil crises, the Pertamina's (State Oil Company) problems in Indo-
nesia and the international economic situation after 1974, have had their repercus-
sions on speculative housing of this nature. Conspicuous housing estates of 300-
400 houses in and around Jakarta created a political backlash, which took the form
of Government intervention into speculative housing.
The Investment Board issued a regulation whereby real estate developers are now
required to build one luxury house: three houses for the middle-income group:
6 "low-cost" houses, whereby a "low-cost" house is defined as a house not costing
more than Rps. 3 million ($7,500) per unit including land.
By this regulation commercial real estate developers are now also induced to develop
"low-cost" mass-housing. However, as it is now their problems are still not solved
as regards acquisition of "cheap" land and "cheap" money to support their programs.
Non-profit housing organizations (NPO) have existed already since before World War
II. But their role in housing production is up to now still very limited. The
largest NPO such as in Surabaya has an output of only some 200 houses per year.
70 . Hasan Poerbo and Albert Kartahardja
In view of their potential role in the mobilization of individual families to

participate in housing development, there is at present considerable interest with
the Government to take the necessary steps to foster the growth of NPOs. Part of
housing by NPOs may take the form of organized mass-housing.
Type of building
Modern sector Traditional sector
International modern National modern Transitional Rural

Foreign funded large and Foreign and domestically Domestically funded small and simple projects:
complex products: funded projects:
Public Private Public Private Public Public Public and Private
- mining - mining - mining *tourism *roads - roads - roads
- heavy indo - forestry - harbours *Iight mnf. - irrigation - commercial - irrigation
*harbours - heavy indo - airports industry - dams - buildings % dams
E *airports *Iight mnf. - irrigation *offices and - public - social - public buildings
- social facilities
.~ *roads industry - dams commercial - buildings facilities
U - irrigation "tourism *roads buildings - social - housing - housing
- dams *offices and *water *housing - facilities
- water other commercial *electric - housing
*power buildings *public
t
- dams *housing buildings
*housing
I y*:~~~~~s
Confultants ""
Planning Planning
Arch. and Eng. Joint Arch. and Eng.
~uant. survey -- 0 ert'-n-- Finance
Finance p Management
Management Legal
Legal
I
Contractors
I Joint
General and opert'n General and .......... _ Small general
specialized - - - a n d - - - specialized contractors
C
en
co
0.
I
Sub-contractors
Joint
ventu1res
I
'0
.
~ Jobbing
Co speci1alized . Joint __ Specialized . builders
a.. Labour gangs
sUb~contractln~ - - ventures sub-contracting
EqUipment leasing Equipment leasing
NOTE:
Suppliers I heavy concentration
in Jakarta
Importers Joint Importers Retailers
Representatives ventures Representatives - - -......~~ - hardware
I I Distributors - village products
Manufacturers Retail1ers I .
I Manufacturing and extractive industries:
High quality and Joint High quality and Manufacturing of local building materials such
high performance ventures- high Ijlerformance as brick, tiles, wood and steel components,
bldg. materials and bldg. materials and bamboo 'matting etc.
equipment equipment Quarrying of stone, sand, lime
Predominant international Predominant Jakarta based Exclusively regional and local linkages
linkages with relatively stagnant rural and urban
economy
Fig. 3.1. Organization of the Construction Industry in

Indonesia
3.2 IN SEARCH OF ALTERNATIVE CONCEPTS OF MASS-HOUSING

PRODUCTION
As can be seen above the problem of mass-housing is here to stay for quite a while.
It can also be expected that public and private expenditures will increase in this
sector. Given this situation, the question is "What concepts are appropriate for
Indonesia to get the most out of mass-housing in terms of production?"
Mass-housing vis-a-vis the BuiZding Industry

Mass-housing can be seen as a bulk demand by an organized client system, such as
the National Urban Development Corporation, housing cooperatives and other non-
profit organizations and commercial real estate developers, for certain building
materials, components and skills, within a relatively short period, concentrated
a t a certain location.
Annual demands have achieved a level of 500-2,000 housing units in different locations.
In the next years levels of 1,000-10,000 housing units per year can be expected.
Budget allocations and regional development priorities have caused heavy fluctuations
in the demand for goods and services for mass-housing in places where new settle-
ments have been constructed. Project performance has therefore suffered because
of delays in logistics. Studies conducted of several projects,l surveys2 and
discussions during seminars indicate the existence of fundamental problems in two
areas. One is the nature of the building industry, and second the use of inappro-
priate building processes and technologies.
The building industry in Indonesia has a dualistic character 3 consisting of a modern

and a traditional sector. A schematic presentation of the organization of the
building industry is given above (Fig. 3.1). Early experiments with "mass-housing"
prototypes of 150-200 houses have experienced difficulties in controlling cost,
quality and time, using traditional building materials and ordinary building pro-
cedures where contractors were selected through competitive bidding without the
necessary knowledge and experience in mass-housing production techniques. The
unexpected increase in demand for roofing tiles for instance have placed a heavy
burden on the capacity for production by local small industries and their delivery
mechanisms. It has caused problems in standardization, quality control and delivery
schedules. The same problems, and much more severe, were encountered with wooden
components. Local timber suppliers could not cope with the demand. Timber has to
be brought in from the other islands, causing delays and stagnation. Wood component
manufacturing farmed out to various small workshops did not meet specifications.
Introduction of new building techniques and materials, such as puzzolan cement hollow
blocks and built up roof trusses, designed to reduce costs have only marginal effects.
Inherent inelasticities in the traditional building material industry to adjust

itself to these demand fluctuations have been instrumental in the shift to utilize
the potentials of the modern sector of the building material industry for mass-housing.
In the early 1970s new and modern manufacturing plants have been established in and
around the large cities such as Jakarta and Surabaya, producing new building materials
and components which are now competing with traditional materials. The list of
selected building materials and component manufacturing plants established since
the early 1970s shown below gives a clear indication of emerging potentials in the
modern sector of the building industry to support mass-housing (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2. List of Selected Building Materials and Component

Manufacturing Plants, established since 1970*
Type of factory Capaci ty Location
Asbestos cement est. 75,000 tons/year Jakarta, Surabaya,

Me dan
Cement blocks est. 3,000,000 blocks/month Jakarta
Particle board 5000 prefab houses/year Sukabuini
Wood wool 7,500 sheets year/month

of. 1 x 2 m Bogor
Saw-mills and wooden no complete data Jakarta, Surabaya,

components available Surroundings
Concrete mix and concrete Jakarta

components (precast)
Aluminum sheets and

extrusion Jakarta
Steel structures Jakarta, Surabaya
Plastic pipes Jakarta, Surabaya
*Compiled from statistics from the Foreign and Domestic Investment Board and
direct interviews with manufacturers.
These are plants which are capable of producing strategic materials and components
for mass-housing, such as roofing; walls, floor, doors and windows, replacing
traditional materials. Several of these enterprises have singly or combined deve-
loped semi- or fully-prefabricated houses to be offered in the mass-housing market.
However, not one has been tried out on a scale larger than several hundred. These
are typical industry-sponsored building systems with inherent weaknesses common
to them, such as monotony, inflexibility and inferior aesthetic qualities. Cost-
wise they are nearing the threshold of about Rps. 22,000 ($55/m 2 ) which can be also
reached with ordinary or modern building materials with rationalized management.
An example of a prefabricated housing system is the one developed by a consortium
of asbestos-cement and aluminum extrusion manufacturers.
Next to these locally developed industry sponsored building systems, other imported
ones have also made their entry. A concrete housing prefabrication plant has been
tested in Jakarta which produces multi-story flats at a cost per m2 twice as high
as the other systems. Several firms are negotiating to introduce prefabricated wooden
houses through joint venture with local counterparts. However, their marketability
is doubtful because of their prohibitive cost and social acceptability. People
tend to regard wooden houses as inferior and semipermanent.
As yet there is no conscious effort to develop rationalized client sponsored

building systems for mass-housing. Those which have been built by the National
Urban Development Corporation are perhaps the nearest to this concept. However,
rationalization has been until now conceived in structural and technical terms,
rather than in the broader sense of management of the whole building process.
Therefore, the performance in terms of cost reduction, quality and time control is
still marginal.
On the national scene there is still a lack of evaluative mechanisms to make the
b~st choice or to develop the most appropriate building systems for a certain loca-
tion and at any given time. The expected growth and distribution of the demand for
mass-housing and the dynamic structural changes in the building industry seem to
indicate the imperative to develop capacities for continuous evaluation and assess-
ment of the impacts and implications of technological choices in the field of mass-
housing. Until now, structural changes in the building industry have been largely
the result of market forces. It has introduced a situation whereby the modern sector
becomes dominant, replacing tee role of the traditional sector in the process. In
a country where traditional brick and tile making, small scale metal and wood
industries, carpentry and other building skills are important contributions to the
traditional urban and village economy, these shifts of roles may well have important
repercussions, socially and economically. Although it is doubtful whether the
contribution of mass-housing will be that important to the whole economy, as a
matter of principle any choice of technology for mass-housing should not only benefit
the project in a limited sense, but it should also create other benefits external
to the project. This is also consistent with current national development policies,
which stipulate that construction projects should create new job opportunities and
help to redistribute income among local communities. Introduction of industrialized
and industry-sponsored building systems should be therefore scrutinized as to their
benefits and costs to society and the economy, because of its tendency to be capital
intensive and centralized.
The Client-sponsored Building .system: A Conceptual Approach
The client-sponsored building system (CSBS) is a tool which serves the best interest
of the client. The building system itself can be vizualized as being a building
with all its elements and components as a physical entity, as well as a process of
production of a building with interdependent activities. The client or client system
can be limited to those parties directly involved as patrons of the production services,
including the users of the product, or it can also include the supra~client or society
at large represented by a public interest oriented client system.
In industrially advanced societies with a well developed industrial organization

and abundance of management skills and supporting technologies, the concern in
applying the CSBS may be limited to the development of building systems in physical
sense to achieve cost reductions, better quality control, better appearance and
flexibility to adapt the building to changing user's needs. S In Indonesia, structural
problems and capacities of the building industry to support mass-housing programs
indicate the necessity to conceive CSBS also as a building process and its management.
In other words, the development of a supportive building industry which goes hand
in hand with creation of new jobs and redistribution of income is part of the objec-
tives of the CSBS.
The need to include the development of the building industry in the building process
can be illustrated as follows. Modern industrial plants producing building materials
and components are now still operating far below their designed capacities. Idle
capacities of 40-60% have been reported and are common phenomena. The problem is
inherent with marketing new products in a market which is not yet organized to absorb
and sensitized to the potential performance of those products for mass-housing. Demand
fluctuations are severe due to institutional instabilities and discontinuities in
decision making on the demand side, and the lack of an information system geared to
better and long-range forecasting of mass-housing demands. Many of the modern indus-
tries suffer from this situation. Inefficiency, ineffectiveness and bankruptcy, even
among these modern industries, become ultimately a social cost and a burden to the
whole economy. In the traditional sector the situation is worse. Small scale urban
and village industries supplying all kinds of building materials and components have
not the capacity to aggregate their own market. At all times they rely on middle-
men to market their products and to finance their operation. Any sharp fluctuation
in demand creates windfall profits for middlemen, who as supply mobilizers have a
strategic position to bargain for price increases for their own profit, 6 but feel
no responsibility for quality control and strict delivery schedules. Being conser-
vative risk-takers, they also act as a formidable barrier for innovation in building
material technology. Proliferation in the building materials industry without
regard to product quality has resulted from this situation. Casualty rates among
this group can be expected to be high.
The CSBS in Indonesia has been conceived within this setting. As a building process
it has the objectives:
(a) To organize demands in bulk for mass-housing so as to make long-range

forecasting possible, thereby reducing demand fluctuations to manageable
proportions;
(b) To standardize performance specifications for materials, components,

skills and services, so as to make rationalization possible which increases
productivi ty;
(c) To develop an information network between the various parties involved

or potentially involved in the building process, so as to increase their
efficiency and effectiveness in their role;
(d) To develop financial and institutional mechanisms to replace the role

of middlemen between client and suppliers of materials, components and
services, so as to make technological innovations possible and to ensure
that benefits from increasing demands will accrue to those industries and
services directly involved in the building process, preferably local
industries and services which benefit local communities.
The ultimate objectives are -thus briefly to increase productivity, to reduce costs,
to increase quality and construction time'performance, to create external benefits
in mass-housing in the form of new job creation, redistribution of income to local
communities, development of viable small enterprises in conjunction with modern
large enterprises to support national mass-housing programs.
Productivity, cost reduction, quality and time performance are objectives which
can be attained through competitive mechanisms which are well-known problems in
ordinary project and construction management. However, employment creation,
redistribution of income, transformation and development of small scale urban and
village industries into efficient modern enterprises are outside the realm of
ordinary responsibilities of contractors and middlemen and may run contrary to
their commercial interest.
These latter objectives are developmental in nature which entails development risks,
ordinarily born by public bodies. Can contractors and middlemen be entrusted with
the role of "development agent" wi thin the above context? Or should other profes-
sional bodies be created to act this role? These are pertinent questions which
always come up in the conception of management models of building processes in
mass-housing of this nature.
A theoretical ideal model of an organization for the management of a building process

in mass-housing to attain the above objectives has been evolved from models which
are well known in European countries. 7
~------------ ...
(~'CL
I \
' , , , ...--- Demand : I \ ~Demand

I
", ,
' "
, : I SD ~consultant
, \
I \ DS.: 1
, , DS / I '.... ' I
'- ' I ~ ~ ~M " , ~Supplierorganizer
I ~ ,
" .... I
, 'Q ~\,
", ~\~ ~)~, Contract and
,~
-®--Q -@ @' r , responsibility
barrier
r SP N CT LB I
\, li_ '-../ ~ I ~ Supply
'- - - - - -- - - - - - ---
CL Client system
SDS. System designers and
, I
DS
management consultants
Designers
I
CM Construction manager
CA Contract administration
SM Site management
CR Credit administration
TR Training
FI Financial institutions
I EI Educational institutions
~ Supply organizer SP Suppliers
I I MNF Manufacturers
I I CT Contractors
I I
LB Labour gangs
------_/_/
Contract and SCT Sub-contractors
/'-- ~- ~ - - - - - - - - -. -" responsibility

barrier
'\
\
SP Q @@"
'-../ I
Fig. 3.2a, 3.2b, 3.2c Simplified models of functions and

their relationships in mass-housing
project management.
Figure 3.2a represents a model of working relationships between client, designer,

contractor, supplier and manufacturers. The client, through the services of the
designer as consultant, exercises external control on the contractor through contract
agreements. The contractor, subcontractor, supplier or middlemen and manufacturers
are for practical purposes a closed system, which can only be penetrated by the
client and designer with special agreements. In a situation where information
flow between all parties involved in the building process is very weak, such as is
'the case in Indonesia 8 - new building technologies, innovative design, etc. for
mass-housing cannot be transmitted between the designer and contractors, supplier
and manufacturers during the crucial stages of project planning and design, where
basic decisions are made which will affect the outcome of the project. Evaluation
of mass-housing projects using this system shows convincingly that the system does
not work. 9
Hasan Poerbo and Albert Kartahardja
From this experience a theoretical model was drawn up as shown in Fig. 3.2b.
The basic aim of this concept is to break down the barriers between all the parties
involved in the building process by using the so-called "building team", 10 which
consists of a representative of the client, a system designer and management
consultant, a designer, contractors and suppliers or manufacturers of strategic
materials and components. The role of the contractor can be taken over by a
professional construction manager, engaged on a manage~ent contract basis. The
"building team" should be established as early as possible, preferably at the
project planning stage, through competitive selection of candidates. In this way b
two objectives are aimed at: (a) to generate a free information flow between all
parties concerned, and (b) to have direct access to all production factors to attain
higher project performance through better utilization and coordination of those
factors during the construction stage. In discussions and workshops with members
'of the building industry the question was persistently asked: Who is taking the
risk if the contractor is replaced by a construction manager? Theoretically, the
client should be taking the risk in the development of mass-housing techniques,
especially in the case of a public body acting as client. The nature of the risk
is developmental, rather than financial. A public body such as a National Urban
Development Corporation could act the role of such an agent, transferring the results
to other mass-housing projects undertaken by itself and other parties which it
serves. The experience, as a body of knowledge, is transferable through publication
and educa tion •
Figure 3.2c is a further elaboration of the model described in Fig. 3.2b. In demand
situation where the volume is large enough and continuous, construction activities
can be scheduled in such a way so as to give building materials and component
industries to plan ahead. TO assist small scale industries, a credit system can be
introduced, geared to the need for standardized materials and components for mass-
housing. A training program can be attached to the credit system to introduce
new products and processes, to upgrade existing products and adjust them to new
standards, and to develop management and other skills needed for production and
construction. All these responsibilities can be coordinated by a construction
management team which cooperates with financial and educational institutions.
Fluctuations in demand for goods and services can be neutralized with the creation
of regional bufferstocks,separately financed from construction projects.
The Coneept of Project Development Cycle as Vehicle for Institution

Building and Manpower Development
The concept of "project development cycle" in mass-housing as a continuous activity

is also not novel. 11 Within this context the model as described in Fig. 3.2b can
be seen as a dynamic model, which in time produces permanent institutions and rela-
I tionship through continuous exercise.
The construction management team may grow into a Technical Service Organization (TSO)
whose function as a professional non-profit organization is to serve and develop
non-profit housing organizations, such as housing .cooperatives and associations.
It can also absorb the functions of system designer, management consultants and
designer. The TSO can be part of the function of the National Urban Development
Corporation or be a separate entity.
Continuous exercise can also produce manpower with the necessary skills to fill the
needs of the various functions involved in mass-housing, enhancing their combined
performance.
Mass. Housing in Indonesia 77
3.3 THE SUKALUYU PROJECT: IMPLEMENTATION OF AN IDEA

In the early 1976s the National Urban Development Corporation (NUDC) initiated a
housing project in Sukaluyu in the North Eastern part of the city of Bandung. Res-
ponsibility for design and supervision was given to the Directorate of Building
Research (UN-Regional Housing Center) in Bandung, which cooperated with the Bandung
Institute of Technology in planning the project.
A site of 1.5 ha was acquired for this purpose. Land shortage in Bandung and
corresponding high land values made it necessary to impose a density of 100 houses/
ha or more if possible. Standard two story row-houses of 45 m2 were required,
costing not more than Rps. 1.2 million ($3,000) per unit excluding land and infra-
structure or Rps. 2,700/m 2 floor area ($6.75 per m2 ). Site works and infrastructure
should not exceed Rps. 1,000/m2 ($2.5 per m2 ) of land.
A standard design was used, which was developed by the Directorate of Building
Research. Strategic materials and building components which for mass-housing will
cut costs and construction time, and still ensure a high degree of quality control
were scheduled to be factory made. Thus, asbestos cement roofing materials, pre-cut
beams, prefabricated doors, windows, frames and staircase, particle board floor and
room divipers were specified. The rest were to be locally made materials and com-
ponents,'which can be produced by small scale industries.
The concept of a "building team" was used. After the preliminary design was finished,
a meeting was called which was attended by selected contractors, suppliers and
manufacturers who were introduced to the concept of forming a "building team" for
the construction of the project. Suppliers and manufacturers of strategic materials
and components were asked to submit a proposal which should contain the price of
their products, including services rendered during construction. One supplier or
manufacturer was selected for every material or component. After they were selected,
the contractors were asked to submit their proposal based on the selected materials
and component and the corresponding quoted price. Three criteria were used to
evaluate the contractor's proposals~ (a) their concept of construction management
of mass-housing and technical solutions to achieve cost and time savings; (b) cost
analysis based on their proposed concept; and (c) estimated building cost based on
their analysis. One contractor was selected among five competitors, who happened
to be the second lowest bidder, but whose concept of construction management was the
most convincing.
After the "building team" was formed, the design was reviewed and the final cons-
truction documents prepared. A lump-sum contract was negotiated between client and
con tractor, based on the final construction document prepared by the "building
team". Separate contracts between the contractor and suppliers and manufacturers
were drawn up, with the approval of the client and consultant.
The building cost was fixed at Rps. 1.1 million ($2,750) or approximately Rps.
24,000 per m2 ($60 per m2 ) which came down to the same figure as the lowest bid.
Construction time was fixed at three months.
PreZiminary ResuZts in the SukaZuyu Project

The Sukaluyu Project was an experiment to implement the Client Sponsored Building
System and the "bUilding team" concept. It served also as a test for some of the
hypotheses formulated in the TDI/EW Center proposal for cooperative research in
low-cost housing. 12
Although the Sukaluyu Project was one of those "crash-programs" which made i t next
to impossible to have time for good planning, the cooperative spirit and good under-
standing which was created between the members of the "building team" made experimen-
ta tion possible.
In terms of mass-housing production, the objectives of the experiment were limited

to:
(a) To attain a building cost of not more than Rps. 22,000/m 2 (approximately
$55/m 2 ) without sacrificing quality;
(b) To improve construction time performance;
(c) To get first-hand experience from contractors, suppliers and manufacturers

to get a better insight in future construction planning for mass-housing.
Comparative figures for building cost and construction time in other similar projects
are respectively Rps. 22-25,OOO/m 2 ($55-$62.50) and 4-4~ months.
Except for building cost, all the objectives were achieved through direct control
of strategic materials and components and rationalization of construction on site.
Strategic materials, such as puzzolan cement hollow block for bearing walls, roofing
materials, components for flooring and partition walls were factory made.
Since there was no time to develop new products, standard materials and components
were used which were already in the market, except for wooden components which were
adapted to new specifications. Figure 3.3 shows a breakdown of the cost structure
in percentages, and "areas of intervention" through the "building team" system.
15%
(a) Overhead cost: contractor's management
cost and profit
20% ( b) Labour: variable
20% ( c) Materia Is supplied by contractor
45% (d) Materials and components supplied by

manufacturers as members of "building team"
Fig. 3.3. Structure of building cost in %.
Overhead cost was fixed after selection of the contractor. In other words, the
selected contractor may retain his overhead costs as proposed in his bid. This is
to give him an incentive to participate in the deliberation in the "building team"
to reduce construction cost.
Labor is still within the internal control of the contractor and is still a contrac-
tor's risk. After the project was finished, the contractor reported that he lost
during the first phases of the project, when he had to transform skills from ordinary
traditional materials handling into skills for assembling of new materials and
components. However, the period was relatively short and he was able to recoup
his losses with a considerable margin through an increase in labor productivity.
He also reported that labor productivity could be further increased by differentia-

tion and specialization of his labor gangs, which he could not achieve in this
project because of its limited size. A continuous demand with a higher volume could
induce differentiation and specialization and higher labor productivity, if i t
could be coupled with labor mobility between similar pr01ects.
Materials supplied by the contractor consisted of such items as sand, lime, stone,
cement and other small items. Control over these materials in the Sukaluyu project
was still given over to the contractor, since i t was felt that the-gain was too
marginal to develop a special unit within the client's organization to take care
of procurement.
Materials and components supplied by manufacturers as members of the "building team"

were fixed through negotiated contracts. These materials and components were
already tested and have standard market prices, which in the case of the Sukaluyu
project were supplied with discounted prices because of bulk purchase.
The whole process, from project initiation to signing of contracts took only slightly
more than one month. Construction itself was a relatively smooth affair. There
was a free information flow between all the parties involved in the project from
the design stage onwards. This has proved to be an extremely valuable experience
in forecasting problems in logistics, so that bottlenecks can be avoided. Building
costs could potentially be reduced to Rps. 1 million per unit or Rps. 22,000 per
m2 ($55 per m2 ) by using a different system for the foundation and better detailing.
But there was no time to make too many changes in the design.
There are also some disturbing conclusions which can be drawn from the project.
The structure and capacity of the building materials and component industry will
be indeed a constraint to sustain. a mass-housing program as visualized in the
national five-year plan. Jakarta and its surroundings already have a building
industry which offers a variety of alternative building technologies with a combined
capacity which can already sustain a relatively large mass-housing program. But
for various building materials which are bulky and relatively cheap, transportation
costs, even to Bandung, become already prohibitive. Thus, using puzzolan cement
hollow blocks for mass-housing in Bandung, for instance, will put a limit of around
1,000-1,200 houses annually to the program.
Expansion of existing production facilities and improvement of village industries

to produce hollow blocks with the required performance specifications will need
time, capital and managerial skills. The housing program for Bandung for the next
two or three years is already fixed at around 2,000 houses annually, which comes
under the responsibility of the NUDe. This does not include demands from other
housing sectors. This means a minimum increase in hollow blocks manufacturing of
twice the existing capacity within one year. Or to find an alternate component to
substitute hollow blocks, or to develop an entirely different building system.
Another potential bottleneck is timber. B~lk demands for wooden components for
mass-housing in the larger cities of Java will put a strain on the resources of
wood processing industries, if no fundamental structural changes are introduced
in timber trade, especially in transportation from the other islands. As it is now,
idle capacities exist in the saw-mills and other related wood industries. However,
a sudden increase in the demand will force these industries to organize their own
procurement in the other islands and the transportation of timber to Java, in order
to stabilize prices and to control quality, a task for which they are ill prepared.
The Sukaluyu project has had to face these problems already.
All these are factors which are outside the realm of control in project and construc-
tion management in the ordinary sense. Given the national housing targets,
technological solutions will be dependent upon the capacity of the public and private
sectors in industry to develop effective means to control and mobilize their resources
in a coordinated effort.
Within this context the relevance of the Sukaluyu experiment can be perceived beyond
the immediate objectives such as cost, quality and construction time performance.
In a sense it can be seen as a beginning of the development of a mechanism to bring
together the demand and supply side to come to a.constant dialogue.
An institutionalized monitoring, evaluation and feed back mechanism built into

decision-making processes from project up to national policy level, developed
through continuous and systematic exercise will make it possible to improve capacities
for problem forecasting and policy planning down to project planning and implemen-
tation.
The experience in the Sukaluyu project is now being analyzed and "recycled" into
another mass-housing project of nearly four times the size of the Sukaluyu project.
The same concepts of the CSBS, the "building team" and a two pronged approach to
building technology (using off-site pre-fabrication of components and on site labor
intensive assembly) are being applied in a labor housing project in Jakarta. Next
to this, other activities are now underway, which geared to each other constitute a
total systems development in national housing construction which may have far
reaching effects, if properly perceived.
3.4 ELEMENTS FOR THE ·DEVELOPMENT OF A DYNAMIC MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM FOR MASS-HOUSING
On the national scene there are now activities, which by design or accidental, can
be perceived as future functions which have strategic importance in the development
of capacities in the management of national resources for mass-housing.
These activities, perhaps randomly sele~ted, are:
(a) The establishment of a study-committee on non-profit housing organizations;
(b) Establishment of education in the field of housing;
(c) The Small Investment Loan (KIK) and Fixed Working Capital Loan (KMKP)
schemes;
(d) The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) project

for the development of small scale building materials industry;
(e) Industrialization of Housing Construction;
(f) Establishment of a Registration and Licensing Committee for the Construction

Industry.
The Study Committee on Non-profit Housing Organizations

The Study Committee is now being initiated by the Directorate General of Planning,
Housing, Building and Construction (PHBC), Department of Public Works and Power.
The purpose is to monitor and evaluate selected housing development activities
undertaken by non-profit organizations (NPO) , in order to systematize their expe-
rience for policy and program formulation for the National Housing Authority. The
Director General of .PHBC is the Secretary General of the Board.
In simplified form the organizational diagram of the Study Committee will be as

follows:
Monitor and evaluator
Selected NPO
projects
Fig. 3.4
One of the selected NPO projects in the Home Ownership Program (HOP) for ITB staff,
administrative and technical personnel, presently estimated to have a potential
membership of 300 families and being in the process of implementation. The ultimate
institutionalized form of the HOP is still not yet clear, but it can potentially
be developed into a Building Association or Housing Cooperative, assisted by a
Technical Service Organization (TSO). Other pilot projects will be the HOP for
the University of Gajahmada in Jogya, and the Housing Association in Surabaya.
Within this context experience gained in implementing the CSBS, "building team"
and two-pronged approach to mass-housing technology can be monitored and evaluated,
and fed into national decision mechanisms to institutionalize systems and procedures
in mass-housing production through the establishment of NPOs and TSOs.
Establishment of Education in the Field of Housing

An initiative is now being undertaken to establish a Middle Management Course in
Housing Management. The courses are expected to start in 1977, and will be of 6
weeks duration, three times a year. Annual output is set at around 200 persons per
year. The courses will be organized as a cooperative effort between the Directorate
of Building Research in Bandung, the Bouwcentrum in Holland and the Bandung Institute
of Technology. Students will be invited from existing practitioners.
The courses are intended to be an extension of research and development activities

undertaken by the research and academic staff of the cooperating institutions, using
actual projects as field laboratories. With this system it is hoped that students
can be directly confronted with actual problems and can develop realistic approaches
to solving housing management problems using simulation games based on actual projects.
The relationship of this training program with the study Committee on Non-profit
Housing Organization and the development of Technical Service Organizations is
obvious. The training and research and development program can use pilot projects
under the Study Committee as field-laboratories. New concepts and methods can be
tested, monitored, and evaluated, and alternatives tested through simulation games
during the training courses. The students, being practitioners in various functions
within the housing delivery system, are thus not only trained in the concepts of
housing management, but are actually active participants in the development of new
concepts.
The "feed-back loop" between policy and implementation can be shortened, both in
terms of information as well as in skills. The students can be projected here as
change-agents in the development of the housing delivery system.
A Real Estate Management Course will be established within the Technical Faculty,
the University of Indonesia. The course is being initiated in cooperation with
the Real Estate Association of Indonesia. It is at present still in the preliminary
stages of preparation. However, the basic concept is already clear. The objective
of the course is to train business managers for real estate enterprises, both
public and private. Both courses, the Middle-Management Course in Housing Manage-
ment and the Real Estate Management Course, will be complementary to each other.
The first addresses itself to the problems of project and construction management,
while the latter with that of the management of enterprises.
other graduate courses are being initiated at the Bandung Institute of Technology
in the field of Human Settlements and Technology and Industry, in which housing is
to be part of them. Although still fluid at present, these courses can be seen as
opportunities to prepare manpower for various functions in the housing delivery
system, especially research and development, and also manpower with specialized
knowledge. The research programs attached to these graduate courses can be inte-
grated with the activities of existing research institutions and other non-degree
courses, such as the Middle-management course for Housing Management.
The Small Investment Loan and Fixed Working Capital Loan Scheme
The Small Investment Loan (KIK) and Fixed Working Capital Loan (KMKP) schemes are
designed to assist small scale urban and village enterprises in their development.
These enterprises are entitled to apply for loans up to Rps. 5 million ($12,500)
under favorable conditions.
Within the context of project management such as illustrated in Fig.- 3.2, and other
conditions permitting, these schemes can be utilized to assist small scale building
materials industries with capital to bring their capacity to the necessary levels
of production to sustain mass-housing programs. These schemes can also replace
the role of the middlemen as financier, so as to make it possible for construction
managers or TSOs to have direct access'to these enterprises through package loan
agreements, consisting of capital loan in conjunction with management or production
training, management assistance and other inputs which are deemed necessary.
The UNIDO Project
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) is now engaged in

Indonesia in assisting the Indonesian Government to launch an integrated development
program for the manufacture of building materials in support of the national housing
program.
The project started from 1975 until 1980, and is carried out through the existing
building materials research institutes, such as the Directorate of Building Research
(UN-Regional Housing Center), the Ceramics Research Institute and the Materials
Testing Laboratory, all of them located in Bandung.
Activities of the project encompasses quite a wide spectrum:
1. Raw materials assessment;
2. Structural clay industry;
3. Application of structural clay for housing;
4. Refractories;
5. Lime industry;
6. Lime-based building materials industry;
7. Wood industries;
8. Production of building elements from agricultural and forest waste products;
9. Concrete technology;
10. Artificial light-weight aggregate industry (ALWA);
11. Mass production and industrialization of low-rise housing components;
12. Fibro-cement industries;
13. Mortar technology;
14. Fine ceramics industries;
15. Building materials for high-rise housing.
From the above list of activities, it is easy to perceive the UNlDO project as an
input into the development of a management model as described in Fig. 3.2. Mass-
housing programs can be administered as an organized market for new or improved
materials, components and building systems. Small scale building materials industries
coming within the KIK and KMKP schemes can get technical assistance and training
in the use of better production techniques and processes through a loan-package
with better marketing prospects.
Establishment of production and marketing cooperatives can be fostered, replacing

the middlemen.
Thus, a whole spectrum of new possibilities can be opened to improve the existing
building material industries and develop new ones transforming them into modern
enterprises.
IndustriaZization of Housing Construction

The main objectives for the industrialization of housing construction in Indonesia:
1. To increase the labor productivity and to reduce the need for skilled labors;
2. To reduce the construction cost;
3. To expedite the completion of work irrespective of climatic factors;
4. To improve the quality of products and houses;
5. To rationalize and economize in the use of building materials.
The industrialization of housing construction in Indonesia calls for, e.g., the

introduction and the development of non-conventional construction systems based on
modern techniques; mechanizations of the production process; rational planning and
designing; the use of standardization and modular coordination; and training
facilities for labor and technical personnel.
It is, therefore, essential to promote and undertake activities to pave the way of
the development of industrialization in the field of housing construction.
Although industrialization of housing construction is a way to overcome the lack

of progress in the production of houses, a gradual process leading to full indus-
trialization is recommended, taking into account, e.g., the actual conditions of
a region or area.
The following steps were considered for implementation:
1. Rationalization;
2. Improved production of building materials and building elements;
3. Production of non-conventional, non-traditional and new building materials

element and components;
4. Introduction and utilization of effective hand tools, light machines and

site equipment.
Rationalization represents an important step to achieve increased productivity,

higher operations, improved quality and better economy.
Rationalization is characterized by improved organization, planning and control

and by effective use of materials, tools, machines and equipment.
The application of rationalization measures does not require considerable investment

and substantial changes in the existing construction techniques.
Gradual industrialization is closely connected with the development of the production

of building materials, elements and components.
Improved production and the production of non-conventional non-traditional and new

materials with better or specific mechanical, physical and other properties is
indispensable for the development of industrialized construction methods.
Mechanization varies according to the type and standard of machines, equipment and
tools used for construction.
The degree of mechanization in operations that can be performed manually should be

carefully scrutinized in Indonesia where labor is abundant. It should be noted,
however, that in Indonesia there is an acute shortage of construction labor, espe-
cially skilled labor, causing, e.g., a low productivity of housing construction and
a high cost of construction.
Therefore, mechanization is an important step to increase the productivity of

housing construction and thereby absorbing a large proportion of unemployed labor.
The above comments are the key concepts involved in the gradual industrialization
of housing construction show that partial prefabrication represent an important
phase from conventional to industrialized housing construction.
By partial prefabrication, the construction of a house is still by conventional

methods but using some prefabricated elements and components such as blocks, beams,
columns, lintels, trusses, purlieus, rafters, doors, windows, floor-beams, floor
and wall panels, etc.
Research and development on the design of the houses building systems, prefabrication
elements and component which were carried out by the Directorate of Building Research
(Regional Housing Centre, Bandung) are described in the drawings on the following
pages.
The Registration and Licensing Committee

An initiative by ~he Indonesian Council for Construction to establish a Registration
and Licensing Committee for the construction industry is now underway. The func-
tion of this committee is to institute Regional Registers and administer them.
Licensing will be part of its function, through the powers vested in Local Govern-
~n~.
Registration can be limited to consultants and contractors only, or extended to

include suppliers and manufacturers of building materials and components. In the
case of mass-housing where one of the objectives of project management is to d~velop
the building industry through participation in mass-housing projects, registration
can be perceived as a tool for selection and monitoring of those who are to be
given opportunities to participate in mass-housing projects. Licensing follows
after evaluation to meet certain standards of performance required by the project
management.
Especially in the traditional sector of the building industry, the Registration and
Licensing System can be a great help in keeping track of potentials in terms of
skills and production capacities, through which conservation of these potentials
can become more effective.
The Model Reconstructed

The activities which have been identified as potential future functions can thus
be perceived as being part of the development of the model for mass-housing manage-
ment as described in Fig. 3.5. A diagrammatic presentation of these functions and
their relationship can be as follows:
Thus, the stage is set to set into motion a process of institution building in the
field of mass-housing management. As a management system, it is an open system.
Its behavior and growth patterns are at present difficult to predict. However,
training and education, research and development, and an open information flow
between all the functions involved will be undoubtedly a strong leverage to attain
stronger cohesion between all these functions, which determines their combined
performance.
KIK
and
KMXP
0'---.......--.(
r-
Fig. 3.5. Total Systems Development Model
3.5 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS

In retrospect what has been presented was a framework for the management of mass-
housing production. Starting from the ordinary system of using Client-Designer-
Contractor relationships, it was elaborated into a system which embraces a host
of functions with increasing complex relationships, as the spectrum of objectives
unfolds to include external ones, ordinarily outside the responsibilities of project
management.
This concern about external objectives stems from the observation that mass-housing
as a demand is a new phenomenon, which embodied technological imperatives for which,
on the one hand, the industrial environment in Indonesia is as yet not ready, on
the other hand, there is also a lack of evaluative mechanisms to determine the
right choice of housing technologies. The concept as has be~n presented argues for
the adoption of a management system of a building process, which in itself is both
a learning and development process, in the sense that through monitoring and
evaluation of designed experiences a systematic body of knowledge can be acquired,
new skills, institutions and their relationships can be developed, and capacities
induced to innovate and develop new technologies.
Although at present our knowledge is still very fragmented as to the nature of the
causes which induce changes in total mass-housing production performance, various
phenomena suggest that these can be predicted. Various projects using a housing
type as has been built in Sukaluyu, have given different results in terms of produc-
tion performance, indica~ed in unit cost per m2 • Projects using contractors who
are selected through competitive bidding seem to have a tendency to result in high
unit cost per m2 . Observation of the low-cost housing projects suggest that the
unit cost is around Rps. 25,000 ($62.50) per m2 or above. The same type of houses
constructed by contractors as part of a "building team" have resulted in unit costs

of around Rps. 22,000-Rps. 25,000 ($55-$62.50) per m2 . Increasing capacities in
internal management of contracting firms through repetition of activities have
resulted in a unit cost of Rps. 19,850 ($49) per m2 , as has been shown in the latest
tender in Depok. A study which is now underway to build low-cost housing of the
same type with improved materials and rationalization of construction, using the
CSBS and "building team" concept, is expected to lower the cost further to Rps.
l8,000-Rps. 19,000 ($45-$47.50) per m2 . From the above observations a hypothetical
performance chart can be reconstructed as follows:
25.000
($62.50)
(\J
E
~
0- 20.000
vi ($50)
0-
n::
15.000
($ 37.50)
r<) ..c
0>
r<i :J
+-
c(J) =E
3:
l/l
0
""0
c
e
..c
l/l
c
l/l
..c 0 +- a
+- E ~
0 +=0>
l/l
1 0
E .~ (J) (J) E 0> C\J
m 'u+=
0> 0
+- E r<i 0 (J) 0 r<i
c (J) 0 +- c a
0 (J)
+- in ei>
+-
0>
~u
0
c
0 l/l 0>
0
E l.L:
t}l a c
C
~ ~
c
l.L:
S
c
:2 0
a
0-
0
u
E a
+-
c
~ C c
+-
c "0
a c u a (J)
u
3 ~ '3
0
u E ""0
(J) .0 C
a
a
+=
0>
C c
Qj +-
e .0 +=u ""0
(J)
E '5>
> a
(J)
'iii
e ..cac
I u I c I 2
+-
c e
+-
.0
'C (f)
m
u
..c
+=
(J)
0
~ .S u
+-
a (f)
m in
.0
'>::
0-
,~ c ~ 0- c ~
a (J) (f) +-
'~
(J) u l.... >- (f) a (J) E u
U u ""0 U n:: .£ .2 .0 U u ""0 H ~
(A) (8) (C) (0) (0)
Fig. 3.6. Hypothetical Performance Chart
The chart suggests that in an industrial environment such as can be found in Indo-
nesia, in the early phases when mass-housing is introduced, design and technological
innovations have only marginal effects. There are still too many constraints within
the project environment itself, which are detrimental for improving project perfor-
mance. In such a situation innovations in management will yield better results than
innovations in design and technology. "Project development cycles" and innovations
in design and technology will ultimately result in lowering the cost further coupled
with increasing quality.
The Directorate of Building Research (UN-Regional Housing Center) in Bandung -has

done intensive studies and experimentation in industrialization of housing cons-
truction for Indonesia. It can now be anticipated that with the introduction of
the CSBS and "building team" concept. these experiments can be 'transferred to the
building industry. Hitherto, housing projects lacked the necessary volume and
continuity, and an appropriate management system to transfer these experiments and
to make them effective. If at this stage of development, mass-housing projects
are designed around known technologies and predominantly use manufactured products
from modern and relatively large industrial plants, many of the studies and expe-
riments undertaken by the Directorate of Building Research are aimed at the deve-
lopment of small scale enterprises which can be diffused among the tradi tional
sector of the urban/village industries.
Thus, innovations in project and construction management and housing technology

combined are expected to lower building costs so that housing can be enjoyed by
more people, and construction activities can create more jobs and distribute more-
income to those sectors.
Fig. 3.7. The Sukaluyu project under construction: pre-

manufactured components and labor-intensive
assembly on site.
Fig. 3.8. Facade showing asbestos cement roofing, puzzolan

cement hollow blocks, and pre-manufactured front
walls, windows and ,doors.
90 Hasari Poerbo and Albert Kartahardja
Fig. 3.9. Maisonettes in the Depok project, with landscaped

gardens.
Fig. 3.10. Another view of the Depok pro~t.

A1 ..15--,....- 130
/
60 .
,15
t
I
lCll
/ 0)1
Q
t -+-
i
0
2:!
Kitchen
oq-
r<)
Living room
325
Q
~·_----=--:-:::-------+':-:11
15. 300 15
Upper floor plan Ground floor plan
Fig. 3.11. Low-cost housing project Suka1uyu, Bandung.

- f-
-I- f-
-f- f-
~f- f-
l- - f-
i- - f-
- - f-
- f- f-
-I- I-
Facade , I
Fig. 3.12. Low-cost housing project Sukaluyu, Bandung.

r 800
440
3/20
Particle
board
3040 40 40 40
257
5/15 5/7 5/15 45 240
45
HB 10 l--t----I HB 10
000
020
\
\
I \
rJ '-"I 80
l
L I
100
L- - - - - - - - ~~~ _- _- _- _- _- - -_ -_ ~ ~ -_ -_~ = ~ -_- ~ =-_-_- _- jJ -:~g~ -_- _- ~ ~ -_- -_- _- j 120
140
t- 100 350 170 ~ 200 100 -; 160
Section
Fig. 3.13. Low-cost housing project Suka1uyu, Bandung.

5/ 10 he
t I
II ~1
3 5112
en
o;t
~ I
Q C 3 5/10
en
o;t
~I
Q 3 5/10
0
l[)
o t<)
ro
I l[)
0 3 5/20
N o
Door and wall frame
Fig. 3.14. Low-cost housing project

Suka1uyu, Bandung.
Mass Housing in'Indonesia 95
Low-cost house construction
Platform house construction (Malay house)
Ground floor house construction
One storey house construction
Multi· storeys house construction
Fig. 3.15. Low-cost House Construction.

A. Foundations
...---..... ...--rT - - - -
ti
5/10
o(J)
5/10
o(J)
90
_____
90
..J-L~.L-...>
1
( a) Wood foundation
90 90
+10
<.0
o
~
Fig. 3.16
[§ ~ ~ [§
0
0
r<>
[§ ~ ~l ~]
0
0
r<>
~] ~] [§ ~ 0
0
r<>
~] ~ [§ ~
I 300 I 300 I 300 I
120
oN
j 80
i 40 t
C. Concrete foundation
Fig. 3.17
B. Beam and column

333
t IIII
3 3
I Wood I
i Wood I
(a) Beam
21
"'i\';:;:;: ":,;;-:',;:: Pgr.t "~' ,~,9W ';', ,':i ':-:::: :'.;

,:i:',::!. :/;':;:;-{"/::,:;:-j~::: :('::;,:::> ::;:';;:"i''.'''., !?<,;
/({:"-:: ~:'?:i.\:">:->ii ::ii
Wood
(b) Column
Fig. 3.18
10 10
{.tN { . N! ---------1
? ¥
Column Beam
-I-- -,--~
I
I
Wood column and wood beam
Fig. 3.19. Wood column and wood beam.

C. Floor slab
i =
I 30 I 30 t 30 t
( a) Particle board siab type I
I. 30 I 30 I 30 I
Particle board
19mm
Solid wood 3/3 30
(b) Particle board slab type II
Fig. 3.20
30
Steel reinforce
14> 1/4,\
o .' '" f) o' .'\. 0 ·0 • , •
'IO"""o'~Oo 0 0 ',,00',00:0:° •. _U
.0 . _0 .. O•• • • ' . . P 6• . ~· .b. , . • 0. o· 0 ".0." 0... 0 .. 0D • 0 cr 0'C,O ~,0
r' D . • 0 .~ ~,. ~ ';, 00. Steel reinforce .0 0 0
~. 0" • 0 . 4> 5/16"

\ 0 .. \ ,', \ ;
D·' a 0 .
'. ., \ 0 ~ 1/ • 0\
~~
~
t5
o
o
r0
( C) Precast concrete beam
Fig. 3.21
Trass lime hollow block
ep 1/4"
ep 5/16"
15 15 I
10 40 40
I
I -~
I I I I
I I
I I I I
I I
I I I
i I I I I I
I I
I I I I
I I
I I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I . I
I I I
I
I I I I
I
I
I I I I
I
I I I I I
I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
i I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
I
·1 I I I
I I
I I I
I I I
I I I I I
I I
! I I I
I
I
. I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
I
.+
I I I I
I
I I I I
_ _ _ _ ---.L ~ __ l..L.- _ _ _ _ -------LI __ l..!..- ____ ----1._.
-~
(d) Concrete· beam and tross Iime hollow block
Fig. 3.22
2.5 5 5 5 5
+--+ t-+ +-+ +-+ +---+ Concrete I: 2: 3
/
r"DD"~'}·[],D ~~~rciDo·~t[j"D~f:· O'[]'-:
";. DD20DiLIDl[]DiLID:~'
\ 120 \
\ \5 t eel rein force
Hollow clay brick
120
120 x 120
120 x 240
\
120 x 360
120 x 480
120 x 600
(e) Hollow clay brick slab
Fig. 3.23
Roof trusses
Type I 300.600.900
300.600.900
Type II
Fig. 3.24
Concrete panel (particle board I wood wool panel)

I I
I
rI
I
tJ
r- H
t H
~ ~ o
<:t
~
C\J
I
tJ
t ~
~ tJ
~ U
H
I I
I~ " Concrete plank JHg

(particle board I wood
Galvanized iron frame JHE==1
wool)
100
Concrete plank
I (particle board
wood wool)
Panel lock
Fig. 3.25
Door panel
I Particle board (wood wool,asbestos sheet) I
Glass
_. '-- --
o<j"
(\J
0.00
90
Fig. 3.26
Window panel Top plate
Particle board
II
Glass
-+200
_~L 1'---
o<j"
(\J
Glass
-+80
RJrticle board
(wood wool ,asbestos sheet)
0.00
90
Fig. 3.27
REFERENCES
1. Hasan Poerbo and Tjuk Kuswartojo, et at. 3 Evatuasi Proyek Rumah Murah P. 1000
di Jakarta 3 Karawang 3 Bandung3 Semarang3 Jogyakarta 3 Ktaten 3 Surabaya 3 Jember.
(Evatuation of Low-Cost Housing Project ''P. 1000" in Jakarta 3 Karawang 3 Bandung3
Semarang3 Jogyakarta 3 Ktaten 3 Surabaya 3 Jember 3 unpublished report, LAPI-ITB,
Bandung 1973.)
2. (a) PT. Encona Engineering, Inc., Laporan Akhir Proyek Site and Services 3
Ktender3 Jakarta-Indonesia (Finat Report on the Site and services Project 3
Ktender3 Jakarta-Indonesia 3 unpublished report, Bandung 1975.) .
(b) Hasan Poerbo and Barnbang Panudju, et at. 3 Survey dan Studi Persiapan Pem
bangunan Perumahan De tapan Kota di Indonesia. (Survey and Study for the
Preparation of Housing Devetopment of Eight Towns in Indonesia 3 unpublished
report, LAPI-ITB, Bandung, 1976.)
3. Albert G. H. Dietz and Hasan Poerbo, Industriatized Housing in Indonesia 3

Industrialization Forum, Vol. 6 (1975), number 2.
4. The Sukaluyu Project in Bandung - Rps. 24,OOO/m 2 ($60 per m2 ).

The Depok Housing Project - Rps. - 20-25 ,OOO/m 2 ($50-$62.50 per m2 ) .
The U.K.A. Labor Housing Project (estimated) Rps. 20,000/m 2 ($50 per m2 ) .
5. Dr. Ir. Prof. Jan Delrue, An Architecturat Appro~ch for a Rationatization of

the Buitding Process 3 University of'Leuven, 1974.
6. No systematic study has yet been made about the role of middlemen in the building
trade. However, during the survey for the Sites and Services project fo~
Jakarta, and in discussions with ,the director of the Ceramics Research Institute,
who has a pilot project to develop a production and marketing cooperative for
brick and tile manufacturing, i t 'was apparent that the role of middlemen is
very dominant. Middlemen act as financiers and marketing agents for brick and
tile manufacturing. For instance, the price of bricks is Rps. 5 per piece off
factory. The selling price is Rps. 11 ($0.03), of which transportation and
handling cost is not more than Rps. 3 ($0.01). Thus, the middlemen can have
a net profit of around Rps. 3 ($0.01) per piece. At present there is no other
mechanism which can replace the middlemen.
7. J. Van Ettinger, Towards a Habitabte Wortd3 Task-Problems and Methods-Acceleration,

Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1960. E.F.L. Brech, Construction
Management in Principte and Practice 3 Longman Group Limited, London, 1971.
8. There are at present only two journals with a limited circulation, which can
be used as reference in practice. But even these two journals are still not
well utilized for product promotion by the industry. Marketing is done by
individual firms through their sales-organization, in a market situation which
is very fragmented.
9. J. Van Ettinger, Sr. and J. Van Ettinger, Jr., Probtems and Methods of Low-Cost
Housing 3 Bouwcentrurn, Rotterdam, January 1969. Hasan Poerbo and Tjuk Kuswartojo,
et aL 3 Evatuasi Proyek Rumah Murah P. W003 Ope cit.
10. J. Van Ettinger, Sr. and J. Van Ettinger, Jr., Ope cit· 3 p. 15.
ll. J. Van Ettinger, Sr. and J. Van Ettinger, Jr., Ope cit. 3 p. 16.
12. Gwen Bell, et aZ., Strategies for Human SettZements: Habitat and Environment,
The University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1976. Article by: Goodman, Dietz,
Poerbo, Burian: "Low-Cost Housing Technology: Problems, Issues, and Proposed
Solution" .
There are two basic concepts in proposing a solution:
(a) A two-pronged approach in mass-housing production with larger components manu-

factured in shops and labor-intensive assembly on site.
(b) Aggregating the housing market to achieve continuity in demand.
4
LOW-COST HOUSING IN THAILAI\ID
Seng-Lip Lee, Tongchat Hongladaromp and Ricardo P. Pama
4.1 Overview of Housing Situation in Thailand

Introduction
The Kingdom of Thailand with a population of over 40 million has an annual popu-
lation growth rate of 3% 1 which is one of the highest in the world. According to
the latest census, 21% of the population live in the urban areas and 79% in the
rural areas. Bangkok which is the capital has a population of over 4 million and
constitutes half of the entire urban dwellers in the country. What is of serious
concern is the continuing rapid migration of rural dwellers to Bangkok causing
overcrowding in the city. This is evidenced by the presence of slums and blight
allover the city, the biggest of which is the one around the port area of Klong
Toey where over 5,000 families or about 30,000 people live. 2
Bangkok with an annual population growth rate of 5% is at present facing a housing

shortage of over 100,000 units and it is estimated that in 1986 the housing shortage
will exceed 190,000 unless urgent steps are taken now. 1 It is further estimated
that more than half of the shortage falls into the low and lower-middle-income
group. In Thailand, the low-income group consists of families whose income is less
than $75 per month and the lower-middle-income group are those whose income falls
within $75-$150 per month as in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1. Classification of Families According to Income.
Monthly Group Distribution

income type %
Less than $75 A 35
$75 - $150 B 40
$150 - $250 C 10
Greater than $250 D 15
Total 100
III
112 Seng-lip Lee, Tongchat Hongladaromp and Ricardo P. Pama
Past Government Action in Housing DeveZopment
The Government first decided to participate in the field of housing production in
1940 and the emphasis has been on urban housing. Apart from public housing provided
for government employees in the provincial towns and cities, the rest were centered
in Bangkok. The rationale being that traditional rural housing is generally self-
built and low~resource consuming, thus rural housing shortage is not much of a
problem in the same magnitude as that of its urban counterpart especially Bangkok.
up until late 1972, four government agencies were entrusted with the task of provi-
ding housing for the low~income group. These are the Public Housing Bureau of the
Ministry of Interior, Public Housing Division of the Department of Public Welfare
of the Ministry of Interior, Housing Welfare Bank of the Ministry of Finance
and the office of Slum Clearance, Urban Renewal and Housing of the Bangkok
Municipality. 3 ,4
The ~ublic Housing Division was established in 1940 as a division of the Depart-
ment of Public Welfare, Ministry of Interior. At that time housing shortage was
not a serious problem and the main function of the Public Housing Division was to
construct houses for members of self-help s~ttlements in several provincial areas.
In 1942, the Public Housing Bureau was created and was first financed with a meagre
$50,000 annual appropriation. World War II was at its peak and the implementation
of a~y housing project was hampered by the war. The Public Housing Bureau was
responsible for the following:
(a) Granting mortgage loans to land-owners for construction or renovation

houses for their own use;
(b) Constructing houses for hire-purchase;
(c) Building houses for rent.
The size and character of its programs were largely determined by the limited annual
budgets. It might be of interest to note that in the same ministry, the Public
Housing Division and the Public Housing Bureau co-existed. The former was respon-
sible for technical operations such as architectural and engineering designs,
construction, inspection and maintenance while the latter was concerned with
business administration, finance, selection of tenants, collection of rents and
services. .
The third agency involved with public housing is the Government Housing Bank in
the Ministry of Finance which was formed in 1953. The responsibilities of the
Government Housing Bank are as follows:
(a) To let land and/or place of habitation on a hire-purchase basis to any

person not having a place of habitation of his own;
(b) To grant loans for any of the following purposes: (i) to enable the
borrower to buy land or place of dwelling for his own habitation, (ii)
to enable the borrower to build, extend or repair his own place of
habitation, (iii) to enable the borrower to redeem any mortgage encum-
bering his own land or place of habitation, and (iv) to enable the
borrower to redeem his own land or place of habitation sold on redemption;
(c) To purchase immovable property for resale on a hire-purchase basis to

persons not having a place of habitation of their own;
Low-Cost Housing in Thailand 113
(d) To accept transfer of property on pledge or mortgage as security for
loans;
(e) To open deposit accounts for a term of two years or more.
The full working capital of the bank was quoted at $25 millions, but the initial
capital which was granted by the government was only $1 million. Because of its
inadequate working capital, the bank has only financed 453 houses since 1953. One
current activity of the Government Housing Bank is to develop large lanu subdivisions
for resale as lots on a hire-purchase basis. This activity unfortunately did not
directly benefit the low-income families.
The office of Slum Clearance, Urban Renewa~ and Housing was created in 1960 to act
as a temporary clearance agency to assist persons who were displaced at short notice
to provide a site for the headquarters of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.
About 1,000 families or 10,000 people were involved. Since then this agency has
cleared away two more slum areas involving about 10,000 people. Other significant
activities are the development of two land subdivisions with about 3,000 lots for
hire-purchase.
While each of these agencies actually carried out different aspects of housing
activities, it was obvious that such fragmentation was not conducive to effective
housing development. There was no realistic housing policy formulated, no long-
term planning, no research or innovative experiments conducted, and most serious
of all was the fact that these agencies were not able to command the interest of
the decision makers who determine the resource allocation patterns and legislations
which could bring about the removal of serious obstacles to the housing production
process. Consequently, the record shows that from 1949 to 1973, the resultant
public housing produced averaged less than 500 units/year as can be seen in Table
4.2.
Table 4.2. Public Housing Constructed Until 1972.
Year No. of units
1949 - 1952 680

1953 - 1956 1,592
1957 - 1962 2,612
1963 - 1967 1,394
1968 480
1969 630
1970 1,088
1971 412
1972 1,472
1973 336
The Formation of the NationaZ Housing Authority

On December 13, 1972, the National Executive Council established the National
Housing Authority (NHA) as the sale agency on housing. It was set up to unify all
housing activities and to make a concerted effort at solving the urban housing
problem. Except for the Government Housing Bank, all functions including assets
and personnel of the previous agencies were inherited by the NHA.
A Board of Housing Committee was appointed, with the Deputy Minister of Interior
as Chairman and the members from the Budget Bureau, Ministry of Finance, Governor
of Bangkok, National Economic and Social Development Board, Town and Country Planning
Department and a number of prominent bankers.
The NHA, besides being a consolidated body of the former four agencies, has assumed
a greater stature and an enlarged authority. Financially, it has a much broader
base and is more flexible in execution. As a state enterprise, NHA can raise loans
from local and international sources as well as utilize government budget allotments
in its project.
Initially, the NHA operated on guidelines provided by the National PlanS which
estimates the housing needs of the greater Bangkok area to be 170,000 units in 1982.
A more up-to-date projection by the NHA of the housing needs is shown in Table 4.3.
The NHA is presently carrying out a program of surveys in provincial urban areas to
determine the extent of those cities' housing situation for policy formulation and
programming purposes.
Table 4.3. Distribution of Housing Needs by Income Groups.
No. of units needed

Year Total
Group Group Group
Type A Type B Type C
1974 36,500 53,200 14,600 104,300

1980 47,800 69,100 19,200 136,700
1986 65,900 97,500 26,800 191,200
Despite the preplanning of the NHA involving organization arrangements, legislative

powers of operation, policy and program articulation, the NHA has been encountering
numerous difficulties since its inception. This is all too clearly reflected by
the NHA being able to produce only 3,000 housing units during its first two years
of existence. Some of the problems of the NHA are attributed to the following:
(a) Lack of significant amount of revolving funds at its inception;
(b) As a public enterprise, the NHA is self-sufficient, thus compounding its

financial problems as most of the housing units produced require some form
of subsidy;
(c) Lack of resources for land acquisition and powers of eminent domain;
(d) Lack of support by the authorized agencies for infrastructural development;
(e) Delays caused by interference and unnecessary obstruction by project

scrutinization agencies.
Current and Future NHA DeveZopment Program

In March 1975, the government emphasized in no uncertain terms that solving the
housing shortage is one of its primary goals. In response to this, changes were
made within the NHA in an effort to make it more fitted to handle the mamoth tasks
ahead. The Ministry of Finance has promised the NHA full support in mobilizing an
investment capital amounting to $80 million for the construction program in 1976,
of developing 24,000 units while an additional 24,000 units are presently being
programmed to start in 1977. The overall target is to solve the housing backlog
by the year 1980 by building 24,000 units per year for five years commencing in
1976.
The NHA plan essentially identifies three major target groups with income up to
$250 per month as shown in Table 4.1. This pattern of income group distribution
is based on a socioeconomic survey conducted in the Bangkok Metropolis in 1972. 6
LoW-Cost Housing in Thailand 115
Capital amortization is fully subsidized by the Government for Group A (the low-
income group), one-half subsidized for Group B (the lower-middle-income group),
while Group C is not subsidized. Monthly payments made by tenants will cover
interest charges of 5-10% including estate management and maintenance charges.
Building types will consist of walk-up flats, duple~ and row houses including
incremental housing or site and services dwel~ings, determined according to socio-
economic considerations of the target group. For the NHA to achieve their goal
in 1980, full commitment and support from the government is essential in many aspects.
Sorre of these are outlined as follows: 7 .
(a) Capital requirements for the Five-Year Plan involve not only government
guarantee on bonds to be issued as well as other loans, but al~o direct
government subsidy amounting to some $300 million;
(b) Land required for the 1917 program has yet to be acquired. Due to the
pressing time factor, the government must take a firm stand in persuading
other government agencies who own idle lands to make them available for
immediate use by NHA;
(c) On the longer aspect of land acquisition, the NHA must be provided with
powers of compulsory purchase;
(d) Property tax legislation should be promulgated to induce the release of

idle lands into the market. This could be done by levying heavy taxes
on idle lands;
(e) External loans from organizations such as the World Bank must be fully
endorsed by the government;
(f) Budget programming for infrastructural projects such as roads, water supply,
electricity, sewerage system, telephones, etc., must be coordinated to
ensure that the NHA receives the full cooperation of the agencies concerned.
This will contribute to the substantial reduction in costs of the project
of the NHA.
The Role of the Private Seator in Housing Development

So far only tne role of the government has been discussed in housing development.
Tne private sectors have recognized the increasing housing shortage and the housing
industry began to grow rapidly in the 1960s. By 1969 the business was booming and
in 197~ there were over 45 major housing projects in existence in Bangkok and the
surrounding suburbs. The Thai Investment and Securities Co. (TISCO) conducted a
study of 37 of these projects 8 which involves a total of 9,982 units covering an
area of 5;368,000 m2 • The houses provided are generally two to three bedroom units
and range in cost from $3,5Ob to $50,000 with a mean cost of around $10,000 excluding
the land. The land cost ranged from as low as $8.75/m2 to $75/m2 with an average price of
about $16/m 2 • Considering an average size of land to be 460 m2 /house, the total
cost is $7,36q.
With the exception of a few prefabricated systems, these houses are generally built
on wooden piles with an in situ concrete structure for the g~0und floor. Cement
blocks are generally used for the ground floor exterior walls as well as the fence
surrounding the yard. ~he second floor is generally of wood construction and has
asbestos sheet roofing. Plywood or chipboard is used for interior walls.
The financing for these projects can be classified into two types, i.e., private
fina~cing and loan financing. The capital source for the so-called private financing
is generally the developers' own capital and borrowed funds, on short- to medium-
term loans, supplemented by deposits from prospective home buyers and credit from
contractors and material suppliers. In the latter case, the developer is refinanced
by a commercial bank or other financial institutions. Loan financing which allows
prospective home owners without cash to purchase their homes is shifting from hire-
purchase arrangements to mortgage financing. The buyer must generally pay 25% deposit
and pay monthly installments of approximately $125 for 10 years or more. Interest
rate for mortgage financing varies from 11-12% ~er annum.
The TISCO study 8 estimated that the ~~mber of housing units built by private deve-
lopers is 2,000 units per annum. It forecasts an increase of 3,000-6,000 units
per annum in this decade.
Clearly, with the kind of houses developed by the private sector, only families in
Groups C and D categories can afford houses in the open market. In order to remedy
the situation, the Government began a program to include the private investors in
their plans to provide low-cost public housing. Under this program, private investors
and developers are to build low-cost houses according to the Government's specifi-
cations. The Government will in turn buy them on long-term payment plans and rent
them to qualified applicants. The investors are, however, experiencing difficulty
in implementing this scheme because of the low budget of the Government.
Very recently, some attention has been directed towards the World Bank's Site and
Services scheme whereby only land, infrastructure and loans are made available. The
construction of the houses are left to the prospective home-owners. Some criticisms
about the site-and-services type of housing are centered on the possibility of low
standard of construction if it is left entirely to the home-owners themselves. This,
however, need not be the case if standardized, but very flexible housing systems
could be adapted in conjunction with the site-and-services scheme. The NHAs plans
for research into better housing prototypes and for promoting technical training
of manpower could be coordinated to promote standardized building systems and private
investors must be encouraged to use them. .
In the TISCO study mentioned earlier, a brief review of the figures revealed the
extent of what private investors can and are willing to spend on housing development.
Tax incentives may be used to encourage housing systems development but financial
institutions must still be willing to back the investors.
The location of housing subdivisions as well as industries by private investors must

be properly planned and controlled. Over the past ten years uncontrolled mushrooming
of housing subdivisions and other light industries in the suburbs of Bangkok has had
an alarming effect on the general urban character of the metropolis. It has caused
tremendous congestion of traffic and a general inadequacy of service facilities. This
is partly due to the lack of coordination between the Town and Country Planning
Department working out master plans for city and regional development, the Board of
Investme~t promoting industries and the Municipal Government which grants the con-
struction permits. It is now hoped that the NHA will provide these effective tools
in locating housing projects in Bangkok as well as carrying out its aim to promote
the development of other cities and new satellite towns. It is worth noting that
the first of these satellite towns to be built is Nava Nakorn situated 43 km north
of Bangkok and this project is undertaken by a private group.
The Prob lem of Finance

A. Issues concerning private financial institutions
Housing as an industry in Thailand is a relatively new enterprise and the increasing
housing demand over the past decade has made the industry more competitive than
ever before. A recent housing survey shows 78 housing projects underway which will
provide 10,336 new housing units over the next two years. This does not include the
units planned by the NHA and private developers operating outside the Bangkok metro~
polis. A rough estimate of the money involved in these housing developments is
estimated at $70,000,000 per annum. By Thailand standards this is a sizable sum of
money.
It is further estimated that about 27% of all project costs come from the developer's
own financial fund which includes money borrowed from private financial sources,
personal savings and less loans from friends and relatives. Another 18% of the
project costs are derived from down payments or deposits by prospective home buyers
and another 13% of the costs are financed by material suppliers and contractors
through various kinds of credit facilities. This leaves a balance of 42% which is
financed directly or indirectly by commercial banks and non-banking financial
institutions. 9 These figures show the important role played by financial institutions
in the housing industry in Thailand. To ensure a continuous flow of loanable funds
to the housing industry, there are both institutional and legal constraints which
must be dealt with by the government:
1. The first of these constraints is the acceptance of long-term deposits by banks.

The restrictions imposed on banks to accept public deposits on an annual basis have
actually prevented them from offering substantial long-term credit for development
projects - particularly in the case of funds to home buyers. Since the public has
already shown its confidence in the banking system as evidenced by the growth of
fixed deposits over the years, therefore, it is deemed essential that some provision
allowing commercial banks to accept long-term deposits would generate a very
positive response from depositors.
2. There is a need to promote the establishment of specialized financial institutions

geared to accomodating the overall needs of the home building industry. This is
because of the presence of a large number of financial institutions which are unable
to provide sufficient funds and technical assistance to developers. It is well known
that in the building industry, the greatest financial risk lies in the pre-construc-
tion stage. In order to minimize this risk, specialized financial entities could
be established which would take more than just a passing interest on its clients.
Such institution could take the form of "Building Societies" or "Savings Loan
Association" whose sole purpose is to mobilize public funds and channel them towards
the specific purpose of promoting home ownership.
3. There is the question of effective law enforcement with regard to existing civil
and commercial laws especially those concerning claims procedure. Many financial
institutions view home building financing as a low priority as far as investment
ventures are concerned. In Thailand, the process of making a claim against a
borrower who defaults on his payments is particularly complicated, and potential
lenders are reluctant to provide funds for home building finance. The time lag
involved between making a claim and obtaining satisfaction is unduly long. To allow
~~e system to continue at its current sluggish rate benefits a very small group of
individuals who are adept at employing stalling tactics to avoid penalties. This
single factor alone is enough to put-off interested investors.
4. The government must consider tax concessions to borrowers. Since home ownership
is viewed as a civil right of individual in most countries, therefore, the government
must assist individuals in attaining this goal. One example could be the granting
of income tax concessions to individuals who pay interest on housing loans. Another
example is the reduction of the 1% direct tax paid on mortgages collected by
the Land Department and the 2% fee involved when transferring land ownership.
To benefit the low-income earners, these existing taxes could be halved when
small plots of land are involved say less than 400 m2 .
118 Seng-lipLee,T~ngchatHongladaromp and Ricardo P. Pama
5. There is a great need to reduce interest rates on loan borrowings. The pre-
vailing rate makes up a very high portion of development costs and, in many
instances, directly prevents low-income earners from making a decision to purchas~
a house even if long term credit is available. The government could correct the
situation by coming to the aid of both the supplier of credit and the customer as
well. With regard to assistance to supplier of credit, the central Bank could
consider extending its facilities to the suppliers of housing loans either directly
or by re-discounting notes issued by developers and even home buyers. As a condi-
tion of lending, the rate of interest and the type of customers could then be
effectively regulated.
Ideally, the Government Housing Bank should undertake the responsibility of

guaranteeing finances for small home buyers. Low interest on this type of secured
loan would, perhaps, be the right catalyst for involving more people in the busi-
ness of housing and securing greater interest from the public at large. The
Government Housing Bank could charge a nominal fee for the issuance of a letter
of guarantee and the amount collected could be used to cover expenses that might
arise in the case of a claim. On a large scale, it is expected that the venture
will be a profitable one and that funds accumulated in this way over a period of
years could be made available for other welfare schemes in the future.
B. Issues concerning the government housing bank
The aims of the Government Housing Bank have been enumerated earlier. Basically,
the government's participation vis-a-vis housing development finance followed two
basic patterns. Firstly, by giving direct grants to the public housing implemen-
tation agencies, namely the Public Housing Division, Public Housing Bureau and
the Office of Slum Clearance, Urban Renewal and Housing before the NHA was estab-
lished. These grants are now given to the NHA. However, this practice will be
terminated in the future following a recent government directive that no public
enterprise shall in the future be allocated funds from the annual budget. The
other form of government financial resource allocation for housing development
was through the Government Housing Bank.
The Bank's activities are mainly aimed at the middle income home seekers; whether
in the form of short term finance for ho~sing developer or long term loans for
individual home seekers. Prior to the unification of the various housing agencies
by the establishment of the NEA, the Government Housing Bank was entitled to pur-
chase property and resell to home seekers such as land sub-division operations.
However, this activity and remaining assets have now been transferred to the NHA.
Due to its low working capital allocated by the government, the record shows that
from 1953 to 1975, the Government Housing Bank has made 2,546 loans amounting to
$10,000,000. Although the total number and value of loans have increased
significantly during the last few years, the fact remains that the Government
Housing Bank has been operating in a somewhat constrained situation. This is
~ainly due to the following factors: 10
1. The lack of policy guidance, real objectives, target and forward planning
in general. As a result, the Bank has in the past 23 years been operating
on a day-to-day basis with no particular ends to meet;
2. The volume of funds that the Bank can mobilize through existing meanS and
from existing sources has been inadequate;
3. The range of activities that the Bank can undertake is very limited compared
with what other financial itlstitutions can do;
4. Lack of public awareness of the Bank's role and the lack of more up-country
branches.
With the formation of the NHA which sets itself the task of building 24,000 housing
units/year over a five-year period until 1980, the Government Savings Bank is
expected to play a very significant role. This housing program will involve a
capital mobilization of $570 million. Within the realm of administrative feasi-
bility, the following measur~s that could be instituted effectivebY over the next
few years after a thorough investigation is made are as follows: 10
1. To develop and to increase existing sources of capital. These might include

the expansion of Government Housing Bank branches and a campaign launched in order
to attract savers irrespectiVe of whether they are home seekers or not. It is worth
noting that at present, in spite of the restricted savings facilities of Commercial
Banks, almost half the total asset of the Banks come from savings deposits. This
may be considered a direct competition to the Government Savings Bank, but since
most of the latter's accumulated funds are claimed by the central Government for
relocation and with housing receiving little or no benefit from this process, it
may be deemed proper that the Government Savings Bank should undertake the vigorous
tapping of this source by itself.
2. Other potential sources of fund for housing finance include the life insurance
and social security funds. With the former, certain government regulations
requiring these insurance companies to keep a fairly large amount of liquid fund
in hand may need adjustment, in order to allow their release for housing invest-
ment. The volume of fund that might be mobilized from this source is as yet uncer-
tain, but could well reach the $50 million level.
3. Housing bond issues could raise a certain amount of funds for the NHA and Bank
operations but the limitations of this fund mobilization method are not yet known,
particularly after the initial $80 million has been accumulated from commercial bank
reserves as proposed for the 1976 housing development of the NHA.
4. During the first few years while the NHA will not have used up the entire $80
million, the Government Housing Bank may generate incomes from the interest of
short term loans with this fund.
To implement these measures, the Government Savings Bank will need the full backing
of the central government.
The Need for OveraZZ PoZicy Consideration

High hopes are placed on the NHA to solve the housing shortage in Thailand. It is
widely believed that, unless an overall national policy is promulgated, the NHA
will not be very effective in overcoming the housin~ shortage which it has set for
itself in its Five-Year Plan. Definite government policy which will serve as the
basis of the NHA should center on the following: l l
1. Need for an overall urbanization strategy in Thailand. The government should

formulate a national strategy in which Bangkok is looked at in relation to the
co~ntry as a whole, and other urban centers are allowed to expand and develop.
Such strategy would take the pressure off Bangkok and help alleviate its problems.
As of now, Bangkok serves as the only reception center for low-income migrants from
the rural areas.
2. Need for a metropolitan plan to provide overall guidelines for growth. These
guidelines must establish basic principle$ and methods of control over the use and
cost of land in and around Bangkok. To achieve this, laws and regulations concer-
ning land use, land price and rental control, urban renewal and real estate busi-
ness control must be promulgated. Stringent laws and regulations concerning building
construction and control must be passed.
3. Need to give high priority to low-cost housing development. As the private

sector is already participating in the housing development program for the middle-
income group, it is left to the government to make an effort to meet the housing
needs of the lower and lowest income group. Top'priority must be given to housing
development for the low-income housing. Estimate of housing needs and nature of
low-income housing must be made. These require the formulation of an overall
policy on public subsidy, land acquisition, taxes and squatter settlements. It is
crucial that the Government must decide which existing slums or squatter settlements
must be cleared, rebuilt, saved or rehabilitated. The Government must keep in
mind that the process of public housing, slum clearance, saving, up-grading,
resettlement and urban renewal are interrelated.
Slum or squatter clearance entails massive resettlement of affected families. This

in turn creates a tremendous strain on the limited public housing. Therefore, for
a successful slum clearance program, there must be a parallel successful public
housing program to relocate the families affected.
4. Need of a policy concerning public participation. Beside public subsidy, the

program of urban renewal should be seen not only as a social improvement, but also
as a means to generate economic development and provide for environmental improve-
ment. The elements of urban renewal that has to be taken into consideration are:
(a) Conservation - the authorities m~st identify the areas worth preserving;
(b) Rehabilitation - the authorities must identify the areas needing improvement
or up-grading;
(c) Rebuilding - the authorities must identify the areas needing demolishing and
rebuilding.
4.2 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ON VARIOUS ASPECTS OF LOW-COST

HOUSING AT THE ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
As pointed out in Chapter 1, the Asian Institute of Technology is one of the founding
sponsors of the Low-Cost Housing Technology Network and has several academic
divisions actively involved in research projects related to low-cost housing tech-
nology and policy. Most of these studies have been undertaken by the faculty and
students in the Divisions of Environmental Engineering, Community and Regional
Development and Structural Engineering. These studies are briefly summarized under
four main sections: Slums and Squatter Settlements, Housing Industry, Design and
Evaluation Criteria and Utilization of Indigenous Materials.
Studies on Slums and Squatter Settlements in Thailand
A. A study of the struature, funation and magnitude of mini-squatters

in Bangkok
Squatters have become an increasing feature of cities in developing countries.
They have penetrated in large numbers to the hearts of the cities occupying any
vacant spot they can find; deep in residential areas, along the roads and canals,
or interspersed between developed sections. While these small patches of "slum

like" shanty structures have always been considered undesirable, no attempt has
ever been made to study their structure and function, and their magnitude, especially
when they are scattered in small groups or in the form of isolated structures all
over the city.
A study was conducted in AIT by Agrawal 12 to determine the structure and function
of these small groups of "slum like" shanty structures or mini-squatters in Bangkok
and to appraise the magnitude of the problem. This study provided the following
contributions:
(a) An identification of mini-squatter problem in developing countries;
(b) A rationale for the distinction between mini-squatters and slums;
(c) An insight into the extent of mini-squatter problem in Bangkok and its major
characteristics.
B. Workable principles for the control of squatter settlements in

Bangkok
The squatter problem is one of complexity and diversity, and lasting solutions to
the problems have been elusive, despite the numerous techniques and approaches that
have been tried out. This is primarily because the squatter problem has not been
comprehensively understood or defined.
The study conducted by Mutunayagam 13 is aimed at finding a comprehensive definition

of the squatter problem with specific reference to Bangkok and to recommend work-
able principles as a basis for their control and progressive elimination.
The study shows how proper reorganization of squatter control mechanism can
contribute to;the orderly spatial growth in the city, and help promote the general
well-being of low-income people, while preserving the legal rights of private
property ownership.
The study provides the following:
(a) A rationale for the proper identification of, and distinction between slums
and squatter settlements;
(b) An identification of the squatter problem in Bangkok with its entire ramifi-
cations;
(c) Guidelines for the comprehensive policy for the control of squatter settlements
in Bangkok;
(d) Recommendation of outline programs for the successful implementation of such

policy.
C. Low-cost environmental systems for squatter settlements in Bangkok

The aims of this research work which was conducted by Philip 14 are fourfold: firstly,
to review and evaluate low-cost environmental systems (water supply, wastewater
disposal and solid waste disposal); secondly, to test such low-cost environmental
systems by application to a particular Bangkok problem; thirdly, to draw conclusions
as to the most suitable environmental system for Bangkok and fourthly, to draw out
of this exercise, an approach to policy for such environmental systems.
In the first part of the study, after defining the target population, a general dis-
cussion of th~ present environmental systems are undertaken, as well as the socio-
economic conditions of the affected target population. The resulting conclusions
are tested in a case study to confirm, reject or expand upon the original findings.
A general agreement of the findings were found to reinforce the original conclusions.
In the second part of the study, various alternatives for variOus low-cost environ-
mental systems are evaluated. The major criteria used for evaluation are sanitation,
ecology, health, nuisances, capital costs and operational expenses.
The implementation mechanics of the system are assessed in the third part of the
study. In analyzing the present situation as related to decision making, an over-
view of the collectivities, parties involved, and thereby, a rev~ew of the presept
decision making mechanisms, is outlined.
Finally, the above three phases are further analyzed to single out the most suitable
action to bring about the implementation of the appropriate low-cost environmental
system. In addition, policy recommendations are drawn for such low-cost environ-
mental systems. The findings from such studies are then tested within the confines
of a'test area; in this instance, the Din Daeng squatter settlement in the m~nici
pality of Bangkok.
The impact of the~e low-cost environmental systems on the daily life styles of the
target population is also studied.
D. A comparative cost-benefit study of the high-rise building for the

low-income residents of Huay-Kuang3 Bangkok•.
Riensuwarn 15 made an evaluation of the Huay-Kuang highrise building project by means
of a benefit-cost-analysis. Attention was directed to the gross tenant benefit
according to income distribution of the tenants regardless of all other benefits
generated by the project. The variation of the gross tenant benefit - cost ratio
with the rent income ratio before occupying the flat and the income of the occupants
was studied. The results showed that the middle income people would benefit more
than the low income-people at every rent-income rat~o.
The second part of this study nas compared the initial project cost of the Huay-
Kuang highrise buildings at various land costs and densities with single-story row
houses for equal numbers of dwelling units. It was found that the sinqle-story row
houses were 32% cheaper if the same density of dwelling units was maintained, but
this requires a density of row houses higher than that permitted by the National
Building Research and Development Center of Thailand. If the single-story row houses
were built on a plot of land large enough to meet the standard, Reinsuwarn 15 con-
cluded that at a land cost of $21.25/m 2 , the project wOuld still be cheape~ than the
highrise building built in Huay-Kuang by the National Government.
E. Peoples' housing resources: preconditions for the stimulation of

domestic resources in popular housing in Bangkok.
Few would disagree that public housing programs offer conditions that never suit the
people for whom they are meant. Past experience is evidence of the futility of such
housing programs. The primary reasons for past failures are the following:
misconception that a house is a product rather than an environment, misunderstanding
about people's priorities, how they change with the stages of urban settlement
process and what kind of housing they can afford; and under-estimation of people's
potential for self-housing.
The first part of the study conducted by Igbal 16 deals with housing and establishing
the urban settlement process in Bangkok. A model of urban settlement process,
contrary to established models, is presented.
The second part of the study deal particularly with popular housing areas in
Bangkok. The study areas were selected on tenure security criteria, prevalent
in various settlements. A comparative study of the components of environmental
security and housing input in each study area was made to understand what conditions
and amount of effort people have put in their housing. People's investment and
under-investment at settlement and city level were estimated. It was found that under
prevalent environmental security was about $4.5 million are being under-invested by
the people in their housing.
To gain an insight on the preconditions for the stimulation of people's domestic

resources into their housing, various components of environmental security, i.e.,
tenure security, employment security, physical security and their variables, were
analyzed by multiple regression analysis to determine which variables affect the
variance in housing input. It is believed that the results are of great value to
officials and agencies dealing with the low-income housing problem to implement a
policy which determines how and under what conditions people would be encouraged
to invest their domestic resources in their housing.
The last part of the study deals with the people's potential saving systems; how
people save, how much they can save, and identifying their saving systems.
F. A cost indicator for low-income shelter

As a result of the none too impressive performance of the conventional housing
policies in ameliorating the housing problem in most of the cities of the developing
countries, the authorities concerned have exhibited gradual concessions and adapta-
tions in reframing their policies more realistically. A significant concession is
the acceptance of the fact that the majority of the housing stock for the low-income
people in urban areas is provided by these people themselves, who build their
shelters without any help or guidance from the established institutions. It is in
this context that prompted this study by Selvanathan 17 to gain greater knowledge
of the people's ability to build their own shelter.
This study also aims at gaining greater understanding of the rather obscure informal
housing sector involving the urban low income people. The effect of the escalating
cost of construction materials and wages for labor on the capacity of these people
in building their shelter is demonstrated and cost indicator for the same is sug-
gested. It is hoped that the methodologies suggested in this study will serve as a
useful tool for the Public Authorities in gauging the low income people's. ability to
build their shelter and in measuring the magnitude of the situation, based on which,
suitable housing policies can be framed.
Studies on the Housing Industry in Thailand

A. Prefabrication in housing construction in Thailand
A study was conducted by Rerkshanandana 18 to evaluate the capabilities of local
builders in prefabrication and to determine the most suitable system of construction
for the local conditions. Capabilities were considered in terms of manpower, equip-
ment and experience.
The analysis was carried out in three stages. The first stage was cost analysis
yielding the minimUm unit cost for each system of prefabrication. In the second
stage of analysis, the results obtained in the first part were used in the comparison
of the performance of the systems in terms of cost, construction time, structural
safety, and fleXibility in design and maintenance. The economics of prefabricated
buildings were then studied in the last stage. The economic study emphasized the
determination of shape and sizes of building having the minimum cost.
The study concluded that the shortage of heavy lifting equipment and lack of exper-
ience are the main obstacles to prefabricated construction in Thailand, and that
the beam-column prefabricated system is the most suitable one at present.
B. Survey of available construction materials~ equipment and labor' in

Thailand
A survey was conducted by Huntrakul 19 with the aim of building an adequate data and
information on the construction industry in Thailand, with special emphasis on how
and where to get major construction materials, equipment and labor forces. The
past and present prices of materials and daily wages of labors were compiled and
studied and an attempt is made to forecast their future values. Equipment available
on rental basis in Bangkok and its rental rate are compiled in a suitable form for
general use. The available sizes and types of construction materials, the material
costs and labor wage rates in each region of Thailand are also studied.
C. The opportunity for systems building in developing countries
The work of Wadhwa 20 was aimed at the formulation of a housing program for the
population in new cities, with special emphasis on housing environment, users or
human requirements, and provision of economical and well planned community facili-
ties. The present and future state of the art in prefabrication industry, as well
as anticipated technological advances, have been projected and discussed.
Several European and American building systems have been studied and the opportunity
of systems building in developing countries has been investigated. It is suggested
that a proper and efficient system for various countries, with a view of the labor,
materials and technology situation in that country, be designed and developed.
Finally, the feasibility of setting up systems building industries in the archipelago

of new city modules is discussed and necessary suggestions are made.
Studies on Design and Evaluation Criteria for Low-Cost Housing
A. Design and evaluation criteria for low-cost housing
This study conducted by Kukreti 21 was aimed at the formulation of design and evalua-
tion criteria for low-cost housing. User needs and functional requirements for
low-cost housing are specified and performance concept used to formulate the criteria.
The design and evaluation criteria were established for different physical subsystems
of the housing system. Several minimum standards suggested in various countries
were studied and used as the basis to specify the different criteria.
An evaluation methodology is suggested consisting of the formulation of an evalua-

tion matrix which represents the relation of the functional requirements of the user
to each of the physical subsystems of the dwelling unit. To quantify the evaluation
process the methodology includes the determination of indices which indicate the
performance of the individual subsystems, and the extents to which individual func-
tional requirements of the user and the housing system as a whole are satisfied.
B. Performance evaluation of a low-income multi-family housing system

in Bangkok
An evaluation of a low-income multi-family housing system in Din Daeng, Bangkok

was made by Pothiapinyavisuth 22 with the use of an evaluation criteria and metho-
dology established on the basis of user's needs as described by Kukreti 21 An interpre-
tation and discussion of the results of the evaluation is made, from which an improved
design is suggested. A review of the established evaluation criteri'a and evaluation
methodology is made in view of their relevance and practicality and an improved
evaluation criteria and methodology for low-income multi-family housing system is
recommended.
c. Design and construction of low-cost houses for low-income families

in Thailand
In an attempt to help solve Thailand's low-income housing problems, two experimental
low-cost asbestos cement houses have been designed and constructed at AIT by Lee,
Pathomkulmai and Hongladaromp23 for use in suburban and rural areas. Attractive,
sturdy and comfortable, these one-storey asbestos cement houses are simple to build
with the emploYment of low-skilled labor and prefabricated construction materials.
The unit cost of the duplex at the time of construction is about $25 per m2 of
floor area. With floor areas of 50 m2 per unit, the total cost is $1,250 per unit.
The other house is a single detached unit with floor areas of about 60 m2 , the
total cost being $1,600. These e~perimentalhouses were designed to meet the require-
ments of the Thai National Standard Specifications. Figs 4.1 and 4.2 show these
experimental asbestos cement houses.
Fig. 4.1. Front View of the Single Detached Unit Prototype

Asbestos-Cement Low Cost House.
d. Performance evaluation of experimental asbestos cement low-cost

houses
A performance evaluation of the two asbestos cement experimental houses built inAIT
was made by UYmatiao. 24 The evaluation criteria and methodology suggested by Kukreti 21
was used. Recommendations for the improvrnent of these units were made based on the
126 Seng-lip Lee, Tongchat Hongladaromp and Ricardo P. Parna
results of the evaluation and from interviews made with the occupants. New designs
are suggested which ensure better housing for the satisfaction of the dwellers. A
review of the evaluation criteria and methodology is made and modifications are
suggested to make them relevant, practical and suitable to the nC8ds of the users.
Fig. 4.2. Views of the Duplex Unit and Single Detached Unit
Prototype Asbestos-Cement Low Cost Houses.
E. Design of low-cost houses for lower-middle income families in Bangkok

In order to help solve the problems of housing for the lower-middle income families,
two housing systems were designed based on a design criteria for low-cost houses
which was modified to suit the lower-middle income group. These housing systems
as suggested by Tungpanitansook 25 utilize locally mass-produced materials and the
construction does not require sophisticated-construction equipment. The housing
systems were also designed to meet the requirements of the Thai National Standard
Specifications, Minimum Standard for Housing and Environment. The two types of
houses are simple to build and employ semi-skilled labor and ~se locally prefabri-
cated materials. Load bearing concrete block wall with asbestos cement panel roof
is adopted for the first type while a hybrid system of concrete block wall and
corrugated asbestos cement panel is selected for the other system. Each house
covers a plinth area of 73.5 m2 and the total cost is about $3,000 per unit.
F. _ Design of a low-cost rural school building

This study which was conducted by Lowsunthorn 26 is an attempt to present a solution
to the problem of the inadequacy of rural school buildings, a problem confronting the
development of rural education. School building design, being- one of the inter-
dependent elements in the planning of an educational system, is affected by social,
political, cultural, demographic and climatic factors as well as -educational and
economic policies. These factors are briefly reviewed, and the concept and criteria
for the design of a low-cost rural school building are presented. Anthropometric
data, different arrangement of classrooms, sun shad~ng diagrams and natural methods
of environmental control are collected and provided in the form of figures and tables,
which may be used as a design guide.
The proposed design, which contains two classrooms, each 6 m x 8.6 m in plan, is
basically a structure with two longitudinal load bearing walls resting on reinforced
concrete slab on grade. To attain the 6 m clear span required without intermediate
columns, the asbestos car port tile roof is supported by the two load bearing walls
and a central timber truss which is supported in turn at the central partition and
the two end walls. The lateral stiffness of the system is strengthened by a hori-
zontal bracing system at the ceiling level. The cost of the proposed school building
is approximately $26,50 per m2 , an equivalent of $24.50 per pupil place with a
ratio of 0.92 m2 per pupil place.
Utilization of Indigenous Materials
A. Development of bamboo pulp and fiber boards

In Thailand, asbestos fibers are widely used as reinforcement in the production of
building boards. Asbestos fibers, however, are scarce and costly and hence, there
is a need to develop indigenous substitute. It is hoped that natural organic fiber
such as bamboo which is abundant and cheap may prove to be a good substitute for
asbestos fibers. The country imports $8 million worth of asbestos fibers every year
from Canada and South Africa and this constitutes a tremendous drain of much needed
foreign exchange which otherwise could be used for other urgent development projects.
An investigation was conducted to examine the feasibility of using bamboo pulp as a

substitute for asbestos fibers in order to produce building boards which are relatively
cheap and light, durable, workable, has good thermal and acoustic properties, fire
resistance and freedom from emission of toxic gases. The shortcomings which some
of these bamboo pUlp boards have are their relatively large moisture movement and
lower durability as compared with asbestos fiber boards. However this is completely
acceptable in the context of semi-permanent single story buildings for which there
is a vast need in Thailand. .
In developing this new material, the use of available technology and facilities for
mass production was an important factor considered since investment for design and
construction of a new production line is costly and impractical.
Portland cement was chosen as the binder material or matrix as it is readily avail-
able and relatively cheap in Thailand. It is durable and possesses a certain degree
of fire resistance. Moreover, in Asia and in particular Thailand, cement as a
material has a high degree of social acceptability. This factor is very important
in selecting materials for use in low-cost housing. Type III rapid hardening
portland cement was selected in order to reduce curing time and thereby speed up
the production process.
Various types of natural organic fibrous materials were considered such as water
hyacinth, wood and bamboo. The preliminary investigation revealed that bamboo
fibers appeared more promising than the other two on account of its superior strength
and surface texture. Moreover, it possesses good buoyancy characteristics which
help prevent bundling of the fibers during the mixing operation.
Two types of bamboo reinforcements were used; bamboo fibers and bamboo pulp. The
term bamboo fibers refer to those fibers which were obtained by mechanically ham-
mering dried short bamboo sticks of specified length. The fiber length varies
from 1.5 to 2.5 inches with a mean diameter of 0.014 in. Pulp in this context
refers to those fibers which were obtained by cooking bamboo chips in a 20% NaOH
solution at approximately 1700 C under a steam pressure of 120 psi for 6 hours. The
average length and diameter of the pulp used are 0.106 in and 1.08 milli-inch respec-
tively.
The pulp is used to arrest the cracks thereby ra1s1ng the tensile resistance of the
composite. The bamboo fibers serve as crack retarders to enable the composite to
attain a certain degree of post-cracking ductility.
Various mechanical and physical properties of the boards were studied and these
are discussed in detail by Pakotiprapha, Pama and Lee. 27 The strength and rigidities
of the composite in axial compression, direct tension, flexure and torsion were
studied. The physical properties of the composite which were studied include water
absorption, drying shrinkage, fire resistance, impact resistance, permeability and
durability.
The investigation showed that bamboo pulp and fiber boards are suitable substitute
for asbestos fibers. With cement paste binder, the resulting composite yields
building boards which can be used for ~alls, ceilings and roofs. The flexure
strength satisfy ASTM requirements for building boards. Bamboo pulp and fiber boards
are impervious, non-combustible and possess good impact properties and exhibit post-
cracking ductility. The cost analysis also showed that bamboo pulp and fiber boards
are competitive in cost compared with asbestos cement boards. Moreover, the produc-
tion process is such that existing plants can be used with minor modification. It
is hoped that the use of natural organic fibers such as bamboo will save much
needed foreign exchange and at the same time reduce the basic cost of the material.
B. Development of coir fiber boards

Coconut palm is a plant that grows in most of the islands and coasts of the tropics.
Fresh coconut is an important item in the world diet and copra is the most important
product in world trade. One of the most important by-products of the copra industry
is the husk, the outer covering of the nut, from which coir fiber is extracted.
Due to its abundance and relatively low cost, the use of coir fiber was considered
as reinforcement for low-cost building boards.
The boards are formed by mixing coir fiber with cement and water and then molded
under a lateral pressure of 280 psi. The various mechanical properties of the
boards in direct tension, axial compression, flexure and torsion were studied. The
physical properties of the board such as -water absorption, permeability, expansion,
durability impact resistance, creep, shrinkage and fire resistance were also studied
in detail and these are reported by Pama, Cook and Oranratnachai. 28
The test showed that coir fiber boards satisfy all of the requirements for building
boards except water absorption. This suggested that unless protective coyeringis
provided on the surface exposed to the weather, coir fiber boards could only be
used as interior boards. They possess very good impact resistance and also showed
post-cracking ductility. They are, however, combustible and disintegrate after
burning. More investigations on way of improving their water absorption properties
and fire resistance are needed.
c. A study of wood-wool boards

There are two board types of products which can be made with cellulosic material
such as wood in combination with cement. The first type is a product where the
cellulosic material is used as aggregate in the concrete. The second type is where
the cellulosic material is in the form of long strands such as in wood-wool boards.
The wood fiber serves as reinforcement and arrest the cracks thus increasing the
resistance of the composite to tensile stresses.
Factories for producing wood-wool boards have been built in most countries in Asia.
These are widely used in building construction as partition walls, ceilings, con-
crete formworks, etc. The manufacturing process normally starts by stripping the
wood into small strips approximately 1 mm x 4 mm in cross section and 40 mm long by
means of a planing machine. The wood fibers are passeG through a water spray,
and cement is squirted on the wet wood fibers. The mixture is molded to the
required dimension, trimmed to size, pressed and then left to dry for at least
seven days. Due to the simple production process and the availability of the
constituent materials, wood-wool boards can be produced cheaply. An investigation
was conducted to understand the various mechanical and physical properties of wood-
wool boards in order to encourage the efficient use of the material under approp-
riate condition thereby reducing the cost of the structure. More details are
presented and discussed by Pama, Bovornsombat and Nimityoungsku1 29
D. A study of bamboo as reinforcement for concrete

Worldwide inflation and the scarcity of steel in Thailand and other developing
countries in Asia have necessitated the search for suitable indigenous materials
as expedient reinforcement for concrete. Bamboo which is cheap and available in
abundance in 'most parts of Asia has attracted the attention of research workers
for the last three decades or more.
Previous studies by Glenn 3 0have indicated that the use of bamboo as reinforcement
is feasible but its use is inhibited by its poor characteristics such as bond,
volume changes and degradation. Wide cracks and large deflections have been reported
in roof beams, girders and slabs of bamboo reinforced experimental structures. As
such its wide scale use has been temporarily discontinued until more is known about
its true behavior. However, its use can be safely attempted in slabs on grades.
During World War II, some roads in Southeast Asia are known to have been built with
bamboo as reinforcement but no definite references are available about their life
and serviceability. This points to the need for investigating the possible use
of bamboo as reinforcements for structures such as slabs on grade where bond is not
critical.
An investigation was conducted at AIT by Pama, Durrani and Lee 31 on the behavior
of bamboo as related to its use as reinforcement for slabs on grades and to compile
such basic information so as to produce a design and construction guide for bamboo
reinforced concrete structures.
Pai ruak (Thyrsostachys oliveri Gamble), a common and cheap variety of bamboo found
in Thailand was used in the investigation. Various mechanical and physical proper-
ties of the bamboo were studied such as tensile strength, bond strength, compressive
strength, modulus of elasticity, moisture absorption and dimensional changes. A
design criteria for bamboo reinforced concrete slab on grade is developed and
various construction procedures are suggested. An experimental slab on grade was
also built to observe the long term behavior of the structure.
E. A study of rice husk ash as a pozzolanic material

Rice husks comprise nearly 20% of the weight of harvested and dried crop and consti-
tute the largest by-product of th~ rice milling industry. They have low valueln
terms of food nutrients for agricultural purposes, high bulk-abrasive property,
resistance to weathering and high ash content for which large economic uses have
long been sought in all rice growing countries. The ash constitutes about 20%
of the total by-product of rice husk. Its chemical composition compared with fly
ash and pulverized fuel ash is somewhat identical except in the proportion of its
elements.
With the increasing cost of portland cement largely due to the ever-increasing cost
130 Seng-lip Lee,. Tongchat Hongladaromp and Ricardo P. Pama
of oil, there is a considerable need in developing countries such as Thailand to
produce a ce~enting material chapter than portland cement. A research program 32 ,33
was started a~ AIT to investigate the pozzolanic activity of rice husk. Two types
of ash were us~d in the investigation. The first was obtained from the rice thres-
hing site where'the husks are burnt for disposal purposes. The second was produced
by burning the husk at controlled temperatures in a furnace and grinding the resul-
ting ash to the desired fineness in a ball mill.
Strength and volume change tests were carried out using up to 50% cement replacement
with the "village burnt" ash. The results indicated that the ash, in general, had
poor pozzolanic activity. The ash produced under controlled conditions, however,
conformed to ASTM requirements for pozzolanas. The results of setting time, strength
and volume change tests indicated that up to 20% cement replacement could be achieved
without any significant adverse effect on the properties of the concrete.
The study is being extended to determine the pozzolanic activity of rice husk ash
mixed with lime. It is hoped that this material will be useful especially in rural
areas where rice husk ash is abundant.
F. Use of lateritic soil for low-cost housing

Lateritic soil from Chantaburi and Hua Hin provinces in Thailand were studied by
Nasir 34 to investigate its use for low-cost housing. Soil-cement blocks were cast
in a CINVA-Ram machine. The effect of soil properties, moisture content, cement
concentration, compacting pressure, curing time and method of curing on the compres-
sive strength, durability, and moisture absorption 'of the soil-cement blocks were
studied.
Results showed that the response to cement stabilization of soil blocks made from
the two soils was excellent. Criteria were established to evaluate the compressive
strength, durability, and moisture absorption of the soil-cement blocks. It was
observed that, to satisfy these criteria, Hua Hin soil, which had a higher activity
required a greater amount of cement.
4.3 STUDIES ON CONDITIONS OF LOW-INCOME PEOPLE CONDUCTED

BY OTHER INSTITUTIONS IN THAILAND
A. Housing conditions and problems of the people in Manangasila slum
areas
In 1970, the Faculty of Social Administration of Thammasat University conducted a
survey to determine the housing conditions and problems of the people living in
Manangasila slum in Bangkok. A report 35 in Thai language was published which
presents the general problems faced by the inhabitants of this particular slum.
The conditions and characteristics of this slum area are described and short-term
and long-term solutions to th~ problems of the slum dwellers in Manangasila are
suggested.
B. Soaial welfare research survey in the slum areas of Klong Toey

A comprehensive report 36 was prepared by the Faculty of Social Administration of
Thammasat University on the conditions of the slum in Klong Toey. The report
describes the actual living conditions of the Klong Toey inhabitants. It presents
statistical data regarding the structural and social background of the families
and examines the factors that made these families migrate to Bangkok. The report
also presents data on the educational attainment of the inhabitants, vocation and
income, property ownership and debt obligations. It also describes the family
planning practices of the people and their attitudes on moving out of the area.
The report includes recommendations on how to reduce migration of rural inhabitants

to Bangkok and on ways of alleviating the housing conditions of the present inhabi-
tants of Kong Toey.
C. Demography of Bangkok: A case study of differentials between big

city and rural populations
The Institute of Population Studies at Chulalongkorn University has conducted a
study of the demography of Bangkok. 37 The report reviews urbanization in Asia in
general and presents a population projection up to the year 2000. The report also
deals with the historical perspectives of Thailand's population. It analyzes
urbanization patterns using the municipal area as the equivalent of urban popu-
lation. The report contains data on population composition, age - sex composition,
labor force, occupation, literacy, education, ethnicity and religion. It also
presents housing and urban conditions and estimates future pop~lation;growth.
D. Internal migration in Thailand

A report published by the Institute of Population Studies at Chulalongkorn Univer-
sity 38 examines the internal migration in Thailand covering the period 1947-1972.
The report presents background information on internal migration noting problems
such as unemployment, housing shortage and other environmental factors. It also
examines the volume and patterns of migration, reasons for migration, characteristics
and problems of adjustment and determines the relationship between migration and
other factors.
E. Survey of the Blum of Soi Charurat.. Makkasan

Prasarn Mitr College of Education has conducted a survey of the conditions of the
slum in Soi Charurat, Makkasan. This report 39 describ~s the geographical condition
and background of the area. It analyzes the causes of migration to this area and
describes the social conditions of the area. It.presents data on income, vocation,
and educational attainment of the inhabitants. It describes the conditions of
existing services as well as the housing conditions, attitudes of the people towards
the area and examines the needs and problems of the inhabitants.
F. Social development in peri-urban areas: a study of the needs and

problems of children and youth in four slums in Bangkok
This study 40 was conducted by the Applied Scientific Research Corporation of Thailand
to determine the needs and problems of the children and youth in four slum areas in
Bangkok. The report describes the rise of slums in Bangkok and focuses on the
physical and social characteristics of the four slums being studied. It contains
data concerning the place of origin of slum dwellers, family structure, types and
size of households and age structure of the inhabitants. It describes the means of
livelihood and enumerates the major occupation of the people. It contains data on
income, unemployment, underemployment and describes the results of the survey on
the satisfaction of the people with their jobs. It gives details on the pattern of
expenditures and examines their debts and savings. It also considers in detail
the education, employment, juvenile delinquency and welfare of the children and
youth in these areas.
G. Problems of life and options for action of the six slums in

Bangkok
This study41 which was conducted for UNICEF describes the physical characteristics
of the houses and examines the rent and tenancy, utilities and sanitary facilities
and life styles of six slums. It studies the demography, ethnicity, migration and
reasons for migration. It discusses the family structure, child-rearing, delin-
quency and material and child health in these six areas. The report also deals
with the health services, family planning and community welfare in these areas.
Finally, it presents a proposal for an urban community development program as a
means of alleviation of the conditions of the people in these slums.
4.4 PROGNOSIS FOR THE FUTURE

The establishment of the National Housing Authority should bring about significant
and efficient efforts in tackling the housing problem which has risen to the top
of the nation's priority list. For the NHA to succeed, full cooperation from the
National Government is needed as discussed in Section 3.1 - Private "low-cost hou-
sing". Various legal and institutional constraints discussed previously must be
dealt with by the Government in order to encourage a greater degree of participation
by Commercial Banks in the housing industry. The Government Housing Bank must also
be allowed by the Government to have greater flexibility in its operation in order
to meet the financial requirements of the NHA.
The NHA as the sole agency in Housing must utilize the resources of the various
academic and research institutions in the country in conducting various studies
concerning low-cost housing. To avoid duplication, a network:··of institutions
working on various aspects of low-cost housing must be formed and these institutions
should be supported by research and development funds which the Government could
raise from industrial agencies with a stake in housing development.
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1. The Third Five-Year National Economic and social Development Plan, 1972-1976,
National Economic Development Board, Office of the Prime Minister, Bangkok,
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Authority of Thailand, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 1973.
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Social Service in Thailand (Department of Public Welfare), Mahaadthai Press,
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(Development of Public Welfare), Mahaadthai Press, Bangkok, Thailand, 1960.
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134 Seng-lip Lee, Tongchat Hongladaromp and Ricardo P. Parna
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Clemson University, South Carolina, U.S.A., May 1976.
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Clemson Agricultural College, North Carolina, U.S.A., 1950.
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No. 678, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand, 1974.
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Material~ Proceedings, Symposium on New Horizons on Construction Material,
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa., U.S.A., November 1976.
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Asian Institute of Technology, 1969.
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Authority~ Klong Toey~ Bangkok~ Faculty of Social Administration, Thammasat
University, 1971. '
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Big City and Rural Populations~ Institute of Population Studies, Chulalongkorn
University, 1972.
38. Prachuabmoh, V. and Tirasawat, P., Internal Migration In Thailand~ 194?-19?2~

Institute of PopUlation Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 1974.
,39. A Survey of the Slum Of Soi Charurat" Tambon Makkasan~ Bangkok~ Prasarn Mitr
College of Education, 1966.
40. Social Development in Peri-Urban Areas: A Study of the Needs and Problems of
Children and Youth in 4 Slums in Bangkok~ Applied Scientific Research Corpora-
tion of Thailand, 1972.
41. Morell, S. and Morell, D., Problems of Life and Options for Action~ Report
Submitted to the UNICEF, 1972.
5
LOW-COST HOUSING IN KOREA
Sung Do Jang and Hang Koo Cho
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their sincere acknowledgements to those listed in the
reference appended to the end of this chapter for the citation of parts of their
papers. Thanks are also extended to Mr. K. S. Suh, head of Survey and Statistics
Section, Housing Research Institute, Korea National Housing Cooperation for his
assistance to collect the relevant materials for editing and for his preparation of
the section on In-country Information Exchange System.
5.1 COUNTRY OVERVIEW

The territory of the Republic of Korea, a southern half of the Korean Peninsula
stretching from north to south in Northeast Asia, comprises a land area slightly less
than 100,000 km 2 , and approximately 30% of which is either arable or habitable. The
rest is mountainous. There is sharp seasonal fluctuation in temperature. For
instance, in Seoul, the capital city of Korea, the highest temperature is over 32.So C
in summer while it goes down as low as -14 0 C at mid-winter. Annual precipitation
ranges from 500 to 1,400 mm depending on localities.
The country is administratively divided into nine provinces called "do", and urban
areas are classified into two categories, cities (shi) and towns (eub). Cities are
the ones with more than 50,000 population and towns are of between 20,000 and 50,000
population.
The population of the Republic of Korea in 1975 stood at about 34.7 million with an
annual average growth rate of 1.8% during the period from 1970 to 1975, which repre-
sents a 0.47% decrease in the growth rate over the preceding period from 1966 to
1970 of 2.27%.
The ratio of population between urban and rural areas was 28-72% in 1966. However,
the ratio remarkably changed to a proportion of 48.4-51.6% in 1975 due to rural out-
migration. The population increase in cities was accelerated mainly by increased
employment opportunities and better social welfare facilities in urban areas since
successful implementation of the First Five-Year Economic Development Plant during
1962-66.
135
136 Sung Do Jang and Hang Koo Cho
The country launched in 1962 the initial series of Five-Year Economic Development
Plans, which has transformed the country from an agricultural society into a major
industrial one. By 1975, the real GNP, which grew at a rate of 9.8% per annum since
1962, had risen from $3.9 billion to $13.3 billion at 1970 steady price; while per
capita real GNP* had increased'from $150 to $377, or from $87 to $532 at 1975 prices,
which represents one of the highest rates of sustained growth in the modern economic
history.
The steady improvement in the living standard of the average Korean family over the
past decade is manifested by the substantial expansion and increased utilization of
goods and services. A change in the pattern of household comsumption is reflected
in the increasing share of expenditures and other amenities for a better living.
5 •.2 CURRENT HOUSING SITUATION AND HOUSING POLICY
Housing Situation l
The housing situation in Korea poses a growing problem because of the relatively
slow increase of supply against the rapidly rising demand for new houses. Ever
since 1960, the housing demand has kept rising sharply mainly due to the natural
growth of population, the increasing number of households owing to a trend toward
the nuclear family system and the rural out-migration in addition to the natural
loss by decay ~
In 1960, the number of existing houses was 3,464,000 for the total population of
24,980,000 and the total of 4,198,000 households. This figure represented a housing
capacity of 82.5%. The housing supply rate in urban areas was 66.6%, while that
in rural areas was 88.7%. In other words, 3.4 households out of 10 were without
their own houses in urban areas, whereas the homeless households were 1.3 in rural
Souroe: Population and Housing Census Reports.
*The Korean Economy-Growth Equity and Structural Change, Economic Planning Board,
Republic of Korea (1976).
Low-Cost Housing in Korea 137
In case of urban areas, the number of households increased from 2,525,000 in 1970
to 3,415,000 in 1975. This represents a 35.2% increase, while in rural areas it
increased only by 0.3% during the same period. This was the result of the continuous
rural out-migration.
As for population increase in cities 2 during the period of 1970-1975, all cities
showed 27.8% increase on the average.
The capital city of Seoul contained 13% of the total population of the country in
1966. This increased from 17.6% in 1970 to 19.8% in 1975. Seoul showed also the
highest rate of population increase throughout the country.
The number of housing units in urban areas increased by 31.2% from 1,398,000 units
in 1970 to 1,834,000 units in 1975, while the number in rural areas dropped by 0.23%
to 2,955,000 units in 1975. The decline in rural areas appeared to be due to failure
of the new production to. recover the loss by obsolescence. The housing demand in
rural areas shrunk due to the continuous rural out-migration.
On the other hand, the rate of housing shortage increased from 22.2% in 1970 to
24.8% in 1975, leaving total of 1,880,000 homeless households. Such an increasing
trend of housing shortage resulted from a growing popularity of the nuclear family
system and insufficient production of new houses. The rate of housing shortage in
urban areas showed 46.3%, while less than iO% for rural areas. This indicates a
serious housing shortage developing in urban areas. In case of larger cities of
over one million population like Seoul, Busan, and Daegu, the housing shortage
exceeded an average rate of 46.3%; 47.0% in Seoul, 48.9% in Busan and 52.1% in
Daegu.
Table 5.2. Housing Supply Rate by area in 1975.
No. of household NO. of houses Supply rate

Classification (in 1,000) (in 1,000) (%)
Seoul 1,408 747 53.0
Busan 503 257 51.1
Other urban areas 1,503 830 55.2
Rural areas 3,342 3,035 90.8
According to the criteria* of substandard houses given by the Ministry of Construc-

tion,houses in urban areas are more obsolescent than those in rural areas. The
number of substandard houses in urban areas reached the height of 18.8% in contrast
to 3.2% in rural areas.
In case of houses of low-income people in Korea, the dining room, being the space
for collective life, is concurrently being used as the space for private life, i.e.,
as bedroom and also as studyroom. The kitchen and toilet are in some cases not
large enough.
According to the 1970 housing census; the housing standards of the country are low
as a whole. The number of houses with floor space of less than 50 m2 accounted
for 64.9% (houses of less than 30 m2 , accounted for 32.7%) of the total number of
houses.
The average floor space per house was 45.4 m2 and the average number of persons
*Substandard housing: with floor area less than 21 m2 , built without building
permission on public land, with improper public utilities, or physically in poor
shape.
sharing one room was 2.4. These indicate a very low standard of housing in comparison
with those in advanced countries.
Housing ConBt~ction Trend
According to the housing construction plan of 1975, 70,000 housing units were
expected to be erected by public sector; i.e., 44,000 units by the central govern-
ment, 1,000 units by local governments, 11,000 units by the Korean National Housing
Corporation, and 15,000 units by the Korea Housing Bank.
The priorities of financing for implementation of the housing construction plan

were set by the following principles:
(1) Construction of houses Ior rent rather than for sale;
(2) Preferential construction of houses for workers employed in manufacturing

industries;
(3) Construction of apartments or row houses rather than detached houses.
The breakdown of housing units by type is shown in Table 5.3. It is noteworthy

that most houses constructed by public sector have floor areas of 40 to 80 square
which can be identified as low-cost housing units.
Table 5.3. Housing Construction Plan by Type for 1975.
Type of house Housing units Fund

(in million won*)
Public Sector 70,000 88,823
Central government 42,950 50,743

Apartment 19,778' 22,200
Rented 7,300 17,400
Sale 12,478 14,800
Row house 7,334 57,779
Detached house 8,168 6,590
Rural house 3,670 1,434
Employee's house 2,000 2,100
House for flood disaster 2,000 740
Renewal houses 1,900
Local government 1,250 680

Apartment for sale 900 450
Row house 30 17
Detached house 240 185
Rural house 80 28
KNHC 10,800 19,400

Apartment for sale 10,800 19,400
KHB 15,000 18,000

Apartment for sale 1,500 2,250
Detached for sale 13,500 15,750
Private sector 130,000
*Exchange rate at $1 400 won.

As for the actual trend of construction for the year 1975, the total constructions
registered were 189,000 units t or 94.4% of the planned 200,000 units. Public sector
established 89.7% of the planning figure while p~ivate sector registered 96.9% of
the goal.
Table 5.4 Comparison of Plan and Accomplishing in 197$.
Implement.ed
Projector Planned Housing units- Percentage
Total 200,000 188,851 94.4
Public Sector 70,000 62,851 89.7

Central Government 9,116 9,046 99.2
Local Government 22,584 22,056 97.7
KNHC 19,700 1l;l,~16 9;2.5
c:ompany Houses 5,000 1,190 28.8
i<HB 10,400 9,066 87.2
Others 3,200 3,277 102.4
Private Sector 130,000 126,000 96.9
Housing pOZicy and Long-Term Construction PZan

Since the Firs4 Five-Year Economic Development Plart launcheq in 1962, the goverrt-
ment placed a greater emphasis in use of limited national resources for the develop-
ment of industry, leaving the housing project on a ~ow-prio+ity level primarily
concerned with the private sector. However, the success of ~~e plan for industriali-
zation triggered a rapid growth of urbanization. In order to c~pe with such conqen-
tration of inhabitants and nousing deficit in large cities, the central government
exerted various efforts such as diffusion of public institutes and government
enterprises over provincial areqs, scatterihg of urban industry into rural areas "qnd
im~rovement of rural income level. Furthermore, to promote housing development,
the goverrunent formulated "Long-Term Housing Construction Plan (1971-1,98l) II qlong
with enactment of "Housing Construction Promotion Law" to ensure effective impiemen-
tation of the plan. The plan, however,' failed due to econ9mic reces~ion by various
elements durihg the first phase. The government began to modify the original plan
in 1974 and worked out a new plan entitled "Housing Policy and Long-Term Construction
Pl:ap'l.
ay the end o~ 1976, the final year of the Third Five-Year Economic Development Plan
period (1972-1976) ~ the long-term construction pl~n had to be further revised to
achieve effective implementation of the scheduled goal during the Fourth EConomic
Development Plan period (1977-1981). Under the current Fourth Five-Year Plan
emp~asizing improvement of social welfare as one of the key themes, the government
investment for housing sector is to be increased by a substantiql degree.
During the Fourth Five-Year Plan period a total of 2,640 billion won* will be
invested for construction and supply of 1,330/000 dwelling units. This means that
approximately $5.4 billion will have to be invested in housing each year during
1977-81. During the period, the public sector will invest a total of 600 billion
won, being equivalent to 23% of the 40tal investment and with which approximqtely
38.5% of the total projected dwelling units is to be constructed;
*Exchange rate at $1 485 won in 1976.

The objectives of housing policy for implementation of the housing plan during the
coming five years are as follows:
1. Priority should be given to urban housing construction because the absolute

population in rural areas will continue to decrease: rural areas are not
in desperate need of new housing. Therefore, housing construction should
be concentrated in the urban areas where the housing shortage is most severe;
2. The government and other public entities shall support housing construction
for low-income people who cannot finance their own housing by private means;
3. Different lending systems at different interest rates and for different

repayment periods shall be implemented for each beneficiary group;
4. Sample household surveys shall be made on a yearly basis to determine the

nature of these groups who do not own homes and the optimum housing sizes
for them;
5. Priority shall be given to financial assistance for retired military and

police officials, war veterans and flood victims;
6. Various institutional measures shall be implemented for the provision of

a stable supply of low-priced high quality materials and housing sites in
order to stimula te the construction during the period;
7. Private self-help organizations for mutual cooperation shall be encouraged

to facilitate home purchases from commercial house builders;
8. The conservation of housing stock should be maintained to the fullest

possible extent to insure a sustained increase in the housing stock and to
mitigate the housing shortage;
9. Imposing restrictions on the spontaneous removal of existing houses meeting

prescribed standards;
10. Legalization of unlicensed housing to the possible extent in consistence

with legal criteria;
11. Promoting home improvement through private self-help efforts in line with
the Saemaul Movement; *
12. Preventing the imprudent removal of squatter housings for large-scale urban
redevelopment,
13. Local authorities shall assume a leading role to carry out the promotion of
home improvement programs.
However, some difficulties are expected in the process of implementing the whole
plan in raising the necessary housing fund, particularly through private partici-
pation,and in view of heavy reliance of the plan on private industry.
In order to achieve the target, the plan envisages the following measures:
1. Increased supply of public funds, encouragement of private fund mobilization

and increased inducement of foreign loans for maximization of housing fund;
*Refer to section 5.4.

Table 5.5. Ten-Year Housing Construction Plan.*
Housing Units in 1,000, Fund (in billion won)
72-81 1 72-74 2 75-76 2 77-81 3
Housing Housing Housing Housing

Sector Units Fund Units Fund Units Fund Units Fund
Total 2,163 3,939 413 596 420 703 1,330 2,640
Public
Sector 762 854 106 100 144 154 512 600
Private
Sector 1,401 3,085 307 496 276 549 818 2,040
*Soupoe: The Ministry of Construction (1976).
Note: Sum of Supplement plan for 72-76 and Revised plan for 77-81.
2 Supplement plan at 1974 market price.
3 Revised plan for the Five-Year Economic Development Plan period at 1976 price.
Table 5.6. Amount and Sources of Housing Funds (1975).
Conditions
Amount of funds
Sector invested (won) Sources of funds Terms (yrs) Interest rate (%)
National Budget Appropriation

Nationai Housing Bond 5 6
Housing Lottery 20 4
Public 74 billion Bank. Funds
(22.7%) Debentures 15 8
Installment of Deposits 20 14
Housing Special Accounts
in Local Governments
Foreign Loans
AID 20-25 8-10
IBRD 20 8
"Non-systemized" Funds
Key Fund, Saving
Private 252 billion Real Estate Disposal,
(77 .3%) Retirement Fund,
"Kye" Fund,*
"Systemized" Funds (Borrowings)
Private Loan
Company Loan
Bank Loan
Other Financial Agencies
Note: *"Kye" is a sort of prevailing private installment ·deposit system consisting of 10-20 members
of relatives or friends.
(Raising of funds)
(Unit: percent)
I Fiscal loans and

investments
5.0
(Operation of funds)
~ Central government 23.8

r National housing
bonds 6.4t-
Public
sector
Public
sector
H Housing corporation 5.4
r National lottery 0.5~I-- 22.7 I-- - 35.0 -
(74 billion
won)
(70,000
units) ~ Local government 0.61
I Foreign loans 3.7~
Y Housing bank 5.21
rCollected debts 3.0~ Units
constructed
~ Privatehousing funds 4.1 I--
200,000 I--
(Bank-loa-nsf - - - -(4:1) , Total

investment
I (326 billion
I Sale of real estate 60.3~1 won)
IBank savings 6.6~

Public Private
sector sector Individuals
r Non-bank savings 5.7~ I-- 77.3
(252 billion
I-- I-.. 65.0 ~
Builders 65.0
(130,000 Employers
won) units)
I· Usury 2.3~
IOthers 2.41- Notes: ( I ) The figures represent those of 1975
(2) The figures for the private sector are based on
KID survey
(3) Source: Study on raising of housing funds and
housing financing system ( summary) by
KID,1976.
Fig. 5.1. Flow chart of housing funds.

2. Fostering of the housing-related industries and improvement of marketing
channel for construction materials in the interest of better housing at
lower cost;
3. Collective supply of residential area, designation of apartment area and

development of city outskirts;
4. Improvement of housing administration including unification of central and

local government housing administrations for promotion of private housing
construction.
Financing Policy for Housing Construction
A. Status of housing investment and supply of funds

The government of Korea has been so far concentrating all its efforts on developing
the key industries, and consequently, low priority was laid on housing sector.
This was evidenced by the fact that the average rati0 3 of investment in housing
construction to the GNP during the last decade was 3.7%, as compared with 6-8%
recommended by the United Nations for the Escap region.
In general, housing investment in Korea is largely classified-into those of public

and private sectors. The amount of housing investment in the public sector has been
too small as compared with private investments. This indicates that the private
sector has been playing a leading role in the field of housing construction.
Table 5.6 shows the amount and sources of housing funds in the public and private
sectors in 1975 and Fig. 5.1 illustrates the schematic diagram of housing fund flow.
B. Improvement of housing financing system

In order to meet the effective housing demand, a vast amount of capital is required
for investment in housing construction. Nevertheless, there are numerous problems
encountered in the raising of housing funds such as the low priority of public
investment in housing construction and the low-bank interest rate in the face of
progressing inflation. The measures for effective promotion of raising the housing
funds with these problems suggested by the government are:
1. To give a high priority to public investment in housing construction;
2. To expand the National Housing Bond sales;
3. To issue the housing debentures from the Korea National Housing Corporation;
4. To seek a substantial amount of loans from abroad;
5. To utilize the social welfare funds, such as the reserve funds for govern-
mentofficials pension;
6. To absorb the private idle funds for housing construction by means of

raising the bank interest rate to a realistic level, .while giving subsidies
to the low-income households;*
7. To develop the secondary market system which will allow transfer of the
mortgage loans.*
*Suggested to the government by Dr. R. T. Pratt, Professor of University of Utah,

U.S.A. in December, 1976.
If the housing funds are operated or supplied ineffectively, it would be difficult
to achieve the goal of meeting of the effective housing demand for most part of
homeless low- and middle-income groups. However, there are also a number of problems
encountered in operating and supplying the housing funds to low-income groups in
view of the practice of transferring the mortgage credit house to other people at
premium, and of the irrational loan system of public funds between different types
of loans offered. The measures for improvement of the operating and supplying
the housing funds suggested by,Dr. Pratt are:
1. To give large loans with long-term, low-interest rates to the low-income

households;
2. To improve the method of selection of occupants;
3. To apply the indexation system to the loan repayment formula to insure an

automatic adjustment of interest rates in accordance with the rate of
inflation.
5.3 PUBLIC HOUSING ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM AND HOUSING

INDUSTRY IN PRIVATE SECTOR
Operation of Public Housing Agencies
A. Central housing administration organization
As the central housing administration organizations, the Ministry of Construction
(MOC) carries out the direct housing administrative functions with reference to
the national housing policy formulation, and the Economic Planning Board (EPB) , the
Ministry of Finance (MOF) and the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOH) execute the indi-
rect housing administrative functions in cooperation with MOC. And also, the
Annuity Bureau of the Ministry of· General Affairs carries out special administrative
functions on housing.
MOC carries out the administrative functions pertinent to housing survey, long-term
housing demand estimation, establishment of housing construction plan, and super-
vision and control over various housing projects. EPB has the administrative
function of establishing a housing investment plan, in addition to the establish-
ment and execution of an economic development plan, budgeting, resources mobili~
zation and investment fund allocation, technical development, international economic
cooperation, etc.
MOF controls and supervises the Korea Housing Bank (KHB) in addition to its main
role of management of currency and financial affairs, taxation system, foreign
exchange and public properties, and MOH has the function of supervising and con-
trollinq over the housing projects being carried out by the local autonomies.
In addition, the Annuity Bureau of the Ministry of General Affairs deals with the
housing projects for homeless civil servants, and the Office of Veterans deals with
provision of housing for soldiers, both active and retired.
In this framework of horizontally decentralized administrative system, MOC estab-

lishes and executes housing construction plans in cooperation with other central
administrative agencies. For instance, the establishment of comprehensive housing
plan, preservation of housing survey and statistic data, and the functions of
supervision and control, design and technical development on housing are the prin-
cipal func~ions vested in the MOC. The function of design and technical develop-
ment stands for (1) approval of housing project design; (2) preparatioh and diffu-
sion of standard designs; (3) supervision and control over technicalities on housing
construction operation. Miscellaneous functions are (1) urban development and
redevelopment plan, cbnst~uction and remodel; (2) inspectioh and teqhnical examina-
tion of housing complex plans; (3) approval and per.mission of pousing complex develop-
ment projects; (4) designation of housing complexes.
On the other hahd; the local housing administrative functibns differ by area and
level of local government because of the different housing situations and si~es
of budget.
As for the housing administrative fUnctions on local government level, they are
carried out by the HoUsing Bureau of the Seoul Cit¥ government, by Construction
Bureaus of each provincial governments and Busan City governments, and by Con-
struction Section of each city and county offices.
B. Korea r.ationaZ housing corporation (KNHC)4

The Korea National Housing Corporation was established in July 1962 with the purpose
of ensUring housing stability of the people and stepping up pUblic welfare in
conformity with the governmentis welfare policy. Sihce then the Korea National
Housing Corporation has been playing a leading role in alleviating the hQusing
shortage.
T~e KN~C has cqnstructed 86,000 units of apattment-houses witq individual floor
area of 40-85 m2 , 19,695 units of which were ~upplied on rent basis throughout the
country during the period from 1962 through 1976; with a total investment of 60.S
billion won financed from public ho~sing funds, national housing funds, and AID
loan fupqs. These apartment~houses have been distributed to 3OQ,OOO homeless people.
The Korea National Housing Corporation constructed ohly 1,000-2;000 houses on a

small scale until 1972. However, after the turning point when it constructed 10,000
houses in 1974 with the active assistance of the government, it has established a
massive construction system and has constructed and supplied a total of 76,076
houses in 25 major cities throughout the country by 1976. These housihg units built
by KNHC represe~t 35% of the target of 74,000 houses whi9h have been assigned to
public sector p~r annum during the Third Five-Year Economic Development Plqn pe~iod.
The KNHC plans tq have a capaci~y of 45,000 units per annum for construction and
supply of housing by 1980. That is, before the end of the Fourth Five-Year Economic
Development Plan.
KNHC subsidiary companies. The Korea National Housing Corporation has established
two subsidiary companies to supply ~ large number of housing construction components;
~recast panels, and buildin~ bricks.
The H~rt~~g Prefab. Company was established in 1971 to suppl¥ such prefabricated
components as PC panels and other components exclusively to the KNHC. The annual
production capacity of the PC panels is equivalent to 5,200 housing units of 13
pyong (4 2 ~ 9 m2 ) type apartment.
The Korea Silicate Bricks Co. was established in 1975 with capital of 2,500 million
won invested wholly by the KNHC and a loan of 13 million D.M. in kihd from the
Dorstener Company, West Germany. The Company has annual capacity of approximately
154 million bricks composed of N.F. (Normal Format) and DF (Dunn Format) sizes in
order to construct 10;000 housing units of 15 pyong (49.5 m2 ) type.
C. Korea Housing Bank

The Korea Housing Bank was established as a special corporate in 1967 in accord~nce
LoW-Cost Ho~sing in Korea 147
with the enactment of the KHB Law aiming at supporting and promoting housing con-
struction for low- and lower-middle-income people. Its main functions are to loan
funds and deal with the related matters of management of funds for housing con-
struction, hoUsing transactions and site development.
The major sources of funds are its capital assets, contract savings, issuance of
housing bond; borrowings from government, foreign loan qnd issuance of housing
lo~tery tickets. The funds secured from these sources are directly loaned to the
low- and middle-income groups or indirectly to the KNHC, local autonomies, puD~ic
agencies and private commercial builder~. National housi~g funds which are usually
secured from the issuance of housing bond and introduction of foreign loan are
sub-loaned at an annual interest rate of 8% with a repayment period of 15 yeai~.
Private weifare housing funds which are secured from the operation of KHB fund is
loaned to those who have the means of loan repayment and capable of bearing
partial financial burdens in construction and purchasing of houses. However;
the conditions of loan have often the effect of isolating the potentiql customers
in view of both the size of amount involved and in the repayment term, thUs
resultirtg in heavy financial burden to the low-income group. In addition;
undue limitations in the operation of KHB fund would hamper positive and broader
performance of its function aimed at furthering housing construction,
The status of loans made by the Korea Housing Bank during 1967-1975 is shown in
Table 5.7.
Housing Industry in Private Sedtop

A. Housing industyly outlook':>
Housing industry is to emerge as a large-scale integrated system industry not
merely through natural expansion or dtversification of traditional house building
activities but through gradual organization and integration of many small business
activities on a national basis chiefly because of its profit sharing component
enterprises such as housing developers; house builders; material suppliers and
financial agencies who are all to maintain close interactions under a leading role
piayed by a pivotal enterprise with good operational standing. Housing industry,
in view of its foregoing nature, comprises a wide variety of related industries
which are to be developed into "group industry" or "system industry". However, in
case of Korea, the component indUstries are not only overly sub-divided with
unbalanced sizes but generally lack development 6f the i~tegration system Q¢tween
them, thus, providing a weak basis for growth as a se~tor of the economy_
In other words, small private house builders carry out a considerable afubun~ of
work without being an organized enterprise even though they represent the most
critical sectors of housing industry •. As for ~qusing material supply, m~t$rial
production is characterized by general lack of rational system for mass productiop
standardization and modular coordination. And the site development and supply are
in most cases carried out by public sector, while private enterprises exploit them
as a means of speculation. Housing distribution is also still in the primary stage
of development with no systematic market channel, and the important function of
after-service is carried out separately by various specialists and technicians who
are not directly related to building industry. And moreover, there is no enter-
prise carrying out all the integrated functions as a consistent business activity.
The reasons why housing industry in Korea is in a structurally weak condition lie
partly in the lack of government's positive measures for fostering housing industry
and partly in the distraughted functions of KNHC (Korea National Housing Corporation)
which is still short of assuming the role of laying the foundation for housing
industry.
Table 5.7. KHB Loans by Type.
Price -unit: in million won

As of August 1975 ( ): housing units
Classification 1967-1973 1974 1975 Total
National Housing
Fund Loan 8,278 20,279 13,180 42,196
(19,167) (30,349) (21,033) (70,459)
Public Loan Fund 4,686 35 13 4,736

(18,850) (118) (50) (19,024)
Private Housing
Construction Loan 57,040 8,412 5,862 71,314
(82,333) (7,950) (4,874) (95,157)
Private Industrial
Loan 19 19
(24) (24)
Housing Lottery
Fund Loan* 1,430 1,430
(1,330) (1,330)
Site Development
Loan 2,442 2,442
(882) ** (882)
Housing Material
Production Loan 273 100 373
Total 74,160 29,276 19,079 122,510

(121,686) (38,417) (25,918) (168,084)
*Since 1973, Housing Lottery Fund Loans are included in National Housing
Fund Loan.
**Figure in parenthesis means size of sites developed; unit in thousand "pyong"

or 3,300 m2 •
The recent participation of several large-scale enterprises in the housing industry

since 1970 is considered a most favorable tendency for the systematization of housing
industry which has so far been characterized 'by small-scale splinter operation and
lack of integration system.
B. Problems in housing industries

Analysis and examinations have been made herein on the basis of subdivision of the
industry into four sectors; housing construction, material supply, housing distri-
bution and site supply, based on the result of housing industry sample survey* on
21 housing related enterprises in Seoul.
1. House-building industry. House-building activities are broadly classified into

two fields. One is the self-help house building activities performed by end-users,
and the other, the housing supply by commercial house builders and various public
entities including the central and local qovernment agencies. The former is the
case of the individual customers who acquire their own housing sites and have the
houses built by contract builders, and the latter is the case that public agencies
and commercial house builders construct houses through direct and contract opera-
tions for sale to the real customers.
House-building activities in Korea have traditionally been conducted by the end-

users themselves except the cases of supply by public entities. However, the
increasing participation of large-scale enterprises and small to medium contractors
in the house-building activities and development of housing market since the
beginning of 1970 has made a considerable contribution to the increase in housing
supply. But the private house-building activities in general are still in the
primary stage of development from the viewpoint of the number of enterprises and
their managerial abilities.
After all, the private house-building enterprises in Korea are for the moment
characterized by inefficient industrial structure in the light of the organizational
form, size of the capital assets and production structure, and thus, are still
incapable of providing the basis for industrial development.
2. Building materials industry. The proportion of the material costs in house

building in Korea accounts for average 70% of the total costs as a whole with
some variations depending on the types and quality of housing.
Due to the insufficient development of integration system in material industry,

most of the house-building materials are produced and supplied independently, and
incidentally, with other construction materials without in~er-dependent production
and supply system.
The imbalance between supply and demand and the price instability of major housing
materials involving the lower prices compared with general commodity price indices
and the rise of general housing costs have often impeded the house-building acti-
vities of the private sector to a considerable degree., _For major items of building
materials which are now being mass produced, the demand-supply position is compara-
tively secure with price competitiveness, while it is unstable for other materials
produced by small-scale industries chiefly because of the uneven development of
production capacity.
On the other hand, the distribution process of building materials is very compli-
cated through multi-stage channel from manufacturers to users, e.g., 3 stages for
cement-asbestos board, plywood, plate glass, and 4 stages for cement and tile,
thus compelling the consumers to bear heavy financial burdens in purchase of
materials paying over 200% margins in some cases.
*Survey made by Korea Industr~al Development Research Institute task group in

October 1974.
J. Housing distribution. Most of the housing transactions are conducted through
the intermediary role of brokers who are called Bok-duk-bang in Korea. Most of the
brokers are aged people, ill-qualified and inexperienced, mostly not fit for any
other productive ~ob.
The related legal codes do not regulate their qualifications and credit standing
thus ma~ing it possible for them to open up shops wit~ simple reports to the
authorities concerned.
They cannot properly assume the role of introducers in view of the fact that they
are not able to ensure the shift of ownership rights i~ the housing transactions.
Quite often they pose serious social problems causing heavy damages to the buyers.
From a sample survey data* in 1974 on the attitudes of customers as to the Bok-duk-
bang, it was disclosed that7B% of the sampled households were very dissatisfied with
the Bok-duk-bang.
As mentioned above, fostering qualified and reliable housing brokers is presented

here as an imminent issue for the development of systematic housing distribution
industry in Korea, and appropriate measures should be taken to make them function
as responsible brokers capable of controlling transfer of ownership rights in housing
transactions and further contribution to the development of sound housing distribu-
tion system.
4. Housing site supply. 3 Major sources of housing sites are the government land
readjustment plan and also the site development project ~ndertaken by KNHC.
This system has played the important role of basic site supply channel as a means of
a new town development project aimed at preventing over~concentration of population
and influx of industrial facilities into big cities.
Another channel of housing site supply, small as it is in size as compared with the
public sources as stated above, is the housing site development activities carried
out by private real estate dealers.
The area of housing sites supplied by the private dealers in Seoul City is dis-
proportionally small compared with the areas supplied by the public institutes, and
moreover, most of the private site supplying enterprises deal in the activities
not as a continuous business but as short term speculations.
A look at the trend of housing site price based on 1967 constant price indicates the
land-pr~ce index of 170.1% which is two-fold higher than the general commodity
wholesale price index of 66.8% as of 1973, and which has played a leading role of
cost push in house production. This fact is reflected by the fact that the pricet
of housing site accounts for 52.5% of the total housing cost excluding design, which
is far higher than 20% in Europe and America, and 50% in Japan.
The elements of l.and-price increase, in general, will be the natural scarcity of

land and the economic safety in possessing land entailing no costs or risk of
losses, however, tne most important factor in the case of Korea may be the practice
of taking land for speculations, and also to some extent the demand supply insta-
bility~ As the land supply especially in big cities tends to be restricted py the
limited availability of apsolute land surface, the price increase seems to be
*Survey made by Lee, T.K., Real Estate Marketing (1974), and sample survey as to
217 sampled households in Seoul.
tJapanese Long-Term Credit Banks, Urban Development and its Precondition, p. 47.
LoW-Cost Housing in Korea 151
inevitably accelerated in the future along with influx of populations and growing
demand for housing sites.
The following are considered the major factors affecting the land supply problems:
(1) Difficulty of land acquisition in large lots due to minor subdivisions of

land ownership;
(2) Limitation of potential residential areas because of the enactment of

Green-Belt decree;
(3) Inefficient utilization of reserved land due to the prevailing land

speculation;
(4) Chronic land price-hike impeding land acquisition for low-income people.
5.4 CASE STUDY ON HOUSING DEVELOPMENT

ImpT'ovement of Rur>al Housing and Living EnviT'onment Through I/Saemaul
Undo ng l/ 7
A. Saemaul undong and its concept

A remarkable improvement in the rural environments and housing sit~ations in recent
years has been made through the nation-wide movement, the 50-called "Saemaul Undong"
(New Community Movement).
The New Community Movement is designed to help villagers create better places to
live by themselves, improving their living environments and boosting their incomes
with the spirit of diligence, self-help and cooperation. The primary emphasis is
placed on the individual person's sense of active affirmation that he is a member
not only of the country but also of his local community. There are three distinct
notions embodied in the movement: (1) spiritual reform movement to practice the
spirit of diligence, self-help and cooperation in order to nurture the progressive
and productive spirit of the nation; (2) social development movement to bring
beneficial cultural change into family life as a basic unit of society; (3) economic
development movement to increase employment opportunities and income.
In early 1970, the President of Korea proposed the Saemaul Movement to prompt moderni-
zation and betterment of rural communities by increasing the income of the farmers
and fishermen. However, since the government was under the heavy burden of the
pressing problems of expediting industrialization of the country when the Saemaul
Movement was introduced in the final year of the Second Five-Year Economic Develop-
ment Plan (1966-1971), no substantial support could be provided for the movement.
B. Government SUppOT't fOT' self-helping village

The government has provided essential construction materials, such as portland
cement and reinforcing bars, to some of development-minded villages for their
effective implementation. This kind of minimum financial support by the government
stimulated the competitive spirit among the villages. The administrative assistance
was given by providing workers for on-site cooperations with the villagers. They
give technical assistance and guidance in the different fields of agriculture,
engineering and construction.
During the first short-term planning period which ends in 1981, the Saemaul prog-
rammes are to be implemented for the community on various levels: local autonomous
bodies and villages. The programmes are formed by Villagers voluntarily and the
plans are communicated to the central government through official channels in a
democratic fashion.
During an experimental stage of the Saemaul Movement in 1970, the government invested
$10 million to provide each of a total 30,000 farming and fishing villages with
335 bags of cement, while the villages contributed with local labor, land lots and
other.expenses. The second stage was implemented in late 1971 with an input of
$7.5 million assistance from the government providing 500 bags of cement and a ton
of steel bars to each of the villages selected to participate in the movement.
These materials were used mainly to improve village feeder roads, lined irrigation
systems, communal wells and laundries, etc. The resulting economic return in the
early stages is estimated at twice the government investment.
The success of these experimental projects during 1970-72 has greatly encouraged
not only the government leaders but also the villagers themselves, enabling them
to undertake the ambitious major goals of the movement. The most significant change
in the improvement of rural housing achieved by the movement was replacenlent of
the traditional straw thatched roofs with cement-asbestos or cement roofing tiles.
In consequence, the time, labor and material straw normally required for annual
replacement thatching are greatly saved. Thus, the labor and conserved straw can
be utilized elsewhere.
c. DeveZopment of the movement

In 1973 all the villages in the rural area of Korea, totaling 34,665, were catego-
rized into three groups based on their development stages: underdeveloped, develo-
ping and developed. The underdeveloped villages are rudimentary ones with no
positive endeavors of inhabitants for the cooperative development of their' community.
The developing villages represent those which are developing with growing efforts
of the villagers under the leadership of Saemaul leaders. The developed villages
are in a satisfactory stage at which the people can develop their village solely
by their own endeavors and enjoy high income in adequate environment.
Development projects are undertaken in accordance with each village'sneed and

capabilities. The projects place emphasis on improving the environment, increasing
employment and income level in rural areas; thrift, helping the neighbors, simpli-
fication of traditional family rites, and modernizing markets in urban areas.
Table 5.8. Development Stage of All Villages.
Stage 1973 1974 1975 1976
Under-
developed 18,415 (53%) 10,656 (30%) 4,046 (11%) 302 (1%)
Developing 13,943 (40%) 13,763 (60~) 20,936 (60%) 19,049 (54%)
Developed 2,307 (7%) 4,246 (10%) 10,049 (29%) 15,680 (45%)
Total 34,665(100%) 34,665(100%) 35,031(100%) 45,031(100%)
D. Effects of SaemauZ ~~~

During the past four years since the movement has started in 1971, the aggregate
total number of participants in the movement in 34,665 villages and 35 cities
totalled to approximately 215 million. The total number of projects completed
during this.period reached 2,897,000 cases. The total projects under this movement
produced an output of 4.6 times as great as the total amount of the government input.
Table 5.9 shows the annual achievements materialized through the Saemaul Undong.
The major items related to betterment of housing and living environment projects
during 1971-76 are summarized in Table 5.10.
Thus, the betterment of rural environment and housing as a foundation for the Saemaul
Movement has been well proved. The roofs and walls of the rural houses, toilets
and barns have been reconditioned. The improvement of farming and village roads
provided rural transportation network which has been a top priority throughout the
whole projects. The construction of rural transportation network spanned for a
linear distance of 42.686 km by 1976, which accounts for 86.8% achievement of the
goal.
The welfare facilities include village assembly halls, public bathrooms, public
washing places, children's parks and play grounds. The establishments recorded ,a
total of 29,752 village halls out of a targeted 35,608 halls, which is 83% of the
target.
Replacement of traditional straw-thatched roofs of 2 million houses by cement tiles

or cement-asbestos corrugated roofings was voluntarily done by villagers, which
accounts for 82% of targeted 43 million roofs.
E. Standard housing oonstruotion projeot for rurat vittages 7

In 1976, the governement, encouraged by the rapidly increasing pace of rural economic
growth, launched a new project to construct standard village housing for farming
families in an annual income bracket of over one million won. This trial project
plan was to construct 680 standard housing units in eight provinces. Of the pro-
jected housing units, 453 were for single separate units and the rest for complex
units in the form of a rearrangement of the existing poor village housing. A
financial support has been given to each unit builders at an amount ranging from
750,000 to 850,000 won depending on the type of housing. The cost of each housing
unit was estimated at 1.1 million won for 15 pyong* (48 m2 ) floor area. Therefore,
each builder could contribute with comparatively small investment of 250-350,000
won. The size of the standard housing units are limited to 15, 18 and 20 pyong
types of floor area in accordance with owners' need and their income levels.
All the necessary building components such as doors, window-frames, roofing materials,
flooring panels were standardized with referenc~ to floor sizes and types of the
units, and manufactured by designated makers and supplied by single channel through
the local government.
The standard-housing construction project initiated in 1976 has been so far success-
ful in terms of construction cost and time taken due to the self-help and coopera-
tive nature of the scheme. The actual cost of a trial housing unit having a floor-
area of 15 pyong exceeded the original estimate of 1.1 million won by 150 thousand
won, however, it still remained competitive against the prevailing level of 1.45
million won. The prototype housing construction needed only 26 days to complete,
which is 11 days less than the average practice in the country. A more striking
effect was that construction of the housinq units required little skill and few
professional builders. This is mainly attributable to the concise guide booklet
"How to Construct Housing Units" issued by the government for the rural housing
builders and also the provision of standardized building components.
*1 pyong is equivalent to approximately 3.3 m2 •

154 Sung Do J~ng and Hang Koo eho
With the success of the 1976 trial project and with the rural ho~sepoldsl positive
response to the scheme, the goverrtmept has set a new target of 100,000 housing units
to be constructed by 1981 with all poss~ble s4~port to rural households.
F. Long-term prospects
The ultimate goal of the Saemau+ Movement is to make the village richer and b~tter.
In the early stages of the ~ovement it was concerned merely with improvement of
liying environment as already started. However, the long-term pl~n looks ahead
toward inc+ease of productivity and income with the Saemaul spirit. The long-term
Saemaul development plan is scheduled as follows:
1971-73 Basic foundation Development of Saemaul spirit

and improvement of the environ-
ment
1974-76 Self-support Fqunqatiqp of the rural stan~ard

productive basg
1977...,81 S.elf-pufficient Expansion of p'~oduction and

income capacity
By 1981 it is planned to raise the average farm ho~sehold income up to 1.4 million
won per annum with additional sources of income derived from off-farm operations.
The Jamsil Lour-Cost liousirlfl Project: View from Financing, Structural,

Design and M~terial Concept
A. Objective
The increasing population in Seoul, as a result of rapid industrialization, is

facing a number of serious problems such as urban sprawl, pollution, and traffic
congestion. From this standpoint, the Jamsil Housing estate is now developing as
one of the suburban centers designed to release the p'0pulation pressure in Seoul.
This hous~ng estate already accommodated a population of over 50,060 by 1975, and
100,000 by 1976, and expects 300,000 by 1980 through continuous development. And
tnis eptate is divided into 15-story-high-rise apartment district of 320 acres, .
medium-rise apartment (4-5 story) district of 416 acres, and single family-housing
dist~iot of 1,037 acres as well as business district of 517 acres and open space
of 185 acres.
One of the serious problems in Seoul is about the settlements developed in a

disorderly manner in the outlying areas of the city by homeless low-income families
and those removed by the redevelopment of urban centers and the slum clearance
projects.
One of the major development objectives of the Jamsil area is to accommodate these
homeless families ~nto this improved living environment. As a matter of fact, of the
total of 19,180 housing units constructed under the 1975 annual housing cQnstruction
program, 8,710 units were allocated for these low-income families. Because the
current prices of those houses commonly bUilt are beyond the reach of the low-income
families, the housing development in the Jamsil area focuses an attention on the
housing size suitable to the home-buying capacity of the low-income families.
Attention is also paid to the use of new materials and construction methods to reduce
Table 5.9. Number of Participating Villages and Projects Accomplished by Years.
Number of No. of No. of Government Village

parti cipaling projects project input output Ratio
Year villages (thousand) per village (billion won) (billion won) output/input
1971 33,267 385 12 4.1 12.2 3.0

1972 22,708 320 14 3.3 31.3 8.8
1973 34,665 (31,641) 1,093 32 21.5 98.4 5.6
1974 34 1 665 (33.513) 1,099 32 30.8 132.8 4.3
1975 36 1 547 (36,341) 1,598 44 165.3 295.9 1.8
1976 36,557 (36,227) 887 24 165.1 322.6 2.0
I-'
U1
U1
......
U1
""
Table 5.10. Major Items of Saemaul Project for Betterment of Housing and Living Environment
Accomplishment
Project Goal
71-75 76' Total
Farming and village roads 75,499 Km 81,120 2,336 83,455
Housing and living environment
Replacement of straw-thatch roofing 2,428,000 Units 1,628,000 360 1,988,000 tJ:l

~
::s
\Q
Standard housing for farming family 100,000 680 680 t:l
0
t.j
Remodification of sewage system 8,654 Km 19,538 1,178 11,716 flJ
::s
\Q
Cultural welfare accommodation pJ
::sp.
Public laundry 71,020 56,162 2,140 58,302
~'
::s
\Q
Sanitary water supply system 27,599 11,235 3,860 15,095
?::
0
Community wells 1;092,000 112,168 955 113,123 0
n
::r
Village hall 35,608 Units 27,051 2,701 29,752 0
Public bathroom 36,143 Units 6,372 251 6,623

construction costs through the results of research activities.
B. Low-cost housing program

Figure 5.2 shows the cumulative relative household distribution by income groups
in Seoul estimated by the Bureau of Statistics of the Economic Planning Board as
of the end of 1975.
C.H.D 100
Rank Monthly income (won) (%)
0-1 29,000 3.8 ~~-

5 ...... ~
+= 80 ,..
0-2 29,000 - 43,500 11.8 .5
~
,..
0-3 43,500 - 58,000 26.7 '6 ,/
u ~
E 60
""
0-4 58,000 -72,500 43.5 I
Ql
0-5 72,500 - 87,000 >
58.1 ~ 44 - - - - - - - -.-r.
~ 40
V
Medicn87,000-101,500 69.4
~ 1/ I
~ ~
0-6 101,500 -116,000 77.0 Cl I
:; / I I
E 20
0-7 116,000-130,500 88.0 ::l / I
U
12 - -- ~
-~ I I
0-8 130,500-145,000 86.9

o
. I
I
I
I
I
I
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
D-9 145,000-159,000 90.0
Monthly income, 1000 won
0-10 159,000- 100
Fig. 5.2. Cumulative Relative Household, Distribution by

Income Group in Seoul (Estimated by EPB/BOS).
The low-cost housing units in the Jamsil area have been decided to house the income
groups falling between D-3 and D-4 in the household distribution shown in this
figure. The household income of these groups mostly range from $90.70 to $150.50
on a monthly average. With this in mind, an attempt was made to estimate and review
the respective optimum housing sizes for the groups of monthly average incomes of
$90.70-$150.50 and the medium value of $119.60 for determining the housing sizes
for the selected groups.
The housing price which a household can afford to pay can be judged through a study
of its repayment capacity of the loan funds now being released to low-income
families and its saving funds can be counted upon for the initial payment. Table
5.11 shows the figures obtained as a result of a study of the housing expenditure
of each household disbursed from 1968 to 1975.
As shown in this table, the housing expenditure accounts for about 17% of the total
income. Table 5.12 shows the figures obtained by breaking down the housing
expenditure.
From this analytical table, an amount equivalent to 20% of their monthly income was
identified as repayment capacity of 'each household for the loan fund.
158 Sung Do Jang and Han~ Koo Cho
Table 5.11. Monthly Income and Housing Expenditure of

Salary and Wage Earners' Households in Seoul.*
Year 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975
(A) Average
monthly
income
(won) 27,110 32,450 38,630 44,400 53,140 56,520 57,520 74,260
(B) Housing
expendi-
ture (won) 4,260 5,540 6,610 7,370 8,860 9,460 9,730 11,210
(B)/(A) (%) 15.'70 11.10 17.10 16.60 16.70 16.70 16.90 15.10
Sources: *Monthly Statistics of Korea, EPB.
Table 5.12. Breakdown of the Housing Expenditures.
Price unit: won
Year 1973 1974 1975
Monthly income 56,520 51,520 74,260

Monthly expenditure 50,710 51,920 67,740
Balance 5,810 (10.3) 5,600 (10.8) 6,520 (8.7)
Room rent 330 (0.6) 660 (1.1) 630 (0.8)

Self-
Items evaluated
of amount 8,020 (14.2) 7,130 (12.4) 6,970 (9.4)
housing Water bill 230 (0.4) 300 (0.5) 290 (0.4)
, expendi- House repair 280 (0.4) 560 (1.0) 620 (0.8)
ture Furniture &
fixtures 600 (1.1) 1,080 (1.9) 2,630 (3.5)
Others 70 (0.1)
Total 9,460 (16.7) 9,730 (16.9) 11,210 (15.1)
Note: Figures in ( ) represent the rate of each item to monthly income

by percent.
The conditions of housing loan funds are an essential factor for deciding the ceiling
of the amount loanable to a household in relation to its monthly repayment capacity.
The housing funds presently available for low-income households are the national
housing funds (repayment in 20 years at 8% per annum) and AID Guaranteed'Loan funds
(repayment in 25 years at 9.4% per annum in the case of the Jamsil project in 1975).
Table 5.13 shows the respective optimum housing sizes estimated for the households
with the monthly average income of 90.70, 119.60 and 150.50 dollars, taking into
account all the said "factors.
Figure 5.3 shows the inter-relations between the income, loan conditions, housing
prices, and housing Size.
Table 5.13. Estimate of Housing Sizes.
Price unit: qollars
Loanable amountt
Annual
repayment AID Housing5 Housing
Monthly capacity* guaranteed Housing* price size
income of loans funds price per m2 rn 2
90.70 217.70 2,057.60 4,115.10 174.90 1 25
119.60 287 2,712.20 5,424.50 174.90 1 33
150.50 361.20 3,413.70 6,827.40 159.30 2 43
Notes: *20% of annual income.

t50% downpayment, repayment in 25 years at 21% per annum.
*Twice loan fund.
§The estimated price per m2 is based on the apartment. Housing
price survey conducted by the Korea National Housing Corporation.
1With central heating system.

2With traditional floor heating system.
4 I 3 25 45
Total amount of loa Housing size,
I
I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 5.3. Inter-relation between Income, Loan Conditions,

Price and Housing Size.
On the basis of the results shown in Table 5.13 and Fig. 5.3 three types of 25, 33
and 43 m2 were selected as the optimum sizes.
Of the scheduled housing units, 13%, or 1,100 units, consists of housing with floor
area of 25 and 33 m2 , and the rest, or 7,610 units, with 43 m2 •
The estimated housing price per m2 set at $159.30 for the average five-person family
with a monthly income of $150.50 was intended to secure the maximum housing size by
installing traditional Korean floor heating system, which is less expensive compared
with central heating system.
The households with a monthly income of over $136 are provided with housings of
43 m2 of floor area mostly on a rental basis since the prospective occupants do not
bear the capacity to purchase the unit at their income levels. The rental housing
units, thus, occupy a large proportion of 53% of the total,7,610 units.
Table 5.14. Renting Conditions of 43 m2 Apartment Housing

Units in Jamsil area.
Unit: dollars
Deposit 824.70
Monthly Includes depreciation costs,
rental 24.70 loan interests, and fire
Renting Monthly insurance premium
conditions charges
Management 4.10 Includes expenses for cleaning
fees common use areas and repairs
Total 28.80
Repayment capacity was set at

21% of the monthly income,
Rent-Payable households must have their including housing repair
monthly income of above $136 costs of the housing expendi-
ture as shown in Table 5.12.
Housing design
Though the housing sizes are decided on the basis of income levels, they appear to
be too small, for living in terms of physiological, social, and psychological,
social, and psychological aspects or amenity.
That is, when estimating the number of persons of a household at three for the 25
and 33 m2 units and five at maximum for the 43 m2 units, the floor space per person
is about 8 m2 , which is far short of the 16 m2 recommended as the generally optimum
unit floor space.
Therefore, 'the first concern in the floor planning was to design the unit in such
a way as to make it expandable when necessary. Taking this into consideration in
designing the apartment units for the low-income groups in Jamsil, the 25 or 33 m2
units were so designed that two units could be united for combined use.
The second concern in the floor-planning was to reduce the area of common use as
much as possible. Generally, most of the apartment housing units under constructil
are so designed that one stairway is open to two households for common use, but,
in the case of small units such as 25 and 33 m2 units, when one stairway is to be
used by two households the ratio of the common use area to the whole unit
area is too large. Therefore, in this planning, stairways are so designed that one
stairway can be commonly shared by four households.
Table 5.15. Comparison of Common Use Areas.
Unit: m2
One stairway One stairway

T~e for two households for four households
by
Size Total area Common use B/A{%} Total area Common use B/A(%}
(A) area (B) (A) area (B)
25 m2 25.3 5.5 21.7 25.3 4.6 18.0
33 m2 32.6 5.6 16.7 32.6 4.6 14.1
43 m2 66.0 5.8 8.8 Not applicable
The third attention was to try to use new types of structure. Table 5.16 shows
a comparison of construction costs in terms of unit m2 price for three types'of
structures; reinforced concrete structure, prefabricated concrete structure, and
masonry structure using sand-lime bricks.
On the basis of this comparison, the 25 and 33 m2 units were designed for sand-lime
brick masonry structure and the 43 m2 units were designed for prefabricated concrete
structure. Figure 5.5 shows a comparison of the conventional construction method
(reinforced concrete structure) with. prefabricated concrete structure in terms of
their construction periods and the'manpower employed for construction. Figure 5.7
shows the assembling drawing for 40 m2 apartment units of prefabricated concrete
structure.
Especially, the masonry structure using sand-lime bricks which was the first attempt
in practice, had to undergo research and study before its designing.
It can be seen from Table 5.16 that the Jamsil apartment housing units consisting of
both the sand-lime brick-masonry structure and the prefabricated concrete structure
represent reduction of construction costs by 2-3% as against the conventional rein-
forced concrete structure.
D. Project evaluation
The result' of sales and the interview survey with homebuyers indicated that the
25 m2 unit was just enough to accommodate a family size of 3 persons.
The typical plan firstly attempted to use one stairway for 4 units, consequently
reduced the common use area but it gave more spacious opening of stairway to users.
The first attempt towards the 5-story-masonry-bearing wall system with sand-lime
bricks saved the construction costs and also seemed successful in regard to its
structure and construction as it was expected.
162 sung Do Jang and Hang Keo Cho
(A) 25M~ TYPE (B) COMBINED OF TWO 25 ~ TYPE
B.R
BAL.
B.R
BAL.
(e) 33 M
2
TYPE (D) 43 ~l TYPE
B.R
B.R
BAl..
B.R B.R
BAL.
tig. 5.4. Unit Plans of Lew-Cost Housing in Jamsil Area
5.5. CURRENT R&D ON LOW-COST HOUSING AND BUILDING MATERIALS

R&D at KIST
Ceramic Materials Laboratory of KIST has long been concerned with research on
utilization of agricultural industrial wastes and by-products for housing materials.
Utilization of such industrial solid wastes and by-products contributes not only
to conservation of natural resources but to reduction of material cost in industrial
LoW-Cost Housing in Korea 163
Table 5.16. Comparison of Construction Costs.
Type Total construc-

by Building costs* tion costs % Saving
size Structure ($/m 2 ) ($/m 2 ) (A-B)/A x 100
Reinforced
concrete (A) 83.40 171.90 3.43
25 m2
Sand-lime
brick
masonry (B) 77.50 166
Reinforced
concrete (A) 76.40 Not available
33 in 2
Sand-lime
brick
masonry (B) 73.60 151
Reinforced
concrete (A) 80.50
40 m2
Prefabricated
concrete (B) 77 147.50 2.31
Note: *Architectural work only
( 0) Comparison of construction c::::::J Traditional method

period E:::::;:::",,:::::}'::::I Hansung tilt-up method
Foundation
work
Structure
work
Finishing
work
Utility
work c::::::
0 I 2 3 4 5 6
Month
Fig. 5.5. Comparison of Construction Period and Men Power.
processing for manufacturing of building materials. Several R&D projects have been
carl:ied out to make use of waste materials for building materials. The waste
materials concerned are blast-furnace slag, coaltail, fly-ash from power plants,
chemical gypsum from fertilizer plant.
The following topics are the summaries of two most significant results obtained from
the R&D projects conducted by the Ceramic Materials Laboratory.
( b) Comparison of c:::::J Structure work

men power mobilized!::::::::::::! Interior and exterior finishing work
c:::::::::J Utiii ty
Traditional
method
(Total
19,500 mondays)
Hansung
tilt-up
method
(Total
14,500 mondays)
o
Fig. 5.6.
1. Slab Panel
2. Wall Panel
3. Landing Place
4. Stair
5. Horizontal Joint
6. Wet Joint & Joint Steel Bar
7. Wet Joint & Main SteElI Bar
8. Slab Joint
9. Slab Hanging Hook
10. Door Frame
11. Ventilation Hole
12. Waterproofing Treatment
Fig. 5.7. Assembling Drawing of Prefabricated Panels.

A. Improvement of sand-lime briok quality

Calcium-silicate bricks have received wide acceptance in many European countries.
A sand-lime brick manufacturing plant has been recently introduced by the KNHC to
supply high quality, low-cost building component to the housing industry in Korea
because of the availability of raw materials with low-fuel requirement. The Korea
Silicate Brick Company has been in production operation since June, 1976. However,
due to different physical and chemical characteristics of the starting materials,
the end-product revealed inferior quality in its compressive strength. Both of the
raw materials, sand and hydrated lime, created many problems in manufacturing pro-
cess such as difficulty in control of moisture content of the mixture and lack of
green strength of compacted pieces for mechanical handling. Particularly, the lack
of fine part in particle-size distribution of the sand-being used adversely affected
the development of strength during autoclaving process. But neither pulverizing
of sand nor transportation of fine sand from a remote deposit proved practical due
to the cost increase of product.
Little work has been done to elucidate the effect of fine mass other than sand on
the compressive strength of calcium silicate brick, although it has been recognized
in general that the addition of fine sand to the lime-sand aggregate admixture
increases the compressive strength.
The primary purpose of this investigation was to identify the problem areas in both
the materials being used and the processing in the manufacturing flow. Then, the
task was given to seek a substitute for fine sand to improve the strength of brick
witl10ut increase of production cost. Many attempts have been made to employ
various inorganic fine aggregates such as blast-furnace slag, diatomaceous silica,
fly-ash, etc., with a view to assisting the manufacture to control the compressive
strength at will depending on specific pose and usage.
Compressive strength alone in this R&D project, however, could not be viewed as the
single improvement factor, since the quality of the bricks is to be optimized in
tenns of their general properties. Consequently, th~ effect of the addition of
finl~s on water absorption, density and apparent porosity of specimens was also
exmnined. This had an additional advantage of observing any correlation between
these properties.
Fly-ash has shown a significant improvement in quality of brick specimens among

var:ious candidate additives through laboratory work. Fly-ash is the principal
waste from burning finely ground coal in steam-generation power station and is
collected as fine dust in cyclones. it has been known that this fine material
possesses pozzolanic reactivities - to combine with lime in the presence of water
to form compounds with cementing properties - suitable for substitution of a frac-
tion of fine sand in aggregate particle size distribution. It has shown that small
fraction of fly-ash addition to sand-lime mixture gave many advantages not only
in improvement of the product quality but in reducing the production cost and
pollution problem.
Fivl~to 30% by weight of fly-ash was added in substitute for commensurate part of
sand in the batch-mix containing lime as shown in Table 5.1. For instance, 10%
addition of fly-ash to the sand-lime mix showed significant improvement in various
properties of sample specimens having a size of 6 cm cube which have been compacted
at a pressure of 210 kg/cm 2 in a steel mOUld. Then the green specimens were
autoclaved at 16 kg/cm 2 of steam pressure for 6 hours. The result has shown that
a small addition of fly-ash to the batch-mix greatly improved both compressive
strength and water absorption of the brick specimens.
The cost of hydrated lime amounts to approximately one-half the total production
cost of sand-lime brick. Thus, the amount of lime to be blended with sand is
directly related to the production cost.
Fly-ash can be supplied from a power station within a city boundary. Therefore,
the transportation cost of the fly-ash to the brick plant could be minimized and
the price of fly-ash per unit weight is almost negligible as compared with that
of hydrated lime supplied from remote points.
AssUming sand-lime brick requires a fixed compressive strength of 350 kg/cm 2 , the
batch mix should contain 14% of lime and 20% of finely ground sand if fly-ash is
not used under the current manufacturing condition. However, a 5% of fly-ash addi-
tion to the raw-batch mix could reduce the necessary lime by 4% in order to maintain
the same strength. Based on this configuration, the production cost would reflect
a 10% reduction.
B. Utilization of blast-furnace slag for building materials

The Pohang Iron and Steel Company (POSCO) is one of the largest steel-making plants
with present annual production capacity of 2.6 million tons which will be further
expanded to 8.5 million tons by 1981. Blast-furnace slag is presently produced in
a quantity of nearly 0.8 million tons each year from POSCO alone and it is expected
to reach to 3 million tons per year in 1982. Therefore,_the solid-waste treatment
has emerged as a growing problem in the country. The object of this work was,
therefore, to develop slag-lime brick as a bUilding component. Slag-lime bricks
are similar to sand-lime bricks in process and properties which are widely used in
many countries.
Blast-furnace slag is a by-product of steel mill, and is obtained by cooling or

quenching the molten mass consisting of the earthy constituents of iron-ore and
limestone. The essential components of slag are the same oxides as in the portland
cement, such as Si0 2 , A1203, CaO, MgO, and Fe203 but in varying proportions.
The process of water granulation of slag yielded a material which, when mixed with
lime, developed good cementing properties. Slag has already found considerable use
in road construction and building industries mostly as an aggregate in concrete,
slag-cement, and in the manufacture of slag wool.
The cause of the hydraulic activity of slag and its relation to the chemical compo-
sition and physical state of slag were studied extensively in the past. 10 It is
found that hydrated lime reacts with sand and/or slag granules under the presence
of high-pressure steam resulting in development of very high strength in the compacted
mixture. For a given value of compressive strength, batch-mixes containing sand
and slag required less amount of lime than in ~he conventional sand-lime bricks.
Several batches were prepared by varying the mixing ratio of lime/sand/water-quenched

slag or of lime/air-quenched slag/water-quenched slag with wide variety of particle-
size distributions. The batch-mixes were compacted into a cube having one side of
6 cm at pressure of approximately 200 kg/cm L • The compacted pieces were, then,
autoclaved at steam pressure of 16 atms for 6 hours. .
Some of the experimental results showed 300-400 kg/cm 2 in compressive strength with
11-12% of water absorption.
It seems to be quite promising to utilize blast-furnace slag for industrialization

of building components such as bricks and blocks with high strength characteristics
and price competitiveness against other similar products.
The present results obtained by laboratory scale operation are still in the
preliminary stage but the plant will be designed for mass production of these
components in the near future.
R&D at KNHC and Other Institutes

A. Development of industrialized housing units
Housing cost can be reduced to some extent by rationalizing the whole production
process from housing-planning, design, material delivery, and to construction. But
there is still another aspect of housing cost reduction which is through an assembly-
line operation from the plant to the construction site thereby saving time and
labor in the interest of quality mass production. For the latter case, it requires
the housing production to be industrialized with the system of prefabrication. Prior
to this, there is a need to have standards; .such as the minimum space standards,
performance standards of building components and the basic or planning modules.
Studies on establishment of modules in Korea have been carried out mainly by four
institutes: MOST (Ministry of Science and Technology), MOC (Ministry of Construction) ,
AIK (Architectural Institute of Korea) and Housing Research Institute of KNHC (Korea
National Housing Corporation) •
The Korean Standards(KS) has already introduced the modules for industrial use,
the basic of which is IM equivalent to 10 cm, and planning modules are 3M horizon-
tally and 2M vertically. Studies on the minimum space standards for low-cost
housing have been carried out by such institutes as MOC and Housing Research Institute
of :<NHC for the last several years.
It is expected that such minimum space standards will soon come out from MOC and
AIK. One of the most urgent and important studies on standardization of opening
siz,~ was already introduced as the Korean Standards by the efforts of MOD, AID
and KNHC.
Basic dimensions for brick and block are standardized in accordance with 2M and 3M
respectively. And it is hoped that various components with modular dimensions will
be developed continuously. Studies on prefabricated housing have been mainly carried
. out by KNHC and other private companies. And as a result, tilt-up prefabricated
construction method was applied to 5-story-walk-up apartments by KNHC up to present,
a~9.about 11,500 dwelling units have been constructed by this method. At the same
time, numerous types of prefabricated single-detached houses for both urban and
rural areas have been tried out by private companies.
B. Prefabricated single detached house

In 1976, MOC established the prefabricated rural-housing plan under which numerous
studies are now in progress and some private firms have actually developed produc-
tion schemes. The following are those typical examples made by private firms.
Table 5.17. Prefabricated rural house - Production scheme by Urim
Concrete Co., Ltd.
(a) Type of house:
No. of Rooms
40 2 - bedroom, l-liv. room, l-kit.

50 3 - bedroom, l-liv. room, l-kit.
60 4 - bedroom, l-liv. room, l-kit, l-storage.
(b) Materials used for the structure:
Classification Materials Remarks
Foundation To be prefabricated
wall Precast concrete thickness: 100-150 rom
panel
Roof Pitched roof
(c) Comparison of characteristics of systems:
Compressive Cost per m2

Construction Labor strength of for 60 m2 - floor
System period requirement . wall com- area.* (in dollars)
(in days) (in persons) ponents
(in kg/cm 2 )
Prefabricated 15-20 100-150 210 73.60

Conventional 50-60 200-250 40-60
(cement bricks
or hollow
blocks)
* Cost based on the following evaluation:
Precast panel $ 1,937

Transportation and erection 303
Others 2,140
TOTAL $ 4,380/60 m2
Elevation
Bed rm.
(ondol)
Bed rm. Bed rm.

(andoD (ondol)
o 23M
2
Plan (floor area 51.4 M )
I Roof panel
2 PC girder
3 Sandwich wall panel
4 FC cone. strip foundation
Isometric view of URIM prefab system
Fig. 5.8. URIM Housing System.

TABLE 5.18. Prefabricated Rural House - Production Scheme

by Ssangyong Cement Industrial Co., Ltd.
(a) Type of house by size: 40 m2 , 50 m2 , and 60 m2 ;
(b) Materials used for the structure:
Classification Materials
foundation in situ concrete
wall light-weight precast concrete

panel for curtain wall
roof asbestos slate on light-weight

precast concrete
(c) Physical characteristics of light-weight concrete:
Bulk density 1.20 + 0.15
Compressive strength at 4 weeks 60 kg/cm 2
Young's modulus 2.10 x 10'+
Thermal conductivity 0.245 kcal/mh° c
(d) Unit cost per m2 for 60m 2 - floor area: $90.50*
*cost based on the following evaluation:
precast panel and other components $1,640

transport, erection and finishing 2,981
contingency (20%) 845
Total $5,376/60 m2
I.Concrete strip foundation

2. PC column
3. Light weight foamed concrete panel
4. Floor
5. PC girder
6. RC truss rafter
7. Steel reinforcement
8. Light weight foamed concrete roof panel
9.. Asbestos roof tile
10. Ondol block
Fig. 5.9. Ssangyong Housing System.

5.6. FUTURE PROSPECTS

R&D on Housing Units and Relevant ~ojects for Future
A. R&D proposal - KNHC
The Korea National Housing Corporation has been identifying various problem areas
through the past experience in housing plannings and implementations. The following
R&D projects are directed towards finding early solutions to the problems prior to
implementation of consecutive construction project in future:
1. Prototype low-cost housing for rural villages. The objective of this project,
in a branch of the Saemaul Movement, is to develop low-cost housing units on a
prevailing rural standard. This project is concerned with maximum utilization of
local indigenous materials and self-help construction skill. The research will be
collaborated with a KIST group.
R&D on Manufacturing of Glass-Ceramic Building Materials from Iron-Steel

Slags
B. R&D proposal - KIST
The use of metallurgical slag as a raw material for the production of crystallized
glass (or glass-ceramics) was intensively investigated by many Russian researchers
during the past decades. Their research result has already been carried to a level
of mass production of the glass-ceramics known as SLAG-SITALL. 11
The proposed project is derived from the research work to the manufacturing technology
for glass-ceramic materials similar to the slag-sitall developed by the Russians.
In-country Information Exchange System

It has been recognized for many years by various agencies, institutions and con-
struction firms engaged in low-cost housing projects that a foundation of in-country
information linkage system and an efficient operation of such a system is a vital
necessity to help their activities. The Korea Institute of Science and Technology
(KIST) has been participating in the "Low-Cost Housing Technology Project" sponsored
by the Technology and Development Institute (TDI) of East-West Center and its
cooperating network countries. Consequently, an in-country linkage was formed by
collaborative effort of KIST and KNHC through the Roving Workshop II on Low-Cost
Housing Technology in 1975. The necessity of expansion of this embryonic in-country
linkage was realized by many other R&D institutes within the country.
In order to understand the complex nature of low-cost housing problems and in the
interest of mutual exchange of relevant information, experiences and results of R&D,
the in-country information network is planned to be organized with following
institutions:
A. International exchange of information

The KNHC functions as the information center in cooperation with 48 institutions in
20 countries and international organizations •
•The KNHC will present the research papers on low-cost housing at request from foreign
countries.
Table 5.19. Network Institutes and Information Source
Network institutes Relevant information source
Korea National Housing Corp. (Center) Materials, technology, design, policy,

statistics
Korea Institute of Science and Materials, energy, transportation,

Technology environment, computer application
Korea Scientific and Technology U) Current contents of domestic journals

Information Center in science and technology;
~) Current contents of foreign journals;
(3) Documentations and information; and
(4) Technology information.
Korean Standard Research Institute Korean standardization of bUilding

components and material
Korea National Construction Testing materials, standard design,

Research Institute structure and construction methods
Korea Development Institute R&D papers, research papers, site

plannings
Architectural Institute of Korea R&D papers, rationalized materials, design
Institutions in Universities and Urbanization, population policy, financing,

Colleges, Government Agencies, statistics, environment, etc.
Private Organizations and Others
B. Future pZanning of information center

In order to overcome the limitation of manual information processing and to reach
the level of information service system in developed countries, KNHC will have a
computer laboratory to introduce an automatic information processing and to develop
it into a world-wide model of information linkage system.
Future Housing Situation in KOrea

By the successive economic development plans, Korea is achieving a remarkable level
of economic growth. It is expected that the GNP will expand at an average annual
growth rate of 9% during the Fourth Five-Year Plan period (1977-81). Government
convinces that per capita GNP will be raised from $532 in 1975 to $1,284 in 1981.
The total national investment will be increased by 52% from $23.6 billion of the
Third Five-Year Plan period to $36.5 billion for the Fourth Five-Year Plan period,
of which the social development sector; i.e., education and manpower development,
health, housing, water and sewerage facilities shares 21%.
A total of $5.2 billion will be devoted to the housing component. This is more than
three-quarters of the investment required for the social development sector.
Sources
Patents, reports, specifications, indexes, abstracts, catalogue,

books,machine readable data basis etc.
Foreign information center

TOI (EW.C.)
AIT (Thailand l
ITS (Indonesia)
OBR/RHC (Indonesia)
U.P (Phillipines)
MSU (Phillipines)
SERC (India)
CS!R (India)
UNEP
UNOP
UNIOO U.N.
ILO
etc.
Fig. 5.10. Information Network System.
The Government has proposed some 1.3 million dwelling units to be built by both
public and private sectors during the Fourth Five-Year Plan period to reduce the
country's housing shortage from the present 26-20i in 1981.
Following Table 5.20 shows the total investment outlay for housing during the
Fourth Five-Year Plan period. The investment in housing consists of 3.84% of the
GNP.
It must be noted that the Government has now turned its development policy towards
one more concentrating on housing not like those set but in the foregoing three
Five-Year Economic Development Plan.
By this faVorable situation, it is evident that the housing problem will be reduced
to some extent as shown in the table, but the problem will remain stili serious as
long as a rapid urbanization is taking place at the present pace in this country.
Table 5.20. Investment in Housing, 1977-1981.
Unit: billion won at 1977 market price
Outlay
Sector Construction unit in 1,000 In billion won Percentage
Public 512 600.3 22.7

Private 818 2,040.2 77.3
,+,otal 1,330 2,640.5 100.0
Table 5.21. Housing Situation betw~en 1975 and 1981.
Classification 1975 1981
No. of housing stock (in thousand unit) 4,825 6,016
No. of dwelling units to be constructed

yearly (in thousand unit) 180 320
P(3P capita floor area (in pyong) 3 3.22
No. of construction units (per 1,000 persons) 5.1 8.2
KEFERENCES
1. Paik, Y. H., Housing Situation and Development Policy in Kopea, presented at

the Roving Workshop II (Korea Phase) on Low-Cost Hou~ing Technology, Seoul,
Korea, Oct. 1975.
2. The Korea Housing Bank, 9th Annual Repopt, 1975, Seoul, Korea.
3. Study 'on Raising of Housing Funds and Housing Financing System (Summary),
1976, Korea Housing Corporation, Seoul, Korea.
4. Housing Annual Report, 1975, Korea National Housing Corporation, Seoul, Korea.
5. Study on Housing Policy Formulation, Dec. 1974, Korea Industrial Development
Research Institute, Seoul, korea.
6. Kopea Housing Policy and Long-Tepm Housing Constpuction Plan (Draft), March 1975,
Ministry of Construction, Seoul, Korea.
7. Monthly Economic Statistics, Vol. 30, Oct. 1976, The Bank of Korea.
8. '~aemaul Undong" - fpom beginning to ppesent, 1976, Ministry of Home Affairs.
9. Kim, H. K., Socio-Economic Considepations in Low-Cost Housing with Refepences
to Kopea, presented at the Roving Workshop II (Korea Phase) on Low-Cost Housing
Technology, Seoul, Korea, Oct. 1975.
10. F. M. Lea, The Chemistpy of Cement and Concrete, Third Edition, Chemical Publi-
shing Company, 1971, pp. 454-489.
11. Pincus, A.G., Soviet Building with Slag Sitall, The Glass ~ndustry, pp. 6-32,
Jan. 1972.
6
LOW-COST HOUSING IN HAWAII
David C. Firth
6.1 INTRODUCTION
As of October, 1976, Hawaii's housing situation is rapidly evolving into a "have or
have not" proposition. Those who cannot afford to purchase housing are frozen out
of the market, and there is little hope that the situation will improve. The source
of the problem is that as much as 85% of Hawaii's population is priced out of the
housing market, i.e., during 1975 less than 15% of all families on Oahu earned
enough to qualify for a conventional loan that would buy a median-priced ($60,000)
condominium (and the figure is 10% for a single-family home) •
Low-cost housing in Hawaii is virtually non-existent. In 1970 the MKGKY Study for
the Hawaii Housing Authority concluded that 50,000' low and moderate income units
were needed state-wide at that time. By January 1977, 80,000 total units had been
built, mostly by private industry. So the availability and quality of housing had
"improved significantly" according to official sources.
However, since 1970, housing prices (85%) have increased at more than twice the
rate of family income (34%). Thus, while we have 80,000 more units we also have:
(a) Fewer people able to afford housing;
(b) Higher vacancy rates;
(c) No appreciable increase over the original estimate of needed low and
moderate income housing units;
(d) A lesson learned - "more " is not necessarily "better".
Government housing agencies in Hawaii have yet to demonstrate the capability to

provide housing in large volume, especially low-income housing. We should not expect
them to. Among others, the public sector is faced with the following trends and
constraints: costs and inflation spiral upward while public revenue does not increase
concomitantly; existing housing appreciates in value rather than filtering down;
housing is not delivered according to consumer need and preference; public programs
cannot effectively subsidize low-cost housing in volume; and, government programs
tend to squander available community resources that could be an asset to any housing
program.
177
178 David C. Firth
Government agencies have traditionally been the scape-goat for our housing woes.
They are certainly an easy target for critics to hit. Yet government, with all of
its constraints, probably produces housing at its optimum level.
Maybe we need to take an overdue look at a major, yet neglected factor in the housing
problem ~ that of the public's tastes. We live in a highly consumption-oriented
society where the "American Dream" has evolved into the equivalent of a $100,000
house. We have many families of four living in five and six bedroom houses. Our
tastes and preferences are galloping ahead of our financial capability. Now we
are going to have to adjust to the fact that the harsh economic reality of our
time will no longer permit our reach to exceed our grasp, at least not if we really
want to own housing.
The only example of low-cost housing ($8,000-$20,000) being developed is done by

individuals on their own initiative, and by private non-profit agencies. During
1976, 1,326 units were built in this one-to-one manner, according to statistics
fr0m the Honolulu Building Department. While this number does not make a significant
impact on Hawaii's total low-cost housing need, it does compar~ favorably with the
total units of housing built by the public sector.
One major reasOn for this phenomenon is simply that it is cheaper to build housing
than to buy housing, especially if part of the construction is self-help. Thus,
th~re is low cost housing built, on a modest scale, by individuals on their own.
There are housing organizations which provide one-to-one technical assistance in
the development of housing, especiqlly self-help. But these organizations are
severely handicapped by a lack of funding, and by the absence of institutional
support from the public sector.
A brief look at the recent evolution of housing would be instructive to determine

how we have reached our current housing dilemma. Past policy has been one of rapid
economic development, in that attempts were made to raise the level of population,
employmeht, business activity, and construction. During the 60s this poliCy was
beneficial ~ today, however, it is catastrophic. Our limits to growth are emerging
~ population, energy, natural resources and pollution are particular areas of
concern. We behave as if the limits of our environment were endless.
Between how and the year 2000 we will be an island system which is going to be under
great strain. Our present annual growth rate of 2.3% exceeds the environmental
capacity of the state. As this trend continues, adjustments to our way of life are
going to be forced upon us.
It is important to realize that nobody makes policy - the clirrent situation dictates
housing policy to US and we simply adjust to it. One of the adjustments that we
are going to make is to realize that things a~e not going to improve unless we get
ihnovative in a hurry. We need to develop new alterrtatives and prod the "system"
with them. In particular; we need to examine housing with a new perception as a
social problem~ not as a physical one.
Nevertheless, we Can see several trends and factors which are going to influence
our future housing delivery system. Public outcry will dictate that we change our
p~esent unilateral housing delivery process. There will be more needs assessment
and input frdm the local community. We will make more use of community resources,
both physical artdhuman, and we will emphasize what to build and for whom to build.
We will see more "shell" structures built at low cost. We will see more innovative
financing methods. We will see a dramatic reduction in the dollar level of housing
demand - personal tastes will change, from highly-consumptive to more self-sufficient.
Ultimately, in the final analysis, we are going to build less and use less.
Low-Cost Housing in Hawaii 179
6.2 OVERVIEW
The basic housing problem in Hawaii is no different from elsewhere in the world -
the average person simply cannot afford to pay for basic housing needs. While the
cause of this global problem may vary somewhat from country to country, the result
is the same. People cannot afford, for whatever reason, to purchase housing that
is adequate to meet their needs. Therefore, it is useful to analyze the experience
of areas where industrialization and technology of housing are considerably advanced,
such as Europe, Japan, and North America (especially Hawaii), in order to determine
not only to what extent housing technology is applicable, but what the social,
political, and economic constraints have been, how the market has been aggregated,
and how the whole process has been organized and managed.
Housing delivery in Hawaii has always been a market function, i.e., private
developers have built and marketed only what they could sell, while national and
local government have made relatively little effort to enter the housing field.
People with a need for housing have had one basic option: purchase housing at the
"fair market value", or rent housing. Over the past 15 years, rising income, coupled
with rapid population growth and spiraling inflation, have combined to triple and,
in some cases, quadruple the cost of housing. New development has proceeded with
the assumption that the market demand for new housing would continue unchecked.
The recession, which began in earnest in 1974, caught everyone by surprise. Sources
of conventional funding dried-up and interest rates soared. New house prices and
interest rates froze an estimated 85% of Hawaii's homeowners out of the market.
While owner-occupants were hurt, it was the investor who received the most damage
from the recession.
Hawaii has always been heavily dependent upon the investor and speculator for housing
construction. In the market function, the investor has been the guarantor of funding
for new housing development (estimates are that over half of Hawaii's housing is
owned by other than occupants), i.e., the investor purchases new housing before it
is physically constructed and subsequently rents or offers the unit for resale. How-
ever, the recession made it difficult for the investor to get money, except at huge
interest rates. The end result was that the investor got scared, and felt that the
effective demand for housing was not as great as it had been earlier.
This role of the investor is pivotal in supporting Hawaii's real estate industry.
Investors buy condominiums, and condominiums add many units at once to the housing
stock. Housing demand decreased after the recession, i.e., in early 1976 vaCant units
(mostly condominiums) totalled 14,300 out of a total condominium inventory of
approximately 210,000. Investors withdrew from condominiums which resulted in an
overall slump in the total housing market. Developers of new housing refused to
risk new construction until existing housing was sold, and banks and other:E:Lnancial
institutions started to more carefully scrutinize new housing proposals.
It is interesting to note that between 1974 and 1975 building permits for single-
family housing construction dropped 32% but multi-family units, especially condomi-
niums, dropped 62%. For the first quarter of 1976, building permits for single-
family,housing are on the upswing while the multi-family trend continues (off 51%).1
Thus, there is a rather large housing surplus at present, and it appears that the
market is improving. Honolulu County officials estimate that within a year the
housing surplus will be reduced to manageable proportions - three units are being
sold for each unit that is being built.
While it is difficult to determine the new housing development pattern at this time,
there are certain trends that are emerging. For example, while buyers and investors
are entering the market, fringe and low-financed developers are being phased-out by
lenders who got hurt during the recession. Currently, both the rental and resale
180 David C. Firth
markets are weak, i.e., investors with small amounts of capital tied-up in a project
are simply withdrawing. In addition, with more mortgage money available and at lower
interest rates, buyers are more particular about the type of housing that they want.
When prices of condominiums and single-family units become comparable there is an
overwhelming trend toward the purchase of single-family homes. The reasons for this
phenomenon are unclear - however, it does appear that, at comparable prices, people
of all income levels would rather have a yard than communal amenities.
For the low income people of Hawaii there is virtually no hope for adequate housing,
other than rental units. Home ownership is an impossibility. The low income folks
are simply priced out of the market.
Housing in Hawaii does not filter down - instead it appreciates. The sole source
of subsidized housing programs for the low income is through federal and/or local
government housing agencies. Chief among these is the Hawaii Housing Authority,
the state housing agency. Since 1970, when Act 105 was adopted, the State has
attempted to work with private developers to create home ownership and rental plans
for low income people. As of June 1976, the HHA had completed over 4,300 units
with an additional 2,000 under construction. At the start of 1976, almost 800
units of HHA-built housing were vacant, although the total is presently substantially
less. While there are no doubt many reasons to account for this high vacancy rate,
probably the chief reason is cost: the average unit of "low cost housing" for low
income people sells at over $30,000. Low income people obviously cannot afford to
pay this price. As a result, the State has quit trying to build low cost housing
and has turned its attention to providing housing for the "gap group" (those people wi tr
a gross annual income between $12,000-$20,000) •
6.3 DEMOGRAPHICS
The Hawaii Housing Authority estimated in 1970 that there was a need at that time
for over 50,000 units of low and moderate income housing throughout the State.
Between 1970 and the end of 1976 over 80,000 total housing units have been built,2
very few of which have been low and moderate income units (largely due to L~e fact
that the price of a single-family unit rose at more than twice the rate of average
family income during this period). By and large, the inability to construct and
market low and moderate-income housing has been the result of economic constraints,
rather than a failure to recognize the need for low-cost housing.
While statistics which officially define income levels into "low", "moderate", and
"upper" are open to interpretation, there are almost 89,000 people who receive some
form of public assistance at a total cost of approximately $4,260,000 per month. 3
Thus, it would be reasonable to suggest that there are at least 89,000 low or
moderate-income people out of a total state-wide population of over 750,000. Many
of these people (and there are probably many more) live in dilapidated, overcrowded,
costly, and otherwise substandard or inadequate housing. Furthermore, the cost of
housing constitutes approximately 45% of all public assistance expenditures. The
Office of Research and Statistics at the Department of Social Services and Housing
estimates that a total of $32.3 million was allocated for housing costs during
Fiscal Year 1973.
Housing is one of the most neglected social problems in the State of Hawaii. The
demand for adequate low cost housing has outraced the' supply and the shortage is
increasing. In short, the housing problem is getting worse and not very much is
being done about it. Population projections are alarming, especially in light of
the fact that the State cannot keep pace with the present need. Recent projections
by the United States Bureau of Economic Analysis anticipates that a state-wide
growth (exclusive of Navy crews) to a population of 886,100 in 1980, 1,030,500 in
1990, and 1,178,000 in 2000 will take place. The Honolulu City and County General
Plan projects a population of one million on Oahu by the year 2000. These projec-
tions carry significant implications for persons concerned with Hawaii's housing
shortage. They indicate that new residential development will find it difficult
just to keep up with the current growth, much less catch up with existing deficiencies.
According to the 1970 Census there are 730,095 people living in households through-
out the State. Home ownership rates have always been low but are increasing signifi-
cantly:
Percent of Housing units Occupied by Owners
1910 - 13.0 1960 - 41.1

1940 - 25.4 1970 - 46.9
According to the Census, in 1970 only 5.6% of all units (approximately 10,000) lacked
some or all plumbing facilities. It may be useful to note that the traditional
definition of "substandard" housing is in terms of minimum quality based upon two
aspects - the presence or absence of certain plumbing facilities such as hot and
cold running water, tub/shower, and flush toilet - and the structural condition,
which is either sound or dilapidated. The classic comment on the limited character
of this definition is that "a nearly weathertight box with pipes in it" constitutes
a "standard" house. My conclusion is,that there are considerably more than 10,000
substandard unites throughout the State because the importance of plumbing in this
definition has virtually assured the elimination of "substandard" housing from the
statistics by making it identical with the spread of tubs and toilets.
Of this 5.6% figure, only 3.3% of the units on Oahu lacked some or all plumbing
facilities; however, 15% of all housing on the more rural Neighbor Islands lacked
some or all plumbing facilities. This figure is particularly alarming since, as
noted above, there may very well be a much larger number of houses which are indeed
"substandard".
Greater attention has been focused recently on "crowding" in housing. It has become
accepted that an average of more than one person per room in a housing unit is
undesirable and reflects need. According to the 1970 Census, approximately 20% of
all occupied units in the State had 1.01 or more persons per room, with the median
number of rooms in single-family structures being 4.6. Geographically, the areas
with the highest percentage of overcrowding were: Nanakuli - 47% overcrowded; Laie
- 44%; Waimanalo - 39.4%; and Hauula - 39.3%. All of these areas share a common
high percentage of low income residents.
The cost of housing is extremely high. The median value of owner-occupied units
in 1970 was $35,100 state-wide. Of this total, Honolulu showed a median value of
$43,200; Oahu - $38,100; and the Neighbor Islands - $24,600. 'vacancy rates were
low. Over the last ten years housing costs have increased more rapidly than incomes.
At the end of 1971 the construction cost per square foot in Hawaii was $21.88 whereas
the U.S. national average was $15.27. Furthermore, new homes insured under FHA Section
203 loans, as of December 1971, averaged $45,048 for Hawaii as compared to a national
average of $24,749.
The minimum standard continues, however, to be a limited one and to ignore the major
aspect of the problem - the relationship of housing costs to ability to pay. Federal
housing programs recognize, if the statistics do not always, that a household paying
an unusually high (over 25%) percentage of its income for housing which may meet
other minimum standards still represents a need for assistance. .In general, the
ratio of housing costs to ability to pay exhibits a regressive pattern. FHA borrowers
with incomes of $7,000 or less are likely to pay 30% or more of that income for
182 David C. Firth
housing, while those with incomes of $14,000 and above are likely to have housing
costs which do not exceed 20% of their income. 4 By this definition, indications
are that the number of households which cannot afford housing of average quality
without devoting too large a share of their income to its cost may be 3-5 times as
high as the number currently living in substandard or overcrowded units.
As noted earlier in this section, a study by Daly & Associates revealed that since
1970, single-family housing prices have increased by 85% while average household
income has gone up by only 34%. While 80,000 units have been constructed state-wide
during the past seven years, much of this housing has been priced beyond the means
of the average person. At present, as much as 85% of the total population of the
State of Hawaii cannot afford the type of housing that they want, where they want
it, without devoting an excessive amount of their income toward obtaining it.
Statistics suggest that a substantial number of people in Hawaii - particularly those
with low or moderate income - are affected by the housing situation.
Changes in Hawaii's Housing Supply. 1975-76

A survey of changes in Hawaii's housing inventory during the twelve month period
ended on March 31, 1976 reveals the following highlights:
(a) The number,of housing units in the State increased by 9,449, bringing the
total to 270,646; 1..-..
(b) Net increase on Oahu amounted to 6,241 housing units, raising the inventory
to 214,078 units by April 1, 1976;
(c) Net additions to the inventory were well below the record numbers (10,500
for the State) reported for 1974-75;
(d) Private housing increased at a somewhat more rapid rate than housing units
under government control. 5
The net changes indicated by the above data were reduced by adjustment factors to
allow for structures authorized but neyer built, units intended for non-resident
occupancy, and unreported demolitions. Data on authorized additions to and deletions
from the housing stock tend to overstate net growth to a significant degree. Past
experience indicates that demolitions are generally under-reported and that many
building permits are left unused. Actual net increase amounted to only 64.5% of
authorized net growth between 1960 and 1970. 6
Statistics compiled by the Hawaii Housing Authority, while limited to lower-income

families, show that vacancy rates are higher and turnover is increasing slightly.
The number of families applying for housing on Oahu dropped from 5,655 in 1974 to
3,970 in 1975 on the HHA Listing. There were 4,217 on the HHA Oahu waiting list
at the end of 1974 and only 3,291 a year later. Annual turnover on Oahu amounted
to 665 (out of 4,532) in 1975. Thus, housing is becoming more readily available,
to at least some extent - although not necessarily at prices easily paid by most
Island households. (More extensive coverage of housing costs can be found in the
Appendix.)
One of the more str~king features of recent residential construction in Hawaii has
been the high proportion of units in high-rise structures. Hawaii is increasingly
growing upward, rather than outward, as land use becomes more intense. As a result,
elevators have become one of the most common forms of transportation in the Islands.
The number of Honolulu housing units in structures with four or more floors rose
from 1,728 (or 2.1% of the inventory) in 1960 to 15,413 (or 15%) in 1970. For all
Oahu, 9.3% of the housing inventory in 1970 was in structures with four or more
floors. This total has no doubt increased dramatically between 1970 and 1977, due
to the recent proliferation of condominium construction.
6.4 FACTORS
The Hawaii Housing Authority estimates that there is a need for at least 82,000
total housing units throughout the state between 1977 and 1985. At present, the
City and County of Honolulu indicates a housing need, at all income levels, of
5,300-9,200 dwelling units per year through 1985. There are other estimates of
Hawaii's total housing need - suffice it to say that a total of 82,000 units may
be a bare minimum of housing units needed at this time. The factors involved in this
production of housing can be reduced, at the risk of oversimplificati01, to the
following: land, labor, technology, and financing.
Land and construction costs are the major drawbacks preventing private agencies and
firms from having a significant impact on the housing problem. No Sta:e agency, or
other public organization, exists which could comprehensively acquire Land, hire
architects and planners, choose builders and developers, arrange subsidies, issue
building permits, override zoning and building codes, make mortgage lo,ins, conduct
closings, and perform related services including advancing front money for these
purposes. Furthermore, there is no public agency which works with, and is responsive
to, the low income people who are most adversely affected by the housi:lg shortage.
While Act 105 gives the Hawaii Housing Authority the power to go into joint ventures
with private horne builders, the cost is prohibitive (HHA estimates tha: the cost of
their typical three bedroom house is approximately $31,000). Private Lndustry is not
eager to enter into joint ventures with the State because private indu3try will
build and market only what it can sell. Private developers have a jus':ified fear
of a low profit margin and government red tape. In short, the profit:actors dis-
courage private developers.
Families, especially those of low and moderate income, cannot obtain m<)rtgage money
from banks and savings and loans because lenders insist that the borro'ver be a "good"
credit risk. Low and moderate income people in particular are conside:~ed to be poor
credit risks unless there is some agency available to guarantee the loan. Therefore,
a valid sentiment is expressed by many local housing experts who concede that there
is really no such thing as "low-cost housing".
Land
Between 1950 and 1975 land on the island of Oahu increased in price a~)roximately
16 times while residents' personal incomes went up only 4.2 times. On a Statewide
basis, land prices increased 17 times. The end result is that people are increa-
singly less able to pay for the land on which they live. Consequently. housing
development is largely stymied due to the high cost of fee simple land.
Nor is leasehold land exempt from high cost. There has been a great d(~al of contro-
versy recently over fair return on the value of leasehold land that is paid in rent
by residential leaseholders. This controversy has created a furor tha: in some
quarters has resulted in a cry for land reform, specifically, the convnrsion of
leasehold land held by Hawaii's estates and trusts into fee simple land at a fair
market value. The basis of this controversy is the fact that 34% of the living
units on Oahu are on leasehold land. Furthermore, the number of units on leasehold
land has increased five times since 1960 while the number of units on ::ee simple
184 David C. Firth
land has increased only 1.6 times. In addition, the 1975 tax appraisal increased
the value of the land and lowered the value of the houses, which adversely affected
the resale market. Therefore, an owner pays more when buying the land while
getting less when selling the house.
While land reform on a massive scale appears to be somewhere in the future (if it
happens at all), some of the larger trusts have agreed to sell certain parcels of
land in fee simple. It remains to be seen what effect this action is going to have
on future land values. It may increase speculation and sales. Or it may result
in owners not being able to afford to sell their homes.
Yet the fact remains that the high cost of land is the single crucial deterrent to
the construction of housing. Land is not yet readily available from Hawaii's estates
and trusts, and escalating land values lead current landowners to hold what they
own on the assumption that their land will steadily appreciate in value. While it
may be cheaper to build new housing, rather than buy new housing, the average resi-
dent still cannot afford to purchase land. The price that one must pay for fee
simple land is simply beyond the means of the average resident.
LaboY'
The Hawaii Community Design Center, in its self-help enterprises, has estimated that
the elimination of labor (including contractors and developers) can save a home-
builder up to 40% of the construction cost of a house. Through collective bargaining
and other means, Hawaii's labor unions have escalated the cost of labor in the
housing industry beyond the ability of the average consumer to pay. As a result, the
construction industry in Hawaii faces record unemployment numbers, with little hope
that the depressed market will ever again reach the employment levels of the late
1960s. Although land has had the primary effect on depressing the housing market,
the high cost of labor has also contributed to the total price of a new dwelling
unit. It is somehow ironic that past demands for higher wages and better working
conditions has resulted in Hawaii's labor costing itself out of the housing market.
Technology
It has become accepted that construction materials and methods technology has reached
its zenith, i.e., there are no new materials nor methods which could substantially
reduce housing costs. Costs are fixed for materials, substantially stable for labor,
and beyond the average person's reach for land - other than self-help, the cost of
a housing unit is limited within certain predetermined boundaries. None of these
factors are likely to be reduced significantly, at least not by technology or design.
Increasing attention has been focused by housing experts on innovative financing as
the sole method of pricing housing within the range of the consumer.
A major hindrance to the use of innovative technology has been the refusal of the
average consumer to readily accept bold new housing designs and materials which
deviate from convention. An example is the dome - numerous attempts to market this
concept have fallen by the wayside due to the steadfast refusal of the consumer to
accept this and other new designs, regardless of the merits or inadequacies of the
product.
Increasing attention has been devoted in recent months to minor technological con-
cepts such as the minimal structure, similar to the old "shell house" concept,
which can be built at a relatively low cost, short time, and small dimension, and
then expanded and improved upon as the occupant family and its tinanceB grow. In
particular, attention has been focused on the urban house which is des:.gned for
expansion upward, rather than outward. As yet, however, the concept of expandable
housing has not been implemented in Hawaii.
Financing
Increasing attention has been devoted to innovative financing methods \lhich could,
theoretically, reduce housing costs to a level where the average conSilller could
afford to purchase a dwelling unit. On Oahu during 1975 less than 15% of all
families earned enough to qualify for a conventional loan that would buy a median-
priced $60,000 condominium. Furthermore, less than 10% on Oahu earned enough
during 1975 to qualify for a conventional loan which would purchase a Iledian-priced
$83,000 single-family home.
As a result, the real estate market during 1975 "softened", especially in condominiums
where there was a surplus of units. Mortgage foreclosures increased noticeably.
Most important, during 1975 the percentage of owner-occupied housing decreased from
46% to 44.3% - the first time in over 50 years that the percentage did not rise.
The combination of escalating housing costs coupled with the reluctance of lenders
to take risks has resulted in Hawaii's worst housing crisis in history. Developers
with a surplus of housing, especially condominiums, have resorted to rE!quiring no
down payment and other innovative financing concepts in the hope that buyers, parti-
cularly speculators, can be attracted. The public housing agencies haue done little
to discover new financing methods for home ownership other than the linited number
of traditional housing subsidies and "buy back" provisions for a few moderate income
people. Thus, "tight money" has combined with high land prices, expen!;ive labor,
and inflation, to price a potential 85% of consumers out of the housinq market.
6.5 PRIVATE NON-PROFIT HOUSING DEVELOPMENT

There is an interesting, widespread phenomenon known as the·private nOll-profit
housing corporation. It is unique, at least in scope, to North Americ<t. While it
may take the form of a "community design center" or a "community development
corporation", its primary function is to provide housing for low incomf! people. In
addition, this type of corporation takes on other roles, such as:
(a) Provides technical assistance (planning, design, construction, and finan-

cing) to those individuals and organizations which cannot afford these
services commercially. In effect, it provides free services 1:0 the poor.
(b) Accepts an advocacy role for the clients that it serves. It j.nvolves
citizen input into planning and housing-related matters in thf! community,
and acts as liaison between the community and the bureaucrats. It assumes
that people who live in any given community have skills and knowledge that
are useful to planning and housing, and endeavors to refine and promote
these skills.
(c) Attempts to provide housing at cost, usually through self-help. Elimi-

nation of profit enables housing to be built at reduced costs to the
consumer.
(d) Acts as enablers of innovative housing ideas to government. Jt can suggest,

but not force, government agencies to change housing policies, where
appropriate.
186 David C. Firth
There are several other features which these private corporations share. First,
they constantly struggle for survival due to inadequate and sporadic funding. Since
the cost of services cannot be passed along to the consumer, these organizations
must rely upon government grant funding and on the generosity of private trusts
and foundations. Money is not always available. Next, they are forced to muddle
through many problems in which no precedent has been set. Frequently, innovative
solutions are required where traditional approaches have failed, and the element
of risk is always implicit. Projects fail, or sometimes are not completed. Finally,
they tend to project a "renegade" image for several reasons: the traits that make
them acceptable to the low income community tend to make more staid people nervous;
they are by and large of a younger generation; they do not always follow the rules;
and under-capitalization is not conducive to high fashion. But they have been
known to provide at least partial solutions to some of our housing problems, as
some examples will demonstrate.
The Hawaii Community Design Center~ Ltd.

The Hawaii Community Design Center provides architectural, housing, planning, and
educational services to low income individuals and non-profit organizations
throughout the State. The preeminent objective of the Design Center is to provide
the technical assistance necessary to translate community goals into reality.
In order to be eligible for Design Center servic~s, the individual or community

group must demonstrate that they cannot afford to pay for commercial services,
and that the project's use or its aesthetics are for the common good. The client
pays a nominal fee when the application is accepted, and may be assessed for the
cost of materials beyond that point. Otherwise, the client does not pay for the
services.
The Design Center was established in 1969 by the Hawaii Chapter of the American
Institute of Architects and the Department of Architecture at the University of
Hawaii. Impetus was provided by other AlA chapters across the United States which
organized other community design centers. Today there are 83 CDCs nationwide.
Originally located at the University, the Hawaii CDC received its first full-time
staff with the arrival of three VISTA Volunteers in March 1973. Shortly thereafter,
the Design Center incorporated and moved to the Waimanalo Human Services Center in
order to better serve the needs of the low income people of the area. Construction
of the $5,500 "lviinimim House" followed in April 1974. This project, for which
HCDC is most widely renown, became a springboard for Design Center involvement in
low-cost housing throughout the State. Other self-help houses were constructed
at low cost, and the Design Center subsequently expanded state-wide, opening offices
on the Big Island and on Kauai.
Architectural, planning and housing projects grew in number from 20 in 1973, to 31

in 1974, to over 59 in 1975. HCDC has recently participated in the planning phase
of a 47-acre Wailua park; provided a land use plan for 244 units of self-help
housing in Kahuku; remodeling of the Koa pre-school and other day care center
renovation projects; assisted community groups in opposition to publically-planned
projects which would have an adverse effect on their communities; and, worked:
with community groups interested in constructing their own housing as an alternative
to public housing or relocation. Other projects include housing rehabilitation,
community building designs, playground designs, graphics, and other planning
activities.
The Design Center is able to perform these services at a fraction of the cost of a
L?w~Cost Housing in Hawaii 187
private consultant due to maximum utilization of volunteers, both professional
architects and planners, as well as·VISTA Volunteers from the federal ACTION agency.
The Design Center is able to develop programs and expand its staff of professionals
without an increase in operating costs. Thus, HCDC is uniquely suited to coordi-
nate community objectives with government and other public programs.
The Minimim House

Self-help housing provides the only viable alternative for the people of Hawaii
who cannot afford adequate housing at existing prices. The Design Center was
contacted by a local organization known as liThe Hawa:i:-ians" in March 1973 to
determine the nature of housing services which HCDC could provide to the Hawaiian
people. This organization wanted to know if the Design Center could develop a low-
cost housing system which could be utilized by low income Hawaiian people. The
basic problem was three-fold: residents could not afford existing housing prices;
they had no input into the design of their own houses; and, the residents wanted to
build the houses themselves, to save costs.
Fig. 6.1. How To Build Your OWn House.
Realizing that the basic problem was actually state-wide in scope, the Design Center
set out to implement a housing system that would have a positive impact on the
housing problems o"f low-income residents throughout the State. HCDC investigated
various housing alternatives - none were satisfactory, so the Minimim House was
created and plans were developed for implementation. It was decided that the
experimental/demonstration three bedroom house would be built on the grounds of
the .Waimanalo Human Service Center with $5,500 grant from the Governor's Task
Force on Progressive Neighborhoods and the Hawaii Housing Authority.
188 David C. Firth
Fig. 6.2. Minimim House.
Fig. 6.3. Variation of Minimim House.

Fig. 6.4. Minimim House Floor Plan.
The Minimim House is a single-wall post andbearo wood house, designed to be easy
to construct and maintain. The three bedroom house, which meets all building codes,
is available to anyone. Design of the house is based upon the 8' x 12 1 modular
system - the three bedroom house is 8.modules, or 768 ft 2 (roughly 71 m2 ). The
utility of the modular system is that it enables each family to choose its own floor
plan and make other design changes to suit their own needs. Furthermore, the house
is expandable, i.e., a family can build a small house now and expand it later when
finances permit. A Building Manual showing the step-by-step process of construc-
tion has been compiled, allowing a person with no construction experience to build
his own home by following a simplified process. Construction and work teams are
organized in the "ohana" style (extended family and friends helping friends), a
cultural situation indigeneous to' the Hawaiian Islands.
The low-cost 'of $5,500 was due to a simplified process. of construction which'
eliminates the needless over-reinforcement of conventional housing. Costs are
further cut by the reduction of material waste. Since lumber comes in stock
lengths of 8 1 ,12 1 and16', and since the modular system is 8 1 by 12 1 , there is
less cutting of lumber involved. This also reduces labor time, as well. Total
construction time for the project was 994 man-hours, or 25 days of part-time effort.
Since completion of the Minimim House prototype other models have been built. Each
varies according to the needs and finances of the owner, but the basic floor plan,
and construction process remains substantially the same. The Design Center offers
a standard package of individualized floor plans and a Building Manual to low-income
people for a nominal charge. In t~ose cases where a client feels that the system
190 David C. Firth
does not meet his needs, individual house design is arranged.
Completion of the Minimim House w~s followed by a mixed response from the island
community. For some, the Minimim House met their needs and'finances, and was the
first such house to do so. For others, the aesthetics of the house were, to say
the least, unappealing. Somehow lost in the shuffle was the project goal of
creating a demonstration house that would clearly show the minimal structural require-
ments of Oahu's building codes. While the intent was that the house could be (and
should be) upgraded, many people could not visualize the aesthetic change that a
different roof, glass windows, and wood stain would make. The lesson that was
learned for future experimental designs was to "cheesecake" the final product, in
order that the lay person could more readily envision all of the design options,
and their cost.
Following completion of the Minim~m House, the Design Center assumed that interest
in low-cost housing from the public sector would be keen. Instead, the merits and
impact of the house were apparently lost on Hawaii Housing Authority and others.
Ironically, three years after completion of the Minimim House, there have been
policy rumblings from HHA to the effect that maybe what is needed in housing is a
"shell house" concept, where contractors would provide a basically complete struc-
ture which the occupant family would finish according to their own needs and tastes.
Should this be adopted as policy, there are many in the State who feel that the
public sector will have reached a milestone in its efforts to construct low-cost
housing.
Labo~ Union Housing

There are several other organizations throughout the State which actively deliver
housing to low and moderate-income people. The International Longshoreman's and
Warehouseman's Union (ILWU) has been especially effective at assisting its members
in organizing their own low-cost housing programs. In general, ILWU members are
former plant~tion workers (sugar or pineapple) whose jobs have been phased out or
reduced. Most are older people with fixed incomes who are desperately in need of
new housing. They place great emphasis on maintaining their life-style and their
community, i.e., they want to ensure that they have maximum input into the type
and cost of housing that they will receive. In most cases, the landowners recognize
the contribution that these people have made over the years, and are reasonably
amenable to seeing that the people receive financial and technical assistance in
the replacement of their housing.
In general, the housing goal of the ILWU has been the replacement of plantation
housing with consolidated subdivision housing (usually single-family units). The
ILWU housing program has been successful, but the replacement of plantation housing
with consolidated subdivision housing has not been as successful elsewhere as it
has been in Hawaii. There is no parallel phenomenon - not with housing for migrant
workers on the mainland, not with housing for rural workers in the South, nor the
lumber camps, nor the coal mining areas. The ILt~ housing success story is unique.
Organization of the program has illustrated several principles which could serve
as a model for the delivery of low cost housing. First, an equitable agreement
has been made between all parties on the scheduled phase-out of plantation camps.
Second, there are no forced moves - each family has a choice as to what type of
housing and its location, and can move when they want. Third, there is great
effort made to guarantee some form of financial subsidy in order that the residents
will be able to meet the new higher housing costs. In fact, the program is made
as financially attractive as possible, and in most cases the type and method of
financing usually determines the nature of the housing design during the planning
stages of the project.
Furthermore, there is a comprehensive educational' package offered by the ILWU, in

which the managers of successful housing programs share their experiences with
,groups in other parts of the State who are embarking on their own housing programs.
If a community group is starting a new housing project, they are able to go to
other ILWU groups for assistance. All of these community groups affiliated with
the ILWU demand maximum resident input into all phases of the housing program. The
people themselves plan the nature of their future housing and community. The ILWU
provides counseling services and physical models in which people can visualize the
type of housing that they need. This type of housing program has been enormously
successful because it makes maximum utilization of the expertise of the people
affected - the residents themselves.
One of the lessons of the ILWU housing program is that those who have adequate
housing tend to speak in terms of "quality of life", while those who have inadequate
housing look for the basics. Thus, the concept of smaller lots and modest homes is
being accepted with increasing frequency. Furthermore, great attention is devoted
to the community as a whole - most replacement housing is available only for the
current residents, and not for outsiders. The net result is simple but durable
housing designs at relative low cost for low and moderate income people who wish to
maintain their rural and ethnic life-styles. They have been successful largely due
to their cooperative efforts and organization.
A typical example of this type of housing is the Kahuku Housing Corporation. Kahuku
housing is a group of former sugar plantation workers who have a need for 244 units
of replacement housing, located on a 40 acre site on Oahu's North Shore. Campbell
Estate, the landowner, has agreed to negotiate a new 40-year lease for the property.
The Housing Corporation contacted the Hawaii Community Design Center for a land use
plan for the 244 units. At present, the Corporation and Campbell Estate are
ironing out the fine points of the new lease. The Corporation is considering a
self-help or modified self-help (partially subcontracted) program for the replace-
ment housing. The residents of the area are consulted and must agree on all matters
concerning their future. With a new lease the Corporation will be able to arrange
financing for its members. General agreement has been reached that the replacement
housing will conform in design to existing units, that there will be adequate open
space on each lot for gardening and chicken-raising, and that the entire community
will have recreational and open space. In addition, special housing is being built
for senior citizens.
This type of housing program is not unique in the State of Hawaii. There are'other
community groups, such as Kahaluu and Ota Camp, who are taking affirmative action
in cooperation with public agencies to generate housing programs which meet the
needs of their respective communities. The trait that these programs share is that
they work - and they work because they involve maximum participation and cooperative
effort from community residents. One lesson is clear: if low-cost housing for low
income people is to be a reality in Hawaii, it will depend upon well-organized,
knowledgeable community groups who can pressure public agencies and private land-
owners into allowing them to develop their own housing programs
Mokauea Fisherman's Village
Another organization, separate from the ILWU, which also aims at developing its
own housing to preserve its cultural life-style is the Mokauea Fisherman's Associa-
tion. This organization, the last subsistence fishing village on Oahu, has existed
for years. The people are essentially squatters, as title to the prope~ty has never
been established. In 1974, during the construction of the Honolulu Airport reef
192 David C. Firth
runway, the State tried to evict the people. Legal action proved unsatisfactory,
and during this time 5 of the 14 houses on the island somehow burned down. The
fishermen threatened the State with a lawsuit unless the housing was replaced. The
State government, through the Governor's Office, agreed to provide funds for
replacement for approximately 40 people.
The community organization contacted the Design Center to provide assistance in

the design of the houses. The fishermen distrusted the State's track record in
the provision of housing, at least housing that was sensitive to their unique needs.
The community wanted input into the design of their houses, and wanted to maintain
their life-style. While the people of Mokauea Island had no electricity, water, or
sewage, the State indicated that it would be willing to install a water line out to
the island.
The design that HCDC provided for the fishermen included five single-family units,
estimated at approximately $15,000 per unit, built on a self-help basis with State
funds. The houses would be situated on the water, with a pier as an integral part
of each house (a large part of the cost per unit). In addition, each house would
be designed to fun~tion as a work space. Each house would have a low-pitched roof
for the drying of nets and fish. Also proposed were independent energy-efficient
utility systems, such as solar water heaters and a Clivus waste disposal system.
Thus, five houses (of four bedrooms each) will be built at a total cost, including
utility systems, of roughly $75,000.
Apparently, low cost housing in Hawaii is a reality only when community groups take
matters into their own hands and use innovative construction methods, design, and
financing (and do most of the work themselves) to guarantee housing that meets their
particular needs and life-style. It remains a mystery why State and City and County
housing agencies do not make use of the resources within each community to cut costs
and produce housing which meets the needs of the people. Experiments have shown
that the self-help concept is viable - it is up to the public sector to make optimum
use of this housing concept.
The Hawaiian Energy House

Increasing attention at cutting costs of housing has been devoted to simplified
design and alternative energy systems (particularly the latter) on the part of public
agencies. The Hawaiian Energy House, a good simple house modified to the local
climate and life-style, has been developed by Professor Jim Pearson at the University
of Hawaii Department of Architecture. Based upon standard Hawaiian architecture,
this house is a single-wall post and beam simply-framed wood house which can be
developed at low cost. Total size is 1,260 ft 2 based upon a 30' x 42' modular
system. Interior size is 3 bedrooms, 1 1/2 baths, easily expandable for an addi-
tional bedroom beneath the roof. Features of this unique house include:
(a) Facing south for maximum exposure for solar collectors;
(b) Narrow east-west exposure to low sun for better heat control;
(c) Carport.on the west to block the sun;
(d) Two-storey design to compact the roof area (for less heat gain) and to
use less land area;
(e) Longer roof overhangs to keep the sun off of the interior;
(f) Roof is reflective (white enameled aluminum), light weight, and well-venti-
lated (including a hole in the roof, with a flat rain lid, to eliminate hot
air) ;
(g) Sliding walls with mosquito screening to take advantage of the gentle
climate;
(h) House itself is off the ground which adds cooling while eliminating ground
termites and dampness;
(i) Bedroom jalousies are low at bed level for cross-ventilation;
(j) Solar water heater which provides 100% of the hot water, and which saves
as much as 50% of the cost of electricity;
(k) Wind generator which powers the lights (although it is expensive for the
average home at $3,300) ;
(1) All appliances, lights, plumbing and fixtures are designed to save
electricity and water;
(m) .The landscaping cools, provides cover, and produces edible food.
This innovative house demonstrates realistic methods for cutting costs, both
through its simplified design as well as its alternative energy systems. It is
this latter factor that is receiving increasing attention in Hawaii, as a means
to cut costs.
6.6 NEEDS
Government housing programs have generated many more failures than successes in the
construction of housing. The major cause for this phenomenon is that we simply do
not have adequate information on housing needs. There is no foolproof manner in
which to obtain data that could be used to match public housing programs with
housing demand. It seems that there are five areas in particular which need to be
examined by housing policy-makers:
(a) Why people live where they do;
(b) Changing attitudes and life-styles which will produce effective demand
for future housing;
(c) A Price Index on housing amenities (i.e., how much people are likely to
pay for an additional bedroom, carport, pool, etc., based upon their
particular values);
(d) Trends that influence potential home owners (i.e., analyzing people
throughout the home buying process to establish motivation and preference) ;
(e) Ways and means to determine how to make multi-family housing demand
comparable to single-family demand.
While we are inundated with various statistical and demographic information on

housing, nobody has successfully completed a "bottom-up" study, measuring at the
community level attitudes, preferences, and needs as perceived by the consumer.
Furthermore, little attempt has been made to look at successful neighborhoods
(those with little in-out migration) to determine reasons for this phenomenon. Nor
194 David C. Firth
has adequate attention been focused on changes in life-style that will affect future
housing choice, such as: the tendency for the young and the elderly to live apart
from their families; "ohana" (extended family and calabash) living by choice, not
necessity; motivation for investment property; dissatisfaction with older or changing
neighborhoods; trends and factors in ethnic areas and racial mix; and, estimates of
future number and types of households that will form (i.e., divorced singles, doubles,
age differentials, etc.).
Certain lessons have been learned over the years which point out potential areas of
future study. Neglect of this informatiOn, or failure to thoroughly analyze these
trends, is one of the primary reasons why housing that is inadequate for people's
needs continues to be bUilt. More information is needed, especially concerning
the following:
1. Local attitudes determine the success or failure of housing programs - we

cannot measure how much to build until we know what and for whom to build;
2. Information from neighborhood preferences must be evaluated separately from

that of housing-type;
3 • . Traditional definitions of "housing-poor households" (substandard, over-

crowded, ability to pay) negle~t other factors, i.e., a resident may be
"housing poor" if he perceives himself as such;
4. The source of the housing problem is the ability to pay rather than the lack
of technology;
5. Housing programs must concentrate on meeting the needs of households, not

on a magical number of units;
6. Perhaps housing is over-produced, e.g., there may be no housing "shortage",

only fewer single-family units than demanded;
7. Analysis is needed as to why s~ngle-family housing is preferred;
8. Instability of income may be a cause of the failure of people to purchase

affordable housing, i.e., maybe people prefer to rent rather than buy;
9. The issue of housing "standards" must be evaluated in the context of the

necessity of building codes and financing requirements;
10. There is a public fear of government subsidized housing, and a social stigma
attached to subdivisions built at public expense.
This emphasis on data related to housing needs cannot be overemphasized. Perhaps

in no other phase of existence does the human being have deeper emotions than those
related to his home. He has spent his life in the home(s), become attached and
habituated to it, and is not easily diverted from the way of life associated with
it. He is generally strongly conservative in his views concerning what constitutes
a home, especially if he is an owner. Custom, preference and prejudice are all
strong constraints in the selection of a home. There is no other aspect of housing
design that is as difficult ~nd as important as this one. Yet virtually no atten-
tion is devoted to this factor. Res~arch is desperately needed to determine what
constitutes socially acceptable housing.
The City and County of Honolulu's Department of General Planning has specified the
following "Housing Needs and Problems,,:7
1. 5,300-9,,200 new dwelling units per year through 1985;
2. Units should be matched by price and size with needs of the whole range of
househo"lds (although how these "needs" will be determined is not mentioned) ;
3". More housing should be delivered at minimum cost:
(a) Direct private development (with land use approvals requiring some
units at minimum cost with limited profits) ;
(b) Assist private development (with land acquisition, site development,

financing, and reduced risks wit~ reduced profit) ;
(c) Public development (with public agency as the developer, thus no taxes
or profit).
In addition, there are other factors which the public sectqr could examine to
create housing which meets the needs of· the people. One method is the standard
subsidized housing package, where local government reconciles the ability to pay
by the consumer with the fair market value of the housing unit. Another method is
the density bonus, where economic incentives are provided for families to live in
high density multi-family units. Yet another method is the tax incentive for
owner-occupants, or lower taxes for those people who live in their own homes.
There are other efforts which the public sector could make in an attempt to match
housing consumption with needs. One method is to assist housing consumers by making
low interest mortgage loans available from government bonds, and by providing sub-
sidies to those who cannot afford the minimum cost. Another method is to control
units built under public housing programs by: purchase or lease of some units;
selection of occupants by specification of income criteria; imposition of owner-
occupant and buy-back rules on individual units; and, restriction of future rent
increases on rental projects.
It seems realistic to conclude that an analysis of housing needs should be completed

before additional housing is constructed, at least at public expense. It is the
public sector which is uniquely suited to compile and analyze this data. It would
provide an invaluable public service and allow us to collectively address the
housing problem in a more realistic manner.
6.7 TRENDS
Although it does not focus on housing alone, the environmental movement in the
United States had had an important effect on shaping our attitudes toward housing
and related issues. The "environmental movement" itself has been the most effec-
tive social movement of our time, especially with regard to the institutional change
which it has engendered. More and more Americans are becoming increasingly con-
cerned with the quality of life, with the relationship of man to the air, water,
land, flora and fauna. The importance"ofecology, and the citizen concern asso-
ciated with it, can best be illustrated by the following excerpt on the importance
of the environmental problem: "Though the word ecology was not coined until the l870s,
the central ecological principle had in fact been operative forever. It i~ that
all aspects of planetary life, from one-celled plants to many-celled mammals, are
ultimately connected to one another by a web of cause-and-effect relationships. If
one strand is severed - or even jiggled a bit - the disturbance will inevitably
be felt and will cause changes throughout the web •••• Even today we are only mini-
mally able to predict what the ecological consequences of very simple environmental
196 David c. Firth
actions will be."a
In the housing field today, much attention has been devoted to the development of
low cost ecological building systems which can be adapted to the modern world, and
which will provide inexpensive, ecologically-efficient systems in the future. Some
of these systems are basically simple, ~uch as building with renewable resources
(such as timber or vegetable fibers) which do not consume the earth's stock of
non-reusable materials; building with materials which would otherwise cause pollu-
tion when discarded as industrial waste, such as sulphur and garbage; and building
with indigeneous materials which can be recycled at the end of the building's life.
Other methods are being experimented w~th which involve' the use of innovative water
and waste disposal systems.
Energy-efficient, self-contained systems are in the experimental stages at this

time which, once developed for the mass market, could result in substantial monetary
savings as well as providing abundant energy at no ecological cost. Such systems
involve simple technology like using wind energy to generate electricity, and making
USe of solar energy to heat water, to cook, and to purify polluted or sea water.
In addition, there are currently smaller methods of cutting costs and eliminating
waste which are employed now, such as avoiding waste by relating the size of all
building components through modular coordination. '
All of these energy-efficient/ecological innovations have implications for future

housing development. This concern for ecology has evolved directly from our
environmental problems, which in turn have evolved from our common life-style
which is based upon high technology and high rates of consumption. Thus, there
are questions as to how compatible our traditional economic, social and political
systems are with overall environmental stability. In short, our consumptive energies
have outrun our ability to make and pay. The upshot is that future housing develop-
ment, in 'addition to being affordable, will have to be ecologically sound. We will
no longer be able to look,at housing cost, technology, and our environment as
independent entities. Furthermore, we have no choice in the matter - it,is now an
economic necessity, in that we either have to pay more or use less. Now that We
are putting a price on such things as clean air, pure water, and open land, we also
need to put a price on non-development, and poor development of housing, in order
to meet the needs of an increasingly less-consumptive population•.
It has been estimated that at our present rate of consumption we will deplete our:
oil 'resources within the next 35-65 years. Thus, the limits to growth of a
petroleum culture have obviously been reached. 'When we run out of oil we will
have an opportunity to make use of new and cleaner energy sources, including solar,
geothermal and wind power. Yet development of "exotic" energy sources h'as been
hindered by the lack of research and planning funds, the opposition of conventional
power producers, and the shortsightedness of our government bureaucracy. Apparently,
problems must reach the danger zone before any effective action is taken. At
present, most of our public funding is being poured into employment programs with
the result that needed funding for housing and energy programs is simply "not
available at this time".
Land USe and controls, like energy Use and controls, have a direct relationship to
housing problems. Land has been inundated with contaminants and toxins, eroded,
flooded, covered-over with concrete - any cleanup or restoration will take longer
and use more dollars than similar action with water or air. Land use, especially
on an island, is an area where it is imperative that we change our pattern of use
and abuse. However, changing land use habits may prove eVen more difficult than
changing our oil-consumptive habits. Attempts in Hawaii to impose land controls,
restrict private property rights, and transfer estate-held land to the public
domain have been controversial, to say the least.
Hawaii can feed and shelter just so many of us, provide us with just so many useful
resources, absorb just so much of our waste and poisons, tolerate just so much growth
and development. What is disputable is just how close we are to these finite
environmental limits. On Oahu, the trade-offs are starting to emerge. We are
rapialy reaching our population limit that can be supported by existing water and
land use patterns. Our annual growth rate of 2.3% exceeds the environmental capa-
city of the island. Already the trend in dwelling units is to build upward, rather
than outward, and to consolidate mUlti-family living into a smaller area. Dire
predictions have been made concerning when the island will run out ~f water. Transpor-
tation is increasingly becoming a more difficult problem, as are employment,
education, and social services. Yet time-controlled growth and other population
growth inhibiting policies, successful elsewhere, have not been implemented in the
new General Plan which will shape the destiny of Oahu between now and the year 2000.
Regardless of the shape that future housing programs in Hawaii will take, several
trends are clear. These will evolve by necessity, whether we like it or not.
First, government agencies will reduce housing production efforts, other than
provision of a limited amount of housing for "the moderate income (the gap) group.
While housing production is a role for which the public sector has historically
been ill-suited, only now is this reality becoming clear. Second, the public
sector will step-up the programs for which it is best-suited - that of providing
incentiYes for private industry and the public to become more active in housing
development. This would include tax incentive plans for private developers, provi-
sion of public land for'private development, and subsidies, density and tax bonus
plans for the consumer. Third, we will ultimately use (and build) less, though
not for a while yet. Few~r available housing units will act as an unintentional,
though viable, limit to population growth- it appears that it will be later,
rather than sooner, that we wfll develop an orderly time-controlled growth policy.
Fourth, the limited new housing that is built will gradually begin to incorporate
energy-efficient utility and waste disposal systems. Fifth, increasing use of
existing housing stock to prolong its life will be instituted through rehabilitation
and renovation. Sixth, housing will eventually be placed into its proper perspec-
tive as a social problem, and not as a physical or economic one. Finally, the
housing needs of the consumer will be determined and implemented~ to ensure that
new housing will not become useless housing.
REFERENCES
1. Housing in Hawaii, Hawaii Business, June 1976.
2. Hou~ing for Hawaii's People, Daly & Assocs., January 1977.

3. Office of Research & Statistics, Department of Social Services and Housing,
January 1975.
4. Hud Statistical Yearbook, 1970, pp.2l4-l5.

5. A Statistical and" Analytical Report on "Housing and Community Development in
Honolulu, Housing and Community Development Research, Department of Housing
and Community Development, City & County of Honolulu, July 1976, p.l.
6. Redevelopment and Housing Research, No. 32, July 1972, p.8.

7. Alternatives for Residential Development, Department of General Planning, City
& County of Honolulu, 1975, p.4.
8. GILBERT, BILL, "My Country, 'Tis of Thee''', Sports Illustrated, Vol. 45, No. 25,
December 20-27, 1976.
Part II
LOW-COST HOUSING: BY TOPI.C

7
MATERIALS
Albert G. H. Dietz
7.1 MATERIALS
Building materials obviously play an important part in any consideration of housing

for low to middle-income people in developing areas. The approach to this enormous
and complex subject depends upon the objective to be attained. The point of view
adopted here is that indigenous materials either now or potentially available must
be employed to the fullest possible extent in order to keep costs down, avoid draining
limited foreign exchange, and provide employment locally. Furthermore, the construc-
tion methods 'adopted should use these materials in such a way that unskilled and
semi-skilled labor, much of it on a self-help basis, can be used to construct the
needed housing, thereby reducing costs, providing employment, and at the same time
imparting at least some training in construction skills.
In this brief treatment, materials are described that meet these requirements., They
are mostly locally available and in use now, or are available now bU~ not widely
used, or are potentially available. Among the first group are soil, wood, bamboo,
naturally-occurring cementitious materials, and combinations based upon them. In
the second category are such materials as sulfur and portland cement (plentiful or
scarce, depending upon the region). In the third category' are the plastics and
related polymeric materials, as well as the composites based upon them. While these
are at present largely high-technology products not readily available in most
developing areas, many of these same areas have extensive petroleum resources and
a~e building plastics-producing capacity.
The approach taken here is to attempt to explain, simply and briefly, the basic
properties of these materials as they stem from their internal structure, without
becoming entangled in highly technical considerati~ns. From these properties the
principal advantages and limitations of the materials are derived, and some of the
typical uses are described. No attempt at detailed completeness is made, rather,
it is hoped that with some insight into the properties of the materials, new ideas
will be generated respecting ways to use them that will lead to the provision of
satisfactory housing.
7.2 SOIL
Soil is probably the most widespread and abundant material of construction. It is

in many ways both the easiest and the most difficult to. employ.
201
202 Albert G. H. Dietz
Soil is widely used in its natural state and, to a much lesser but growing extent,
modified by the addition of various other materials. Natural soil is extremely
variable, and by no means all of it is suitable for construction, even of small
dwellings. The properties needed depend upon the construction method or methods
employed, the requirements of the dwelling, and the local climatic conditions.
Methods
Before considering soils and their principal pertinent characteristics for house
construction, it is desirable to review briefly the principal construction methods.
1,2 They differ in degrees of advance preparation and methods of placement •
. Wattle and daub
A framework of posts and poles supports a matting or other assemblage of woven or

otherwise intertwined reeds or sticks. Soil mixed with water to the proper consis-
tency for easy placement is plastered to both sides. A variant consists of a double
wall of poles and sticks, with the interspace filled with mud. In either case, as
the soil dries it is likely to shrink and cause cracks which must be filled and
repaired. The surface mud is also likely to fall away from time to time. Because
rain causes erosion, the walls should be protected by wide overhanging roofs and
by an applied surface coating more resistant to erosion than the soil. Fairly
constant maintenance is to be expected.
Cob
This method, like other techniques employing soil, goes by a variety of names, such
as swish in Ghana. 3 In this method, the soil; either used as dug from a pit near
the construction site, or consisting of a mixture of soils to obtain the desired
characteristics, is kneaded and trodden with water to provide the proper consi~tency.
It is then formed into balls about the size of a football, small and light enough
to be tossed by a man on the ground to a second man on the wall. The balls are
placed and pounded into a solid mass. The soil is applied in courses, usually about
30-45 cm high, each course being left to dry about one to three days before the next
course is placed. The mud is trimmed to shape and desired thickness and the surfaces
smoothed as the wall is built. As the wall becomes higher, the workman sits astride
it, so no scaffolding is required.
While drying, the soil shrinks, and cracks-are likely to occur. They are repaired
wi th more mud. When the wall is dry, a surface layer of mud is applied.
As is true of wattle and daub, the material is subject to erosion by rain and should
be protected by wide overhanging roofs and by a surface layer more resistant to
erosion than the wall proper.
Poured adobe
By much the same method as portland cement concrete, adobe may be cast monolithically
between forms. The soil is mixed with water to a softer and more plastic consistency
than for cob or swish, and may have straw or other binder added. The mixture is
poured or shovelled into the forms. As is true of portland cement concrete, it must
neither be too dry and stiff to be placed readily, nor so soft and wet as to segre-
gate or leak out of the form. Evidently, the wetter the mix, the greater the tendency
to .shrink' and crack upon drying. If the material is placed in courses, straw rein-
forcing may not penetrate and intermingle with previously-placed courses if the
latter have begun to dry and harden.
Materials 203
While this method makes placement of the mater1al easier than cob, and the forms
provide alignment and control of thickness, the forms themselves add to the cost.
They are most practical, as is true of forms generally, when they can be re-used,
with minimum alteration and repair, a 'sufficient number of times to justify the
cost.
Adobe brick
Adobe bricks or blocks have long been widely employed. Sizes, composition, and
methods of manufacture and construction vary from place to place.
Bricks are molded from a clay-based mixture with a high-enough water content to
produce a plastic or workable consistency that allows the material to be formed
in simple-molds. Optimum combinations of sand, silt, and clay have to be developed
on the basis of local materials, and no hard and fast rules respecting combinations
can be given. Experience and the "feel" of the mixture are the criteria.
The mud is usually placed by hand in simple wood single-cavity or multi-cavity

molds. The mold and brick are placed on a suitable bed and the mold removed,
leaving the brick to dry in the sun.
Adobe bricks have traditionally been reinforced with straw or other fibers, but
opinions differ as to their value.
The dried bricks are laid up in the wall in much the usual fashion, with horizontal
courses and with vertical joints in successive courses staggered or "broken" to
avoid long continuous vertical joints. Mortars are commonly compositions similar
to the brick, and an effort is made to minimize shrinkage in the mortar, because
the dried bricks shrink relatively little.
Minimum shrinkage is one of the chief advantages of adobe brick. Shrinkage occurs
in drying, before the bricks are built into the wall. Furthermore, their uniform
size permits walls to be laid accurately. There is no long drying period.
A major disadvantage is the double handling of'the heavy material. It is first

dug, mixed, formed into bricks and dried. The bricks must then be rehandled and
transported to the building site, entailing a good deal of manual labor. Further-
more, during drying and hardening, the bricks must be protected from rain which
can easily severely damage or wash them away. Once they are dry and hard such
damage is minimal.
Rammed Earth (Pise)

Cast adobe and rammed earth are similar in that both use forms, but in rammed earth
the soil is rammed into place, whereas in cast adobe it is merely poured or
shovelled.
Rammed earth requires heavy movable forms that can be shifted along the wall as
each course is formed in successive steps, and can be raised for successively higher
courses. Commonly two forms are used, one for corners, and one for the straight
portions of the wall.
Moist sandy loam is usually employed, placed in thin layers within the form and tampec
or rammed down hard with a hand-driven or pneumatic tamper. Composition and moisture
content must be carefully controlled to obtain the proper consistency.
As is true of other soil-based walls, the surface should be protected against rain
erosion by employing wide over-hanging roofs and an erosion-resistant surfacing coat.
Because it is relatively dry and heavily compacted, rammed earth tends to shrink
and crack less and is more resistant to erosion than many other soil walls.
qajon and nogging

The open spaces in a structural wall frame of timber are filled with wall panels
of soil, e1therpacked in place, or fitted in the form of brick. The procedures
for mixing and placing'the soil are the same as for cast-in-place soil or for adobe
brick. The soil forms a base for surface coating such as stucco or plaster.
Material
A thorough discussion of soil and the mechanics of soil is beyond the scope of this
brief exposition. The following points appear to be the most important from the
standpoint of the simple co~struction employed for small dwellings.
Types
Soil consists not only of the surface layer of earth or loam capable of growing
things, and usually called top soil, but, more importantly, of the material further
down, with little or no organic matter. This may well vary with depth, as in lateritic
soils, formed in place by. the gradual breakdown of the underly'ing bedrock, brought
about by the natural processes of weathering, altered and augmented by leaching of
some constituents and infiltration of others. Although such soils obviously vary
greatly from place to place, in a given bed the topmost layer is characteristically
a growing layer containing much organic material, underlain by friable mineral
material, loose at the top, but becoming gradually more compact with depth, merging
into hardpan and heavily fissured rock, the fissuring becoming less as the essen-
tially solid bedrock is reached.
Other soils result from particles transported by water or, to a less extent, wind,
deposited in beds, often of considerable extent and depth, ranging from exceptionally
homogeneous to extremely variable. Constituents obviously depend on the source or
sources of the transported particles.
Constituents
Soils specialists generally grade soils on the basis of particle size from the
smallest or colloidal particles through clay, silt, sand, gravel to cobbles or
boulders. Several such classifications are shown in Fig. 7.1.
For earth houses, soil is often simply classified as clay and sand, the dividing
line being be tween silt and fine sand in Fig. 7.1. Since" clay" in this case
includes silt, and "sand" includes gravel, a somewhat better terminology is "fine"
and "coarse". This simple two-part classification is often good enough, but if
competent engineering talent is available, the greater subdivision of Fig. 7.1 is
better for the best selection of soil fractions for a given application •.
Moisture content
Moisture content for engineering purposes is usually expressed in percent as the
ratio of the weight of water in a giyen volume of earth to its dry weight.
Atterberg limits
As the amount of water increases, many soils pass through four states defined as
solid, semi-solid, plastic, and liquid. The boundary moisture contents between
Materials 205
American association Fine Coarse Fine Med. Coarse

of state highway Colloids Clay Silt Boulders
officials soi I sand sand gravel gr. gr.
classification
American society for Fine Coarse

Colloids Clay Silt sand Gravel
testing materials sand
sail classification
Very
'§coorse
u.s. department of Very
agriculture
soi I classification
Clay Silt fine Fine Med
sand sand sand nod
Fine
gravel
Coarse
gravel
Cobbles
Unified soil classification

(Corps of engineers,
department of the Fines(silt or clay)
Fine
sand
Med;um I F;ne Coarse
gravel C.obbles
sand C gravel
army, and bureau of
reclamation)
T~~~aT
~
Sieve sizes
!2 <r
=N"-
~ ~I
- a
~ I~
a ao;t
I "r ~~ ~
q qqq qq . C'!~~ lq~9 qqq
1 N r<l o;t lO 001 N r<lo;t l!>ool 006 0 0 0 0 0 6
Nr<lo;t l!> 00-
8 88888 Particle slze-mm
N r<lo;t l!> ooQ
Fig. 7.1 Soil Classification.
these four states, devised by Atterberg, the Swedish soil scientist, are known as
the shrinkage limit (solid to semi-solid), plastic limit (semi-solid to plastic) ,
and liquid limit (plastic to liquid) •
Shrinkage Zimit. The shrinkage limit is the moisture content below which shrinkage
ceases. Because clay is the mOst important constituent causing shrinkage, this limit
is a rough indication of the 'amount of clay present.
PZastic Zimit. This is the moisture content below which the soil begins to break
or crumble when rolled into a 1/8-inch diameter thread. Clay content largely controls
the position of this limit. Some silty and sandy soils that cannot be rolled into
1/8-inch threads have no plastic limit and are called non-plastic.
Liquid Zimit. The arbitrary definition (is the moisture content at which the sides
of a 2mm-wide groove cut in a soil sample flow together a distance of one-half inch
under the impact of 25 blows in a testing device. Sandy soils have low liquid limits,
such as 20 or less, whereas silty clays and clays may range above 80. .
PZasticity index. The numerical difference between the liquid limit and the plastic
limit is called the plasticity index. It has been used as an excellent index of the
performance of soil for construction. Desirable soils for earth house building have
low plasticity indices (e.g., 10-15), whereas soils with high plasticity indices
(e.g., higher than 20-25) exhibit high shrinkage and swelling unsuitable for earth
house construction.
Optimum moisture content

Dry soil is difficult to compact to maximum density, whereas too wet soil has so
much water that it is overly porous when it dries, and does not attain maximum
density. For a given effort at compaction, the optimum moisture content is that
content at which maximum density is achieved after the soil has dried.
Absorption
Penetration of moisture into earth walls is evidently important in determining their

resistance to deterioration. Increased sand content results in larger pore spaces
and increased permeability, but too much fine material can result in 'increased
capillarity. The optimum combination for a given soil must be determined by test.
Strength
For earth houses with typically thick walls, the commonly-specified compressive
strengths of 20-25 kgf/cm 2 (300-350 psi) are usually ample to carry the super-imposed
loads. Some tensile stresses may be developed by lateral wind loads, but tensile
strengths of 5 kgf/cm 2 (50 psi) are normally sufficient. Earthquakes, of course,
may develop significantly higher stresses, including shear, and call for stronger
construction.
SoLubLe saLts
Large quantities of soluble salts, as often found in arid regions, may make a soil
unfit for earth construction. Their detection may require laboratory test.
Weathering
As is true of many materials of construction, weathering is difficult to define and

to measure satisfactorily enough by laboratory tests to predict accurately how a
given material will behave under actual exposure. For earth construction, four
types of weathering tests are common: wetting and drying, freezing and thawing,
erosion by rain, and abrasion, occurring separately or simultaneously.
Just how any given soil will react to these tests, or in a structure, is difficult
to predict and must be ascertained by test. Sometimes increasing the clay content
is reported to be beneficial, in other instances it is not.
ExampLe
An example of the application of some of these concepts may be drawn from the work
of the Building and Road Research Institute of the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, Kumasi, Ghana. 3 ,4 The lateritic soils commonly found and
used in Ghana, primarily for swish or cob construction, are defined as the "hardened
or soft (reddish to brownish) product of tropical and sub-tropical weathering which
is leached of bases, but enriched in sesqui-oxides of iron and alumina in the form
of clay minerals, especially kaOlinite and secondary iron minerals such as goethite,
limonite and hematite. There is little or no combined silica in laterite, but
depending on the parent rock, laterite may have high quantities of quartz."
The laterites are classified as: (1) rock and boulders (particles> 60 mm), (2)
gravelly soils, and (3) fine-grained (gravel fractions less than 10%). Specific
gravity varies between 2.5-3.5. Atterberg liquid limits vary from 65 to non-plastic,
and plasticity limits between 40 and non-plastic. Under standard compaction, max-
imum dry densities vary between 1500-2100 Kg/m 3 (92 and 128 cfm) for optimum moisture
contents varying between 9-22% during compaction.
It has been found that soils whose range of constituents from fine to coarse falls
within the envelopes of Fig. 7.2 are suitable for earth wall construction. These
soils are generally sandy clays and clayey loams. Liquid limits are 30-40%, and
plasticity indices 12-20%. Volumetric shrinkage is not more than 20%.
Materials 207
British standard sieves

Log settling velocity, em/sec 2"
300 150 ·72 36 18 10 1/8" 1/4" 112" I"
60 50 40 30 20 10 200 100 52 25 /4 \ 7 3/16" 318"13/4"11112'1 3"
90
80
V
~
- ~
90
80
./
70 70
/
60
>er limit 60
/
50
/ Lower limit 50
/
40 V 40
~I-'"" /
30 30
20 20
V
10 10
0 a
0.0001 0.001 0.01 I 10 100
Particle °kize mm
Clay I Fine silt I Gravel I
Coarse Fine Medium Coarse
silt sand sand sand
Fig. 7.2 Grading Envelope for Selecting Lateritic Soils for

Building
The example of the Ghanaian laterites should be ~onsidered only an example and is
not necessarily indicative of soils elsewhere. Soil in each locality must be examined
on its own merits. Different authorities differ, depending upon their particular
experiences.
Figure 7.3 summarizes the recommendations of a number of investigators respecting

grading of soils for rammed earth, adobe, and machine-made blocks. Wide variations
exist. A few extremely general observations follow.
Rarroned earth.The monolithic wall must shrink as little as possible to prevent

excessive cracking. Clay is kept to a minimum, and a narrow range of 60-75% sand
is usually specified. Atterberg liquid limit is recommended at 35 or less, plas-
ticity index 2 to 15, and shrinkage limit less than 25, although for tropical
laterites which usually exhibit less shrinkage and swelling than temperate-zone
laterites, these values may be low.
Adobe blocks. Because these are dried before use, shrinkage is largely eliminated,
and the limits for grading can be broader than for rammed earth. Some authorities
say that any earth containing at least 50% sand is suitable. There must be enough
clay to provide good cohesion to the dried block. Another authority says any soil
within the limits 80% clay-20% sand is suitable.
Cob and wattle and daub. These permit the widest variations. In wattle and daub
the soil is held in place by the wattles and frame, and cracks are repaired with more
mud under more or less continuous maintenance. In cob, shrinkage cracks typically
occur around the individual balls of earth and are therefore numerous, scattered,
and fine - seldom occurring as single large serious cracks. The numerous fine
cracks may afford bonding points for stucco and plaster.
Rammed
~ earth
~ "'C
Q)
~
Adobe :0
c
'Sand
gravel
•• 134
J(
)(
151 I: Machine (J)
+-
)(
120 l( made
(+200 ) blocks
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
I I I I I I I I I o Coarse
Clay 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Fine
Coarse"-fine ratio Machine
silt made
(-200 ) blocks_
104x 35 ~
Ilx ~96 ~ Adobe
75
~ I: "'C
Q)
~
:0
~40
.E
en
57x x 258 -:---+<84 c
~
:;)
~ Rammed
)1 17 I: earth
36 • 76 1:84
)(
;i 1:
Fig. 7.3 Recommended Grading.
SoiZ StabiZization
Numerous attempts have been made to stabilize soil by admixtures, usually to increase
its resistance to deterioration by water, but also, in some instances, to increase
the strength, especially the wet strength.
As indicated above, excessive shrinkage can often be reduced by changing the ratio
of sand to clay (coarse to fine). If the clay content is too high, sand and gravel
can be added, provided this does not result in too great porosity and loss of cohesion.
Fibrous materials such as sawdust, wood shavings and various available fibers help,
presumably by increasing the tensile strength, thereby reducing the tendency to crack,
and dividing such cracking as does occur into numerous small cracks instead of a
few large ones.
Stabilization may be achieved by improving the adhesion among the grains of soil
by various admixtures that adhere well or change the surface tension characteristics
of the binding material, or in other ways change the chemical nature of the mix,
such as waterproofing the grains, or changing the ionic character of the soil.
Among the many indigenous materials that have been employed, usually on a completely
empirical basis, the following are said to have been successful in varying degree:
cattle dung and urine, grass, flax straw, oat straw, jute fiber, sawdust, wood
shavings, tannic acid, molasses,· various plant juices, pulverized clay brick and tile,
gum arabic, and hardwood ashes. Some analyses of vegetable ash seem to indicate
constituents that have hydraulic characteristics similar to fly ash. Ashes have,
of course, long been used to modify agricultural soil.
Materials 209
Probably the most extensive work in stabilizing earth has been done with portland
cement, lime and lime admixtures, and emulsified asphalt.
PO'PtZand cement
The extensive work done in many parts of the world has resulted in considerable
variation in results depending upon composition of the soil and the method of
preparing the soil-cement mixture. In general, soils with relatively high sand con-
tent can be stabilized more readily and with less cement than can high-clay soils,
particularly when the sand is well graded. This is similar to the experience in
making satisfactory mortars and concrete. In general less cement is needed with
moist mixes than with wet, but thorough mixing is necessary, and is easier to
achieve with wet mixes.
What proportion of cement to soil should be used depends upon the soil, the degree
of stabilization wanted, and whether increased strength is also necessary. Some
significant reduction in absorption of water has been reported with as little as
approximately 3% cement, but other research has reported significant shrinkage
occurring in optimally-compacted high-clay soils with 20% cement. Contents of 6-10%
appear to be common, but variations are large. In one example in the Philippines
ratios of 1 to 12 appeared to be satisfactory, but with two different soils this ratio
could be varied by more than 2 to 1. Any soil must be tested with various mixes
until the best one for the purpose is found.
Lime and lime-admixtures

In many parts of the world portland cement is scarce and expensive, whereas lime is
available and has long been used. Variations in mixes occur because of variations in
soil and in the degree of stabilization needed. Data from controlled experiments
appear to be meager, but contents from 6-14 or 20% seem to be employed. In some areas
such as Indonesia, both lime and pozzolans are readily available, and combinations of
lime and pozzolan in ratios 5 to 1 appear to be useful. Portland cement may also
be added, and the mix may include essentially all sand, or various combinations of
sand and fines. Where fly ash is available it may be used instead of or in combi-
nation with pozzolan. For any given soil and application trial mixes must be made
to find the optimum.
Emulsified asphalt
Asphaltic emulsions "break" or settle at various rates. For earth construction,
slowly-breaking compositions are usually bes't. Unlike portland cement, asphaltic
. emulsions do not normally increase the strength of a given soil, they may decrease
it, but they do retain the dry strength in the presence of moisture. The minimum
amount of emulsion to achieve the objective is the optimum amount, in turn depending
upon the soil and the objective. The Housing and Home' Finance Agency has suggested
the following broad range: sandy loam,· 4-6%; clay loam, 7-12%; heavy clay, 13-20%.
These are merely approximations, and for any given situation test batches must be
made to determine the best mix.
Sulphite liquor
This has been found to be effective in imparting cohesive strength to soil and in
making it relatively impervious to water. Where such liquor is available, often as
a waste material from pulp and paper manufacture, it can provide a useful stabilizer
at low cos:t.
Other chemicaZ stabiZizers

Many chemical materials have been used experimentally, as well as in practice where
conditions such as cost and availability have been favorable. A few may be listed:
polyvinyl alcohol, sodium tetraphosphate, calcium acrylate and polyacrylate, poly-
acrylamide, vinsol, aniline-furfural, silicate of soda, and many others. Although
often relatively costly, percentages are usually low, ranging from 0.1 to 2% in
many cases. Sometimes they are used alone, sometimes in combination with soil-
cement.
Surface Coatings
Surface coatings are commonly applied to limit water absorption, erosion, and
general weathering. In moderate climates such coatings may be sufficient protection
for unstabilized earth, but in severe climates earth may have to be stabilized even
with surface coatings.
Many different plasters and stuccoes or other thick coatings are employed. Where
cost is of overriding importance and better materials are either too expensive or
unavailable, mud plaster is Widely employed. This may simply be more of the same
material as is used in the wall, especially if cob or wattle and daub, with water
content modified to make it workable enough to apply to the.wall. Frequently, how-
ever, the clay and sand (or fine and coarse) components are varied to obtain the
locally optimum combination of plasticity, minimum shrinkage (sand) and water tight-
ness (clay) that can be attained. Where kaolinite clay is available its combination
of minimum shrinkage, cohesiveness, and adhesiveness can be used to advantage in
the formulation.
Various admixtures, such as cow dung, may be employed to improve the characteristics.
Where lime is available, lime stucco may be employed, or the mud plaster may be
enhanced by adding lime. When lime plasters or stuccoes are employed, care must be
taken to obtain the optimum combination of lime and sand. Too much lime leads to
excessive shrinkage and cracking, whereas too much sand results in softness and
porosity. Once the stucco has undergone the slow process of hardening by reaction
with carbon dioxide in the air, a durable weather-resistant coating results.
Portland cement, if available and not too costly, can provide a hard durable protective
plaster or stucco when properly formulated with a good grade of clean sand, using
standard mixes. It can be extended with lime: as a matter of fact, a lime plaster
can often be made good enough by adding modest amounts of cement. If volcanic
materials such as pozzolan are available, usually at lower cost than portland cement,
lime plaster can be improved, and portland cement plasters reduced in cost, by adding
these materials.
Mud plasters are sometimes improved by the addition of asphalt, when available, but
the resulting color is often objectionable.
References
1. Housing and Home Finance Agency, Earth for Homes~ HHFA Ideas and Methods Exchange
No. 22, Housing and Home Finance Agency, Washington, D.C., 1956.
Materials 211
2. Wolfskill, L. A., Dunlap, W. A. and Gallaway, B. M., Earthen Home 'Constructiart 3

Bulletin No. 18 E 18-62, Texas Transportation Institute, A and M College of
Texas, College Station, Texas, 1962.
3. Opeka, Y. A., Housing the Rural Communities 3 Rural Housing Research Series
(No. RH-l), Building and Road Research Institute, Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research, Kumasi-Ghana, 1970.
4. Hammond, A. A., Lateritic Soils for Rural Housing3 Current Paper No.1, Building
and Road Research Institute, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
University, P. O. Box 40, Kumasi-Ghana, 1972.
7.3 WOOD
Wood is a familiar material found in virtually all parts of the world, versatile,
and relatively easy to fabricate. Its high strength and toughness relative to
weight make it attractive, but its susceptibility to destruction by a number of
agencies militate against it. The problem, as with all materials, is to utilize
its advantages and circumvent its limitations.
Classifications
Wood is classified in various ways, the most common probably being hardwood and
softwood. These terms correspond roughly to deciduous or broad-leafed tr€es and
to conifers or needle-bearing "evergreen trees. This classification leaves out
II
the large class of palms and similar trees that belong to a different major divi-
sion. I ,2
Growth
The palms grow by adding new wood fibers more or less throughout the trunk, whereas
the hardwoods and softwoods add new wood fibers to the woody core directly under
the bark. Growth is often seasonal, resulting in distinct rings of new wood, but
growth may also be more or less continuous.
Structure
The structure and properties of wood follow from its pattern of growth. It consists
mostly of long hollow tapered cells oriented parallel to the axis of the stem. These
hollow cells, closed at their,ends, are typically 100-200 times as long as their
diameters. A few short blocklike cells grow radially in the tree and form wood
rays. Some softwoods have resin-filled specialized cells called resin ducts.
Hardwoods have large-diameter specialized cells called pores or vessels for primary
transportation of sap (see, also, Bamboo). The orientation of the long longitudinal
cells parallel to the axis gives wood its distinctive directional properties, as
reflected in the familiar terms "along the grain" and "across the grain".
Because fibers are generally large in diameter and thin-walled early in the growing
season ("spring wood") and thin and heavy-walled late in the season ("summer wood") ,
annual rings often exhibit distinct changes in color from light to dark.
The walls of the wood cells consist of strands of cellulose wound in a long spiral
parallel to the axis, or long direction of the cell, somewhat like the fibers in a
rope. The cellulose strands or fibrils are extremely strong along their lengths,
but only loosely held together laterally. Cells are cemented together by lignin.
If wood were truly "solid" its specific gravity would be approximately 1.50, and it
would rapidly sink in water. All wood is porous because the wood cells are hollow.
The apparent specific gravity of oven-dry wood ranges from figures as low as 0.10
for such exceptionally light woods as balsa, to well over 1.00 for heavy tropical
woods such as lignum vitae and greenheart. The apparent specific gravity of wood
is a rough indicator of strength and hardness; the heavier, the harder and stronger.
Consequently, many "softwood" species are harder than many "hardwood".
Moisture Effects3 Shrinkage
In freshly-cut wood ("green") the cells are filled with water, some held freely in
the hollow cavities, other held more firmly or "imbibed" on the cellulose strands
in the cell walls. When the wood dries by evaporation, the free water leaves first.
The imbibed water then leaves and the cellulose strands move close together, causing
the cell to shrink laterally, but practically not at all longitudinally. As all
the longitudinal cells in a block of wood shrink laterally, the block also shrinks
laterally, that is, "across the grain". There is very little or no shrinkage along
the grain, a fact of great importance.in the use of wood.
The degree to which the imbibed moisture evaporates depends upon the relative humi-
dity of the surrounding air. At 100% relative humidity there is no loss. This is
called the fiber-saturation point. At zero the wood becomes completely dry. At
50% relative humidity, the average moisture content is about 12% of the dry weight
of wood. This is often called "air-dry". At 100% relative humidity, when the walls
are saturated but there is no free water, the average moisture content is about
25-30% of the dry weight.
Evidently, as the relative humidity of the air surrounding a piece of wood changes,
the moisture content of the cell walls also changes, and the wood either shrinks
or swells across the grain. Because the change is not instantaneous, daily varia-
tions in boards and thicker pieces are minor, but seasonal variations can cause
noticeable shrinkage and swelling.
The extent of shrinkage and swelling depends upon the apparent specific gravity, or
amount of wood present in a given volume; the higher the apparent specific gravity,
the greater the shrinkage. It is greatest in the direction tangential to the
growth rings, less in a radial direction, and least longitudinally, i.e. parallel
to the grain. Tangential shrinkage from green to completely dry ranges typically
from 4 to 10%. Radial is about one-third less.
Strength
Strength of wood is closely related to the structure of the wood cell. In a single
cell, strength is great' in tension along its axis because of the cellulose strands,
but tensile strength at right angles is low, much as a rope is strong in tension
along its length, but fibers can be pulled apart laterally. In compression, a
better analogy is a soda straw. Push on a single straw and it buckles, push on
a bundle of straws and although they still buckle eventually, they sustain each
other.. Compress a cell laterally and it flattens, but does not actually break. A
Materials 213
plock of wood is similar, it has extremely high tensile strength along or parallel
to the grain, poor tensile strength across the grain (it splits easily), good
compression along the grain (about 40% of tensile) and moderately good compression
perpendicular (about 25% of parallel). In shear, wood fibers can be slid past each
other longitudinally or along the grain fairly easily against only the strength of
the lignin cement, but only with difficulty laterally; in fact, the cells crush
before they slide past each other laterally. Wood is accordingly moderately
strong in shear parallel, but much stronger in shear perpendicular to the grain.
The bending strength parallel to the grain is intermediate between tensile and
compressive strengths parallel.
All strength properties are affected by moisture; the drier the wood the stronger,
but compression and bending are more markedly affected than tension. Compressive
and bending strengths may vary 25-40% or more in changing from dry to a condition
of saturated fiber walls. Free water has no effect.
When test values of strength of wood are not available, the apparent specific
gravity can be used as a rough indicator of strength. The apparent specific
gravity can be determined relatively easily by measuring and weighing a block
of wood. The moisture content can be determined by drying in an oven. The oven-
dry and air-dry volumes, of course, are less than the green volume.
Table 7.1. gives formulas for the calculation of approximate strength and hardness
values.
Structural- Timber
In timber used for construction the orientation of the grain significantly affects
strength. In a perfect timber free of all blemishes, in which the cells are oriented
parallel to the edges of the timber -straight grained- the full strength can be
achieved. If the grain is not parallel to the edges the strength rapidly falls
off so that at an angle of only 1 in 10 with respect to the edges, strength may be
off as much as 50%, and such a timber is best not used for carrying loads, although
it may be perfectly acceptable for such things as simple enclosure (sheathing boards)
where no great loads are encountered.
Knots cause local deviations of grain direction and therefore loss in strength,
although not in shear, where they can act as keys. Splits, however, reduce the
shear strength.
Commercial wood members must therefore take into consideration diagonal grain, knots,
and splits such as checks (caused by shrinkage in drying) and shakes (splits occurring
naturally in the tree). Engineering timbers are graded on this basis, plus an
allowance for dimensions, duration of load (impact, wind, snow, long-term load) ,
and a sui table factor of safety. .
Destroyers
As an organic material, providing food for some types of organisms, and subject to
oxidation, wood can succumb to a number of destroyers. Protective measures are
then needed.
Table 7.1. Relations Between Strength and Apparent Specific

Gravity.
Moisture Condition
Air-dry
Property Unit Green (12% moisture content)
Static Bending
Fiber stress at proportional
1.25 1.25
limit psi 10,200G 16,700G
1.25 1.25
Modulus of rupture psi 17,600G 25,700G
Modulus of elasticity 1,000 psi 2, 360G 2,800G
Impact Bending
1.25 1.25
Modulus of elasticity 1,000 psi 2,940G 3, 380G
Compression parallel to grain

Maximum crushing strength psi 6,730G 12,200G
Modulus of elasticity psi 2,910G 3,380G
Compression perpendicular to grain

limit psi 3,000G 2.25 4,630G 2.25
Hardness (load to embed 0.444" ball one half its diameter)

2.25 2.25
End pounds 3,740G 4,800G
2.25 2.25
Radial pounds 3,380G 3, nOG
2.25 2.25
Tangential pounds 3, 460G 3,820G
G apparent specific gravity of oven-dry wood based on volume at moisture content

indicated.
Source: Wood Handbook, U.S. Forest Products Laboratory.
Living organisms
Fungi. Decay or rot is caused by fungi, primitive plants unable to synthesize
their own food. These begin with spores or seeds carried from parent bracket fungi
to a favorable place on a'suitable piece of wood. The spore germinates and sends out
long threads or hyphae capable of dissolving wood for its own life processes. As
the wood becomes riddled it gradually weakens, softens, and crumbles.
aeing living plants, fungi need food, water, air, and suitable temperature conditions.
Wood provides the food, but if poisoned by the proper preservatives, can be protected.
Temperatures comfortable for humans are conducive to decay. Freezing merely makes
the fungi dormant. Heating, especially in, moist heat, to 65°C (150°F) or higher
Materials 215
can kill fungi, but will not stop reinfestation at normal temperatures.
From a practical standpoint, the most promising points are the need for water and
air.
Dry wood does not rot. Furthermore, it need only be air-dry, i.e., well below the
fiber-saturation point. If a structure is so built as to be well ventilated, with
no pockets to hold water, and not in contact with damp spots such as earth, it can
last for centuries or thousands of years, as attested by ancient Egyptian artifacts,
and by centuries-old wood structures in all parts of the world.
At the other extreme, wood continuously immersed in water does not rot. Piles
under water, or driven below the ground water level-in soil, have lasted for
centuries. Logs of species extinct for many thousands of years have been found
in deep excavations.
Keeping wood dry or immersed, therefore, keeps it from decaying.
MoZds. Molds are similar to fungi, but do not destroy wood. Sapwood is more suscep-
tible to attack than heartwood. The chief deleterious effect usually is discoloration
and stain. Mold, however, indicates that conditions may be favorable to decay.
Termites. These highly-organized efficient insects use wood as food. Their destruc-
tiveness is well known.
Subterranean termites have their headquarters in the ground and fan out through
subterranean galleries in the ground, or in covered runways when they must come to
the surface. Other termites, such as the dry-wood and damp-wood types, do not need
contact with the soil, but make their abodes directly in the wood.
In either event, the colony revolves about a queen and king who produce the eggs
from which termites are hatched. A special class of sexual insects leaves the colony
at maturity, and an occasional successful pair will start a new colony. The warrior
types guard the colony, especially if galleries are broken and subject to attack.
The most numerous class is the workers, blind, asexual, whose function is to find
wood, digest it, and bring it back to the colony for use.
Workers do their work under the surface, often riddling the wood without revealing
their presence, so that damage may be well advanced and failure may even occur before
they are detected. Testing for hollow sounds, or digging into the suspected wood
is often necessary to find them. Keeping the wood dry does not help, although
some termites prefer damp wood. Immersion, of course, is a deterrent. Poisoning
the wood with preservatives, or periodic fumigation of a building, are frequently
the only answers.
Carpenter ants, grubs, beetZes. These all burrow into wood. Carpenter ants use
wood for habitation, but not for food. In any case, infestation may be inconspi-
cuous, but usually small holes in the surface, or small piles of wood dust are
indicators.
Teredo, Limnoria. These ,are both found in salt water. Teredo, or shipworms, are.
mollusks. They attach themselves to the surface of a wood member in salt water, and
,using a pair of shells, bore long tunnels, about the diameter of a lead pencil as they
-grow and elongate. They do not come to the surface. Infestation under favorable condi-
tions can be rapid, and wood marine structures have been known to fail in as little
as six months.
Limnoria are small crustaceans that swim on the surface of the water and attack the
surfaces of wood members, burrowing into the surface, and weakening it so that ero-
sion occurs. A pile, for example, has an "hour-glass" figure, deepest at mean tide,
and tapering to high and low tide. Unlike teredo, their presence is readily evident.
Preservatives (See also 3 Bamboo)

Many materials have been and are utilized as wood preservatives. Their function
is to poison the wood against living organisms that attack it. One convenient
classification is into: oily preservatives, water-solUble salts, and solvent-
soluble organic preservatives.
Oily preservatives
The most widely-used is creosote, the fraction of coal tar that distils in the
approximate range 50-120° C (125-250° F). It is a mixture of organic materials found
effective in combatting wood-destroying organisms. Where wood tar creosote is
available, it too is highly effective. Creosote is sometimes blended with petroleum.
Creosote is highly effective, but its odor and black appearance make it unusable in
many locations, especially indoors. It can generally not be painted effectively.
For the most demanding applications, however, creosote is often the best answer.
Water-soluble salts
For applications in which odor, appearance, or both are important, certain water-
soluble salts have been found effective, particularly where dampness is involved,
but not running water. Zinc chloride, plain and chromated; sodium fluoride, and
others are in this category. Borax and boric acid were used in Roman times and are
still employed.
Solvent-soluble preservatives
Various water-insoluble chlorinated phenols, such as pentachlorophenol, are effec-
tive. They are impregnated into the wood with solvents which are then evaporated
leaving the preservative behind. Once the solution is gone, there is no residual
odor and little discoloration.
Fire
Preservatives against fire are commonly snuffing salts such as the ammonium phosphates.
While wood so treated can be destroyed in hot enough fires, the wood does not support
combustion and is self-quenching. Intumescent paints contain a constituent that
volatilizes at high temperatures, and gives off an inert gas at the same time that
the coating becomes viscous. The resulting gas bubbles form a thick insulating blan-
ket that retards the penetration of heat from the surrounding fire into the wood.
The most effective treating methods are not readily available in many areas, and
some raise costs, already too high for many people, to prohibitive levels. Badly
needed are indigenous low-cost readily-available materials that can be effectively
applied by simple means such as steeping or brushing.
Adhesively-Bound Wood Produats

Although plywood was known to the ancient Egyptians, and some of their glues are
still used today, it is only recently, with the advent of strong, reliable, waterproof
Materials 217
adhesives, that bonded wood materials have leaped ahead. Among the most important
are plywood, laminated wood, and particle board.
Plywood
In plywood, thin sheets of wood called veneers are glued together, with adjacent
sheets at right angles to each other, the total number of plies being three, five,
seven or some other odd number to achieve a balanced structure not prone to warp or
twist, as would occur with an even number of plies, or plies not symmetrically
"arranged with respect to the central plane (Fig. 7.4). For most general purposes,
veneers are peeled off the log in long sheets and cut into the desired sizes. For
fine figures and thinner sheets, veneers are sliced off square logs or flitches.
Refractory woods are sometimes sawn into veneers.
Fig. 7.4. Essentials of Plywood Structure Showing Faces, Core,

and One Pair of Cross-Bands.
To achieve balance, corresponding plies must have
corresponding properties, i.e., same shrinkage,
moisture content, thickness. The structure of the
plywood must be symmetrical, i.e., a mirror image
about the central plane.
Because of the cross-plied construction, plywood shrinks and swells very little.
Similarly, splitting is virtually eliminated, and nails, for example, can be driven
close to the edges without splitting the board. Strength and stiffness are more
nearly equalized in the longitudinal and cross directions of the sheet than is
normally true of wood. Finally, plywood is available in large, thin sheets, generally
not possible to obtain with plain wood.
Because of their lightness, good strength, stiffness, and size, plywood sheets are
extensively employed as sheathing, roof boards, and sub flooring or underlayment for
finished floors. The large sheets act as diaphragms with framing members to provide
stiffness and rigidity to the structure. If waterproof adhesives and suitable
surface veneers are used, the plywood can provide ex~osed interior and exterior
surfaces.
Laminated wood
In laminated wood, as contrasted with plywood, layers of wood are glued together
with all layers or laminae parallel. Usually the laminations are horizontal, but
they may be vertical (Fig. 7.5). The resulting member, therefore, has many of the
same attributes as "solid". wood; strength, stiffness, shrinking and swelling, and so
forth. There are important differences. In laminated wood the individual layers -
customarily boards or thin planks - are easily dried, and must be dried for successful
gluing. The resulting timber is dry, stable, and stronger than an equivalent green
solid timber. Large timbers are difficult to season, take a long time, shrink,
and tend to check or otherwise become degraded. In laminated timber, top-grade mate-
rial need be used only where stresses are maximum, the rest can be lower grade. More
important, however, is the ability to obtain large sizes - larger than feasible in
saw timber - and, most important, efficient curved shapes such as arches (Fig. 7.5).
These are easily made by bending and gluing thin layers. Lightweight efficient
structural shapes can therefore be obtained with laminated wood or combinations of
laminated wood and plywood.
24t
(0 )
12t
(c)
(d) (e)
Fig. 7.5. Types of Scarf Joints and Positions of Scarf and

Butt Joints in Laminated Beams.
The principal drawbacks are cost and waste. Individual laminations have to be cut
and surfaced smooth for gluing, resulting in sawdust and planing waste. To achieve
continuity in a single lamination, long tapered joints (scarfed) must be used where
stresses are appreciable (Fig. 7.5). Glue must be spread, the assembly must be put
together and clamped until the glue hardens, and almost always the surfaces must be
re-planed, resulting in additional waste. All these operations increase the cost.
The advantages of shape, size, dryness, and use of mixed grades must be sufficient
to offset the increased unit cost per board foot. Frequently they do, and laminated
wood has found widespread use.
ParticZeboard
Waste wood from lumbering and milling operations can be chipped into small particles,
irregular or flat, and bonded together with a suitable adhesive into large boards.
Because of the random orientation of the particles, the material has essentially
equal strength properties in all directions, and for the same reason, shrinkage and
swelling are equalized as well as greatly reduced because in anyone direction the
strong longitudinal chips oppose the shrinkage or swelling of transverse chips.
Sometimes flat flake chips are arranged on the surfaces to provide a sandwich-like
structure with enhanced surface properties and increased resistance to bending.
Materials 219
Fig. 7.6. Two Arrangements of Laminations in Laminated Timber.
Depending upon the adhesive employed, the particle board may be waterproof and
suitable for exterior use or intended only for interior use. Not infrequently it
provides the cores for sandwiches with facings of wood veneer or other sheet
materials.
Hardboard
If wood chips are subjected to high-pressure steam in an autoclave until they are
completely penetrated by the steam, the thermoplastic lignin softens, and when the
pressure is suddenly released by opening a fast-acting valve, the sudden explosive
expansion of the steam tears the wood cells apart into a fluffy random mass. This
can be reconstituted by pressing in a hot-plate press into a board whose density
and hardness depend upon the pressure employed~ Waterproofing agents, such as
waxes, and preservative materials can be incorporated into the mass before pressing
to provide moisture resistance (tempered hardboard) and resistance to destructive
organisms.
Hardboards are extensively employed as surface layers of sandwich structures, doors,

and furniture, as underlayments for finish flooring, as sheathing and surface finishes
for walls and ceilings, and many other applications in building and other industries.
References
1. Wood Handbook, Forest Products Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Madison, Wis., Published by Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C.
2. Dietz, A. G. H., Materials of Construction: Wood, Plastics, Fabrics, D. Van

Nostrand Company, N.Y., 1949.
3. Gurfinkel, G., Wood Engineering, Southern Forest Products Association, New

Orleans, La., 1973. .
7.4 BAMBOO
Distribution
Bamboo and the related family of reeds are among the oldest and most widespread
building materials in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, used widely
for house construction, especially in the rural areas and villages. According to
F. A. McClure 1 :
"Bamboos occur as more or less prominent elements in the natural vegetation of

many parts of the tropical, subtropical, and mild temperate regions of the world,
from sea level to altitudes of more than 13,000 feet, wherever a suitable combi-
nation of ecological factors prevails. Their natural distribution is very uneven,
both as to abundance and variety of kinds in a given area. Through the agency of
man, the distribution of many species of bamboo has been greatly widened. This
process probably has been going on for a long time, and the actual extent of it
has not been surveyed. However, some of the most valuable species have not been
distributed to any important extent and much remains to be done to make these more
generally known and available."
"The greatest concentration of bamboos and the highest development of their use
are to be found on the southeastern borders of Asia, and on adjacent islands. This
area extends from India to China on the mainland, and from Japan to Java among the
islands. Some 20-odd species of bamboo have been reported from the little-known
flora of Africa, and many of these are used by the native peoples for house cons-
truction. The Island of Madagascar, whose flora is more fully known, has been
found to have more native species of bamboo than are known to occur in the whole
of Africa. Australia has perhaps a half-dozen native species; Europe none. In the
Western Hemisphere, the natural distribution of bamboo extends from southern United
States to Argentina and Chile. Some 200 species are native to this area, but they
are very unevenly distributed. Many of the recorded species are very imperfectly
known, and some kinds have been recorded under more than one name, but the known
bamboo flora of the world probably totals more than 700 species, classified in
about 50 distinct genera."
Growth
Although most bamboo grows in forests and is naturally propagated, commercial
plantations are now common in many countries. Species not native to some regions
have been introduced to improve the stock or to meet requirements better than is
possible with indigenous species.
Bamboo are grasslike woody plan ts. New trunks, called culms, are formed annually
in clumps growing out of the spreading rhizomes or roots. Generally, the culms
grow to their full height in four to six months of the first growing season.
Culms vary markedly in height and diameter. Some grow to 35-36 m heights (approx-
imately 110 ft) while others are mere shrubs. Diameters may vary from 1 to 30 cm
(0.4-12 in.) • Once the ful'l height has been reached, lignification of the walls
of the culm takes place during the subsequent two to three years. Full maturity
is usually reached in five to six years, but may take longer.
Structure
The culm is a hollow cylinder divided at intervals by raised nodes from which any
branches arise (Fig. 7.7). At each node a transverse wall called a septum or dia-
phragm separates the cavity of one internode from that of the next. Cavities are
extremely variable and may be large in diameter when culm walls are thin, or prac-
tically non-existent when culms are virtually solid.
Tissue of the culm wall consists of parenchyma cells and vascular bundles made up
of thick-walled fibers, vessels, and sieve tubes (see section on Wood). All cells
including parenchyma are parallel to the axis. of the culm, unlike the parenchyma
Materials 221
in wood rays. Fibers constitute some 60-70% of the total weight. Vessels constitute
about 15%. In the internodes vessels are parallel to the axis, but at the nodes
they are strongly branched into the nodal wall or diaphragm. The vessels are the
primary transporters of water. The outside and inside of the culm are covered by
hard waxy cuticles resistant to the absorption of water.
Strength
Strength properties, as is true of wood, vary with species, growing conditions,
position within the culm, moisture content, and other variables. Generally,
properties vary more among species than within a species. Table 7.2 gives a
few properties reported by various investigators. 2 Modulus of rupture varies
from 623 to 1,926 kgf/cm 2 (8,800 to 27,000 psi), modulus of elasticity from 73,000
to 183,000 kgf/cm 2 (1,022,000 to 2,6000,000 psi), and compressive strength parallel
to culm from 320 to 703 kgf/cm 2 (4,500 to 10,000 psi). These values are comparable
to those of wood parallel to the grain; if anything, they tend to run somewhat
higher than the customarily employed structural species of wood.
Fig. 7.7. Gross Features of a Bamboo Culm

a. The culm
b. Vertical section of the culm
c. Branches of a node
d. Cross section of the culm
Because of the alignment of cells parallel to the axis of the culm, bamboo is
notably weak in tension perpendicular to the "grain" or longitudinal direction,
and splits easily.
tv
TABLE 7.2. Strength of Bamboos Used in Building Construction.* tv
tv
Species Location Age Condition Splint Specific Static bending Crushing Author·
(years) and or full gravity Fibre Modulus Modulus strength
moisture round stress of of parallel
content at rupture elasti- to grain
elastic city
limit lOOOkgf/
(%) kgf/cm2 kgf/cm2 cm 2 kgf/cm 2
Dendrocalamus Dehra Dun, Average Green Full 0.575 394 696 124 320 Limaye
strictus India of 1/2 72.2
2 1/2
Dendrocalamus Dehra Dun, Average Kiln-dry Full 0.732 668 1139 159 578 Limaye
2 1/2
Dendrocalamus Dehra Dun, Average Dry Splint 0.666 1219 1926 175 Limaye
2 1/2
De ndrocalamus Dehra Dun, 2 1/2 Dry Full 1190 183 619 Limaye :J>I
......
str. (solid) India 13.0 tr
CD
11
BambuiJa Puerto Rico Dry Splint 0.50a 363 682 80 320 Heck rt
arundinacea 9.4 (resul ts averaged ~
Bambusa U. Pradesh, Green Full 0.783 651 73 466 Limaye :r:
balboa India 42.0
....t::l
CD
Barribusa Dehra Dun, Average Green Full 0.631 334 623 98 453 Sekhar rt
N
nuntans India 1-4 95.1
Barribusa Philippines Air-dry Splint 1180 535 Espinosa

spinosa
Barribusa South Air-dry Full 0.83 844 1547 162 Heck

tuldoides America 11.1
Bambusa Puerto Rico 10.0 Full 0.70 a 653 1224 159 584 Heck
vulgaris Puerto Rico 9.5 Splint 0.61 659 1171 562 562 Heck
Barribusa tulda Puerto Rico 10.0 Splint 0.79 a 931 1247 196 703 Heck
PhyUostachys China Green Splint 0.666 490 995 81 424 Chinese publi-
edulis (results averaged) cation
*The information contained in this Table has been obtained from various sources. (2)
aBased on oven-dry weight.and volume •
Materials 223
In any given application, the properties of the particular bamboo to be employed
under the conditions of use should be ascertained, rather than using average figures.
This is true also of wood and other materials, especially those of natural origin.
Deterioration and Preservation 2

One of the most serious limitations in the use of bamboo for housing is its suscep-
tibility to decay, caused by fungi, and to attack by insects, including termites
and an assortment of beetles. Frequently, the life of a bamboo house is as little
as 2-3 years, especially the parts in contact with the ground 1 With preservative
treatment the life can be extended to 15 years or considerably more. 2 The
problems with preservative treatments are cost and the ready availability of simple
processes adaptable to village and rural situations.
Processes used for preservative treatment include leaching, whitewash, brushing,

spraying, swabbing, dipping, hot and cold bath, Boucherie method, and pressure
treatment. 1 ,2
Many preservatives are employed, depending upon the conditions to be combatted.

Among them are familiar wood preservatives: coal-tar creosote; various combinations
of copper, chrome, arsenic, boric compounds, and zinc; zinc chloride; copper and
zinc naphthenate; borax and boric acid; Dieldrin; and pentachlorophenol. Some are
more readily available at th~ village level than others.
Methods
Some of the available methods are summarized below and in Table 7.3. 2
Leaching. Immersing the culms in water for a few days to several weeks to remove
the starches and sugars greatly increases resistance to attack by certain beetles
that use the starch and sugar for food. Running water is preferable.
Whitewash, simiLar coatings. Lime, tar and combined tar and lime, often sprinkled
with sand, are frequently used as protective coatings. Like all coatings, they
are effective only as long as they are continuous and intact.
Brushing, spraying, swabbing, dipping. These treatments are best for temporary
protection during storage, or before impregnation. Various chemicals, such as
Dieldrin, Aldrin, DDT, borax, and pentachlorophenol have been found useful. Dipping
is probably the most effective and least wasteful. Spraying can often be accompli-
shed with hand-operated sprayers.' Brushing and swabbing are effective, but slow.
Steeping. This is similar to leaching, except that the culms or strips are immersed
in the preservative instead of in water. Steeping is usually the cheapest and
simplest method, and can give very good results. The principal drawback is the
long time required, usually about five weeks for moderately good impregnation, and
longer to meet more severe conditions such as contact with the ground, or for large
thick-walled culms. If the bamboo is split, soaking times can often be reduced by
one-third or one-half. Culms should preferably be green, because the pits in the
walls of vessels and other cells are open and allow the preservative to penetrate.
In dry bamboo the pits are often closed or blocked by dried sap.
Boucherie process. This process is particularly effective for green culms in the
round. A flexible tube is clamped to the base of the green culm with branches and
leaves left on, and the other end of the tube goes to an elevated tank of preser-
vative (usually about 10 m or 30 ft above ground). If a closed tank is available,
air pressure inside the tank, easily applied by a bicycle pump, can be used instead
TABLE 7.3. Recommended Preservatives for Different End Uses of Bamboo.
End use of bamboo Recommended Con centra- Loading of Proposed Expected

preservatives a tion of dry chemi- treatment service
Dry Green preserva- cal in life
Bamboo Bamboo tive bamboo (years)
(%) (kg/m 3 )
Use in the open and a 80-128 -Open tank for 15

in contact with the pressure process
ground (e.g., posts, b,c 6-8 8-12 -Pressure process
pale-fencing, etc.) b,c 6-8 5-8 -Modified Boucherie
for 6-8 hours or
steeping for 35-
40 days.
Use in the open but a 48-80 -Hot dipping or 15

not in contact with open tank or .
the ground (e.g. , pressure process
bridges, scaffold- b,c 5 5-8 -Pressure process
ings, ladders, etc.) b,c 5-6 5-8 -Modified Boucherie
for 4-6 hours or
steeping for
20-25 days.
Use under cover:
a) House building, a 32-48 -Hot dipping or 20-30
walls, trusses, open tank or
purlins, rafters, pressure process
tent poles, etc. b,c 4 4 -Pressure process
d,e,f 6 8 -Pressure process
b,c 4 4 -Modified Boucherie 20-30
for 4 hours or
steeping for
15-20 days.
d,e,f 6 8 -Modified Boucherie
for 4 hours or
steeping for
15-20 days.
b) Screens, b,c 3 3 -Pressure process 10

ceilings, doors and d,e,f,g,h 5 5 -Pressure process 10
door panelling, b,c 3 3 -Modified Boucherie 10
furniture, etc. for 2-3 hours or
steeping for
8-12 days.
d,e,f,g 5 5 -Modified Boucherie 10
for 2-3 hours or
steeping for 8-12 days.
Prophylactic treatment: green bamboos including

splints and round bamboos for eventual full-
fledged treatment after air drying.
i,j Dipping for 5 minutes.
a The letters in these columns refer to entries in the following list of preservatives:
Materials 225
TABLE 7.3. (cont.) List of Preservatives
(a) Coal tar creosote and fuel oil, 50:50 by weight.

In highly termite infested areas it is preferable to add 1% dieldrin, and in highly
decaying areas 1% pentachlorophenol.
(b) Copper-chrome-arsenic composition (Ascu).

A typical composition of this preservative comprises copper sulphate
(CuS04 .5H20), arsenic pentoxide (AS20S) and sodium or potassium dichromate
(Na2Cr207 .2H20 or K2Cr207) in the proportion of 3:1:4.
(c) Acid-cupric-chromate composition (Celcure).

A typical composition of this preservative comprises 1.68 parts of chromium
sesque oxide (Cr203) (equivalent to 2.5 parts of sodium dichromate), 50 parts
of copper sulphate and 47.5 parts of sodium dichrcmate.
(d) Copper-chrome-boric composition.

This consists of boric acid (H3B03)' copper sulphate and sodium or potassium
dichromate in the proportion of 1.5:3:4.
(e) Copper-chrome-zinc-arsenic composition.

A typical composition of this preservative comprises 28 parts of arsenic
acid (H2As04 • 1/2 H20), 25 parts of sodium arsenate (Na2HAs04 • 12H20),
17 parts of sodium dichromate and 30 parts of zinc sulphate (ZnS04 • 7H20).
(f) Chromated zinc chloride.

This consists of zinc chloride (znC12) and sodium or potassium dichromate
in the ratio of 1:1.
(g) Boric acid-borax, 2.5% each.
(h) Copper naphthenate and zinc naphthenate.

These are salts of naphthenic acid and should contain 0.5% of copper and
3% of zinc by weight, respectively.
(i) Dieldrin pentachlorophenol emulsion.

Dieldrin 18% emulsifiable concentrate, 1 part; PCP 12% emulsifiable
concentrate, 4 parts; water, 75 parts by weight. Tb this may be added
copper naphthenate (1% copper) in emulsifiable form, 1 part by weight.
(j) Water solution containing borax 2%, sodium pentachlorophenate 1%, and gammexane
(water dispersible), 1% by weight.
of elevating the tank. The preservative, preferably water-soluble, diffuses under

pressure into and along the culm and into the septa or diaphragms, displacing the
sap and forcing it out the open end. Leaves and branches aid the process.
The process is most effective with green bamboos felled when full of sap. It is
ineffective with dry over-mature bamboos.
A variant of the Boucherie process, called the steeping process, consists of

standing the freshly cut culms, with branches and leaves left on, in a container
of preservative to a depth of 30-60 em (12-24 in). AS moisture is transpired
through the leaves, the preservative is drawn up the stem. One to two weeks may
be nee~ed for the process.
Hot and cold bath. In the simplest process, the culms (which can be dry as well
as green) are heated in a tank of hot preservative to a temperature of about 90° C
(194° F), and allowed to cool. Good penetration is promoted if the septa of the
nodes are first bored through or otherwise broken to give the preservative access
to the cavities. A variant of the method, used with wood, is to place the material
in preservative at a temperature just above the boiling point of water. Moisture
is converted to steam and IJDst of it leaves. When the hot material is then trans-
ferred to a cold bath, the remaining steam condenses, creating a partial vacuum to
draw in the preservative.
If the preservative cannot be heated, the culms may first be heated in water or in
a liquid compatible with the preservative, and then the hot culms immersed in a
bath of cold preservative.
Fire !!etardant treatment. The chemicals used in treatment of wood may be employed
with bamboo. A recommended combination preservative for protection against fire,
fungus, and insect attack consists of 3 parts ammonium phosphate, 3 parts boric
acid, 1 part copper sulfate,S parts zinc chloride, 3 parts sodium dichromate, plus
water to 100 parts. Such combinations are relatively costly and not always readily
available.
Uses in House Building 1
Frequently a rural village house is entirely built of bamboo, including foundation,

frame, floors, walls, partitions, ceilings, doors, windows, and roof. Pipes and
troughs are also commonly made of bamboo. Perhaps more frequently, the supporting
frame of a house is of wood, usually a locally-available hardwood, and the enclosure
of bambOO, either by itself or combined with Other materials.
For these purposes, bamboo may be employed in the round as full culm, split in half,
split radially into smaller segments or withes, shaved or split tangentially into
thin strips, flattened into boards, and woven into mats.
Full culm
This is the commonest shape. To provide a nearly constant diameter, the tapered
upper end is often cut off and used for such purposes as roofing or infill. If
culms are to be closely fitted, noticeably enlarged nodes are trimmed to the same
diameter as the rest of the culm. Curved or crooked culms may sometimes be straigh-
tened by heating and placing in forked pegs, or by pushing through holes in a post.
(In Japan, culms are sometimes constrained to grow up through a rectangular form,
which forces the c~m to take a rectangular shape with rounded corners, often more
Materials 227
useful than the normal round shape. It has been speculated that at least the
principal posts of a house could be grown this way.)
Half culm
Because bamboo splits readily· and straight longitudinally, half or quarter culms
are easily made with a heavy knife or by starting splits and then pushing the culm
against a wedge or bar. Quarter and finer splits are made the same way. Machines
to perform essentially the same splitting action have been developed (Fig. 7.8).
Fig. 7.8. Splitting of Bamboo by Machine.

Courtesy of Building Research Institute, Indonesia~
Splits
This term is used for shapes smaller than quarters. They may be radial or tangential,
and be produced by hand or simple slitting machine. The hard outer tangential strip
may be used for special purposes where a smooth hard surface is wanted. Radial strips
with hard smooth edges are generally used as they are.
Boards
Boards are fabricated by making a series of cuts in a culm at each node, e.g., with
an axe, then making one long split, and finally spreading and flattening the culm.
The diaphragms or .septa at the nodes are removed. BOards are stacked, face side
to face side and inside to inside, weighted to prevent curling, and dried. If
large sheets. are to be made, bo"ards may be plaited, or laid up in cross-plied
arrangement as in plywood and glued or otherwise firmly fastened together.
Mats
Mats are made by plaiting splits by hand or by machine (Fig. 7.9~). A variety of
patterns may be employed, similar to the patterns available in woven fabrics.
Fig. 7.9. Weaving Bamboo Mats by· Machine. Bamboo mats, the
traditional building material, have been improved
by machine weaving and laminating the resul ting
panels to form stronger wall units. Courtesy of
Building Research 'Institute, Indonesia.
Foundations l
Bamboo is commonly used as supporting posts. Usually large-diameter thick-walled
culms are favored to carry the loads, but if such culms are not available, clusters
of smaller culms may be lashed together. Posts may be' continuous to the roof.
Untreated posts in contact with soil may last, on an average 2-3 years, possibly
5 if conditions are favorable. Here, treatment with a preservative such as creosote
or pentachlorophenol, if available, can be especiall~ effective against decay and
soil-based insects. More durable foundations consist of naturally durable or
treated wood, or masonry such as stone or concrete blocks.
Frames
Frames are often entirely o~ bamboo, but may be combined with wood. Woodusually
provides greater stiffness, and stiffer joints. In earthquake regions, however,
the resilience of bamboo frames often provides greater resistance to collapse
than wood, and much greater resistance than masonry or earth.
Only whole culms are used for the principal parts of the frame.. These include
posts, beams, joists, rafters, trusses, .studs, and braces, similar to the parts
.of a standard wood frame. The sizes and spacing of the culms must be selected not
only on the basis of load-carrying capacity, but in light of the greater springiness
or "bounciness" of the bamboo. which often results.in closer spacing than for corres-
ponding wood members.
Materials 229
Few species of bamboo can be nailed without splitting. Holes must be drilled for
nails and similar fastening such as bolts and pins. For this reason, as well as
the scarcity of metal fastenings (formerly at least), the traditional method of
fastening is by lashing. Withes are commonly split bamboo, less commonly rattan,
also tough vines and bark, but soft iron wire, usually galvanized, fs often favored
when available. Some typical joints and fastenings are shown in Fig. 7.10. 1
Tie holes Hori~onlol f"'ed 10

verllcol memoer
bored 01 angie
10 lies cross
~ -HO~~;:cr
, - --
I
TOP VIEW I
I :Key
'--------
SECTION
TENON KEY JOINT FOR HEAVY

DUTY OR FINE WORK
DOUBLE BUTT TIED JOINT
SiDE
VIEW
JOINT FOR CONNECTION

DF SMALL MEMBERS TO
LARGE MEMBERS
CONNECTION OF BAMBOO
SECTiON SIDE VItW TD ROUND PINS. ETC.
Wire or
vint fie
SINGLE
BUTT JOINT
DOUBLE BUTT
BENT JOINT
Suiloble for furniture
and similor uses HOflUONTAL SECTION
HORUONTAL SECTION
Fig. 7.10. Joints Used in Building with Bamboo.

Floors
Floors may be tamped earth, preferably raised to avoid inundation, and best with a
high clay content, stabilized if possible (see pection-on Soil). Bamboo boards
are sometimes pounded to the earth floor after it has been levelled, but before
tamping.
It is often preferable to raise the floor for sanitary reasons and for improved
ventilation. The floor may be high enough to allow lifestock underneath. In such
instances,l the floor frame - beams, joists - maybe bamboo culms of sufficient
size and suitable spacing, and the floor itself closely spaced culms, strips or
boards, fastened by lashing, nails, thongs or wire to the floor frame.
Walls 3 partitions 3 ceilings
Where substantial walls are wanted, bamboo lends itself well to wattle and daub,
or to a double layer of wattles with earth fill between.
Walls may be built of whole or half bamboo culms closely spaced either vertically
or horizontally. Vertical placement allows quicker shedding of rainwater with less
susceptibility to decay because of water pockets than does horizontal. Thin walls
and partitions are commonly made of woven matting, usually with strips horizontal
and vertical, but sometimes inclined at 45 degrees, the latter being stiffer against
lateral motion such as is caused by winds and earthquakes.
Where ceilings are employed, they are commonly bamboo matting, sometimes with a
ventilating opening around the periphery and at partitions. Still better ventilation
may be achieved by omitting the ceiling.
Roof
The strength of bamboo recommends it for roof framing and it is widely employed
either for the entire" frame or for supporting purlins for such roofing materials
as thatch, tile, corrugated metal and cement-asbestos, shingles, and bamboo itself.
Halved culms are often laid with alternately convex and concave sides overlapping
in much the same manner as Mission tile.
Troughs and pipes
Half culms, with diaphragms at the nodes relIDved, make good eaves trOughs or other
troughs to carry away water.
Pipes are sometimes made by forcing a long rod of the proper diameter along the
cavity of a culm, knocking out the diaphragms at the nodes. They may also be made
by halving a culm, knocking out the diaphragm on one or both halves, and refitting
the halves, fastening them together by lashing or otherwise. Drainage pipes to be
buried are sometimes made by this means, first cutting notches in one half to allow
water to enter, and treating the halves against decay and insect attack before
fastening them together.
Reinforcement for Concrete 3
Because of bamboo's attractive high strength and ready availability in many regions
where reinforcing steel is scarce and expensive, the idea of using bamboo as rein-
forcement for concrete has received widespread attention and trial.
Materials 231
ProbZems
Two principal problems must be met. The first is the relatively low stiffness or
elastic modulus of bamboo (see section on Strength, above). Although its strength
is good, it must stretch an appreciable amount to attain that strength, and in so
doing it allows the adjacent concrete to crack. Although such cracks are not
necessarily disastrous, they are at the least unsightly, and they may lead to dete-
rioration of the concrete. Furthermore, sagging of concrete beams and slabs so
reinforced may be excessive because of the low overall stiffness.
The second problem is that of obtaining a good bond between concrete and bamboo.
If the two are to act together, the concrete must grip the bamboo strongly enough
to prevent slippage between the two when the structure is loaded.
Both problems can be approached by using enough bamboo to keep the stresses so low
that the problems do not arise, on the assumption that bamboo is plentiful and cheap.
While this does help to overcome cracking and slippage it is wasteful. Tests have
shown that if cracking and deflection are not limiting factors, the full strength
of the bamboo can be developed if slippage does not occur. The latter can be
ameliorated by using compositions of concrete that bond well to the bamboo, or by
roughening the surface of the bamboo, particularly the smooth waxy casing. Heavy
nodes in the bamboo also help and are frequently sufficient; they are similar to
the deformed surfaces of steel reinforcing rods. Small metal wedges driven into
the surface of the bamboo act as mechanical keys or shear connectors. Various
adhesives applied to the surfaces of the bamboo have been investigated. For a
given cross-section of bamboo, multiple thin strips provide more bonding surface
than single culms, and the split surfaces bond better than the smooth waxy outer
surfaces of the culms.
Moisture and temperature

Other important considerations respecting bamboo reinforcement are moisture sensi-
tivity, and differential thermal expansion.
If too dry bamboo is embedded in concrete, it absorbs moisture, swells, and may
cause longitudinal cracks in the concrete, leading to loss of bond and deterioration.
If too green bamboo is used, it subsequently shrinks in the dry concrete, causing
a loss of bond. To overcome this, various coatings have been tried in an effort
to reduce migration of moisture and simultaneously to improve the bond. Brush coats
of asphalt and coal tar, if not too thick, have helped reduce moisture problems and
improve bond. Coatings of rosin in alcohol, SUbsequently coated with white lead,
have been reported to be helpful. Coatings of epoxies and other adhesives have
been investigated.
Bond strengths for untreated bamboo have been reported between 0 and 13 kg/cm2
(0-182 psi), and for treated bamboo between 4 and 24 kg/cm 2 (56-336 psi).
The thermal coefficients of expansion of concrete and bamboo are different, with
the result that marked changes in temperature can cause significant bond stresses
capable of leading to bond failure.
Design
The following recommendations are made respecting design3:
The amount of reinforcement should not exceed 4-5% of the cross section. Higher
per~entages tend to result in no increase and possible decrease in strength of the
'reinforced beam or slab.
If whole culms are used, they should not exceed 1.8 em (3/4 in.) in diameter. Distal
and basal ends should alternate in adjacent culms to provide reasonably uniform
reinforcement throughout the length of the member. If seasoned culms or strips are
used in important structures, some form of waterproofing should be employed.
If excessive deflection is to be avoided (conforming to the usual limit of 1/360

span), stresses in the bamboo should be limited to 214-285 kgf/cm 2 (3,000-4,000 psi).
Vertical culms or strips are employed in much the same way as stirrups in steel-
reinforced concrete. Inclined culms or strips may be employed for diagonal rein-
forcement.
It should be evident that while bamboo can be employed for reinforcement of concrete,
and is an attractive material, it must be used with its properties and peculiarities
clearly in mind.
References
1. McClure, F. A.,Bamboo as a Building Material, United States Department of
Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, Washington, D.C.
2. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, The Use of Bamboo
and Reeds in Building Construction, study prepared by D. Narayanamurti and Dinesh
Mohan, United Nations, N.Y., 1972.
3. Glenn, H. E., Bamboo Reinforocement ofPorotZand Cement Concroete Stroucturoes,

Clemson College Engineering Experiment Station, Bul. 4, Clemson, S. C., May, 1950.
7.5 SULFUR
Elemental or raw sulfur is found in all volcanic areas of the world and in extensive
deposits elsewhere. Sulfur has'long been recovered from pyrites and mined ores.
More recently, large supplies, now estimated at approximately 30 percent of total
production, are coming from the de-sulfurization of natural gas, smelter gas, and
petroleum. As high-sulfur coal undergoes similar processing, or as stack gases
are cleaned, additional supplies will become available.
For use in building, sulfur's melting point of 113-12boc (235-250° F) is important;

high enough to avoid melting in most applications, but low enough to be easily
melted with simple equipment. The heat of fusion is 30 cal/kg, a relatively small
amount. Ignition temperature is 245°C (475°F) and boiling point is 440°C (830°F).
Among the properties of sulfur favorable to construction 1 is its relatively easy

utilization, requiring generally simple handicraft techniques. It is waterproof,
adheres strongly to many construction materials, has little or no residual taste
or smell (except when burning, when extremely noxious sulfur dioxide is given off),
does not unduly affect the skin of most people, and is a poor conductor of heat and
electricity. It hardens quickly as it cools, has high resistance to acids and salt
solutions, and can be stored indefinitely.
As is true of other materials, sulfur has its drawbacks. Foremost is flammabili~y,

although ways of reducing flammability are being developed by the use of relatively
inexpensive fillers. 2 It is brittle, although the addition of hydrocarbons can
reduce brittleness and increase plasticity. The incorporation of fibers likewise
Materials 233
not only increases strength but resistance to impact.
Where sulfur is available at relatively low cost, such as in some developing areas
with petroleum production, interest in its use as a binder in building units such
as concrete block and tile, in coatings, and as impregnants, is growing.
Concre te and Masonry
Sulfur may be used in place of portland cement or other hydraulic cements in making
concrete, or it may be used as an impregnant to improve the properties of masonry
units such as concrete block and brick.
SU~fur concrete
Sulfur binds well to mineral and other aggregates used in concrete. Strength
properties comparable to portland cement concrete have been reported. For example,
compressive strengths of 190 kgf/cm 2 (2,700 psi) have been achieved with 16% sulfur
and standard high-strength aggregates. Increasing the sulfur content to 30% and
adding 50% sand and 20% other mineral aggregates has resulted in compressive
strengths of 440 kgf/cm 2 (6,280 psi) •
Such freezing and thawing tests as have been made appear to show that with proper
mixes, sulfur concrete with good resistance can be achieved. In many developing
areas, freezing and thawing are not important. Because sulfur is insoluble in
water, resistance to rain is good.
Mixing of concrete eVidently calls for modifications of standard equipment. It is

reported that the best and quickest approach is to use a heated mixer in which the'
o
aggregate alone is first heated to approximately l15-l2l C (240-250° F) • The sulfur
is separately melted and heated to approximately 121°C (250°F) and added in the
mixer. A short time suffices to achieve thorough mixing. The hot mix must be
deposited quickly enough to prevent cooling and hardening before the mold or form
is properly filled. Segregation must be avoided, as in any concrete. Gloves help
to protect hands from hot materials, as well as from possible irritation of the
skin. Safety glasses or face masks also provide protection against spattering.
Once the concrete has cooled and hardened, it is ready to use. There is no curing
time. Forms or molds can be stripped at once and reused. Waste or reject material
can be remelted and reused. In theory, at least, if a building is demolished it need
only be remelted and reused with little if any waste.
Most experimentation has been with concrete blocks and tile. Because the hot molten
concrete fills molds well, depending on the composition and fineness of the aggregate,
fairly intricate interlocking blocks have been produced. A problem is shrinkage,
and this must be allowed for in the design and filling of molds. Figure 7.11 shows
a house built of sulfur concrete blocks. 4
Mass concrete awaits the development of suitable simple methods of handling large
quantities of the hot mix and getting it into place before it hardens.
Impregnated masonry units
Marked improvements in strength of masonry units, including cinder concrete blocks

and various types of brick, have been achieved by impregnating with sulfur. 5
Table 7.4 gives a summary of some test results, including impregnation with acrylic
polymers (see Plastics, below). It is seen that compressive strength is approxi-
mately doubled by impregnation with sulfur.
Fig. 7.11. House Built of Sulfur-concrete Block.
Table 7.4. Results of Compression Tests on Individual Blocks

and Bricks.
Type Loading Ultiniate Ultimate

(%) load stress
(lb) (psi)
Type A concrete blocks, control

Average 253,300 4,161
Type A concrete blocks, PMMA

treated. Average 12.38 477,200 7,840
Cinder block, control. Average 83,130 2,185
Cinder block, sulfur treated.

Average 25.52 169,000 4,446
Solid brick, . control. Average 322,670 11,293
Solid brick, sulfur treated.

Average 13.25 664,850 23,653
Dartmouth brick, control.

Average 257,000 9,430
Dartmouth brick, sulfur treated.

Average 16.73 483,500 17,690
Materials. 235
In water immersion tests, the same 'investigators report a 90% reduction of water
absorption in brick, and 95% in cinder concrete block.
Impregnation is simply achieved by melting the sulfur in any suitable container such
as a pail or drum, with any suitable heat source, immersing the oven-dried units
in the molten sulfur and, after withdrawal from the bath, immediately cooling in
water to prevent draining the molten sulfur from the large pores.
Surface-bonded masonry
Sulfur reinforced with fiber and treated with a plasticizer that also acts as a
thixotropic agent is being used to construct masonry walls by a surface-bonding
technique instead of the usual mortar joint. 6
The procedure is to bond the first course of block to the concrete floor slab by
pouring enough of the molten sulfur mix into the cavities of the block to effect
a bond to the floor, and allowing it to cool. Subsequent courses of block are laid
up dry. The 'sulfur-fiber mix is either brushed over the joints (2-4 mm thick) ,
or is brushed or sprayed completely over. the surface including joints. It must
.be done quickly enough to avoid cooling and hardening before it is in place (Fig.
7.12) •
Fig. 7.12. Applying Sulfur-bonding Mixture to Surface of

Dry-stacked Blocks (Southwest Research Institute).
Tests indicate that the wall is stronger than standard masonry.
Similar wall construction is obtained by brushing or spraying a mixture of glass

fiber and portland cement paste on dry-stacked blocks. Glass fiber must be alkali-
resistant.
Lintels can be made by bonding blocks with sulfur in the form of a beam, and lifting
into place.
In fire tests of a small wall exposed to burning cooking oil, the sulfur surface
bonded areas caught fire. but often after the oil burned away the sulfur surface
Fig. 7.13. Dry-stacked Wedged Blocks with Sulfur-bonding

Mixture Applied to Joints Only (Southw~st
Research Institute)
went out after periods of approximately one hour, leaving an intumescent charred
surface.
Fire resistance remains an important consideration, depending upon the application.
Pavements
Sulfur combined with asphalt can provide superior roadbeds,7 especially where
aggregates are scarce or poorly graded, resulting in large voids among the particles.
The sulfur fills those voids. It is reported that increased strength and hardness
allow reductions in thickness of pavements of up to 20%. Depending upon relative
availability of asphalt and 'sulfur, costs may also be reduced as much' as 30%.
References
1. National Academy qf Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, ,D. C.,

Roofing in Developing Countries - Research for New Technologies" 1974.
2. Dale,- John M. and Ludwig, Alle!) , C., "Fire-RetardingElemental Sulfur", Journal

of Materials" Vol. II, No. 1, March 1967, pp. 131-145.
3. McGill Universi ty School of Architecture, "Sulfur"" in the Problem Is" Part II,
Minimum Cost Housing Studies Report, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
4. Rybczynski, Witoid, Sulphur Building" School of Architecture, McGill University,

Montreal, Canada.
Materials 237
5. Chen, W.F., Menta, H. C. and Slutter, R. G., "Sulfur and Polymer-Impregnated

Brick and Block Prisms", Journal of Testing and Evaluation, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 292-293.
6. Southwest Research Institute, Teohniques for Sulfur Surface Bonding for Low-
Cost Housing, San Antonio, Texas, 1975.
7. ~ngineering News Record, Cost Cutting Sulfur Pavement Making Inroads,

September 30, 1976, pp. 18~19.
7.6 PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES

Although plastics and other synthetic polymers are largely high-technology materials,
relatively costly and not generally available in many areas for housing for low-
income people, in other regions with plentiful petroleum and a growing petrochemicals
industry plastics offer attractive possibilities both by themselves and in combina-
tion with other materials. It is therefore pertinent to look into their advantages,
limitations, and applications, both existing and potential.
No attempt will be made here to discuss the chemistry or molecular structure of

plastics and other polymers. It is sufficient to recognize that there are some
20-30 commercially important classes of plastics with thousands of different formu-
lations modified by copolymerization, plasticizers, fillers, stabilizers, dyes,
pigments, and other modifiers. Some are hard and brittle, others are soft and
flexible. Some are transparent or translucent, others are opaque. Some stand up
well to the weather and sunlight, others deteriorate quickly. Some burn readily,
others do not support their own combustion, but all can be destroyed by hot enough
fires.
There are two great classes: thermoplastics and thermosets. Thermoplastics soften
upon heating, harden upon cooling, and may become brittle at low enough temperatures.
They can be temperature-softened and hardened any number of times. Thermosets
usually are soft and plastic -even liquid- to begin with but harden irreversibly;
that is, once hardened will not soften appreciably. This mayor may not require
heat. Both types find use in housing. 1 ,2,3
Properties
Important properties of plastics in building are mainly strength, stiffness, toughness,

heat transmission, thermal expansion, light transmission, durability, and resistance
to fire.
Strength
Strength of most unmodified plastics is good. Tensile, bending, and compressive

strength are in the same general range as wood parallel to the grain, with some
plastics running higher and others lower. Compressive strength is generally equal
to, or higher than unrein forced concrete. Moisture generally has little effect,
but thermoplastics are markedly affected by temperature, all of them becoming soft
,and plastic at some temperature, in almost all cases well above normal use tempera-
ture. Thermosets are much less affected by temperature, some moderately, others
scarcely at all. Comparisons with some other materials are shown in Fig. 7.14.
<Il
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Fig. 7.14. (a) Comparison, Strength of Plastics and Composites

with Other Materials; (b) Comparisons of Stiffness.
Stiffness
Compared with m::>st other construction materials, the stiffness of unmodified plas-
tics, as measured by elastic m::>dulus, is low, substa~tially lower than most struc-
tural wood species parallel to the grain. On an equal-weight basis, however, because
of their greater volume,. plastics may compare favorably even with steel. As is
true of strength, stiffness is markedly affected by temperature, especially am::>ng
therm::>plastics (see Fig. 7.14).
Materials 239
Toughness
This is hard to define and even harder to measure. Depending upon the use, some
plastics such as polyvinal butyral, the interlayer in safety glass, are extremely
tough. Other plastics are extremely brittle and fracture easily. Hardness and
wear resistance, likewise, are hard to define. No plastics are as hard as steel
and glass, but some are much harder than others. Melamine, for example, is harder
than the usual hard finishes such as varnish, but polyethylene is about as hard as
hard wax, and feels waxy. Wear resistance, depending upon the kind of wear, may
be good, as in vinyl flooring and nylon bearings.
Heat transmission
All plastics when compared with metals are insulators, similar to wood parallel to
the grain (Fig. 7.15). When made into foams, however, plastics provide some of
the best thermal insulators available, and rank at least with the best of the mats,
fiberboards, woods, cork, and similar materials.
Q)
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If
Fig. 7.15. Thermal Conductivity of Plastics Compared with
Other Materials
ThermaZ Expansion
Compared with most construction materials, thermal expansion o.f unmodified plastics
is high. Compared with glass at about 0.0000 SoC, iron at about 0.OOO012°C and
aluminum at about 0.000025°C, plastics range ~rom about 6 to 105 x 10-GtC. This
must be allowed for in design, but can usually be accommodated with little diffi-
culty. Figure 7.16 gives comparisons.
Light transmission
This property may be extremely high and be as good as or better than the clearest
glass, or it may be moderate, or the plastic may be completely opaque, depending
upon the composition, fillers, colors, and other ingredients.
DurabiZity
For building purposes this term usually refers to weather resistance. Because of
the short history of plastics in building (perhaps 50 years at the most, and 25-30
150
LL
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<ll 130
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stress
~
Ti9htfitWill cause cracks
(in tension) or buckle
( in compression)
Sharp corner
BAD hastensfotigue
Tightly held .......... / Expansion causes Loosely held

buckling
-- '. ._~
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tears or cracks
BAD
Corrugation and other folded surfaces

will take up movement
( b) GOOD
Fig. 7.16. (a) Comparison of Thermal Expansion; (b) Good
and Bad Practices.
Materials 241
for any large-scale uses) there is no large body of data respecting actual exposure.
Accelerated tests are uncertain, at best. A few materials, such as some acrylics,
have had a good history of use outdoors for periods of perhaps 25 years. Others
have been known to fail badly in a year or less. With every passing year, more
experience is being accumulated and confidence is gradually growing with respect to
what plastics are or are not reliable. Any given use should be considered in the
light of what experience has accumulated.
Indoor uses, by and large, are much less extreme, and many plastics have given a
good account of themselves, although here, as in outdoor uses, any given application
should draw upon accumulated experience.
Because plastics do not corrode in the ordinary sense, they can often be used where
metals would be unsuitable, and they are used for many applications such as piping,
not only for water, but for corrosive chemicals. Many are, however, susceptible
to certain solvents and this must be considered. Most are immune to decay and to
most insects.
Fire
Being organic materials, all plastics can be destroyed by hot enough fires. Some
burn readily, others with difficulty, still others do not support their own combus-
tion and are rated as non-combustible by standard tests.
Like other organic building materials such as wood and fabrics, plastics may, depend-
ing upon composition and burning conditions, burn with a clear flame and give off
harmless carbon dioxide and water vapor, or, again like other organics, they may give
off large quantities of smoke, carbon monoxide, and other toxic or noxious gases.
As is true of durability, each given case must be considered and such experience
as is available used as a guide.
Plastics Used in Building

Amorlg the important plastics employed in building are the following:
Thermoplastics
Vinyls. This term as usually used refers to polyvinyl chloride. In its unmodified
state it is hard and fairly brittle and is used for pipe, plumbing fittings, siding,
gutters, downspouts, hardware parts, cases, and similar applications. When modified
with fillers or plasticizers or both it finds extensive use as floor sheets or tiles
and wall covering.
Vinylidene chloride and copolymers. These provide higher temperature tolerances

than plain vinyls and are used for hot water piping and similar uses. They also
provide flashing.
Acrylics. These are among the clearest and most transparent of all materials and
among the most weather-resistant plastics. They are accordingly much used for sky-
lights, lighting fixtures, and glazing, especially where resistance to breakage is
important. They can easily be colored with dyes or pigments and therefore find
much use for illuminated signs, furniture, and similar uses.
Polyethylene. In building, among the major uses are piping such as for irrigation,
electrical insulation, and vapor barriers, e.g., under concrete slabs.
Polystyrene. One major use in building is as foam for thermal insulation. Others
include lighting fixtures and accessories. Normally brittle, when polystyrene is
copolymerized with acrylonitrile and butadiene it forms a tough material, ABS,
widely used for piping.
Polycarbonate. This is tough, transparent, weather-resistant, and often used for

lighting fixtures and other light-transmitting applications where breakage hazard
is high.
Nylon. This provides many tough wear-resistant parts for hardware, plumbing fixtures,
and similar applications.
Polypropylene. This is similar to polyethylene but somewhat stiffer, harder, and

more resistant to elevated temperatures. It is used for hot water lines.
Cellulosics. These are modifications of cellulose, a natural high polymer. Cellu-

lose nitrate, highly flammable as film, provides tough tool handles and commercial
movie film; cellulose acetate and acetate-butyrate, 'much less flammable, provide
safety film and other film materials, also tool handles, extruded moldings, and
molded small parts such as knobs and handles.
Thermosetting plastics
Phenolics. Phenol formaldehyde prOVides a great variety of molded parts such as knobs,
handles and other hardware parts, components for electrical fixtures, and numerous
other items, dark in color.
Urea formaldehyde. This light-colored material can be formulated for white and other
light colors, unlike the phenolics, and provides many light-colored molded parts.
Resistance to moist, warm exposures is less than the phenolics. Foams are used for
thermal insulation.
Melamine formaldehyde. Like the ureas, these materials provide light-colored

moldings, but their resistance to moisture and elevated temperatures is superior.
One large use for melamine formaldehyde is in decorative high-pressure laminates.
Another is in dishes and cups.
Polyeeters. For bUilding applications, polyesters are mainly used in fibrous rein-
forced plastics, as described under COMPOSITES. The electrical industries use them
as PQ~ting compounds, to embed delicate electrical parts. The epoxies are most
used in building as high-strength adhesives and as coatings, but there is some use
for cast components such as sinks in chemical laboratories. Both polyesters and
epoxies are formulated with marble dust and other fillers to provide cast "marble"
lavatories. In polyester concrete, portland cement is replaced by polyester (see
COMPOSITES, below).
PoZyurethane. Principal use in building is as foam, often foamed in pl~ce, especially

in odd-shaped spaces difficult to fill otherwise. Soft resilient upholstery foam is
also made. Polyurethane provides tough coatings.
Silicones. These, like the fluorocarbons have outstanding resistance to high and
low temperatures, and exposure to sunlight, as well as to ultraviolet and infrared
radiation. They are hydrophobic, i.e., non-wetting and are therefore employed as
water-repellent treatments for masonry. Another important use is as rubbery caulk-
ing. Silicone coatings are resistant to extreme conditions.
Materials 243
PLastic-Based Composites
Frequently, plain unmodified materials do not provide properties needed for a

given purpose. In such instances, composites maybe the answer. Composites may be
defined as combinations of materials whose combined behavior transcends or is dif-
ferent from the behavior of the constituents acting alone. For example, many
plastics are moderately strong but may not be strong enough for a given application.
Furthermore, their stiffness may be too low. On the other hand, many fibers are
exceedingly strong and inherently stiff, but, unless somehow held in position, fall
into a heap. When fibers and plastics are combined, the fibers are stabilized and
kept from buckling by the plastic, thereby making their great strength and good
stiffness effective. The combination has strength, stiffness, and stability not
possessed by either constituent alone. The steel in reinforced concrete acts in
an analogous manner. Wood is a natural composite of cells composed of strong cellu-
lose strands, held together or stabilized by lignin as a matrix or binder.
Composites are frequently divided into three principal categories: particulate,

fibrous, and laminar.
ParticuLate
Particles are embedded in a continuous matrix or binder. The best known such
composite is concrete, consisting of fine and coarse particles of stone embedded
in a matrix, usually of portland cement paste. If asphalt is the binder it is
asphalt concrete. Recently, plastics such as polyester have been employed, providing
a plastic or polyester concrete. Another important particulate composite consists
of wood particles such as chips, flakes,. or both, bonded with a plastics-based
binder.
Polyester concrete, although new compared with portland cement concrete or the
much older pozzolanic concretes used by the Romans, has exhibited good durability
over the 15-20 years it has been used. Examples have shown ,less cracking than
standard reinforced concrete.
Fibrous
Fibers, continuous or cut into short to long lengths, are embedded in a matrix.
As indicated above, the matrix stabilizes or supports the fibers so their strength
can be realized. Probably the best known such composite consists of extremely
strong glass fibers embedded in a polyester resin. These reinforced plastics have
found numerous structural and semi-structural as well as non-structural applications
in building. They have certain advantages as well as limitations. Among the
advantages are:
Lightness, strength, and toughness. Because the fibers and resin are both light
in weight, reinforced plastics often provide extremely high strength-to-weight
ratios. Because they are also tough, they can be used in thin sections, often as
little as 1.5 rom (1/16 in), unlike standard concrete whose brittleness sets limits
on thinness.
FormabiLity. These materials have no inherent shape. They must be molded to shape.
Consequently, inherently strong, stiff, and efficient configurations can be chosen.
Light transmission. In the thin sections often employed, glass fiber reinforced
polyesters can have a high degree of light transmission. They can therefore
provide a combination of structure, enclosure, and illumination. Among the limi-
tations are:
Limited stiffness. Even with the addition of glass fiber (about the same elastic
modulus as aluminum) the overall stiffness of fiber-reinforced plastic is only
moderately high, ranging from less than two to three times that of most structural
wood species parallel to the grain. Consequently, it is essential to use the
inherently stiff shapes made possible by the formability of the material.
Cost. The unit weight cost is not low compared with other structural materials.
It is therefore necessary to utilize the strength, lightness, toughness, and "forma-
bility to the utmost.
Durability and fire. The observations already made respecting plastics are appli-
cable. Durability can be enhanced, for example, by using acrylic-modified poly-
esters, and by using surface protective coatings of fluorocarbons. Deteriorated
surfaces can also be renewed by field-applied coatings. When inorganic fibers such
as glass, or other inorganic fillers, are employed, resistance to fire is enhanced,
but susceptibility to fire is not eliminated.
Laminar
Sheets or films of various materials are bonded together in layers by a binder
which may at the same time interpenetrate or impregnate them. The thin layers
are stabilized and stiffened by being bonded together. Among the most common
building applications are the decorative high-pressure laminates used for counters,
furniture, doors, and similar uses.
Sandwiches (Fig. 7.17.) Sandwiches are a special case of laminar composites in which
two relatively thin, hard, strong, stiff, dense facings are combined with a relatively
thick, light-weight, lower-strength, lower-density, lower-stiffness core to provide
a combination possessing strength and stiffness combined with low weight. The beha-
vior is much the same as that of an I-beam which has high strength and stiffness
because of its geometry. In addition, in sandwiches for building the facings provide
weather and wear resistance plus aesthetic qualities, the core provides thermal
insulation, and the combination provides acoustical isolation and resistance to fire.
Many materials can be and have been employed for facings. Among them are aluminum,
steel, plywood, cement-asbestos board, glass, hardboard, high-pressure laminates,
reinforced plastics, rigid plastics, reinforced concrete, polyester concrete, paper,
fiberboard, particle board, and others.
Similarly, many materials find use as cores, inclUding foamed plastics, foamed concrete,
foamed glass, foamed silicates, "fiberboard, gypsum, hardboard, particle board, and
numerous cellular forms such as resin-impregnated paper honeycomb~ egg-crate cons-
tructions and a variety of other grillages.
References
1. Dietz, A. G. H., Plastics for Architects and Builders~ M. I. T. Press, Cambridge,
Mass., 1969.
2. Dietz, A. G. H. (Ed.), Composite Engineering Laminates~ M. I. T. Press, Cambridge,

Mass., 1969.
3. Skeist, Irving (Ed.), Plastics in Building~ Reinhold Publishing Company, New

York, 1966.
4. Modern Plastics Encyclopedia~ Modern Plastics, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company,

New York.
Materials 245
Fig. 7.17. Structural Sandwich, Showing Comparison with

I-Beam and Stabilizing Effect of Core against
Wrinkling of Facing when Compressed in Beam or
Column.
7.7 CONCRETE
As usually used, the term "concrete" refers to a composite of mineral particles,
called aggregate, combined with a paste of water and a cementing material, most
commonly portland cement, which changes or cures from a soft and plastic into a hard
and rigid mass.
Cements
The cementing matrix may be one or a combination of several natural or industrially-

produced materials. Among them are:
Asphalt
Asphalt occurs naturally or as the end product of the distillation of crude oil.
It may be heat-softened or emulsified, mixed with aggregates, deposited, and formed,
hardening in place.
Gypsum
Naturally-occurring gypsum is heated or "burned" to drive off part of the water or

crystallization. When mixed with water, it hardens by replacing the water driven
off. Retarders control the hardening action, allowing aggregates to be mixed in
and the mass to be deposited, and to harden in suitable forms. Gypsum is also
widely used as plaster, as masonry mortar, and in gypsum building board.
Lime
When calcium carbonate in the form of limestone, shells, and other raw materials
is heated or "burned" to calcium oxide or "quicklime" and "slaked" with water,
the resulting calcium hydroxide or lime putty can be mixed with aggregate to form
a kind of concrete. Hardening is generally too slow to make useful concrete but
lime may be mixed with other ingredients to provide useful cements for concrete
(see hydraulic cements, below).
HydrauZic-Setting Binders i
These natural or artificial cementing materials react with water and harden either
by themselves or when combined with other materials.
PozzoZan. These volcanically-produced materials, including volcanic glass, pumices,

tuffs, and diatomite, are used alone, combined with other materials, or as extenders
for portland and other cements. Pozzolan combined with lime has been used for
centuries.
FZy ash. This by-product of the burning of coal is similar to pozzolans, and forms
a useful hydraulic cement when combined with lime. It is also a good extender for
other pozzolans and for portland cement.
BZast-furnace sZag. This by-product of steel manufacture provides a hydraulic cement

when "activated" by combination with lime, sodium and potassium hydroxide, and port--
land cement. Thus it is similar to other pozzolanic materials. It is a basic
ingredient in the manufacture of some portland cements.
Bauxite. Hydraulic-setting materials are made by fusing bauxite and limestone at

high temperatures and grinding the resulting clinker.
Limestone. When impure limestone, especially if it has clayey ("argillaceous")

constituents, is "burned" the resulting impure lime may have hydraulic characte-
ristics.
Magnesia. Sorel cement, a combination of magnesium oxide and magnesium sulfate,

hardens by crystallization when mixed with water, similar to the hardening of gypsum.
Sorel cements and magnesium oxychloride are widely used as binders for wood and
other fibers, and as flooring material. They are sensitive to moisture.
PortZand cement 2 •By all standards, the most important cement for concrete is
portland cement. Five types of portland cement are recognized by the American
Society for Testing and Materials and other materials authorities throughout the world.
-Type I. General purpose or ordinary cement, useful for the great majority of
applications and supplied unless some other type is specified.
-Type II. Modified. Similar to Type I but less heat given off during curing and
at a slower rate than Type I.
Materials. 247
Type III. High early strength. Hardens more rapidly and attains higher strengths
in a few days than other cements. Used where high early strength and hardness are
needed. Ultimate strength the same as other cements, but heat of hydration and
shrinkage upon curing are greater.
-Type IV. Low heat. Generally opposite to Type III, lower rate of curing and
development of strength, less heat given off during curing, less shrinkage, same
ultimate strength as other cements. For use where minimum heat and rate of heat
evolution are important, as in mass concrete, e.g., dams.
-Type V. Sulfate resistant. Used where alkaline soils, sulfate-containing ground-

water, and seawater might cause rapid deterioration of other types of portland
cement.
Aggregate is the second and, by volume, the predominant constituent of concrete.

Aggregate imparts strength and hardness, reduces shrinkage, contributes to work-
ability and plasticity, and reduces cost. The combination of cement paste and
aggregate gives concrete its properties.
Ideally the sizes are graded to fill virtually all the voids among the particles,
allowing for a thin cement paste to bind the particles firmly together. In practice
this ideal is approximated by mixing various proportions of large and small particles.
The terms sand and gravel are frequently used. Because they usually refer to natu-
rally disintegrated material, and much aggregate is derived by mechanically crushing
rock or stones, the terms fine and coarse are better. The dividing line between
the two is arbitrary. Fine aggregate passes through a standard 3/8-inch (0.94 cm)
mesh and almost all passes through a standard No.4 (4.75 mm.) mesh sieve. The
lower limit of fine aggregate is the No. 200 sieve (75 ~m). The upper limit of
size for coarse aggregate depends upon the use of the concrete. In mass concrete
boulders and cobbles may be permissible, whereas in reinforced concrete the aggre-
gate must easily pass between reinforcing rods, and in topping for floors nothing
coarser than fine aggregate may be permitted.
Sources
conventional mineral aggregates are derived from natural sources and from industrial
processes. "Natural" aggregates are sand and gravel, and crushed stone and crushed
gravel. Any of the igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks can be employed,
but those rocks that tend to form flat, elongated, or flaky particles (slate, gneiss)
are less desirable than those that provide chunky, more nearly spherical particles.
The most common industrially-produced aggregate is blast-furnace slag. Crushed
brick is used in some places. Crushed concrete rubble has been employed with
variable success.
Lightweight 4
The foregoing conventional aggregates result in heavy concrete. Lower weight is
frequently desirable, especially if the strength and hardness of standard concrete
are not needed. Lightweight natural or industrially derived aggregates are there-
fore employed. Among them are: expanded shale, clay, and slag; sintered fly ash,
scoria, and pumice; and perlite, vermiculite, diatomite, and cinders. Whereas
standard high-density "stone" concretes weigh in the vicinity of 2240 to 2400 kg/m 3
(140-150 pcf), lightweight concretes usually range from approximately 1360 to 2080
kg/m 3 (85 to 130 pcf). With better grades of aggregates such as expanded shale,
clay, and sintered fly ash, and the higher weights, strength may be equivalent
to some heavy-weight concretes. Aggregates such as perlite, vermiculite, and
similar materials tend to result in lower strengths.
Foams. For still lower weight, pastes of cement and fine aggregates may be blown
into foams. This is achieved mechanically, as by beating in air, or chemically,
as by adding aluminum powder which reacts with the cement to give off hydrogen gas
which causes the mass to rise like bread dough. Foamed plastic or glass pellets
may be mixed with cement paste, with or without very fine aggregate.
AgricuZturaZ wastes
In developing regions without volcanic rock or other suitable lightweight aggregate,

experiments have been conducted with the use of various agricultural wastes'as the
aggregate. The successful manufacture of concrete blocks from a lightweight con-
crete made with rice husks has been reported. 5 A report has been published in
which a rice husk concrete weighing 103 pcf developed a compressive.strength of
1500 psi while a 73 pcf concrete developed a compressive strength of 335 psi. 6
The stronger sample was judged usable for the pre casting of reinforced elements,
and the weaker concrete suitable for concrete blocks for interior partitions.
Other agricultural waste materials found in developing regions which may be suitable
for such lightweight concretes include coffee bean husks, coconut shells, and bagasse.
Water
The third essential ingredient in concrete is water. Enough water must be added
to hydrate the cement and provide a workable concrete, i.e., one that is plastic
enough to flow in a form or mold and fill it completely without voids. Excess
water is subsequently removed as the concrete dries after curing.
Water that is drinkable is usually satisfactory for concrete. Deleterious substances

to be avoided in water include, for example, excessive salt (seawater is generally
not satisfactory), acids such as tannic acid, sugar (an inhibitor), and excessive
clay. If the water is potable, these substances are. usually not in excess.
Admixtures
The straight cement-aggregate-water mixtures may not result in concrete that has
all the necessary properties. Admixtures are incorporated to supply missing fea-
tures or to enhance others. Among· the important ones are air entrainers, accele-
rators, finely divided minerals, pozzolans, and colorants.
Air-entraining agents
The disintegrating effect of repeated freezing and thawing can be greatly reduced
by entraining great numbers of small discrete air bubbles of proper size and dis-
tribution in the concrete. Optimum quantities are 3-8% by volume. Examples of
air-entrainers are neutralized Vinsol resin (lignin residue) and sulfonated hydro-
carbon salt of triethanolamine.
Materials 249
AcceZerators
Concrete may harden too slowly for some purposes. Setting can be accelerated by a
variety of soluble chlorides, carbonates, silicates, fluosilicates, hydroxides, and
organic materials. Calcium chloride is the most commonly used. It also lowers
the freezing temperature. However, not more than 2% by weight should be used because
it may cause corrosion of steel reinforcing, it increases drying shrinkage, it lowers
the resistance to freezing and thawing and to attack by sulfates, and can promote
electrolytic corrosion when steel and aluminum (such as conduit) are both present
in concrete. 7
Fine mineraZ admixtures
When a concrete mix is poorly graded in aggregates and may therefore not be as
workable or plastic as is desirable; finely divided materials can help to increase
the volume of ' paste and the workability of the concrete. Such additives may be
inert (ground quartz, limestone, hydrated lime, talc), cementitious (natural cement,
hydraulic lime, blast-furnace slag), or pozzolans.
PozzoZans
These by themselves often have little or no cementitious action, but when combined
with lime a chemical reaction occurs that provides a hydraulic cement. To the
extent that this occurs, the portland cement content of a concrete can be reduced.
If high strength is not needed, the portland cement may be eliminated. The plasti-
cizing action of pozzolans may lead to a reduction in water content, thus improving
the water to cement ratio.
Proportioning 8
Since the usual objective in proportioning concrete is to achieve maximum density
and minimum voids, an effort is made to grade the coarse and fine aggregates so as
to fill the crevices as nearly as possible, utilizing-the cement paste to fill the
last remaining openings as well as to bond the particles together.
For small simple applications, fairly rough proportions are often adequate. Thus,
taking one bag of cement as one cubic foot and as the basis of measurement, a typical
fairly rich mix might call for one bag (one cubic foot) of cement, two cubic feet
of sand (fine aggregate) and 4 cubic feet of gravel (coarse aggregate), or the
'familiar 1-2-4 mix. For less rich concrete the proportions might be 1-2 1/2-5 or
1-3~6. In each case, sufficient water must be added to provide a workable mix.
Since approximately the same amount of water is needed for equal volumes of mix,
the ratio of water to cement is higher for the leaner mixes, with a corresponding
reduction in strength.
For applications in which strength, density, or both are important, the mix is more
closely controlled. The desired strength, for example, is specified. The water-
cement ratio is determined. Coarse and fine aggregates are screened to determine
the distribution of sizes, from which the fineness modulus is determined. The
proper combination of fine and coarse aggregate is developed together with the
amount of cement and water to provide the desired property. If needed, the types
and amounts of admixtures are also determined on the basis of the mix and the
desired end result.
Mixing, Placing, Curing 9
No matter how carefully a concrete mix may be designed to meet a certain specifi-
cation such as strength, it can fail if it is not properly mixed, placed, and cured.
Mixing
Concrete may be mixed at the job, either by hand or machine, or it may be purchased
already mixed. Hand mixing is becoming increasingly rare, but must be used fre-
quently enough to make an understanding of its technique necessary.
Hand mixing, representative technique:
-Lay five or six planks on the ground to form a mixing platform.

-Station two men, one at each side at the upper end of the platform.
-Deposit a wheelbarrow of sand at upper end. Three cubic feet are comfortably
carried in a wheelbarrow.
-Spread on it the proper amount of cement.
-Deposit two wheelbarrows of aggregate.
-Turn the dry mass over twice, down the platform.
-Add proper amount of water to give a workable mixture. This usually runs
about 5 to 8 gallons per sack of cement. .
-Turn mass over once more and shovel into wheelbarrow for depositing in forms.
Mac hine mixing. Exactly the same proportions are used, but the actual labor of
turning over the mass is done by a machine consisting of a rotating drum containing
oblique blades. Machine mixing speeds the whole operation and provides a pacer
for the job but does not necessarily result in better concrete.
Workability
"Workabili ty" is one of the most important attributes of good concrete. Plasticity
is another term. It means the property of flowing easily (not running like water)
into and filling all the parts of a form completely without segregation of the
ingredients. Good, workable concrete does not show free water on the surface; when
poured out of a bucket it forms a pancake curling under at the edges, and it quakes
when shaken or prodded. Small variations in water content make large differences
in workability, strength, and density.
Depositing
Concrete must not be dropped from a great height, best not over 3 to 4 feet. For
greater height a trough or chute should be used. Dropping, causes sand, water-
cement paste, and aggregate to separate. Individual loads should be spread out,
not merely dumped. Spreading remixes the ingredients which may have started to
separate and mixes the entire mass in the forms uniformly.
Working
Once in the forms, the concrete must be worked into all corners and any entrapped
air must be removed. This is done by spading and rodding the whole mass or by
using a mechanical vibrator. If working is neglected, "honeycombs" or pockets form
in which there is no concrete. Too much working tends to separate the ingredients,
the lighter material rising to the top or to the face of the form as a milky scum,
consisting of over-watered or -"drowned" worthless cement which soon disintegrates.
Materials 251
CUring
Concrete should not be permitted to become too hot, too cold, or too dry. The best
curing temperature is between 10 and 21°C (50 and 70°F). Above that range the speed
of set is accelerated but strength and hardness are impaired, largely because of
too rapid evaporation of water. High temperatures are therefore best offset by
constant sprinkling.
Low temperatures in themselves do not affect concrete, they merely retard the set
and stop it completely below freezing temperature. Once frozen, concrete is merely
dormant, and after it has thawed, continues to set with little harmful effect.
Repeated freezing and thawing, however, may ruin the concrete. Therefore, concrete
which has once frozen should be kept heated until it has passed well beyond the
final set. Hard concrete rings when struck with a hammer; frozen concrete gives
a dull thud and shows a wet spot where the hammer strikes.
Concrete permitted to dry before it has completely set soon disintegrates because
hydration of the cement is incomplete. After the initial set, therefore, concrete
should be kept as wet as possible (submerging is excellent treatment) until well
after the final set and after forms are removed. Several days to a week of wetting
and covering with wet burlap or plastic film, or other coating, assures good
concrete.
Concrete Blocks
Standard concrete has long been made into blocks laid up in much the same fashion
as brick to provide walls, partitions, piers, and other parts of the building.
Many different shapes and sizes are available.
Soil-cement and other types of stabilized earth are also commonly made into blocks,
in addition to the ancient widely-used adobe blocks. To expedite manufacture and
improve quality of such blocks, a number of hand or power-operated molds have been
devised. One of the best known and widely used is the CINVA-ram developed by the
Centro Inter-Americano de la Vivienda operated by a combination of American countries
in Caracas. In this simple device, a measured amount of material is placed in the
mold and quickly compacted by a hand-power, lever-operated ram. The compressed
block is ejected and set aside to cure.
Because the laying of such blocks requires a considerable amount of skill, there
have been numerous attempts to develop self-aligning blocks, often interlocking,
so that even unskilled labor can lay up an acceptable wall. This is especially
important for self-help construction. Another common objective with interlocking
blocks is to eliminate the mortar joint usually required. Evidently, such blocks
must be made with a considerable degree of precision.
Concrete in Special Climatic Conditions
Many developing countries have tropical climates. As a result, the behavior of

concrete building materials in hot climates has been an area of considerable research
activity. Among the problems which current research is trying to solve are the
following:
-Concrete cured at the elevated temperatures common in tropical regions (30°C

and more) shows significant loss in ultimate strength.
-Concrete cured in dry, hot regions faces the possibility of dessication of the
concrete before the concrete is reasonably cured, thus resulting in drastic
losses of strength.
-Concrete exposed to ocean water or breezes in tropical climates has a tendency
to deteriorate rapidly.
-Laboratory tests for the quality control of concrete do not duplicate satis-
factorily the field conditions in tropical regions, and consequently, new more
direct testing methods are needed.
The RILEM Conference on Materials and Structures (November 1963) dealt extensively
with problems. 6 ,lO,11,12 The prevention of the deterioration of" concrete
under extreme climatic conditions by the admixture of various synthetic resins, was
the subject of numerous papers at the 1967 RILEM Conference on Synthetic Resins in
Building Construction. 13
Steel Reinforcement of Concrete in Tropical Climates

The deterioration of steel reinforcing rods in concrete is known to occur at acce-
lerated rates in tropical climates. Reinforced concrete structures exposed to ocean
breezes in tropical regions may deteriorate at dangerous rates. In one case study,
for example, a 180 m concrete bridge in northern Morocco was judged unsafe for use
after only 35 years, owing to the extreme deterioration of the steel reinforcement.
The deterioration was shown to be the result of anode-cathode reaction between the
steel reinforcement and porous areas of the concrete rich in salts carried to the
concrete by ocean fogs. S Problems of this type might indicate possible research
into inert coatings for the steel reinforcing rods. Indeed, epoxy resin coatings
have been shown to be effective in protecting steel from deterioration under tropical
condi tions • 14
References
1. Bushnell, C. E., "Hydraulic-Setting Cement Binders", Appendix E in Roofing in
Developing Countries~ National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C., 1974.
2. Waddell, J. J. (Ed.), Concrete Construction Handbook (2nd Ed.), McGraw-Hill

Book Company, 1974, Chapter 1, Cement (J. J. Waddell).
3. Waddell, J. J. (Ed.), Chapter 2, Aggregates (F. E. Legg, Jr.).
4. Waddell, J. J. (Ed.), Chapter 31, Lightweight Concrete (Perry H. Petersen).
5. Cockcroft, John, Technology for Developing Countries, Overseas Development

Institute, Ltd., London, 1966.
6. Arenas, P. G. and Orjuela,O. C., "Lightweight Concrete 'Made with Portland Cement
and Rice Hulls" in An Inter-American Approach for the Seventies: Materials
Technology, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1970.
7. Waddell, J. J. (Ed.), Chapter 4, Admixtures, Curing Mediums, and Other Materials
(Raymond J. Schutz).
8. Waddell, J. J. (Ed.), Chapter 11, Proportioning Mixes (J. F. Artuso).

Materials 253
9. Dietz, A. G. H., Dwelling House Construction (3rd Ed.), M.I.T. Press, Cambridge,
Mass., 1971.
10. Chen, W. F., Menta, H. C. and Slutter, R. G., "Sulfur and Polymer-Impregnated
Brick and Block Prisms", Journal of Testing and Evaluation, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp. 283-292.
11. Cox, F. B. and Geymayer, H. G., Expedient Reinforcement for Concrete for Use
in Southeast Asia, u. S. Army Corps of Engineers Technical Report C-69-3,
February, 1969.
12. RILEM Bulletin, Behavior and Durability of Building Materials in Hot Countries,
September, 1964.
13. RILEMBulletin, Synthetic Resins in Building Construction, 1967.
14. George, J. and Hajela, R. B., Epoxy Resin Frotection for Mild Steel Reinforcing
Rods in Brickwork, Synthetic Resins in Building Construction, RILEM, Paris,
1967.
7.8 CEMENT-ASBESTOS
Cement-asbestos products for building consist of a mixture of portland cement and
asbestos fiber, wetted, and pressed into a board or sheet, or formed with other
shapes such as pipe. Boards may be flat, corrugated, or have other configurations.
1,2
Organic fiber is added in some cases to promote resiliency and ease of machining.
Curing agents, water-repellent admixtures, pigments, mineral granules, and mineral
fillers may be added, depending upon the end use of the product and the desired
appearance.
Depending upon the degree of durability required for outdoor or indoor exposures,
sheets may be of general utility grade, easily cut and worked and nailable (below
specified thicknesses) without drilling, or may be harder, denser, smoother, less
flexible, stronger, and require more drilling and machining than the utility grader.
Other grades are made specifically for roofing and side walls. Allowable water
absorption and strength and stiffness when wet and dry depend upon the expected
exposure.
For housing, especially in warm areas, many large deeply-corrugated sheets have
been developed that are capable of spanning the full distance from wall to wall,
or wall to ridge, of small houses, under moderate loads, as described in other
chapters of this book.
Although asbestos is the principal, and frequently the only, fiber employed, organic
fibers are incorporated, as indicated above. Glass fiber is also found, and mixtures
of fibers are becoming increasingly common.
References
1. Dietz, A. G. H., "Building Materials", Section 2 of Building Construction
Handbook, (3rd Ed.), Frederick S. Merritt, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1975.
2. Specifications for Cement-Asbestos Products, ASTMC220, 1, 2, 3, American

Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
7.9 CLAY PRODUCTS

MateriaZs
The very fine constituent of soil known as clay (see section on Soils) has long
been employed in making building products by forming the wet plastic raw material
into desired shapes and then heating it to high temperatures ("firing" or "burning")
to convert it into a hard, infusible, insoluble mass, resistant to weathering and
fire.
Six major classifications of clay are:
1. China clay or kaolin, for fine grades of pottery;

2. Ball clay, for pottery, ceramic tile, terra cotta;
3. Fire clay, for refractory materials, fire brick, ceramic tile, and structural
tile;
4. Bentonite, for foundries and petroleum industries, and for slurry methods
of excavation;
5. Fuller's earth, for absorbent and filtering agents, and in oil refining;
6. Miscellaneous clays, for brick, structural clay tile, terra cotta, ceramic
tile, and cement.
Shale, or consolidated clay, is used in addition to clay.
As may be inferred, the clays used for brick and other building units are quite
variable in composition, and properties of the resulting units vary correspondingly,
not only because of composition but because of differences in manufacturing.
Manufacture
Clay and shale brick are made by three different processes, known as soft mud, stiff
mud, and dry pressed. In all three processes, the raw material is molded to desired
shape, dried, and burned in kilns.
In the soft-mud process clay is mixed with water to a soft consistency and pressed
into molds. If the mold walls are wet with water to prevent sticking the bricks
are called water struck; if the mold walls are sanded, the bricks are sand struck.
In the stiff-mud process, high-consistency clay is forced through a die as a conti-

nuous ribbon whose cross section is equal to either the end or the flat side (bed)
of the unit. It is cut by taut wires into individual end-cut or side-cut units.
In the dry-pressed process "dry" consistency clay is forced under heavy pressure
into multiple or gang molds. This process produces the greatest accuracy.
Extruded bricks frequently have holes formed in the ribbon during extrusion. Such
holes not only lessen the weight of the brick, they promote uniformity in burning
and reduce both the burning time and tendency to crack. Pressed or molded bricks
often have indentations or "frogs" in the beds. These depressions help to act as
keys in the mortar beds.
Materials 255
After forming and drying, brick and other clay units are burned in kilns. The
durability of the bricks depends upon the degree of burning achieved. Bricks
nearest the fire are burned the hardest and may be overburned, dark, and misshapen
although extremely durable. Bricks farthest from the fire may be too lightly
burned, soft, light in color, and known as "salmon" bricks, lacking in great dura-
bility and strength but good enough for mild conditions. Hard or well-burned
bricks have had the correct degree of burning and are suitable for general use out-
doors and indoors.
Although the great majority of bricks are various shades of red, cream, and buff
because of the oxides naturally present in the clay, other colors are achievabLe
by introducing different oxides and mixtures of clays.
Surfaces, in addition to the water-struck and sand-struck surfaces usual with

common brick, include combing, scoring, stippling, hammering, and various degrees
of roughness to provide textures on face bricks or to enhance the bond to mortar.
Ceramic glazes are glossy surfaces fused to the brick, clear or colored, glossy
or matte. Salt glaze is a lustrous finish obtained by introducing the vapors of
various salts during burning.
The American Society for Testing and Materials divides common brick into three
grades:
SW: for rigorous conditions including frequent exposure to heavy rainfall

followed by freezing and thawing, extremes of temperature;
MW: for average exposures to moisture and to minor freezing conditions;
NW: for exposure to minimum moisture and freezing conditions.
Other wick
Fire Brick, a refractory brick made of fl.re clay containing approximately 50%
alumina, and used for fireplaces, etc.
Sewer Brick, special clay or shale brick for construction of sewerage for household
and industrial wastes as well as storm water.
Concrete Brick, made by pressing a dry mixture of portland cement and sand into
molds, removing the molds, and curing in aqueous fog or steam.
Sand-Lime Brick, made of a mixture of sand and hydrated lime, pressed into molds,
and cured by steam which promotes bonding of lime and sand by a chemical reaction
between them.
7.10 MORTAR
MateriaZs
Mortar is a plastic mass consisting of mineral particles and a binder or cementitious
material. It is used to fill'the interstices between masonry units. As it hardens,
it bonds to the units, binding them together and at the same time sealing the inter-
stices.
Common mineral particles or aggregate (see section on Concrete) are sand, crushed
stone, slag, and burned shale. Other aggregates are used for special purposes.
Cementitious materials are usually hydrated or hydraulic lime and portland cement,
or a variety of other cements, such as pozzolonic, natural, masonry, and slag. White
portland cement is used for light colors.
The third essential constituent, water, must be clean and free of deleterious subs-
tances such as alkalis, acids, organic matter and excessive amounts of clay and
silt. A convenient stipulation is that it be drinkable.
Color is generally obtained by adding inorganic pigments not to exceed 10-15% by

weight of cement (2-3% if carbon black) .
Admixtures may be employed for various purposes. Among them are air-entrainers,
freezing-point depressants, water-repellants, and water reducers.
Composition
Composition 6f mortar varies greatly with the intended use, and the constituents
are chosen accordingly.
Lime putty has great sand-carrying and water-retaining capacities in addition to

providing plastic workable mortars that bond well to many masonry units. The putties
by themselves tend to shrink markedly but the sand helps to offset this. Compressive
strength is only moderate, and the material hardens slowly. High-magnesia lime putties
may swell considerably upon hardening and have a disruptive effect.
Portland cement provides mortars that develop high compressive strength and harden
quite rapidly by hydration,jof the cement. Such mortars tend to be harsh and less
workable than lime mortars, shrink and swell with changes in moisture content, and
frequently tend to break the bond with the masonry units.
Many of the other cementitious materials listed above, of natural or industrial

origin, harden more slowly than portland cement, and the mortars develop less strength,
but are less harsh and more plastic than straight portland cement mortars. Because
these cements are often more variable in composition than portland cement, the mortars
also vary more.
Mortars are commonly combinations of lime, various other cements (mainly portland)
and aggregate. By combining lime and portland cement, an attempt is made to over-
come the low strength and slow hardening of lime but to take advantage of its
workability and bonding power, while utilizing the strength and quick hardening of
portland cement (or other cements) but minimizing harshness and reduced workability.
Just what combinations to employ depends upon the ultimate use.
ASTM classifies mortars by types A, B, and C with corresponding property and compo-
sition specifications. Typical applications of these mortars are:
Type A. High strength, for general use, especially reinforced masonry and masonry
below grade.
Type B. Medium strength, for general exposed masonry above grade.
Type C. Low strength, for non-bearing walls of solid masonry units, partitions,
and load-bearing walls where compressive 'stresses are below 100 psi.
Materials 257
Bonding
The bonding or adhesion between masonry units and mortar is evidently of crucial
importance. It is affected by the water retentivity of the mortar, the absorption
or rate of "suction" of the masonry unit at the time it is laid, the workability or
consistency or flow of the mortar, and the manner in which the point is made. Water
retentivity should be high; and the water content as high as consistent with work-
ability. Correspondingly, the rate of absorption of brick should be moderate, but
the brick should not be non-absorbent. Too much suction results in a dry interface,
too little suction leaves it too wet, and in either case, poor adhesion results.
When the mortar joint is made, it should be full and pressure should be applied
("shoved" joint) instead of just buttering the ends of the brick.
7.11 FUTURE TRENDS

For the immediate future, materials now used will undoubtedly continue to be employed.
These will include soil, wood, bamboo, clay products, gypsum, concrete, and similar
familiar materials. As time passes, adaptations and combinations can be expected
to emerge as new industries come into production, and industrialization of the build-
ing process increases in scope.
Soil, for example, will undoubtedly continue to be used widely, but modifications can
be expected to increase in importance. Soil stabilized for enhanced durability should
become more important, with increased use of block. Burned clay products such as
brick and tile can be expected to become more common, especially in those areas in
which fuel is increasingly available. High-strength mortars should make masonry
construction more efficient and economical than it now is.
Concrete, already firmly established as the pre-eminent material in many areas,

especially for urban housing, can be expected to continue in that position. Modi-
fications, as by impregnation of concrete blocks, may become important for demanding
applications if economy can be demonstrated. Lightweight concrete to reduce weight
of tall structures, should increase in importance, provided the necessary aggregates
can be had economically. More or less unconventional aggregates will probably be
used increasingly as local supplies of conventional aggregates are exhausted. Pre-
casting and prestressing are expected to increase, particularly in urban areas.
Conservation of energy, especially in energy-short areas, should become increasingly

. important. This means energy needed to produce and install materials, and energy
for the operation of buildings. Materials requiring relatively little energy to pro-
duce should be favored. Wood demands about the least energy per unit weight of the
common materials. Gypsum requires less energy to produce than portland cement.
Byproduct and natural materials having cementitious properties, such as fly ash
and pozzolans, should find increasing use where available.
For energy conservation, insulating materials are needed. These include lightweight
foams, fibrous masses, and other low-conductivity materials. On the other hand, mass
helps to absorb excess energy, such as solar energy, and to release it when the
source of excess, such as the sun, is removed. Mass should be obtained with low-cost
materials. These need not necessarily have great strength.
It is to be expected that composite materials will become increasingly prominent as

one means of extending the availability and usefulness of materials. Fibers,both
natural and synthetic (e.g., sisal, jute, bamboo fiber, glass, a~bestos) embedded
in a variety of matrices such as mortar and resins, can provide strong, tough,
lightweight structural materials. By-product and waste materials; such as agricul~ural
and industrial wastes, can be combined with binders to provide blocks, boards,
and molded shapes. The principle of the structural sandwich, utilizing thin facings
of hard strong materials with thick cases of lightweight materials, can provide
lightweight efficient structures. Indigenous and low-cost.materials can be employed.
To summarize, conventional materials can be expected to be used in the futu~e,

together with modifications, combinations, and now little-used or unfamiliar mate-
rials. A revolutionary "new" material that will sweep away all others is not in
sight, but evolution and adaptation will occur.
One development that can bring about intensive adaptation is solar energy for heating,
cooling, and refrigeration. This can be expected to become highly important in
favorable areas. Where it does, materials for the capture, storage, and release
of that energy ~ill be of utmost importance, and now-unfamiliar materials will play
an important role.
8
CRITERIA FOR SEISMIC DESIGN OF
UNREINFORCED MASONRY AND
ADOBE LOW-COST HOUSII\JG
Reza Razani
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Motivations
Dt:.ring the past fifteen years more than 30,000 people have lost their lives, and in
excess of 50,000 adobe and masonry building units have been destroyed in earthquake
stricken towns and villages in rural Iran. During this century more tltan one million
people have died due to earthquakes throughout the world. In Table 8.1,- the number
of earthquake fatalities during this century (from 1900 to 1973) in 41 developing
and developed countries is given. More than 90% of these earthquake deaths have
been caused by the collapse of unreinforced masonry and adobe buildings. A major
percentage of the deaths has been inflicted on the low-income people in the seismic
regions of the less developed countries.
In view of all these human losses in recent times, it is unfortunate that no concrete
effort has been made to study the problems relating to minimization of damage or
destruction of low-cost masonry and adobe buildings. Research and development for
improving the seismic resistance of this type of buildings has not seriously attracted
the attention of research workers and of research sponsors. Extensive amount of
earthquake engineering related research and development has been carried out in the
research centers and universities of the developed and developing countries. These
research and development activities are needed to gain a better understanding of the
earthquake phenomena, and the mechanism of resistance against the destructive effects
of the earthquakes. However, most of these research activities deal with modern
buildings, especially with multi-story reinforced concrete and steel structures or
other major constructed facilities, where a high level of investments are concerned.
So far only a very small amount of research has been carried out on improving the
seismic behavior of low-cost masonry and adobe buildings in few developing countries,
notably India. It is surprising that even in some seismically active less developed
countries, where on the average each three or four years, thousands of people perish
under the debris of falling masonry and adobe buildings, most research and development
on earthquake engineering deals with modern engineered buildings.
Review of the technical papers published in earthquake engineering journals and in the
proceedings of the past regional or world conferences on earthquake engineering points
out that while the collapse of unreinforced masonry and adobe low-cost housing
(UMALCH) has caused more than 90% of the earthquake fatalities during this century
throughout the world, only less than 5% of the published technical papers deal with
this type of buildings. The percentage of the total research funds allocated world-
wide to the study of seismic behavior and design of these type of buildings is much
less than 5%.
259
260 Reza Razani
TABLE 8.1. Total number of fatalities due to earthquake in

various countries (1900-73) 1
Country Total Number

of People Killed
l. China 269,279
2. Japan 163,245
3. Italy 92,465
4. U.S.S.R. 67,089
5. Iran 58,176
6. Peru 57,308
7. Turkey 56,799
8. Pakistan 54,448
9. Chile 37,827
10. Nicaragua 13,502
ll. Morocco 11,511
12. India 8,523
13. Taiwan 6,969
14. Argentina 6,228
'-15. Ecuador 5,864
16. El Salvador 2,989
17. Costa Rica 1,726
18. Colombia 1,587
19. Greece 1,563
20. Algeria 1,499
2l. Yugoslavia 1,326
22. Mexico 1,302
23. Burma 831
24. U.S.A. 791
25. Venezuela 577
26. Albania 551
27. Afganistan 534
28. Romania 469
29. Libya 450
30. New Zealand 276
3l. Israel 264
32. Bulgaria 252
33. Lebanon 136
34. Ethiopia 85
35. Cyprus 40
36. Guatemala 43
37. Portugal 22
38. South Africa 17
39. Tunisia 14
40. Spain 8
4l. Iraq 6
Total ;9~~. '.5.21,
IData of this table is given by Ambraseys12

Criteria for Seismic Design 261
Many research workers in the developed and developing countries do not seem to be
motivated to do research on improving the seismic resistant of UMALCH. Some of them
believe that there is no feasible solution for the problem of seismic strengthening
of UMALCH, and the present problem will gradually wither away in the process of deve-
lopment, industrialization, and urban or rural renewal and reconstruction. There-
fore, in their opinion, this "passing phase" does not meri t intensive research and
involvement. Some research workers handle only those problems that can be easily
modeled and can lend themselves nicely to the rigor of high level mathematics,
dynamic computer analysis, and the use of high technology, high cost, experimental
investigation. Only those structures made of steel, reinforced concrete or rein-
forced masonry with known engineering properties and familiar, well-behaved, stress-
strain diagram or hysterisis loop, attract their attention.
Seismic design of UMALCH is constrained by social, economical, financial, and tech-

nological factors. The modeling of this type of structures is complex, the engi-
neering property of the material is undependable and unknown, and the seismic
behavior of the structure is complex and erratic. The author believes that finding
feasible and implementable solutions for the problem of earthquake resistant design
of UMALCH for less developed countrQes is a great scientific and technological
challenge for the research workers and earthquake engineers in the developed and
developing countries. Without doubt, it is an important service to the less deve-
loped countries and to humanity in general.
The Magni tude of the Frob Zem
Due to their low-cost and traditional use, and their dependence upon low level
technology and indigenous materials, masonry and adobe buildings are very popular
in most rural and poor urban regions of Iran and in many other less developed
countries (LDCs). In these regions due to the existing technological, economical,
financial, and sociocultural constraints these types of construction cannot be
replaced quickly and easily with modern earthquake resistant construction. There-
fore, it is certain that in most LDCs their use will be continued for many more
decades to come, at least until the future industrialization and development of
these countries removes these constraints.
A large percentage of buildings in the LDCs are of UMALCH type. The magnitude of
the problem can be better understood if, as an example, the present condition of
housing in Iran is presented. The construction materials, design methods, and
building technology presently used in the construction of UMALCH in Iran and few
other LDCs are discussed in more detai~s in References l and ~ In Table 8.2
the type of construction in four large cities in Iran (Teheran, Tabriz, Isphahan,
and Shiraz) on November 1966 is shown. It is seen that almost 99% of the buildings
are of masonry and adobe types. Independent study by the author has shown that
less than 3% of these buildings have some kind of seismic reinforcement. Therefore,
it can be concluded that about 97% of buildings are unreinforced. In this table an
estimate of the extent of potential damage and destruction due to probable future
earthquakes of various intensities is shown .. The assumed percentage of destruction
of various types of construction due to earthquakes with intensities VII, VIII, and
IX are shown in the first three rows of this table. These assumed percentages
are based on the results of various damage surveys of the past earthquakes in Iran
and in other LDCs such as Chile and Turkey. It is seen that an earthquake with
intensity VII, VIII, or IX in a large city of Iran such as Tabriz may destroy about
25, 45, or 65% of all the existing buildings respectively. The potential danger in
small towns and rural. areas is greater because the percentage of adobe buildings
and unreinforced brick masonry buildings with flat timbered roofs or with roofs
made of dome-shaped or cylindrical vault roofs is much larger in these areas.
262 Reza Razani
TABLE 8.2. The Type of Construction in Four Large Iranian

Cities and an Estimate of the Extent and Percent
of Destruction Due to Probable Future Earthquakes
of Various Intensities
Type of construction Reinforced Brick Brick Adobe Total %

concrete masonry masonry & wood ruined
& steel & wood
Assumed percent VII 0 10 20 30

of destruction
in earthquakes VIII 10 20 40 50
w/intensity of
IX 20 40 60 70
Teh:f>an
No. Buildings 2,835 262,446 73,855 15,210 354,346
Percentage 0.8 74 20.9 4.3 100
Destruction VII 26,240 14,780 4,700 45,720 13
in earthquake VIII 280 52,480 29,560 7,600 89,920 25
intensity: IX 560 104,960 44,340 11,300 161,160 45
Tabriz
No. Buildings 45 3,448 21,710 36,576 61,779
Percentage 0.1 5.6 35.2 59.1 100
Destruction VII 340 4,340 11,000 15,680 26
in earthquake VIII -5- 680 8,680 18,300 27,665 44
intensity: IX 10 1,360 13,020 25,600 39,990 64
Isfahan
No. Buildings 290 6,623 9,212 38,790 54,915
Percentage 0.6 12.1 16.8 70.5 100
Destruction VII 660 1,840 11,650 14,150 26
intensity: IX 60 2,640 5,520 27,100 35,320 64
Shiraz
No. Buildings 424 11,486 13,976 3,194 29,080
Percentage 1.5 39.5 48 11 100
Destruction· VII 1,150 2,800 960 4,900 U
intensity: IX 80 4,600 8,400 2,230 15,310 52
Data on Construction Type is based on Nov. 1966's National Census of Iran

In Table 8.3, the distribution of buildings constructed during 1972 and 1973 in
urban areas of Iran on the basis of construction material used is shown. This table
shows that in the smaller urban areas the percentage of unreinforced masonry and
adobe buildings with timbered or masonry roofs is very large. The table also shows
a trend in the construction from adobe toward brick masonry with roofs made of
steel I-beam and shallow brick arches. This trend is strong in large cities notably
in Teheran, where the percentage of buildings with reinforced concrete or steel
frame is also increasing. This table shows that in 1973 about 95% of all the build-
ings in rural areas of Iran were of reinforced masonry and adobe type.
In Table 8.4 the distribution of buildings constructed during 1972 and 1973 in
urban areas of Iran on the basis of the number of stories is shown. It is seen
that in Teheran and in large cities there is a movement toward high-rise buildings.
However, about 74% of the buildings constructed in all urban areas of Iran during
1973 had one story and about 94% were of one or two stories.
From the study of these tables it can be concluded that low-rise UMALCH will be
used in Iran for many more future decades.. There fore, there is a real and urgent
need for development of a method for seismic strengthening of low-rise (one to three
story) UMALCH buildings for Iran and for other seismically active LDCs.
The Main Causes of Death and Destruction
Unreinforced masonry and adobe structures generally have a brittle lateral-load-

resisting system and a destructible vertical-load-supporting system of the shear-
bearing type in the form of unrein forced bearing and parti tion walls. These type
of buildings have a very poor seismic performance. TOtal or partial collapse of
these structures, especially the collapse of the roofs has been the main cause of
the loss of life and property during the past earthquakes.
The seismic behavior and the failure modes of unrein forced masonry and adobe
buildings during the 1972 Qir earthquake in southern Iran which represent the
typical behavior of this type of structures is discussed in detail in Reference 8.1.
Some of the important causes of the failure of the walls and the subsequent collapse
of the roof of these type of structures are as follows:
1. The brittleness and the poor strength of ·the earth or clay materials used
in the construction of adobe buildings.
2. The brittleness and the inferior quality of the mortar used in the cons-
truction of brick, concrete block or stone masonry buildings, and the poor
quality of the bricks and concrete blocks.
3. Lack of sufficiently strong connection between the various elements of the

structure, such as between walls, partitions and roofs. In addition, the
brittleness and low strength of the individual elements especially the walls.
Often, these structures do not behave as a rigid box. Under a moderate
shaking, various elements become disconnected from each other and fail,
gradually causing the failure of the whole system.
4. The brittle destruction of the unreinforced load-bearing walls, partitions,

and spandrels over the openings due to the effects of shear-compression
and shear-flexure. The failure modes caused by these effects are very
brittle and highly strength degrading. Therefore, under a few cycles of
shaking the wall elements crack and partially or totally disintegrate.
Brittle cracking and subsequent fast disintegration of the load-bearing
264 Reza Razani
TABLE 8.3. The Distribution of Buildings Construct~ During

1972 and 1973 in Urban Areas of Iran on the Basis
of the Construction Materials Used
Type of Building Teheran Large Other All

ci ties urban urban
areas areas
1972 1973 1972 1973 1972 1973 1972 1973
Unrein forced adobe

and earth blocks 2.3 1.7 22.9 21.5 13.2 12.7
Unrein forced brick

masonry with wooden
timbers 17.3 15.9 21.9 25.3 17.2 18.7
Brick Masonry ( 1)
w/roofs made of
steel I-beam &
shallow brick arch 97.0 95.8 72.1 75.5 41.8 42.0 59.3 59.7
Unrein forced
masonry & adobe
walls w/roofs made
of wooden truss &
tin sheet covering,
masonry dome,
masonry cylindrical
vaults, etc., others 0.4 0.7 7.6 5.3 10.8 9.7 8.3 7.1
Sub-total 97.4 96.5 99.3 98.4 97.4 98.5 98.0 98.2
Buildings w/steel
or reinforced
concrete frame 2.6 3.5 0.7 1.6 2.6 1.4 2.0 1.7
TOTAL 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 99.9* 100.0 99.9*
* - Data given in the reference does not add up to 100.
(l)A sample study by the author carried out in Shiraz showed that less than 3%
of this type of buildings have some degree of seismic reinforcement, the rest
can be classified as unrein forced.
Information of this table is obtained from the following report:

Ali-Asghar Pashmini entitled, "Twenty-Year Program for Urban Settlement in Iran",
Revision No.1, Ministry of Housing and Urban Development of Iran, Mehr 1354
(Sept. 1975).
TABLE 8.4. The Distribution of Buildings Constructed During

1972 and 1973 in Urban Areas of Iran on the Basis
of the Number of Stories
Number Teheran Large Other All

of cities urban urban
stories areas areas
1971 1972 1971 1972 1971 1972 1971 1972
One-story 36.5 25.5 68.7 68.3 94.0 89.7 76.8 73.7
Two-stories 44.9 45.4 29.4 28.7 5.8 9.3 19.5 20.4
Three-stories
and over 18.6 29.1 1.9 3.0 0.2 1.0 3.7 5.9
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Information of this table is obtained from the following report:

Ali-Asghar Pashmini entitled, "Twenty-Year Program for Urban Settlement in Iran,"
Revision No.1, Ministry of Housing and Urban Development of Iran, Mehr 1354
(Sept. 1975).
shear-walls and partitions not only destroy the lateral strength and rigidity
of the structure but also destroys the vertical load-carrying capacity of
the bearing walls and results in the collapse of roofs supported on such
walls.
5. Disintegration of the heavy, brittle, non-monolithic and non-rigid timbered

roofs or roofs made of unbraced steel I-beams and shallow brick arches
(the popular roofing system in urban areas of Iran) or roofs made of joists
and hollow blocks due to falling and deformations caused by their total,
partial, or uneven collapse.
6. Separation of the roofs from the walls due to the insufficient length of
bearing of the beams on the supporting walls and the subsequent failure of
the bearing areas.
Costly Advanced Methods of Seismic Strengthening are not

Feasible for the LDCs
Various recommendations for designing earthquake resistant low-cost buildings in

rural and urban regions of Iran and in other LDCs have been proposed in the past
by local and foreign experts. Some experts have recommended that the use of tradi-
tional type of adobe and masonry buildings should be totally abandoned and these
buildings should be replaced as soon as possible by engineered buildings with wooden,
steel-framed, reinforced concrete, or reinforced masonry earthquake resisting struc-
tures. The low level of income, shortage of skilled manpower, lack of proper super-
vision, scarcity of high quality construction materials, and the high cost of non-
indigenous imported construction materials in Iran and in the poor regions of many
less developed countries makes the speedy implementation of these recommendations
infeasible. Other recommendations such as the construction of earthquake resistant
cylindrical, conical, or dome-shaped buildings with non-traditional forms and plans
266 Reza Razani
are also impracticable and unpopular. Masonry structures having monolithically

braced roofs with reinforced concrete tie beams on top of all the load-bearing
walls and reinforced concrete tie columns at the intersections of the walls, and
proper reinforcements within the walls and around the openings have been proposed
by many experts for the use in urban masonry buildings. This method and other
design methods based on seismic strengthening using reinforced masonry design
concepts,3 is not easily applicable in poor rural or urban regions due to
the relatively high cost and the low level of local technology. Even in
large cities where these types of seismic strengthening has been implemented, the
effectiveness of these methods of strengthening of the buildings against earth-
quakes is questionable due to inferior material and poor workmanship and super-
vision. In many cases in urban areas of Iran the resources have been used with
no assurance of obtaining reliable results.
Seismic Protection Policy and Seismic S-trengthening of UMALCH
In Section 8.2 of this chapter, the earthquake protection criteria for low-cost
housing in seismically active LDCs are discussed in detail. It is found that due
to shortage of construction resources such as capital, skilled manpower, advanced
equipment, and material and the existence of high priority key development projects,
the LDCs cannot afford to spend or· tie down a large portion of their construction
resources on extravagant earthquake resistant design of residential buildings. In
most LDCs due to low level of income, inferiority of construction material and
technology, low level of public education, lack of good workmanship arid profession-
alism, poor supervision and safety consciousness, etc. the upgrading of the present
UMALCH to a level that the resulting low-cost buildings can resist damage due to
high intensity earthquakes is technically very difficult to achieve and economically
and socially impracticable to implement. Constructing earthquake resistant build-
ings which are designed according to a rigorous and advanced specification, and
which contains numerous complicated details in a less developed environment espe-
cially when shortage of skilled technicians prevails is very costly and almost an
impossible task to accomplish.
Preventing the collapse of the roof of UMALCH, which is the main cause of death
during earthquakes is found to be feasible to implement in most LDCs. Under high
intensity earthquakes, roof collapse can be prevented by incorporating a simple
braced skeleton system within the UMALCH. This system is discussed in Section 8.3.
The function of this skeleton is to tie together various parts of the buildings so
that under earthquake motion roof collapse does not occur. The main components of
this skeleton are:
1. A horizontal in-plane diagonal bracing system for tieing together the

roof beams so that a monolithic roof with sufficient in-plane rigidity is
obtained;
2. An auxillary system of ductile wooden, steel or reinforced concrete columns

embedded within the masonry walls so that in case of destruction of these
walls these ductile columns can support the vertical load of the roof;
3. These columns are braced together laterally by means of a vertical system

of diagonal bracing in such a way that the lateral instability, excessive
drift, and subsequent collapse of the structure during or after the earth-
quake is prevented.
It is concluded that a suitable policy for earthquake protection in the LDCs is

to minimize the number of deaths due to roof collapse during earthquakes by
strengthening the UMALCH against collapse by the aforementioned braced skeleton.

It is not feasible to protect the UMALCH against earthquake damage, however, i t is
proposed that in LDCs, national earthquake damage insurance be instituted to cover
the cost of repair and rebuilding of damaged or destroyed UMALCH in case of earth-
quake.
Research and Development Needs
At present, development of a locally feasible, low-cost earthquake resistant build~

ing system is urgently needed in Iran and in many seismically active less developed
countries. Research and development on improving the seismic resistance of low-
cost adobe and masonry buildings can be carried out in the following directions:
A. Improving the mechanical properties of low-cost construction material, in parti-

cular in developing suitable, low-cost materials to be used for the construction of
building blocks, and panels for walls, floors and roofs. A few examples of recent
research and development in these areas have been reported in Refs. 2, 4, 5 and 6.
More research on strengthening and stabilization of soils for construction
of low-cost housing is needed. The objective of stabilization is to increase the
strength, insulation, impermeability, erosion resistance, vermin and termite resis-
tant, and durability of the soils used for construction of adobe blocks, wall ele-
ments, mortar, and plaster used in masonry, adobe and earth buildings.
Cement, lime, gypsum, certain types of asphalts, oil, polymers and other admixtures
have been used for stabilization purposes. There has been some recent breakthrough
in stabilization of lateritic soils for construction of strong and durable adobe
blocks. Development of low-cost material for construction of foundation, building
blocks, wall panels, elements for roof and floor systems, mortars, plaster for
interior and exterior use, floor covering, etc. from available, indigenous earth
materials is urgently needed.
B. Developing low-cost, light-weight roofing systems for various environments and

weather conditions. The presently used timbered roofs or roofs made of unbraced
panels, joists, steel I-beams and shallow-brick arches or hollow blocks are very
heavy and have insufficient strength~ resilience and rigidity. Their disintegra-
tion during the collapse of roof is responsible for a large number of deaths. Use
of low-cost, light-weight materials in conjunction with innovative and feasible
designs can provide a suitable roofing system. This system should reduce the danger
of death during roof collapse, and at the same time should provide sufficient strength,
durability and insulation against heat and rain which are necessary for safety,
maintainability and the comfort of the occupants.
C. Improving the methods of design of low-cost masonry and adobe buildings to better
resist the effects of earthquakes. Research in this area should be carried out in
the three following directions:
I. Determination of suitable methods for design of UMALCH against roof collapse

under the action of earthquake. In this direction the study of the causes of the
roof collapse and the identification, design, feasibility analysis, evaluation and
assessment of suitable low-cost methods for increasing:
(1) the monoliticity of roof and floors, (2) the earthquakeworthiness and strength
of the auxiliary vertical load-resisting system, and (3) the resistance of the auxil-
liary lateral load-resisting or bracing system of the structure, in case of the
destruction of load-bearing and partition walls under the action of earthquakes of
various magnitudes and intensities must be carried out.
268 Reza Razani
II. Determination of suitable architectural forms and plans for UMALCH, which inhe-
rently are more resistant against lateral earthquake loads. During many past earth-
quakes it has been observed that some UMALCH buildings with conical or dome-shaped
roofs, round floor plans, round-shaped openings or spandrels, symmetrically planed
floor and resisting walls of uniform stiffness in each direction had a better rela-
tive resistance against earthquake damage. In this direction, it is necessary to
carry out experimental and theoretical study on the optimum seismic-resistant forms
and plans of this type of buildings. Due consideration should be given to the
feasibility and local social acceptability of the results which are to be recommended
for use in any region.
III. Determination of suitable low-cost methods for reinforcing and strengthening

UMALCH buildings and their various structural elements against earthquake damage
and disintegration. Theoretical and experimental studies and field observations of
some past earthquakes has shown that the use of wooden, steel, or reinforced concrete
grade-beams between foundations and horizontal tie-beams on top of the walls beneath
the ceiling and the use of vertical tie-beams at corners of the buildings and at
the intersection of walls have some beneficial effects in reducing the earthquake
damage and collapse of buildings. Horizontal, vertical and diagonal reinforcing of
walls and partitions which are made of bricks or block elements with metal strips,
reinforcing bars, bamboo and wood elements is found to be very effective in reducing
the wall cracking and in increasing the seismic resistance of the building. The
beneficial effect of reinforcing the walls around the doors, windows and openings
also have been very significant. The results of some past studies carried out in
India and elsewhere in this area are reported in References 7 and 8. More
comprehensive experimental investigation should be carried out in this area so that
suitable low-cost methods for seismic strengthening of masonry and adobe wall elements
are obtained.
8.2 EARTHQUAKE PROTECTION CRITERIA FOR LOW-COST

HOUSING IN SEISMICALLY ACTIVE LESS DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES
Level of Seismia Proteation should Depend on the Level of
Development
The earthquake protection criteria in a less developed country logically should be
different from that used in a techno-economically developed country where capital
and skilled manpower are abundant, and where the use of technologically advanced
construction material and methods are customary and accceptable. The main differences
between the industrially developed and less developed countries in the availability
of various resources used in construction and in the dimension and importance of
their construction problems are shown in Table 8.5. In this table the less developed
countries are classified into two groups; those with a high foreign exchange earning
such as oil producing countries and those with a low level of foreign exchange and
income earnings.
In order to accelerate their rate of development, LDCs generally assign a high

priority to investment in the development of basic infrastructure, and in those
projects responsible for producing basic essential goods and services, especially
the industries for high-demand necessary consumer-goods, and the industries which
produce construction and other c~pital products.
Due to the shortage and unavailability of various resources such as capital, man-
power, machinery, and material in LDCs (as reflected in Table 8.5), a sharp compe-
tition will arise concerning the use of these scarce resources between the aforemen-
tioned high priority and key development projects and the consumer products including
TABLE 8.5. The Main Differences in Construction Environment

Between the Developed and Less Developed Countries
Which Affect the Choice of Seismic Protection
Policy for Low-Cost Housing.
Resources Industrially Less developed countries

and developed Those with high foreign Those with low
needs countries exchange earning such as foreign ex-
oil-producing countries change earning
(1) MONEY:
1.1 Capital available for Abundant Abundant Scarce
construction
1.2 Average family income High Moderate Low.
1.3 Effective interest rate Low Moderate High
1.4 Public construction Low High Very High
expenditure v.s.
private sector
(2) MACHINERY:
2.1 Construction technology Capi tal Labor intensive moving Labor intensive
intensive toward mechanization
2.2 Modern construction Plentiful Available, but shortage Scarce
equipment and machinery of services and operators
2.3 Ratio of average cost of Low M:Jderate -high High
renting construction
equipment to average
labor wage
(3) MATERIAL:
3.1 Modern construction Plentiful Imported types available Scarce
material but shortage of skilled
manpower constrains their
use
3.2 Quality of available Good Poor Poor
construction material
3.3 Ratio of average cost of Moderate High High
material per average
labor wage
(4) MANPOWER, EMPLOYMENT, WAGES:

4.1 Indigenous skilled man- Plentiful Scarce Scarce
power
4.2 Foreign skilled manpower Available Unavailable
4.3 Indigenous unskilled Scarce Plentiful, but due to Plentiful
manpower high demand, they are
in short supply
4.4 unemployment Small among Negligible among skilled Small among skilled
skilled
Moderate among Moderate among unskilled High among unskilled
unskilled
270 Reza Razani
TABLE 8.5 cont.
4.5 Wages High Very high for skilled MJderate for skilled
Moderate for unskilled Low for unskilled
(5) PROBLEMS AND NEEDS:

5.1 Population growth Low High High
5.2 Rate of urbanization . Slow and Very high Moderate
steady with
local shifts
5.3 Urban housing shortage Moderate Very high High
5.4 Rural housing shortage None Moderate High
5.5 Level of competition of Not competi- Not competitive for Highly competitive
residential housing with tive money but highly compe- for all resources
key development projects titive for manpower, except manpower
in using available resources machinery and material
the residential housing industry. Under this condition when a less developed country
tries to accelerate the rate of its development, it has no other alternative except
to restrict the level of scarce resources which are allocated for consumption or use
in the construction of residential buildings, especially the government sponsored
low-cost public housing projects. The national objective at this stage of develop-
ment is to provide a technologically safe, economically feasible, and socially
acceptable level of housing for the low-income people while utiliZing the minimum
amount of available resources.
During the present race for the rapid industrialization and development of infra-
structure, Iran and most other less developed. countries cannot afford to spend or
tie down a large portion of their needed construction and development resources in
extravagant earthquake resistant design requirements for residential buildings.
For these countries, the best national policy may require the assumption of certain
amounts of calculated risk during a short prescribed period of time. This period
encompasses the early stages of industrial, economical, and social development when
the scarce resources such as capital, skilled manpower; and construction materials
are needed for other high-priority and high-yield key development projects. The
important national policy question at this stage of development is: What degree of
seismic protection should be required, and what should be the national earthqUake
protection criteria for a less developed country such as Iran?
The present rate of population increase and the rapid urbanization of LDCs have
created a tremendous shortage of housing especially for low-income families in the
urban area. At present the construction technology in LDCs is in a transition
period from a traditional labor intensive to a semi-industrialized form. The
present level of production of construction materials and technical manpower is
absolutely insufficient to cope with the present housing demand.
For industrialized and developed countries the earthquake protection criteria has
been more or less similar to the criteria adopted by the Earthquake Engineers
Association of California 9 which is as follows:
1. The structures should resist minor earthquakes 'without damage.
2. Structures should resist moderate earthquakes without structural damage but

with some non-structural damage.
3. Structures should resist major earthquakes, of the intensity of severity

of the strongest experienced in the region without collapse, but with some
structural as well as non-structural damage. In most structures it is
expected that structural damage, even in a major earthquake, could be
limited to repairable damage.
The imposition of the requirements of items two and three of the above protection
criteria in the construction of low-cost housing in a less developed country will
increase by a large percentage the consumption of money, manpower, and construction
materials per unit building produced. This will substantially aggravate the shortage
of new housing in the country. At the present period of scarcity of resources, it
is definitely wasteful to take away the precious brick, cement, concrete, steel,
and construction technicians from many needed and high-yield key development projects
and employ them uselessly in the construction of foundations, wall, or roofs of
low-cost residential housing in anticipation of a potential risk which may never
materialize.
The protection criteria of developed countries should be adopted in Iran and in

other similar LDCs when;
1. The industrialized construction technology is developed to such an extent

that an excess supply of productive capacity and skilled manpower becomes
available;
2. Consumption of these resources in construction of low-cost residential

housing will not take them away from needed national development projects,
but will create needed jobs and employment opportunities.
Proposed Earthquake Protection PoZicy and Criteria for Low-cost

Housing in Less DeveZoped Countries
Based on the discussion of the previous section the author believes that under the
present socio-techno-economic conditions prevailing in Iran and in most less deve-
loped countries, their earthquake protection policy should have the following basic
objectives:
1. It should stress a very high level of protection for key development projects
which are eithe~ parts of basic infrastructure, or are responsible for.the
production of basic essential goods and services, especially those indus-
tries which produce construction and other capital products. A good level
of protection should be provided also for emergency and critical type
buildings and other expensive public projects.
2. It should stress an acceptable and optimal level of protection for residen-

tial housing, especially the low-cost public housing, and other commercial
and public buildings which are of moderate costs and importance. The main
goal of this policy should be the protection of the life of the people.
However, it should not result in an unnecessary expenditure of scarce re-
sources in the upgrading of the level of the protection of these buildings
against damage.
The main cause of the loss of life and property during earthquakes is the collapse
of bUildings. Therefore, in less developed countries the primary objective of the
earthquake protection policy should be collapse prevention. At present an earth-
quake with an intensity of VI (MM Scale) seems to be an upper limit of safety for
the traditional rural, and low-cost urban masonry and adobe buildings in Iran.
272 Reza Razani
Prevention of the collapse of the roofs of these buildings from earthquakes of an

intensity of VII, or VIII is an objective which is technically and economically
feasible. Prevention of the structural damage in these buildings from earthquakes
of an intensity of VII and VIII is an objective which is technically very difficult
to achieve and is prohibitively costly and economically infeasible. Satisfying the
latter objective in a country of the size of Iran needs a large expenditure of much
needed capital and manpower resources which will slow the tempo of the industriali-
zation and basic development of the country.
The construction materials and technology used in low-cost housing in Iran and in
many LDCs are of such inferior quality that their upgrading to such a level that
the resulting low-cost buildings can resist damage due to moderate earthquakes and
satisfying items two and three of the protection criteria for industrially developed
countries described earlier is technically very difficult to achieve and will increase
the cost of the structure substantially.
Most LDCs are confronted with certain aspects of socio-techno-economical backward-

ness, such as; a low level of public education, lack of good workmanship and tech-
nical professionalism, poor supervision and safety consciousness, etc. These short-
comings in conjunction with a low level of construction technology, inferior quality
of construction materials, and high intensity of the use of unskilled or low skilled
labor, lead to the production of poor quality housing, a low level of structural
safety, and a minimum of attention to details. Under such conditions, especially
when skilled laborers and technical supervisors are scarce, the implementation of
construction of a building which is designed according to a rigorous and technolo-
gically advanced specification, and which contains numerous complicated structural
and non-structural details is either an impossible task, or it needs constant
supervision and many work rejections which increase the costs and difficulties
to an unbearable level.
Prevention of seismic roof collapse can be achieved by means of the development of

a simple braced skeleton system (this system will be discussed in Section 8.3 of
this paper) which is attainable in the construction environment of LDCs. However,
prevention of structural and non-structural damage and cracking to low-cost build-
ings, not only is costly but,it needs a high level of technical skill, total atten-
tion to numerous and relatively complicated details, and constant supervision,
which may not be attainable in the construction environment of LDCs.
Based on the above reasoning, the objective of earthquake protection policy for
low-cost residential housing in the LDCs can be summarized in the following slogan:
'~ave the lives of the residents by preventing seismic collapse of the roofs~
do not worry about property damage; the houses can be repaired or rebuilt later."
Destructive earthquakes do not happen in all regions of the country at the same
time. The frequency of occurrence of earthquakes, "their severity, and their epicen-
tral location generally have certain stochastic characters. Therefore, the property
damage due to a probable severe earthquake in any location is a probable risk.
The expected cost of this risk can be calculated for each region and each type of
housing using available methods.lO,ll The optimum policy-regarding the
protection of low-cost housing against property damage due to an earthquake can be
obtained from a cost-benefit analysis. In this analysis, the study of the frequency
of the occurrence of destructive earthquakes in each region during the past decades,
the available historical data on destructive earthquakes during the past centuries
in that region, and the expected cost of loss of buildings versus the estimated
cost of upgrading the strength of the buildings to resist earthquake damage should
be considered. Based on limited studies the author has concluded that for present
conditions in Iran the most economical way to face the expected cost due to probable
earthquake damage and to prevent the wastage and misuse of precious resources is by
means of a national earthquake-damage insurance. In case of an earthquake the struc-
tural and non-structural damage to buildings should be compensated for by the
insurance, however no roof collapse should occur during the earthquake.
Tb satisfy the objectives of the aforementioned protection policy, the earthquake

protection criteria described in items 1 and 2 below are proposed for all classes
of buildings in Iran and in other seismically active LDCs, during their present
rapid rate for development and industrialization:
1. All buildings should be designed according to the protection criteria shown

in Table 8.6. In this table the buildings are classified into four major
categories. The criteria for earthquake protection against damage and roof
collapse is given in terms of the maximum safe earthquake intensity. The
intensity of the earthquake (expressed in MM scale) is chosen as a measuring
criteria for earthquake protection. This choice is due to the fact that
the damage and collapse of buildings (especially low-rise masonry and adobe
buildings) are closely related to the local intensity of the earthquake.
In Section 8.4 of this paper, a suitable ground motion spectrum for earth-
quakes of various intensities is proposed so that a direct and comprehendable
numerical relationship between earthquake loading and intensity can be
obtained. The proposed ground motion spectrum and structural response
spectrum for earthquakes of various intensities are shown in Figs. 8.2 and
8.4 respectively. On the basis of these spectra and the seismic protection
criteria for LDCs shown in Table 8.6 the proposed design spectrum for
seismic designs of UMALCH (class D) and other classes of buildings in LDCs
is obtained and is shown in Fig. 8.5. The effects of the magnitude of the
earthquake which influence its duration are included in the criteria by
specifying moderate and major earthquake classifications for each case.
2. All new or old residential and temporary buildings in rural and urban regions
(buildings of class C and D and private buildings of class B) should be
insured against earthquake damage. The premium for this insurance can be
collected from the homeowners yearly or on various occasions such as when
they apply for building permits, mortgage their homes, transfer or sell
their homes to a new owner, apply for rental permits, apply for utilities,
etc. For each building the premium should be proportional to the cost of
the building. Discounts should be given to buildings with good quality
earthquake resistant structures, and for buildings located in the regions
which historically have been less seismically active and are subject to less
seismic risks. The funds collected from homeowners by this national insu-
rance should be deposited in a publicly chartered Disaster Chest. The inte-
rest obtained from this fund may be spent for the promotion of the indus-
trialization of building, research and development in the construction of
low-cost housing, improvement of building materials and technologies, deve-
lopment of plants and factories for the production of emergency or disaster-
type low-cost housing, research and development in lowering the cost of the
earthquake resistant design of buildings, the training of technicians,
inspectors, and needed manpower for supervision and control of the construc-
tion of residential buildings, etc. The funds collected for earthquake
insurance in each country and deposited in the Disaster Chest should be
protected by a suitable geographical distribution of the investments in
the national and international regions so that the chances of the loss of
a major portion of the collected funds in any local calamity is minimized.
274 Reza Rezani
TABLE 8.6. Proposed Seismic Protection Criteria for Iran and

Other Similar Seismically Active Less Developed
Countries
Class Type of buildings Damage Criteria: Collapse Criteria:
No structural damage No roof collapse should

should occur under any occur under any moderate
moderate'or major earth- or major earthquake 1
quake 1 having a local having a local intensity
Description and intensity2 less than or less than or equal to
examples equal to the following: 4 the following:
A Emepgency Buildings; police

and fire stations, hospitals
and clinics, transportation
centers, electric generating
stations, water storage and
utility facilities, very
important buildings 'such as
archives, museums, treasuries,
etc., expensive key ppojects
and buildings.
B Community and Public
Buildings; educational,
recreational, industrial,
commercial, religious, and
assembly bUildings, government VIII IX
offices, private and public
bUildings and projects of
moderate cost and importance.
.c Residential rural or urban

Low-Cost or public Housing. VII IX
D Tempopapy Buildings; ware-

houses, animal buildings
or miscellaneous other
buildings with small fre- VI VIII
quency of occupation by
people.
Having a magnitude of less than or equal to 7.5 on the Richter Scale.

Local intensities are described on the Modified Mercali Scale.
For class A buildings, major earthquakes of Magnitude 8 should be considered.
4 Buildings of classes C and D should be nationally insured against earthquake
damage.
8.3 DESIGN OF UNREINFORCED MASONRY AND ADOBE LOW-

COST BUILDINGS AGAINST ROOF COLLAPSE DUE TO
EARTHQUAKE
According to the proposed earthquake protection criteria'for the LDCs the designers'
primary goal will ,be to prevent structural collapse during high intensity moderate
or major earthquakes.
Conditions for ITeven tion of Roof Co Uapse

A structure becomes less susceptible to collapse under high intensity earthquakes
if:
(a) The roof or floors of the building remain monolithic with sufficient in-
plane rigidity during and after earthquakes;
(b) The vertical load-carrying system of the structure can survive the earth-
quake without its function being impaired;
(c) The lateral load-resisting system of that structure during the main earth-
quake and succeeding after shocks and until structure is repaired can
retain enough residual capacity to resist safely the lateral forces due to
lateral instability (P-~ effect), wind loads, and future earthquake lateral
loads.
The above three conditions can be materialized by proper design as described in the
following sections respectively.
The Need for a MonoZithic and Non-DisintegrabZe Roof and Floor

System
The roof or floors of the building should remain monolithic and connected during the
main earthquake and subsequent aftershocks. The components of the roof should not
separate from each other and should not disintegrate under earthquake action. Mono-
lithic and rigid reinforced concrete floors satisfy this requirement. Non-monolithic
floors made of components such as reinforced concrete joists and blocks, steel joists
or I-beams and shallow brick arches, wooden timbers and flattened bamboo mats plus
earth covering, etc. must be made monolithic by properly tying and connecting all
the components together.
In general it is necessary that the ends of the roof beams, which are supported on
bearing walls, to be connected together by providing a suitable horizontal tie-beam
system (HTBS). The function of this system is to connect the ends of all the beams
together and to support individual beams in case of local failure of the bearing
walls. The tie-beams of various portions of the roof or floors should be connected
together properly so that all portions of the roof become attached to each other.
In addition to this horizontal tie-beam system, it is necessary to provide an in-
plane bracing system (IPBS) for the roof or floors, so that they will behave as a
monolithic slab with some degree of rigidity.
For roofs made of prefabricated panels or of reinforced concrete joists and concrete
or tile blocks, it is appropriate to provide a system of reinforced concrete tie-
beams for connecting together the ends of the roof joists or panels. These tie-
beams which are placed on top of the bearing walls may be prefabricated or cast in
276 Reza Razani
place. A four to six centimeter thick layer of reinforced concrete covering can
be used as the in-plane bracing system of the roof or floors. This layer of concrete
is cast on top of the joists and blocks of the roof connecting them rigidly with
the horizontal tie-beam system. This reinforced concrete system provides overall
connection, monolithicity and a good degree of in-plane rigidity.
For roofs made of steel joists or I~beams, with blocks or shallow brick arches the
system of reinforced concrete tie-beams and in-plane bracing described above can
be used. However, techno-economically it may be more feasible that in some cases
the tie-beams are constructed of steel I-beams and the in-plane bracing system are
constructed of x-shaped cross-bracing made of round or flat steel bars. Welding
or bolts can be used to connect the tie-beams, the cross bracing systems and the
floor beams to each other.
For low-cost roofs which are made of wooden timber and flattened bamboo mats plus
earth covering, wooden timbers can be used for the construction of the tie-beam
system. The in-plane bracing system can be provided with x-shaped cross bracing
made of long flat boards or steel bars. Connection between the tie-beams, roof
timbers, and cross bracings, can be provided by a sufficient number of spikes,
nails, bolts or other connections. Design of Low-Cost HTBS and IPBS systems for
various types of roofs and various applications are presently under investigation
by the autoor.
TJze Need for an AuxiZ,iary Earthquake-l:JOrthy VerticaZ-Zoad-

carrying (EWVLC) CoZumn System-
In addition to masonry or adobe shear-bearing walls, the building should possess

an additional independent earthquake-worthy verticaZ Zoad-carrying (EWVLC) system~
capable of supporting the vertical loads when the bearing walls have failed. This
system should work as the last line of defense against collapse of the roof or
floors. The EWVLC system can be materialized if appropriate number of ductile and
earthquake-worthy wooden, steel, or reinforced concrete columns with sufficient
axial compressive strength exist within the structure to support the vertical load
of the mcmoli thic roof when the load-bearing masonry or adobe walls fail. Since
these columns are the second line of defense against collapse, therefore, they can
be designed to support the dead and live loads by using a reduced design load-factor
of about 1.10. These columns should be suitably distributed within the building
plan so that the load of the monolithic roof or floors is uni formly supported by
these columns without formation of long spans.
The columns can be located within the bearing walls or partitions, at intersections
of the walls, around the openings, or as individual free-standing columns.' The
frames of doors and windows, if properly designed, can be used as colunms for this
purpose. The lower end of these colunms should be supported by the fOlIDdation in
such a way that after the destruction of surrounding walls due to lateral earth-
quake motion the columns do not lose their attachment with their foundations.
Individual foundations under these columns should be designed to support the column
loads without appreciable settlement or failure. The upper part of these columns
should be connected to the tie-beams at the roof and floor levels. In case of the
failure of load-bearing walls these connections should have sufficient strength to
transfer the loads of the roof and floors to the columns without failure. In two
or three story buildings it is better to use columns which extend to all the stories
without a splice. Column splicing should be avoided if possible. Proper connections
between the horizontal tie-beam system at floor levels and the proposed columns
provides a vertical load-carrying skeleton which should be able to safely carry
the weight of the monolithic roof and floors and to survive the effect of earthquake
without substantially losing its safe vertical load-carrying capacity. Proper care
should be exercised so that the adjacent walls or non-structural elements do not
shorten the effective length of the columns thus changing their behavior from ductile
to brittle. This possibility which may cause the premature failure of the columns
can happen especially in structures with reinforced concrete columns or wall panels.
Due to the interaction of adjacent walls the effective lengths of these columns
are shortened, as a result, the ductile flexural failure mode of these long elements
is changed to brittle shear failure mode. Designs of Low-Cost EWVLC Column System
for various applications are presently under investigation by the author.
The Need for an Auxiliary Ductile Counter-coUapse Lateral

Load Resisting (ADCLR) System
The existence of monolithic roof and floors supported by a system of earthquake-

worthy vertical load carrying columns does not insure the lateral stability of
the buildings during or after a destructive earthquake. If during the main earth-
quake shock, most shear-bearing walls and partitions fall down, then, due to after-
shocks, wind, lateral instability, or continuation of the mainshock, the whole
building may extensively sway in an arbitrarily direction and collapses. In order
to insure the lateral stability of the buildings an independent earthquake-worthy
lateral load resisting system should be provided within the structure. This system
may consist of ductile cross-bracing panels made of wooden members, steel bars, or
cables embedded within the walls or partitions, or of rigid reinforced concrete
shear walls. This auxilliary lateral load resisting system should have sufficient
capacity to resist safely the lateral forces due to the lateral instability (P-~
effect), wind loads, and future aftershocks.
When architectural considerations permit, the braced panels should be placed within
the building in such a manner so that the center of lateral stiffness and the
center of mass of each floor coincides, or be very close to each other. In such
a case the undesirable effects of torsion during the earthquake is minimized.
Design of the ADCLR system in the form of diagonal bracing for earthquakes of
various intensity and duration is presently under investigation by the author.
The objective of this study is to relate the design yield level of the bracing
system and the collapse time of the structure to the earthquake magnitude and
intensity. Thus, for various levels of earthquake protection suitable level of
yield requirement for the design of the bracing system can be obtained.
8.4 PROPOSED DESIGN SPECTRUM FOR UNREINFORCED

MASONRY AND ADOBE BUILDINGS
During the past decade in various parts of the world many reinforced concrete or
masonry low-rise buildings of shear-bearing type or with brittle shear-resisting
elements have failed under the action of earthquakes. These buildings have been
designed for loads recommended by the current seismic codes. At the same localities
tall buildings with ductile lateral load resisting elements designed on the basis
of the same codes have survived these earthquakes undamaged. A study of these
failures shows that the design base-shear traditionally recommended in most codes
for seismic design' is suitable for tall, long-period structures with ductile
lateral-load resisting elements. In order to obtain the same probability of damage
or failure for brittle and ductile structures under the same earthquake, it seems
that a much higher load factor·should be used in the design of brittle-type
structures. In a limited degree this necessity has been reflected in the current
278 Reza Razani
seismic codes by requlrlng a higher base-shear for structures with shear-bearing

walls and a higher load-factor for design of shear walls. However, the experience
from the past earthquakes have shown that these provisions are not sufficient. In
the past few years there has been a tendency by many practicing earthquake engineers
to use a much higher design base shear for low-rise rigid type structures in which
the lateral-load carrying system has a brittle shear failure mode. Ideally, the
design load factors should depend upon the load deformation and ductility charac-
teristics of the resisting elements. Establishing a quantitative relationship
between the ductility of a structural system and its design load-factor needs
further research.
In technologically advanced countries large portions of theoretical and experimental

earthquake engineering research have been devoted to the study of tall multi-storied
structures with ductile lateral-load resisting system of framed or shear-walled
types. Only in the past few years there has been some progress in the art of seismic
design of structures with brittle shear-resisting elements made of reinforced con-
crete or reinforced masonry. So far, with all the humali and property losses caused
by the destruction of brittle unreinforced low-cost masonry and adobe buildings
throughout the world no significant progress in the art of seismic design of these
structures have been reported. As a result at present in Iran and in most seismically
active less developed countries (SALDCS) the design base-shear and the load factors
used for tall, ductile buildings are used for design of low-cost masonry and adobe
buildings.
In this section of this chapter a design spectrum is proposed which can be used
for the seismic design of low-cost masonry and adobe buildings. From this design
spectrum one can obtain the design loads which are necessary to satisfy the protection
criteria discussed in Section 8.2. The concepts and the assumptions used in deve-
loping this design spectrum is not limited only to low-cost masonry and adobe
buildings, they can be extended to any low-rise, rigid-type buildings with brittle
shear-bearing walls or shear-resisting elements. From the proposed design spectrum
the following information can be obtained:
(a) If a designer wishes a structure to resist collapse under a major earth-

quake or under any earthquake of local intensity of VIII or IX (MM scale) ,
what level of the maximum structural drift and lateral load should he use
for the design of the counter-collapse bracing system of that structure?
(b) If a designer wishes to protect a structure against damage and cracking

under the action of earthquakes with local intensities of VI, VII, VIII,
or IX (MM scale), what level of design lateral load should he use for the
design of shear walls of the buildings for each level of earthquake
intensity.
Assumed Ground Motion Spectrum
In Table 8.7 the assumed maximum ground acceleration, velocity, and displacement
for earthquakes with various intensities are shown. For determination of the entries
of this table i t is assumed that a standard earthquake having a maximum ground
acceleration of about 0.5 g produces an earthquake of intensity IX in MM scale. It
is further assumed that the relationship between the earthquake intensity and ground
acceleration can be obtained from the following simple formula.
Log (a) = 0.301 (8.1)
Where a is the ground acceleration in cm/sec 2 , I is the intensity of the earthquake
in MM scale.
TABLE 8.7. Assumed Values for Maximum Ground Acceleration,

Veloci ty, and Displacement for Earthquakes of
Various Intensities
Earthquake Maximum Value of Ground Motion

Intensity I Acceleration a Velocity v(3) Displacement d(3)
MM Scale Cm 2 (1) o g(2)
/sec /0 IN/sec Cm/sec IN em
VI 63 0.063 g 3" 7.5 2.25" 5.7
VII 126 0.126 g 6" 15.2 4.5" 11.4
VIII 251 0.25 g 12" 30.5 9" 22.9
IX 501 0.5 g 24" 61.0 18" 45.7
x 1,000 g 48" 121.9 36" 91.4
1Relationship between maximum ground acceleration and intensity is obtained from

equation Log(a) = 0.301, where a is in cm/ sec 2 and I is in MM Scale.
2 2
2 For simplicity it is assumed g 981Cm/sec ~ 1,000Cm/sec •
3T he values for maximum velocity and displacement is assumed to be proportional

to the corresponding values for the standard earthquake (a = 0.50 g, V = 24 IN/ Cm '
d = 18").
Relationship between maximum ground acceleration and earthquake intensity has been
studied by many investigators. Ambraseys12 has collected many of these formulas
and has plotted the recorded maximum acceleration versus reported intensities for
many earthquakes which have occurred between 1933-73. These information and various
proposed relationships between ground acceleration and earthquake intensities are
given in Fig. 8.1. Equation 8.1 is also plotted on this figure. It is apparent that
this simple equation provides a relationship between maximum ground acceleration
and earthquake intensity with a degree of simplicity and conservatism sufficient
for design purposes.
For a standard earthquake having a maximum ground acceleration of 0.5 g the maximum
ground velocity and displacement are assumed to be 24 in/sec (61 cm/sec) and 18 in,
45.7 cm respectively. These values are given in Reference 13. The ground accele-
ration for earthquakes with intensities of VI, VII, VIII, and X are obtained from
equation 8.1. The relative values for the ground velocity and ground displacement
for these earthquakes are assumed to be proportional to that of the standard earth-
quake.
For example, from equation 8.1 the maximum ground acceleration for an earthquake
with intensity of VII is 126 cm/sec 2 ~ 0.126 g. The maximum velocity for this
earthquake will be: (0.126 g/0.50 g) x 24" = 6" (15.2 cm). The maximum displacement
for this-earthquake will be: (0.126 g/0.50 g) x 18' = 4.5" (11.4 cm). The result of
these calculations are shown in Table 8.7. The assumed ground motion spectrum for
earthquakes with nominal intensities VI, VII, VIII, IX and X are shown on Fig. 8.2.
280 Reza Razani
100
9 Log (a )=0.301
proposed formula
50
1- Log (a)= 0.331 (1 )-0.923
2- Log (a )=0.330(1)-0.500
3- Log (a)= 0.416(1)- 1.040
4- Log (0)=0.308(1)-0.040
5- Log ( a) = 0.427 ( Il-0.897
6- Log (a);: 0.500 (I )-1.350
01
7- Log ( a)= 0.550 (I )-1.222
~ 8 - Log (a )=0.500(Ij)-o.347
10
9- Log (a)= 0.300 (I)
C-
o
+= a = Maximum ground accel.
e
Q)
5 I = Local intensity in MM scale
W Ij = Loca I intensity in JMA scale
u
u (Japan met. office)
0
x 0= Average maximum accel.
0 cm/sec.2
~
I
0.5
•
•
MM
Fig. 8.1. Relationship between Maximum Recorded Ground

Accelerations and Reported Intensities for Earth-
quakes Occurring during Period 1933-1973
(Figure and information is given by Ambraseys12)
.StructuraZ Response Spectrum for Earthquakes of Various

Intensities
In Table 8.8 the basic data needed for plotting the response spectrum of structures
is given. These data are obtained by multiplying the quantities given in Table 8.7
for each type of earthquake intensity in an appropriate amplification factor. This
factor depends upon the level of damping within the structure which is represented
by the percentage of critical damping. The assumed value of damping and the corres-
ponding amplification factor is given at the footnotes of Table 8.8. The amplifica-
tion factors are obtained from Reference 13. For low-eost masonry and adobe
buildings the damping ratio during earthquake action varies and depends upon the
state of cracking and disintegration of load resisting walls. For various stages of
cracking and destruction of this type of buildings, an estimate of the average
value of damping and the range of natural frequency of structure at each stage is
given below.
~~~~~~
Fig. 8.2.
Period, sees
Assumed Ground Motion Spectrum for Earthquakes with

"
~('r
Nominal Intensities VI VII VIII IX and X in Modified

Mercali Scale
Behavior of structure during successive stages of cracking

and destruction
The behavior of a low-rise masonry and adobe structure under earthquake action
generally passes through the following stages:
Stage I - Before cracking:
At the start of the earthquake the resisting walls are uncracked, the building is
very rigid, the natural frequency of the building especially those of 1-3 stories
is very high (6 cycles/sec or more), the structural damping is very low (less than
2%). The vertical loads of the roofs are carried by the shear-bearing walls. As
earthquake shaking progresses with increasing intensity the resisting walls will
reach the yield and cracking limits.
282 Reza Razani
Stage II - Initiation and intensification of cracking:
At the initiation of cracks the structure becomes slightly more flexible and
damping increases. This gradual softening of structure continues until all
resisting walls have cracked. As cracks spread within the walls and become wider
and larger the stiffness of the walls is reduced but their energy absorbing capa-
city increases. As a result the structure becomes more flexible, the natural
frequency of the building is gradually reduced to about 2 cycles/sec and the
damping increases many folds. At some point along this stage the structure passes
through its maximum lateral load carrying capacity. For reinforced masonry, some
authorslj~14 have reported a very high damping r~tio at this stage. No
experimental data is available to the author at present. Therefore, for non-
reinforced masonry and adobe structures the damping ratio at this stage is assumed
to be 10%. The vertical load of the roof is still supported by load-bearing walls.
Stage III - Disintegration of walls:

As shaking continues the cracked non-reinforced masonry and adobe walls start to
disintegrate and to fall down either as a whole or in parts. The structure becomes
very flexible (natural frequency between 0.4-2 cycles/sec) and it starts to sway
in large amplitudes. The damping increases at the beginning of this stage but
reduces considerably as all the resisting walls crack. During the disintegration
and falling the walls do not absorb as much energy as during cracking the average
damping ratio at this stage is assumed to be 10%. At this stage the load-bearing
walls cannot carry the vertical load of the roofs. This load gradually will be
supported by the auxilliary system of earthquake-worthy vertical load carrying (EWVLC)
columns which has been provided within the structure. Thus, as the structure passes
through this stage the vertical loads will be gradually transferred to these
columns. The counter-collapse bracing system also will become gradually effective
and will resist the further increase in the ampli tude 0 f the dri ft 0 f the structure.
Stage IV Excessive drift of the structure:
At this stage all the resisting walls have fallen down or have ceased to resist
the lateral movement of the roof. Only the auxilliary counter-collapse bracing
system is left to resist the increasing amplitude of the sway and the drift of
the building. At this time the system of EWVLC columns carries the vertical load
of the roof. The natural frequency of the structural system is very low (less
than 0.4 cycles/sec). The damping is also very low, because the only energy
absorbing is provided by counter-collapse bracing system which does not absorb
much energy due to the gradual plastic elongation of its diagonal members. The
average damping ratio at this stage before collapse is assumed to be about 7%.
If the ductile diagonal members of the counter-collapse bracing system do not fail
due to excessive elongation before the earthquake stops, then, the building roof
and columns will stand in a drifted form. In this case the counter-collapse
bracing system should resist further increase in the structural drift and should
prevent the collapse of the building roof due to instability (P-~ effect) and
aftershocks. These four stages of structural failure are shown in Fig. 8.3.
Structural response spectrum
The structural response spectra for earthquakes of intensities VI, VII, VIII, IX
and X is shown in Fig. 8.4. This figure is obtained from the data shown in Table
8.8, in which for each type of earthquake the corresponding ground motion accele-
ration, velocity and displacement is multiplied by the amplification factor of
1.5, 1.5 and 1.2 respectively. On this figure also, the various stages of the
response and destruction of the low-rise unrein forced masonry and adobe buildings
are shown.
4 r;:::;:::======---l~6j4-
I. ' 7 . 1
/C:::L ITT, I
~
'
/
I
" LLJ.I I ,/ "
+1
LL
Stage I Stage ]I Stage lIT Stage nz:

E
~ Before cracking Initiation Disintegration of Excessive drift
en and intensi- walls
>.
en fication of
' '" \y-

0'
C
".0. cracks
.~
o
U
,/(' \\
"0
o
.2
I /
" \
Load-displacement behaviour
of compOSlte system
EQ)
+-
-
.51
u
o
Q)
"
I \
\
l
c I \ of ductile counter-collapse
~
"iii
I Initiation of crack \ bracing system
" in different walls 'Q.
~
,/ ' ..........
I
I .----....----......:10---------------
I of individual brittle walls
I
I or partitions having different
I stiffness but the same strength
I
,,
I
Lateral deformation or story drift. t:;t
Fig. 8.3. Various Stages in the Load-displacement Behavior and

Failure of Structures with Brittle Lateral-load
Carrying Elements
Proposed Design Spectrwn

The proposed design spectrum for seismic design of all classes of low-rise unrein-
forced masonry and adobe buildings in the LDCS are shown in Fig. 8.5. The classi-
fication of the buildings was discussed in Table 8.6 and is based on the earthquake
protection criteria for buildings in less developed countries. The design spectrum
shown for buildings of classes C and D should be used for design of UMALCH.
8.5 REDUCING EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE TO UNREINFORCED

MASONRY AND ADOBE BUILDINGS
In the proposed earthquake protection criteria for Iran and LDCS it was pointed out
that under high intensity moderate and major earthquakes, it is not economical to
design the UMALCH against damage. It was recommended that instead of this approach
a national earthquake damage insurance should be instituted. Increasing the strength
of low-cost masonry and adobe buildings against earthquake damage may" become
advantageous when:
284 Reza Razani
Stage I Stage IT StageN

Befare Cracking Excessive drift
cracking af walls and cal lapse
t>
Q)
Ul
"-
.~
secs
Fig. 8.4. Structural Response Spectrum for Earthquakes with

Nominal Intensities VI VII VIII IX and X in
Modified Mercali Scale
1. National insurance against earthquake damage is non-existent;
2. Some degree of strengthening of the building may result in lower premium

for the damage insurance;
3. For some particular reason, a building owner wants to reduce the possibility
of earthquake damage to his building, although it may be more economical
for him to insure his building against the expected cost of a probable
future earthquake damage.
Various metlilods of strengthening are available that their use will increase the
chances of a building to survive a moderate and even a major earthquake without
damage. Some of these strengthening methods require the use of high quality
TABLE 8.8. Assumed Values for the Maximum Acceleration, Velo~

city, and Displacement Response of Brittle-type
Structures for Earthquakes of Various Intensities
Earthquake Maximum Values of Structural Response(l)

Intensity I Acceleration a (2) Velocity v (3) Displacement d (4)
MM Scale Cm/ sec 2 %g IN/sec cm/ sec IN Cm
VI 95 0.095g 3.9" 9.91 2.7" 6.9
VII 189 0.189g 7.8" 19.81 5.4" 13.7
VIII 376 0.376g 15.6" 39.62 10.8" 27.4
IX 751 0.75g 31.2" 79.25 21.6" 54.9
X 1,500 1.50g 62.4" 158.50 43.2" 109.7
lEntries of this T~ble are obtained from corresponding values of Table 8.7 multiplied
by many amplification factors given below.
2Acceleration governs the design when the structure is rigid, i.e. at the stages
I (before cracking) and II (at the initiation and intensification of cracking),
average structural damping at stage II is assumed to be 10% of critical damping.
The corresponding acceleration amplification factor is 1.5.
3Velocity governs the design when the structure is at stage III during disintegra-
tion of walls. Average structural damping is assumed to be 10% of critical damping.
The corresponding velocity amplification factor is 1.3.
4Displacement governs the design of stage IV during excessive drift when the struc-
ture is totally flexible. Average structural damping at this stage is assumed
to be about 7% of critical damping. The corresponding displacement amplification
factor is assumed 1.2.
286 Reza Razani
Notes: Class A: Emergency buildings Class B: Public buildings

Class C: Low- cost housing Class D: Temporary buildings
For detailed description see table 8.6
Period, secs
Fig. 8.5. Earthquake Design Spectra for Classes A, B, C, and

D Buildings in Less-developed Countries
construction materials, technology, and supervision, which in turn increases the

costs of the building substantially. Some of these methods are as follows:
1. using higher quality masonry blocks or adobe;
2. Using high quality sand-cement mortars;
3. Reinforcing the walls, partitions, and spandrels according to the require-

ments of Reinforced Masonry Codes; 3
4. Using thicker shear-walls and a higher ratio of the length of resisting

shear walls to floor area;
5. Using reinforced concrete horizontal tie-beams, and vertical tie-columns

with infilled high quality masonry or reinforced concrete shear walls.
Other strengthening methods also exist which are based on superior design techniques
and stress a more effective and optimal deployment of the existing construction
materials without the necessity of using extra resources or high quality technology.
In this paper these latter methods which their use in the structure do not increase
the costs will be discussed. The basic concepts behind these design methods are
obtained from the theoretical study of the optimum architectural form of structures
with brittle lateral load resisting elements, and from the field observations of
the failure mode of masonry and adobe buildings during the past earthquakes·.
The underlaying design philosophy and the optimum architectural form of structures
with brittle lateral load resisting elements can be recognized better if the diffe-
rences between the structural behavior of buildings with ductile or brittle load
resisting components is understood. In technologically advanced countries, a large
portion of theoretical and experimental earthquake engineering research has been
devoted to the study of tall, multi-story structures with ductile lateral load
resisting system of frame or shear-wall type. So far, no significant progress in
the art of the seismic design of a s~ructure with brittle elements has been reported.
In seismic design of brittle structures many traditional assumptions and approxima-

tions have been carried over from the design of conventional ductile structures
against static or dynamic loadings. The most important one is the assumption of
redistribution of forces between the resisting elements due to successive yielding
of these elements. This is a fundamental assumption in plastic design and in
seismic design of ductile structures. This assumption is not valid for brittle
structures. Therefore, for this type of structure, many accepted methods of seismic
analysis and design and many analytical and design simplifications and rules of
thumb based on ductile behavior must be revised. In ductile structures the max-
imum load that a parallel row of resisting elements can carry usually is equal to
the sum of the yield load or ultimate resistance of all these elements. The maximum
load carrying capacity of a system consisting of rows of brittle elements is usually
less than the sum of the ultimate resistance of all the elements, because, each
overloaded member fails in a sudden and premature brittle mode. Therefore, the
members would rarely reach their ultimate strength all at the same time. Sometimes,
espe·cially under alternating loads, the brittle elements of the lateral load resisting
system may fail one after the other in a successive mode, similar to the so-called
unbuttoning phenomenon which occurs in long rows of rivets and bolts.
In analysis and design of structures with brittle lateral load resisting elements
the following recommendations should be observed:
(a) The loads and stresses in brittle resisting elements should be obtained
by an accurate elastic method of analysis;
(b) Any obstruction or stiffening of elements during or after construction

which would change the distribution of the lateral load within the brittle
elements of the structure from their estimated design values obtained by
an elastic analysis must be avoided or their action must be included in
the elastic analysis.
(c) The effect of torsion due to an earthquake must be minimized or its effect
must be considered in an elastic analysis.
(d) The structural design of a building with brittle components is optimum and
has the highest value of damage resistance if the building fails by
simultaneous failure of the brittle components under the critical load
conditions (the so-called One-Hoss-Shay design philosophy), but remains
elastic under less than critical load conditions. For structures with
brittle shear resisting elements, this condition can be achieved if the
lateral stiffness of all the resisting elements are equal.
288 Reza Razani
From the above theoretical studies and the survey of the damages during the past
earthquakes, it can be concluded that structures with a relatively low and uniform
level of shearing or tensile stresses in all members under lateral earthquake loads
have the best resistance against damage. Structures having dome-shaped, cylindrical,
conical, or other axi-sYffiffietrical forms, especially those with an initial state of
compressive stress, lead to a more uniform and low tensile stress distribution
pattern, and thus, are often more damage resistant than similar structures of conven-
tional forms.
In buildings with conventional architectural forms a state of low and uniform level
of shearing and tensile stress under earthquake loading can be achieved if the
lateral load resisting elements are so proportioned that their lateral stiffness
are equal in each direction. Such proportioning results in equal level of stress
in all members under seismic loadings. A building in which under earthquake loading
in each direction all the lateral resisting elements such as walls, partitions, wide
columns, spandrels, etc. reach their cracking and ultimate load carrying capacity
at the same time has an optimum design. Such a building structurally has the
highest amount of resistance against cracking and damage, however if it fails all
of its resisting members also fail at the same time.
The structures that their brittle lateral load-resisting elements have such geometries
that will not give rise to points of a stress concentration have a good resistance
against earthquake damage. The form of the openings in a masonry wall has a
significant influence in the pattern of stress concentration and in the seismic
behavior and damage strength of that wall. Small openings with round corners seems
to be better than those with sharp corners. Sharp changes in the stiffness of the
walls or shear-resisting elements give rise to points of stress concentration and
should be avoided as much as possible.
REFERENCES
L Razani, R. and Lee, K. L. The Engineering Aspects of the Qir Earthquake of

10 April 1972 in Southern Iran. A report to the National Science Foundation,
published by the National Academy of Sciences for the National Academy of
Engineering, Washington, D. C. 1973.
2. Reps, W. F. and Simiu, E. (Eds.) Design~ Siting~ and Construction of LOW-Cost

Housing and Community Buildings to better withstand Earthquakes and WindstoY'1Tls~
Report No. NBS BSS-48 prepared for the U.S. Agency for International Development,
Washington, D.C. 20523, Jan. 1974.
3. Amrhein, J. E. Reinforced Masonry Engineering Handhook - Brick and Other

Structupal Clay Units~ Published by Masonry Institute of America, Los Angeles,
California, 1st edition 1972.
4. Razani, R. and Behpoor, L. Some Studies on Improving the Properties of Earth

Materials Used for the Construction of Rupal Earth Houses in Seismic Regions
of Iran~ Proc. 4th Symposium on Earthquake Engineering, Rooskee, India, Nov.
14-16, 1970; pages 81-89.
5. Manual of Asphalt Emulsion Stabilized SoilBY'icks~ International Institute of

Housing Technology, California State University, Fresno, California, 1972.
6. Dietz, A. G. H. "Materials for Low-Cost Housing Construction", Chapter 7 of

this book.
7. Arya, A. S. "Construction of Small Buildings in Seismic Areas", Indian Jozaonal.

of Power and River VaHey Devel.opment Special. Number, 1971, Proceedings of the
Symposium on Konya Earthquake of Dec. II, 1967 and related problems; pages
69-76.
8. Krishna J. and Chandra B. Strengthening of Brick Buildings in Seismic Zones,

Proceeding 4WCEE, Santiago, Chile, January 1969, Vol. 3; pages B-6-11 to
B-6-20.
9. Recommended Lateral. Force Requirements and Corrunentary, Seismology Committee,

Structural Engineers Association of California, 1968 edition.
10. Grandori, G. and Benedetti, D. "On the Choice of the Acceptable Seismic Risk,"
Jozaonal. of Earthquake Engineering and Structzaoal. Dynamics, Vol. 2, 3-9 (1973).
11. Esteva, L. Seismic Risk and Seismic Design Decisions, MIT Symposium on the
Earthquake Resistant Design of Nuclear Reactors, Cambridge, Massachusetts (1969).
12. Ambraseys, N. N. Notes on Engineering Seisrrol.ogy, Proceedings of the NA'IO

Advanced Study Institute Congress, Izmir, 1973, on "Engineering Seismology
and Earthquake Engineering" edited by J. Soines, Published by International
Publishing Company, 1974; pages 33-40.
13. Newmark, N. M. and Rosenlilueth, E. Fundamental.s of Earthquake Engineering,

Englewood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice-Hall, 1971.
14. Mallic, D. V. Structural. Damping of Brick Masonry in Different Mortars, Proc.

Second Earthquake Symposium, university of Rooskee, India, Nov. 10-12, 1962.
9
HIGHER EDUCATION IN LOW-COST HOUSING
Floyd O. Slate
9.1 INTRODUCTION
During the two Roving Workshops and related conferences, it was observed that low-
cost housing technology has only small, and surely insufficient or even negligible,
input, guidance, and analysis by the non-technological fields, such as sociology,
anthropology, economics (other than financing), law, and human ecology. The same
situation that was observed in the four Asian countries and the U.S.A. is almost
universal. The result is that low-cost housing programs are being organized, planned,
supervised and carried out, in most cases by architects or engineers (or by planners) ,
without proper consideration of related social and "human" aspects, and that serious
errors, deficiencies, and failures are occurring, world-wide.
It was further observed that the programs of higher education and research in the
five Network nations, and in the world in general, do not provide for integrated,
multi-disciplinary education and research in complex, applied fields such as low-
cost housing. Thus, higher education is not leading or pointing out the way in this
new direction, or providing the important, needed multi-disciplinary aspect of
training for these traditionally techno~ogical fields.
The purpcE:e of this chapter is to discuss the place of higher education (including
university research) in the field of low-cost housing: to discuss its current
status, influences, failures, deficiencies, successes, needed changes, newly intro-
duced programs, trends, and possible future directions. To this educator, with his
inevitable prejudices, it seems obvious that universities, colleges, research and
training institutes, and other such organizations must provide advanced education
and training, as well as research, in this difficult, complex field, which involves
inter-relationships that break across traditional academic and practicing disciplines,
and which, again in the opinion of this writer, demands a multi-disciplinary approach
to the solution of many of its problems. In addition to opinion, some speculation
will necessarily be involved in this chapter.
It is assumed that content of courses of study and directions of resear~h in higher

education will influence strongly what will actually happen in the future in the
"real" practical world, when the advanced students later assume positions of influence
and decision.
291
292 Floyd o. Slate
9.2 WHERE WE ARE NOW IN ACTUAL HOUSING PRACTICE

The situation is grim, considering the present seriously inadequate housing of the
world's poor, with the added specter of massive future growth of their numbers,
combined with rapid urbanization. Tbtal additional housing needs by the end of
this century may well exceed 200 or even 300 million units, more than the total
world supply at this time, and even more than the total built throughout human
history.
Surprisingly little has been done toward providing low-cost housing for low-income
people, particularly for the great numbers of poor families who do not qualify for
any kind of loan because they are not landowners or have no regular income. Much
of what has been built has been subsidized housing for civil servants, who are
largely people of middle or low-middle income, and who include even some in high-
income levels. Most of the remainder of low-cost housing, both governmental and
private, has gone to middle-income people who can afford to make appreciable purchase
or rental payments. In general, the poorer people have remained outside the rnain-
. stream of help in housing.
The World Bank's 1972 working paper, "Urbanization", states that "Perhaps the most
salient feature of the housing situation is the stark fact that typically well over
half of the urban population cannot afford minimal 'permanent construction' housing,
even if financing a!l:;rangements are made available or limited subsidies given."
Squatters now make up about one-third of the population of a large part of the
world's medium-sized and larger cities. Refugee squatters pose a particularly large
and difficult problem, and one that shows no si.gn of being ended, for new refugee
groups fleeing from new conflicts feed the total faster than earlier groups can be
taken care 0 f •
Of the too-few attempts to house the poor, most have failed. Those projects that
are built for the very poor, such as squatters (not aZZ of whom, in fact, are poor) ,
are traditionally segregated from other housing, and often placed on undesirable,
waste land - in a swamp or desert, for example, apparently to "get rid" of those
people. In such a segregated area, perhaps a few miles out in the desert, people
have little chance to work or even to beg, and rather than starve in their new,
better, subsidized housing, they often abandon it and return to the city as squatters
again. Abandoned, and therefore wasted, housing projects of this nature are not
uncommon.
Among the important problems in addition to population pressure of the poor, is

that of land tenure. Various economic problems include financing of construction,
from initial cost through - usually - at least partial repayment by the tenant or
new owner; unfortunately, seldom is any thought given to creating an environment
in which the occupant can earn a living. Frequently, the housing units are not
suitable for the climate, or are poorly sited, and thus fail to meet the needs of
the intended occupants. All too often there is a lack of understanding of, or even
of concern about, social aspects such as customs of the people or their own prefe-
rences and desires.
Frequently, perhaps usually, little concern is given to use of indigenous rather

than imported materials, resulting in problems of foreign exchange. This is illus-
trated by the ever-present corrugated steel roof found on poorer housing in all
parts of the world.
A related problem is the frequent use of capital-intensive rather than labor-intensive

schemes for housing construction. This is usually a misguided approach, since
unemployment and poor housing usually go hand-in-hand. An unfortunately popular
Higher Education in Low-Cost Housing 293
approach in some developing countries is to import unmodified or slightly modified

foreign standards and technologies, including complete large capital-intensive
industrialized housing factories, rather than to develop use of indigenous materials
with designs and construction techniques chosen to be compatible with local mate-
rials, labor, and conditions, including at times self-help by the future occupants.
It is probable that one of the greatest social problems is unhappiness or resentment

resulting from segregation, with its resultant identification of people as "poor,"
or "destitute," or "wards of the state~"
Finally, in many or most cases, the poorer occupants are'given no equity and have
no chance to develop any. Thus, they have less incentive to care for and upgrade
their living quarters, as compared to the case where they might foresee the possi-
bility of some future profit for themselves or their children through some sort
of progressive ownership (designed ~o prevent early sale or sub-rental).
This short over-view of typical problems and failures will now be related to how
problems of low-cost housing are typically approached at the present time. The
approach, which has failed and is still failing badly, is primarily a unidiscipli-
nary approach. Typically, an architect, or an engineer, or more recently a
planner, or even occasionally an economist will conceive, plan, and execute a
project, based on his own training and experience, with little input (or little
input that is actually used) from any discipline other than his own. He usually
cannot even communicate effectively with people of other disciplines and has
little understanding of their approaches and problems. Then, to top off the
situation, an organized literature does not exist to define and analyze this
complex field, with coordinated multi-field information on the current stage of
knowledge and experience; thus, a person of a given discipline is not able to
depend effectively on the published literature to enable him to digest and consider
views of other disciplines as related to his own. He is alone, because of his
own training, because of lack of communication among disciplines, and because of
lack of an organized, coordinated literature.
It is the opinion of the author that much of the problems, failures, and lack of
progress in the field of low-cost housing is related to the limited vision of a
uni-disciplinary approach. This typical approach is a direct result of our tradi-
tional systems of higher education.
9.3 WHERE WE ARE NOW IN EDUCATION AND RESEARCH

For many years there has been a trend toward more and more highly specialized
educational programs to produce highly trained specialists in narrow fields of
knowledge. The theory apparently has been, with considerable truth, that with
limited time to study, the professional can delve deeper into his specialized
subject if his study is limited to that subject and others closely related, without
dilution or distraction from other fields. This approach is now almost universal,
especially for graduate study. It has worked very well for highly develop~d fields
that are closely defined and well organized, such as some specialities of medicine,
physical sciences, and engineering, in those particular specialities where broad
perspective is not needed or sometimes even of value.
These highly trained specialists have often become the leaders of our educational
programs, with great influence on other educationalists and researchers, resulting
in a self-feeding system that becomes more and more specialized, even in cases
where breadth might be vital. Research publications have paralleled the trend,
becoming increasingly specialized. As a result, each field has developed a literature
294 Floyd O. Slate
and even a jargon of its own, that outsiders find difficult to understand. And.
thus, specialists from different fields often or usually have difficulty working
together or even communicating with each other on broad problems encompassing all
their specialities.
In the past several years, there has been an attempt, in engineering for example,
to broaden and "humanize" undergraduate students by requiring them to take a
certain minimum number of courses in the humanities or liberal arts. This approach
has been worthwhile, in terms of greater breadth at a very shallow level and in
opening up new perspectives, but it has not helped much in terms of cooperation
amOng highly specialized workers.
The highly- and narrowly-trained specialists tend to operate in practice as they

were trained in the universities. Advanced university training labels the specia-
list, and effectively defines his areas of competence and therefore of endeavor.
When a complex field such as low-cost housing is encountered, with its many inter-
related problems involving several of the traditional disciplines, trouble arises.
The problems are deep enough that a high level of training is required, and the
problems are complexly interrelated, yet a group of specialists cannot work as a
team in a coordinated fashion - they usually cannot even understand each other.
Generalists are of little value, either'as members of, or leaders of, teams.
Tradi tionally, a "house" belongs to the architect (or to the "builder"), and a
"public works" belongs to the civil engineer. As a result, the great majority of
low-cost housing projects are organized, controlled, and carried out by either an
architect or an engineer. An economist often has a strong voice in financing
schemes, but neither he nor anyone else considers the general economic well-being
of future occupants. Sociologists and anthropologists are little hea~d in circles
where decisions are made. The legal aspects of land tenure are not viewed in terms
of social and economic long-term impact. Even if the architect or engineer has
a multi-disciplinary team or committee, the main thrusts of the project are usually
based on his own traditional discipline and academic training.
At the present time, it is very difficult for a graduate student to take any course
(except sometimes a required modern language) outside his major and closely related
minor subjects. His advisors and his peers will encourage him to specialize as
much as possible. The examination systems pressure him to do so. Finally, there
are no, or almost no, multi-disciplinary courses at a fairly high level, aimed at
examining problems and solutions of a real, complex problem such as low-cost housing.
The only ones known to the author, that integrate teaching and research from various
disciplines rather than merely have separate "guest" lectures from different fields,
are the two current courses at Cornell University in low-cost housing for developing
nations.
Thus, our.higher education and research programs are sadly deficient in meeting
the needs of this important area. They are failing to integrate thinking and
understanding among specialized disciplines.
9.4 PROBLEMS AND TROUBLES WITH PRESENT SYSTEMS

The complex problems of low-cost housing require the coordinated thinking and
solutions of various fields of knowledge, but our current systems of practice,
which are in turn based on our. current systems of higher education, do not provide
for, or even easily allow, such coordinated approaches. The problems include
traditional academic and practicing responsibilities and authorities for the low-
cost housing area, lack of and inability for communication among the various highly
specialized disciplines that should be involved, and even a certain antagonism
between some fields concerning methods of thinking about and approaching problems.
9.5 WHAT IS NEEDED

Some innovations are needed in higher education to provide backgrounds for teams of
specialists to work together effectively in a coordinated manner on the complex
problems of low-cost housing. It can be expected that applied practice will follow
educational precedents. The approach must be inter-disciplinary, to blend and
integrate the fields. It must involve courses applied to real problems, such as
low-cost housing, and not merely a course in sociology for an architect or engineer.
Research, as well as teaching, must be multi-disciplinary. Specialists must be
able to understand -each other and each other's literature. Finally, we must develop
new leaders who are specialists in a specific field illid who are simultaneously
sufficiently knowledgeable about the approaches and problems of other pertinent
disciplines to be able to work effectively with them. In the opinion of the author,
the new breed of "planners", an off-shoot from architecture, is generally not meeting
the needs.
These needs will require some new approaches in teaching and research at the graduate
level in universities and research institutes. Teachers from various disciplines
must integrate their efforts to focus on real problems and students from various
academic and personal backgrounds must integrate their study efforts and viewpoints
all this must be done at a level of serious study, not just as "stimulating seminars".
A series of guest lectures in an architecture or engineering course will not do.
In summary, what is needed are trained-~n-depth specialists in each of various

disciplines, who also receive training in multi-disciplinary courses and research
to learn each other's approaches and problems and to learn to communicate with each
other in the field of low-cost housing, and who then can work as a coordinated
team under the direction of a specialist who is also trained to use a multi-disciplinary
approach. If necessary, to avoid longer schooling, it might be acceptable to
reduce slightly the amount of specialized study in order to include the multi-
disciplinary study. Specialists can continue to advance themselves in their own
field by self-study, but breaking across into a new field is extremely difficult
and usually requires help, as from a course of study. Finally, a multi-disciplinary
team, just as any other team, must have a leader with authority. A headless
committee will be useless. In the author's opinion, the leader should usually be
an engineer or architect.
f-J
The needs for a multi-disciplinary approach to education involving low-cost housing
are probably also present, perhaps in lesser degree, for existing educational
programs in housing in general, including the industrialized countries and higher-
cost housing.
9.6 THE CORNELL PROGRAM IN LOW-COST HOUSING

As an example of what is being done in higher education in low-cost housing at one
university, a detailed description will be given of the program 'at Cornell University.
This is given as an example, and not necessarily as a recommendation.
History
Before 1972, some individual courses in housing involving a single discipline,

usually in architecture or human ecology, had been given at Cornell University and
elsewhere, but apparently no attempt had been made to combine and integrate disciplines
for such a course. The author planned in 1971 and early 1972 for such a course,
296 Floyd O. Slate
to be given in Civil and Environmental Engineering with help by a multi-disciplinary

faculty group, starting in Spring 1973, and, the course was entered into the catalog
in early Spring 1972. Meanwhile, Cornell's Program on Policies for Science and
Technology in Developing Nations, based on a 211(d) grant from the U.S. Agency for
International Development, encouraged the author to broaden the course to involve
an even greater amount of input from the disciplines outside of civil engineering.
The author agreed and a group of faculty members from various disciplines at Cornell
University was assembled and met together in late Spring, 1972 to discuss the
possibility of establishing a truly multi-disciplinary course in low-cost housing
for developing nations. Only people with actual working experience in low-cost
housing (and closely related areas) in developing countries, were invited to parti-
cipate, in an attempt to form a down-to-earth group with practical knowledge. There
was immediate agreement that such a course was needed, and general interest in par-
ticipating. Interest was also expressed in cooperating as multi-field teams, as
appropriate and feasible, in projects in low-cost housing, from study to design and
construction. A series of meetings was held through the Summer of 1972, and general
agreement was reached for an outline for the course and for a method of operation
of the group. A detailed description of the course, including an outline of topics,
was released to the students before their pre-registration in Fall 1972, for their
Spring 1973 semester, when the course was first given. The course, an integrated
blend of several disciplines, was apparently the first of its kind given anywhere.
It was not simply a course in architecture or engineering with a few guest lectures
or seminars by sociologists and economists - a kind of course that does not get to
the heart of the matter.
Courses of Study
Development of course
The major objectives of the first course were to present and analyze various aspects
of low-cost housing, including architecture, engineering, physical planning, physical
sciences, economics, and sociology, and to attempt to integrate these aspects into
a realistic, practical picture. The faculty group felt that many projects have been
bungled because key aspects of the over-all problem of low-cost housing have been
ignored - such as social problems or problems of general economic well-being of
the future occupants. All too often an architect or an engineer alone, without
adequate background in or input from other vital fields of knowledge, has developed
and carried out a project, with serious consequences. It was felt that people,
both students and faculty, from the several key disciplines should become familiar
with each other's problems, as well as work at depth in their own field, so they
could then not only communicate readily, but work together jointly as teams to
attack problems in low-cost housing.
The course was listed for credit under three different colleges of the University
Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, and Human Ecology. Thus, the
same course was given under three different departmental numbers, all with the
same title. This was done to encourage students from various fields to take the
course, as well as to satisfy administrators who wish to claim student class hours
for their own courses in their own departments.
Students
The class for the first offering consisted of about ninety students ranging from
seniors (with a few juniors) to Ph.D. candidates. About one-fourth were graduate
students and about one-fourth were from developing countries (more than one-half
of the latter were graduate students). Countries represented were: .Afghanistan,

Bangladesh, Canada, Republic of China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Greece, India, Iran, Italy,
Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Rhodesia, El Salvador, Sierra Leone, Thailand,
and the U.S.A. Fields of major study represented were: Agricultural Engineering,
Agriculture, Architecture, Arts and Sciences, Business and Public Administration,
Chemical Engineering, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hotel Administration,
Human Ecology, Industrial Engineering, Industrial and Labor Relations, Mechanical
Engineering, and miscellaneous, with by far the largest group from Civil and
Environmental Engineering, perhaps because the author (chairman of the faculty
group) was from that area.
Faculty
The faculty for the first offering consisted of six members of the Cornell faculty,
as fo~ows: an engineer, an architect, a sociologist, an economist, and architect-
physiCal planner, and a chemist-civil engineer.
In addition, there were lecturers and discussions by guest speakers from outside
Cornell: an architect-anthropologist lectured on his experiences in Ceylon; an
architect in government service spoke on U.S.A. foreign help and on his work in
Latin America; an Afghani architect described his work in Afghanistan; and an
architect-sociologist spoke about general principles and about his work in Peru.
In addition to the experience in developing countries in low-cost housing of the

guest speakers, the central faculty group had such experience as follows: Afghanistan,
Central America, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ghana, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Puerto Rico.
Conduct of cOu:r'se
The students from the various fields met together for common lectures and discussion
periods, led by the multi-disciplinary faculty group. These meetings were held one
hour every week plus one and one-half hours every other week, with the former
meetings mostly for lectures and the latter meetings dedicated mostly to panel and
class discussions. The class was divided into small teams (usually four to six
people) for in-depth study of specific projects. In the alternate weeks (between
the discussion periods) each team met with the appropriate faculty member. The
course-wide lectures and discussions, and associated reading and study, provided
general background, and acquainted people of one discipline with methods and problems
of other disciplines, as well as of their own. The segregated, team meetings made
actual use of such cross-disciplinary study, on a specific project, and also provided
for in-depth work by each student in his own discipline.
Subject matter
The major topics covered in the lectures and discussion periods were: Historical
Aspects, Indigenous Housing, Housing Problems in the Developing Nations, Current
Practice and Malpractice, Site Selection and Planning, Use of Indigenous Materials,
Design of Housing, Construction Technology, Housing Production, Case Studies, and
Policy Proposals. Aspects of economics and sociology were brought into the picture
as an integral part of each topic. Faculty members from the different disciplines
coordinated and interrelated their presentations and approaches as much as feasible
(or tried to), by teaming together for common lectures and panel discussions.
The textbooks used were: Abrams, Man's Struggle for Housing in an Urbanizing World;
and Rapaport, House Form and Culture. Lengthy reading lists were distributed.
A large selection of appropriate reading and reference material was placed on reserve
in the library.
298 Floyd o. Slate
Student teams and term projects

The assignment of a specific project to a small team as the major term assignment
was used in an attempt to encourage (or even force) people of different disciplines
actually to work, and work closely, together (rather than merely to listen to
lectures together and to engage in joint discussions). Each team, usually composed
o'f four to six people, was assigned a topic or project for a term report to be
prepared jointly by the team members. As feasible, the team chose or defined its
own assignment, or more commonly, the team was more or less voluntarily assembled
around a generalized problem assignment which the team defined in detail. As much
as possible, the teams were deliberately formed in such a manner as to mix disci-
plines; for example, an attempt was made to have on a team one or two engineers
(we had too many engineers), an architect and/or planner, an economist, a sociologist,
and perhaps another specialist. An attempt was also made to mix undergraduate with
graduate students and especially to include a student from a developing country on
each team (if the latter was a graduate student, he would usually be the team leader
and the team project would involve his home country).
Each team was assigned to the faculty member best qualified to advise and guide i t
(by actual experience, by study, and by interest), although all students and teams
were free to, were encouraged to, and often did confer with other members, even
outside the low-cost housing group. A team normally met at least once every two
weeks with its professor, and often met at other additional times without him.
To aid in the formation of teams, a tentative list of projects was presented and
students asked to choose first, second, and third choices. Tentative teams were
then assembled, with strong consideration being given to mixing disciplines, mixing
graduate and undergraduate students, and mixing foreign and U.S.A. students. The
tentative teams met to determine if they were compatible in interests and could work
together; some shuffling and re-shuffling occurred.
In order to provide the teams with a focus for their detailed study and reporting,
i t was suggested that a team could assume that i t was a team of consultants with
the task of preparing a coordinated report. Each team was required to define the
nature and scope of its project, with faculty help. One approach was to prepare
a report assumed to be for a Ministry of Public Works, perhaps for use by the
ministry in helping to prepare a five-year plan in low-cost housing for a specific
location. Other approaches might include preparing a report for a large industry
interested in building or up-grading company or plantation housing, or for a
developer or builder, or for a financing institution, or for a building research
center.
Division of efforts and responsibilities among team members varied, but generally
the author's teams were advised to prepare jointly an extensive and carefully
written introduction which defined the problem, states its scope, repor~ed on perti-
nent literature or known similar problems or projects, and stated the approaches to
be used. Each team member would, usually, then write a chapter in depth in his
own discipline, sometimes working with others. Finally, the team would prepare a
joint concluding statement or joint recommendations.
Thus, for the term projects, the intent was that each team would work jointly as a
multi-disciplinary team of consultants or experts to prepare a substantial report
on a specific problem or project.
Some of the titles of projects submitted by the student teams were:
An Analysis of Uncontrolled Settlements

Contracting Systems
Environmental Systems
Housing for Reconstruction of Managua
Impact of Urbanization on Traditional Living Patterns
Indigenous Materials for Low-Cost Housing in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas
Indigenous Materials for Low-Cost Housing in the Wet Tropics
Low-Cost Housing for the Region Around Delhi, India
Low-Cost Housing Project for Lagos, Nigeria
Migrants
Planned Communities
Si te Influence
Standardization and Modular Components
Structural Systems for Low-Cost Housing
Sui tabili ty of Modem Technology
Unit Design
ProbZems and deficiencies

Planning and organization by the faculty group extended over part of the previous
spring semester, intermittently through the summer, and through the fall semester
preceding the course. Four to six people were involved, and serious and vexing
problems arose in getting all, or even most, of the people together for meetings.
It is vital to have a person in charge who wil~ move strongly to organize, to hold
together interest, and to prepare in advance suggested details of plans and proce-
dures. Since the multi-disciplinary faculty group was widely scattered, both in
space and in interests, it was difficult to hold such a group together, and for
the group to mold and give a meaningful, useful course. Careful organization and
careful coordination are imperative.
It is far easier to have one teacher and one group of students from a single field,
wi th guest lectures that are not integrated directly into the course, or to hold a
series of only loosely related seminars or lectures or discussion periods for a
varied group of students, but neither approach is adequate for low-cost housing.
The former is not broad enough for the compound-complex problems involved, and the
latter while perhaps stimulating or fun, does not provide a coordinated picture in
depth, as is needed. The author is of the opinion that many students and many
faculty members have been "turned off" by some multi-disciplinary discussion courses
of a dilettante nature (usually called seminars), and thus, unfortunately, tend to
avoid all multi-field approaches.
There is a possible, or even probable, danger of some "proprietary interest" in a

given subject (such as low-cost housing) by a department or by each of different
departments, or by individual faculty members. At Cornell, the former problem
was partially solved by listing the course for credit in each of these different
departments (in Engineering, in Architecture, and in Human Ecology) so students
could sign up where they wished, and so each department involved could be credited
with student hours taught.
There is a particularly serious problem involving graduate students. Cornell, as

most schools, has no specifically-named major subject for graduate work in Low-
Cost Housing. These students find it difficult to identify such courses with a
major field of study, and often have to take them as overloads or extras in addition
to a full schedule or courses for a more traditional major. Perhaps introduction
of new areas of major study in low-cost housing (multi-disciplinary) would be
appropriate and helpful - this needs careful consideration.
Although the course and its sequence of topics were carefully organized on paper
before the course started, it was found that, because of the large number of faculty
members and guest speakers involved, sequences were changed to meet schedules of
300 Floyd O. Slate
availability of the many people speaking, and the resulting presentations of material
out of sequence led to loose, or at times poor, organization of the course as
actually given. This, combined with the fact that the students were given no small,
sequential assignments as the semester progressed (only the one term project), led
to confusion among many students about the order of topics and organization of the
course. There was in the middle of the course a temporary but serious drop in
interest and effort by many of the students. The faculty made a strong effort to
tie the course together in a logical manner by carefully planned summation statements
and discussions during the final class meetings. Thus, a course given jointly by
several people may easily become disorganized unless very carefully planned and
controlled; the author admits to some deficiency in preventing such disorganization.
A major problem was the lack of an organized, coordinated literature in the field
of low-cost housing, to help students in their study and their research. An anno-
tated bibliography, to delimit and cover the field, was being prepared at this time,
and will be described later.
The student enrollment was too great for sufficient individual contact between
student and professor (although some active students, as usual, managed to get
much time). The faculty group had hoped for about 30 students, was surprised by
the enrollment, and decided to try to deal with the large class instead of limiting
the number of students. The largeness of the class interfered with c~ass-wide
discussions during discussion periods.
Special problems arose among the student teams. These included the difficulty of
communication between and among students from different disciplines; widely varying
points of view on the approaches to some of the problems; conflicting social, poli-
tical, or national points of view; difficulty in scheduling the numerous joint
meetings required; and even severe personality conflicts. As a result, several
teams reorganized, a few teams disbanded or individual members split off, and two
or three students worked entirely alone. Of course, there was the inevitable problem
of some members of a team working hard while others worked much less, although,
perhaps because the course was elective and not required, no cases of attempts of
a "free ride" were noted. .
Successes
The most apparent success was the superb quality of some of the term reports,
indicating that great interest was aroused and that great effort was applied. Eva-
luation statements from students at the end of the course were generally favorable
to highly favorable, while containing criticisms and suggestions, and most urged
that the course be continued in future years. Also, the faculty members certainly
learned much from each other (as well as from some of the advanced students).
Conclusions
The faculty group, at the end of the course, recognized various problems or failures,
as well as some highly successful results. Overall, the course was judged to be
much more of a success than a failure, and i t was decided to give the course again,
continuing the cooperative, multi-disciplinary approach, and modifying and hopefully
improving the course from the lessons learned.
It is certain that much time and effort are required to bind and hold together such
a multi-disciplinary approach to make a coordinated, useful course. If such time and
effort are not available, it is probably best to avoid trying to give a course such
as this one.
Course given again
This course was given again in the Spring Term, 1975, two years later. This
represents the approximate turnover time for graduate students (total time for
Masters and course-work time for post-Master Ph.D.s). This time the enrollment
for credit (some additional people audited for no credit) was about 60, with about
the same percentage as before for foreign students and somewhat higher for graduate
students. Most of the reduction was in undergraduate civil and environmental engi-
neers - the interested students from this group were screened carefully and those
lacking a high level of motivation were discouraged from taking the course, since
civil and environmental engineering students were present in too great a proportion
during the first course offering. This size of class was more manageable than 90,
but was still too large for good discussion periods.
The faculty were the same, except that since the economist was no longer at Cornell,
a planner-economist became an active member. More students from Planning were in
the course the second time. The course was not listed as a course for credit in
Human Ecology, but a listing for planning was added, Architecture and Civil and
Environmental Engineering being retained as listings for credit.
This time~ the announced list of topics was: Housing Problems in Developing Countries,
Social Problems and Economic Aspects, Indigenous Housing, Current Housing Practices,
Site Selection and Planning, Design and Construction, Construction Technology,
Housing Production, Case Studies, Policy Proposals for Regions or Environments,
Possibilities for Technology Transfer, and Possibilities for Future Research.
The same general approach as before was used, including guest speakers.
Again, some term reports were outstanding. It was becoming obvious that some
faculty members were losing student interest through poor presentations (if not
poor material); they need to improve their delivery and other aspects of presen-
tation. This is a touchy and difficult problem. Also, it was clear that many
of the students were enthusiastic about open discussion periods. Both times the
course was given there were some advanced graduate students who had actual working
experience in low-cost housing in their own countries.
At the end of the second offering of the course, the faculty group indicated that
it intended to continue to offer the course in the future, probably at two-year
intervals. Overall, the response and interest of the students had been good, and
in some cases highly enthusiastic. The course is being given again in 1977.
Course s of Study
In the Spring Term, 1974, in the year between offerings of the first course, a
second, more specialized course was given. It was called Workshop: Site Selection,
Physical Planning, Materials, and Design, and was designed primarily for joint,
integrated study by mixed teams of architects and civil engineers.
This second course was given because, in addition to the need for a multi-disciplinary
approach to the overall problem, specialists must also work at depth in their own
specialities, within the framework and guidelines set up by the multi-disciplinary
approach. It was planned that the specialists taking the second course would have
already taken the first, broader course. Further, the second course was in fact
a "bi-disciplinary" approach, since it attempted to integrate the efforts and
approaches of engineers and architects, who traditionally, allover the world in
modern times, do not often study together, coordinate their efforts well, or even
communicate well with each other, even though their duties and goals are closely
302 Floyd O. Slate
related. A major purpose was to encourage, even force, architects and engineers
to work together throughout a project, and to work in detail and at depth in their
fields.
Enrollment was limited to 16 students, architects and engineers plus one city and
regional planner and one economist. The faculty consisted of two architects and
a chemist-civil engineer. Four teams were formed, each to work on one of the
following projects: Re-housing of Squatters in Limon, Costa Rica; Low-Cost Housing
for Industrial labor at Lyari, Karachi; Low-Cost Housing in Lagos; and Low-Cost
Housing (general). Detailed study was to be made, including detailed design of
structures.
No formal lectures were given. Once each week, during the first half of the semester,
the class met together for informal discussion sessions. Otherwise, each team
worked on its own project, in consultation with an assigned faculty member, plus
other faculty members as appropriate.
Overall, the course was successful. Architects and engineers did learn from each
other and learned something of each other's thinking and approaches. Most of the
people had previously had the general course in low-cost housing. The more specific,
detailed work they did in the second course, along with their additional study of
the subject, brought many of them to a fairly high level of knowledge and ability,
to the point where they should be able to work immediately and effectively in low-
cost housing. The course was not repeated in the Spring Term, 1976, during the
author's Sabbatic leave, but he hopes it will be given again later, probably at
two-year intervals, in the years alternating with the large general course.
Annotated BibZiography
A major problem in giving the first course, and of doing either broad-scale study
or intensive research in low-cost housing, was the lack of an organized literature
of the field. The vast field, with its diffuse boundaries, had not even been
defined or delimited.
In a first effort toward gathering and organizing the widely-scattered literature,

involving several different disciplines, the author and two assistants prepared an
annotated bibliography* of about 1,000 entries, covering such aspects of low-cost
housing as architecture, materials, design, services, health, sociology, economics,
planning, construction, urbanization, urban renewal, rural housing, co-operatives,
self help, management, political aspects, slums, squatters, migrants, re-location,
environment, surveys and analysis, pilot projects, country and regional studies,
case studies, and policies and programs. The bibliography is far from exhaustive
and has missed some important publications, but it gives for the first time a
reasonably representative picture of the kinds of literature available, lists many
of the more important writings on the subject, and in effect defines and delimits
the field. It has been most helpful, both to faculty and students, for study and
research, despite its limitations and shortcomings.
*See Reference at the end of this chapter.

Other Activities
Among other activities have been some field projects. A demographic survey was
planned and conducted in a squatter colony in Limon, Costa Rica. The colony is
to be re-located to make way for an industrial park. The survey makes available
some alternative approaches for the relocation. The fairly extensive questionnaire
program, conducted by especially trained local people after mass meetings called
to explain and discuss the survey, covers among many other things such items as
skills available for self-help, preferences of the future occupants for design,
problems they foresee, and their own suggestions for solving the over-all problem.
Studies for housing delivery systems and related items have been under way in Ghana
for about two years. Reports are now forthcoming. The results should be highly
useful to Ghana for deciding which of possible strategies to adopt.
The author has had a most interesting, enjoyable, and useful association with
Teclmology and Development Institute of the East-West Center, in connection with
its Low-Cost Housing Technology program and the two Roving Workshops it has
conducted into the Orient and Hawaii.
Laboratory research at Cornell has included studies on coconut fibers in concrete,

design of earth houses to reduce earthquake damage, and modi fication of existing
earth houses to reduce earthquake damage.
All these other activities have contributed to the teaching program, sometimes in
a major way. Some of them developed from the teaching program, then provided
material useful in later courses.
The Future at CorneU
Enough students, faculty members, departments, and administrators have shown active
interest to indicate that Cornell will probably continue and increase its activities
in this area, using a multi-or inter-disciplinary approach, as well as the more
traditional uni-disciplinary approaches.
9.7 POSSIBLE EDUCATIONAL FUTURES IN LOW-COST HOUSING

Trends Now Apparent or indicated
Unquestionably, there is in educational circles already a strong and growing inte-

rest, worldwide, in the use of multi- or inter-disciplinary approaches in attacking
large problems of broad scope. The recent emphasis on problems of the environment
and of energy, as well as of low-eost housing, has pointed up the vital necessity
of integrated approaches from various disciplines. A few schools have already
started to introduce courses that mix and hopefully integrate disciplines, such as
the course just described at Cornell. Even though the attempts have yet been very
few (according to the author's criteria for such courses), there is every indication
that there is developing a trend for such educational programs.
In Asia, educational programs of this nature have not yet been developed (to the
author's knowledge). However, he has been told by people from the Asian Institute
of Teclmology and the Institute of Technology, Bandung that these organizations
are interested in introduction of multi-disciplinary teaching in low-cost housing.
304 Floyd O. Slate.
TrendS in Practice~ Related to Education
Some people in the field, from all sectors - private, public, and popular - are
already aware of the interest in and need for multi-disciplinary approaches. This
awareness may be greater among the younger people, who have recently finished their
schooling. Already there is much talk about integrating the inputs from various
fields of knowledge for solving low-cost housing problems. In some cases, partially
integrated efforts are already being used, although with some inputs missing (for
example, analysis and recommendations by anthropologists, joint study of implications
of land tenure and equity by lawyers and sociologists; social implications of
forced segregation, and considerations of general future economic well-being of
occupants of new projects) •
The interest and potential "demand" already exists among the practicing professionals,
for multi-disciplinary approaches. The pressure is on the educational institutions
to meet those interests and "demands" _by creating a "supply" of appropriately
educated (or trained) people.
Dreams of Future Educational Programs

The follOWing thoughts are offered, involving opinion and speculation. As a first
step, it would seem appropriate for universities to plan teaching programs to bring
engineers and architects closer together, so they can better understand each other's
concepts, approaches, and problems (after all, both are in reality builders) and so
they can work together cooperatively - instead of separately - with effectiveness
for the benefit of their structures and the users of those structures. Most of our
educational programs now segregate architects and engineers, even those programs that
give lip service to integration of the two. Perhaps some of the approaches of
Frank Lloyd Wright at Taliesin deserve a new look.
Perhaps we place too much emphasis on the traditional definitions and scopes of the
disciplines as specialities, by insisting that all advanced graduate students adhere
to a relatively fixed, rigid program of study and research. Some recent trends
away from this rigidity can be noted. For example, environmental engineering is
in some places now being treated as a field somewhat separate from civil engineering,
with study programs being oriented more toward actual problems of the environment,
partially at some expense to what have traditionally been considered to be important
or even vital aspects of an education in civil engineering. Other examples of
educational programs being oriented more directly toward real and major problems
could be cited.
Consideration could be given to introduction of a new graduate program with major

study in low-cost housing, or introduction of this major in some of the traditional
fields. Short of this, it would be very helpful to have listed and implemented
graduate programs of minor study (MS and Ph.D.) in low-cost housing, coordinated
among fields of major study such as civil engineering, architecture, planning,
sociology, economics, etc. In either case, students from the various traditional
disciplines would presumably meet, study, and work together on what in actuality
is their common problem - low-cost housing.
The author has toyed wi th and been intrigued by the idea of "extension" services in
low-cost housing by educational (and possibly research) institutions. The idea
and method has been well developed in agriculture by American universities. Trained
professionals, sometimes on the staff of a university, go into residence in local
communi ties where needed (as "county agents" in agriculture). They become part
of the community, become familiar to and friends with the local people, and thus
no longer being viewed as outsiders and academic do-gooders or meddlers, are able
to work effectively with the local people to pass along new information and to help
in general. This approach in agriculture has had a tremendous impact in the U.S.A.
It should be possible for educational institutions to train people in low-cost

housing, particularly concerning materials, construction, maintenance, up-grading,
and health, then for these trained people to be on the payroll of either the
educational institution (if supported by the State) or a governmental agency and
be assigned to live for extended periods in areas where their knowledge and skills
are needed. Perhaps much or most of the training should be of the technical school
nature. As residents of a community, they could win the confidence of the local
people (a vital point always, and especially so in slum areas or areas of low
educational level). They could help greatly in programs of upgrading existing
housing through self-help. Whenever outside help of any kind became available,
they would be in a position of great influence among the local people and could
well tip the balance toward success rather than failure of a project - since we
have (or some have learned that the opinions, attitudes, and actions of the occu-
pants themselves usually ultimately determine success or failure of a housing
project.
The U.S.A.s International Cooperation Administration (ICA) foreign aid program

used an approach a little like this in its "village aid" program of the middle
1950s, which usually worked well. Local, trained professionals (not Ph.D.s~)
travelled through the villages, tried to, and often or usually did, win the confi-
dence of local people of influence, then were able to make suggestions for improve-
ments and help initiate them.
In the opinion of the author, the county-agent idea, or some appropriate modifica-
tion of it, could have a major impact on the problem of low-cost housing for low-
income people.
Corrunittees Need Heads
In all the talk about teams composed of people from various disciplines, all
working together in a coordinated manner, it must not be forgotten that a team or
committee must have someone in charge. Presumably, this should be a professional
trained in depth in some aspect of low-cost housing, but it is not at all clear
which discipline this should be. Educational programs will probably not resolve
this question and perhaps should not try to do so. On the basis of our current
traditions of education and application, it would seem that an architect or civil
engineer would usually be best fitted for the job. Political considerations may
control, for governmental projects. Ultimately, it is likely that personal charac-
teristics and abilities will be found to be more important for a team leader than
which discipline he was trained in, assuming that he is at least trained in low-
cost housing with some background in the multi-disciplinary approach.
9.8 HOW TO SET UP AN EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM

Perhaps an appropriate first statement is that there is no one "best" or "correct"
way to establish a multi-disciplinary teaching and research program in low-cost
housing, or if there is, the author surely does not know it and in any case feels
somewhat inadequate in trying to write this section. Surely, the approach will
vary widely, depending on people and facilities available, faculty interests and
capabilities, local, regional or other needs and interests, support, and other
factors. Any attempt to list a series of steps to be carried out would be futile.
306 Floyd O. Slate
However, a few notes will be given, based on the Cornell experience, in case some
of them might be of interest or help to others.
First, it would seem vital to have one or two people strongly interested in esta-
blishing such a program, who have extensive backgrounds in the subject, and who
are willing to work hard and long beyond their other normally assigned duties.
There must be, in at least one or two other disciplines at first, capable and
experienced people who can be invited, who would like to join in a team effort and
who would be willing to take on an over-load beyond regular duties.
There must be some interest, encouragement, and hopefully support, from administration
at the level of a deanship and encouragement, or at least lack of opposition, from
chairmen of the departments involved.
The choice of faculty to be invited to participate is crucial. In addition to

interest, background, and ability, each person must be willing to work in a team
and not to insist on being a prima donna or in carving out a piece of the program
as a personal possession. Still, fr~edom absolutely must be left for each member
to do individual work on his own, as he deems appropriate. The key is that he not
steal pieces of the group effort, but that his individual efforts support and rein-
force his group efforts. This is a touchy matter, and illustrates that not all other-
wise qualified people are appropriate for a group effort.
The dangers of a "proprietary" outlook are not limited to individual faculty members,
but extend to departments and colleges, involving not only location of traditional
subjects for teaching, but also involving credit for student course-hours and
therefore budget credits for such student course-hours.
Since the approach is new, a very large number of meetings may be required to
determine a structure and a method of operation for the group, and more importantly,
to determine first a teaching approach, then organization of a course, and finally
details of who does what and when.
Not much money is needed for such a course, particularly if laboratory experimentation
is not extensive and most particularly if no travel is involved. Of course,
availability of funds can allow a great variety of improvements, expansions, and
extensions. Most libraries do not have sufficient literature on the subject - this
may be the area of greatest need for money, and will involve time delays.
Since the field is vast, and since the assembled faculty will be small and limited
in background and competence, it is almost certain that important and even major
portions of the field must be omitted. The author is convinced that the course
coverage must correspond with what the faculty can do well, rather than with an
idealized coverage of topics which may include items outside the interest and
abilities of the faculty. Thus, the Cornell courses have, for example, omitted
coverage of the all-important legal aspects of land tenure, as well as other items.
The students should be told of such omissions and advised that they should in the
future consider them.
Actual case studies, well illustrated, are often of great value in teaching. If
the faculty group is fortunate enough to have among their students some mature
people at graduate level who have had practical experience in low-cost housing,
the faculty should surely seek out and consider their suggestions and evaluations,
but not be ruled by them.
In summary, the need is great, the task is difficult, and each case will be different
and require its own unique approaches and solutions. Hopefully, as new courses
get under way in new places, the pioneering faculty groups from different schools
can meet together, exchange ideas and information, and learn from each other's
experiences.
9.9 CONCLUDING STATEMENT

The central theme of this chapter is a plea that a coordinated, multi-disciplinary
approach be used for working on large-scale, broadscope problems of low-cost
housing, and that educational and research institutions take the initiative by
setting up appropriate programs of study leading to the multi-disciplinary approach.
The author hopes, and believes, that the East-West Center's Technology and Develop-
ment Institute, through its Low-Cost Housing Progr~, has helped in a significant
way to encourage these ideas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The principal faculty members who have developed and given the courses are: Dr.
Franklin J. Ahimaz, Engineer, Assistant Dean of Engineering and Assistant Director
of Cornell's Program on Policies for Science and Technology in Developing Nations;
Mr. Peter Cohen, Architect, Associate Professor of Architecture; Dr. James W. Converse,
Sociologist, Assistant Professor of Rural Sociology; Mr. Charles B. Daniels, Econom~st,
Assistant Professor of Consumer Economics and Public Policy; Mr. Henry W. Richardson,
Architect and Physical Planner, Assistant Professor of Architecture; Mr. Darrel
Williams, Planner and Economist, Assistant Professor of Policy Planning and Regional
Analysis; and Dr. Floyd O. Slate, Chemist and Civil Engineer, Professor of Engineering
Materials.
Dr. Ahimaz and the author worked closely together in developing the Cornell program;
the contributions of Dr. Ahimaz were great.
REFERENCE
Low-Cost Housing for Developing Countries - An Annotated BibZiography 1950-1972,
by Floyd O. Slate assisted by Mary Acton and Thandiwe Chinamora, Cornell Univ.,
June 1974, 214 pp.
10
LOW-COST HOUSING INFORMATIOI\J EXCHANGE
Fredrich J. Burian and Eduardo Q. Canela
10.1 INTRODUCTION
During the past decade much attention has been devoted to the search for viable
systems for transferring housing technology information on a global scale. The
search, however, has concentrated on strategies for developing large-scale information
exchange networks, initiated and maintained by information resource rich institutions/
agencies/nations. Substantial and growing capital and manpower resources have been
invested in these large-scale supplier-initiated networks as more economically deve-
loped (information rich) nations add information transfer programs to their development
assistance portfolios. Yet, policymakers and development architects in developing
countries are raising serious questions regarding the viability and effectiveness
of such globalized supplier-dominated systems/networks as a necessary ingredient
of efforts designed to alleviate the human shelter and settlement problems of low~
income people which have perenially plagued the Third World
The concern in developing countries seems to revolve around questions of usability

of the information inventories available through developed country suppliers. Infor-
mation on high technology, capital/energy intensive housing and settlement solutions
employed in industrialized countries cannot be easily used in most developing coun-
tries where the need is for intermediate technologies and capital/energy-saving
approaches. Even so, the supplier dominated systems/networks appear to be proli-
ferating.
It usually is the practice in supplier-initiated networking to begin with information

inventories and/or services already being used in developed countries and seek out
potential clientele institutions in the Third World that fit the supplier'S percep-
tion of appropriate new users.
The supplier characteristically selects initial information users/clients in deve-

loping countries with great care and nurtures their participation through grants
and subsidies. The selection of linkage partners is often influenced by broad
development assistance policies of supplier countries. Since the supplier is
comparatively resource-rich, the initial linkage units need not exhibit a very high
level of demand for the information offered. This networking strategy usually
shows strong initial promise since considerable resource input required for the
network start-up is subsidized by the supplier while the developing country user's
contribution is comparatively small.
309
310 Fredrich J. Burian and Eduardo Q. Canela
Unfortunately, supplier-initiated networks have a difficult time sustaining them-

selves; they rarely reach a point where the supplier can reduce its capital and
material input without collapse of the system. Failure of supplier-initiated
information networks to sustain themselves can be in large measure traced to stra-
tegies used to initially link information users to networks. If information services
are subsidized and the participating institutions can maintain a passive or dependent
role in the exchange process, there is no way to validate real need on the part of
the network participants for the information short of reducing the information flow
and measure the inclination of the users to demonstrate need by "buying" back the
reduced services.
Characteristically, however, when the supply of "free" information service in a

supplier-dominated network is reduced, or when charges are levied against the users,
demand is substantially reduced. In such a situation, rather than finding the
network participants willing to now pay for information, the supply-network managers
find the participants turn away from the network. Such networks require the cons-
tant infusion of resource/effort on the part of the supplier to maintain momentum.
If the network is built to return initial investment, it will go bankrupt. If it
is funded by a non-profit corporation/foundation/governmental agency, it will
continually operate at a loss. Unfortunately, this is the sorry state of affairs
of many information networks sponsored by resource-rich suppliers.
A perhaps more favorable but untried approach is to encourage small-scale information

users in developing countries to establish linkages with information generators/
sources of their own choice. Under this approach, users, given access to a large
selection of potential information suppliers, initiate linkages with suppliers they
themselves judge as potential sources of information compatible with their own
fields of interests and levels of development. Armed with appropriate initiation
and linkage strategies, these units can probe a large number of potential information
suppliers in both developed and develOping countries, inducing them to reveal
comparabili ty 'in interests and development. .
In time, these units could filter through a substantial number of potential sources
identifying a relative few where more formalized information exchange arrangements
could evolve. Each of the original information. seeking units would become the hub
of a mini-network screened for specific fields of interest and level of development.
By mutual agreement, several of these mini-networks could then link themselves into
larger network configuration's, covering entire countries, even regions.
It is only at this point that supplier-initiated resources should be invested

only when the information users have validated their own need for information by
seeking-out their own network's of suppliers and engaging them on a quid pro quo
basis. Input from resource rich suppliers would thus stimulate saturation coverage
of an information domain validated in the Third World.
Success of this bottom-up approach to information exchange networking rests with

the adoption of uniform procedures for building exchange arrangements by a number of
information seeking units spread widely over the globe. The objective of this chapter
is to present such a uniform set of procedures for consideration by users of
housing/human settlements technology information. The chapter describes an 'overall
strategy for inducing mini-networks .built around the specific information needs and
exchange capabilities of small-scale housing/human settlements information units.
This technique will provide ~mall-scale units with information and data screened
for relevance to their own needs.
LO\'1-Cost Housing Information Exchange 311
10.2 USER-INITIATED LINKAGE ESTABLISHMENT

User-initiated linkage formation is the first stage of viable information network
development. It is a stage that must grow out of the information user's own ini-
tiative. It is a stage that cannot be properly induced by resource-rich information
suppliers seeking markets for their inventories. User~initiation is a dynamic
process of building information-exchange arrangements where small~scale information
users link themselves with relevant sources of information they judge compatible
with their own areas of interest and level of development. The key to the process
rests with the small-scale information user's ability to clearly profile its own
areas and level of research/development interests and its information, invento~.
and exchange capabilities. It should be emphasized that this information exchange
strategy will work only if the small-scale, linkage-seeking institution itself has
information to offer others no matter how humble the offering. Anything less takes
the control of information exchange out of the hands of the user and returns it to
the supplier.
The linkage establishment strategy described here is a three-level process: profiling,

expansion of information sources base, and information exchange. The process of
linkage establishment begins when an institution, possessing limited information
exchange capabilities and resources, commits itself to seeking out potential informa-
tion suppliers in the specified field of human. interest, e.g. housing and settlement
technology. Activated by the commitment, the institution generates a list of
potential information exchange partners and initiates direct correspondence with
them revealing the nature of its information offerings, its information acquisition
and dissemination capabilities, and the identities of its current-external informa-
tion sources. The initiating institution thus profiles its information use and
exchange capacities for potential information suppliers and requests these'sources
in turn reveal the level, nature, and scope of their own information capacities.
If the exchange of correspondence is properly controlled, the initiating institution
will receive profiles primarily from information suppliers possessing information
holdings and services which are compatible with the inform~tion needs and processing
capabilities of the institution initiating the correspondence. Ideally, the .end
resul t of this quid pro quo profiling process is equitable information exchange
arrangements where the initiating institution becomes a source of information for
a growing array of relevant institutions and in like measure, becomes the recipient
of information already substantially screened for its own sociotechnical and. economic
development level.
Expansion of the information source bank is accomplished by asking institutions being

profiled to send lists of their own most valuable external information sources to
the initiating institution. The initiating institution then selects new institutions
from these lists and implements profiling steps with these newly acqUired sources.
In this way, the initiating.institution indu~es an expanding network of information
linkages tailored to its specific areas of interest and level. of-development. Based
on profiles of an expanding set of potential information sources, the initiating
institution can negotiate the most appropriate information exchange arrangements
with each participating institution revising the exchange pattern as less relevant
sources are replaced by more appropriate sources.
A suggested hierarchy of information exchange arrangements has.been developed to

identify several exchange thresholds that institutions pass through as exchange
partnerships mature.
These three levels correspond to stages of the user-initiated information exchange

strategies described in this chapter. Level I exchanges are the result of mutually
satisfactory profiling activities; Level II exchanges mark the flow of published
information; and Level III exchanges represent reciprocal arrangements for the
exchange of services.
TABLE 10.1 Levels of Institutionalization of Information-

Exchange Arrangements
LEVEL I : Profiling
a. Correspondence Exchange
b. Profile/Questionnaire Exchange
LEVEL I I Expansion
c. Publications Exchange
d. Current Awareness List Exchange
e. Bibliography/Abstract Exchange
f. In ter-Library Loan/Exchange
LEVEL III: Exchange

g. Literature Search Service
h. Technical Inquiry Service
i. Data Sharing Service
j. Extension/Training
k. Consultancy
Schematically, the overall strategy for developing linkages with sources of infor-
mation can be represented as a three-level interaction between an initiating insti-
tution and a group of institutional sources of information individually contacted
by the former, as shown below:
r---------------,
I
I Profiling I
I
I
Initiating
I
I
( ) I
I
I
Group of
Expansion of information institutional

I source base I
I I sources of
I I
Institution
L - - - - - - - -1- - - -- - -- ...J information
Information
I exchange I
I I
Fig. 10.1. Schematic Model of Information Linkage Establish-

ment Process
Low-Cost Housing Information Exchange 313
The three linkage establishment steps outlined in Fig. 10.1 (Profiling, Expansion
of information source base, and Information "exchange) are sequentially implemented.
However, the profiling and expansion steps proceed reiteratively, generating an ever-
increasing number of potential information sources, while the information exchange
step narrows the scope of actual information exchange arrangements to a highly rele-
vant subset of total number of information sources/contacts.
10.3 IMPLEMENTING A LINKAGE' ESTABLISHMENT STRATEGY

The establishment and expansion of a user-initiated strategy for linking sources
of housing/settlements technology information can be described in operational
terms. The three step strategy introduced earlier can be decomposed into five major
task clusters or subsystems outlined below:
PROFILING
Subsystem 1: Setting-up an initial. information sources bank. The initiating

institution (a small information unit) creates a preliminary file or bank of
names and addresses of potential information sources. The initial identifica-
tion of contacts is made by the staff members and researchers working within
the initiating institution.
Subsystem 2: Initial. contacts and profiling of the sources of inform::r.tion.
The
basic profiling activities are developed for establishing linkages with various
information sources. Activities here include profiling the information exchange
capabilities of the initiating institution, establishing contact with potential
external information sources, soliciting source profiles, and tabulating results.
EXPANSION
Subsystem 3: Expanding the initial. information sources bank. The tabulations

of information resource profiles from responding institutions are evaluated
and new sources are identified. The initial information sources bank is
adjusted to incorporate an expanded method of classifying/indexing the various
sources of information.
subsystem 4: Generating additional. sources of information. The initiating
institution installs the capability of keeping itself abreast of new research,
development and applications compatible with its special interests. This
subsystem reiterates on the initial information sources transforming the system
into a dynamic information identification-utilization cycle.
EXCHANGE
Subsystem 5: Initiating information exchange. The analysis of profiles enables

the initiating institution to select high value information sources with which
to implement information exchange. This subsystem provides guidelines for deve-
loping information exchange arrangements. A schematic diagram of the sequence
of performing the task cluster is shown in Fig. 10.2 below.
10.4 SUBSYSTEM 1: SETTING UP AN INITIAL INFORMATION SOURCES

BANK
Subsystem Objectives:
Profiling
Subsystem·-I Setting-up an initial information

sources bank
Initial contacts and profiling

of the sources
Expansion
Expanding the initial information

sources bank
Subsystem - 4 Generating additional sources

of information
Subsystem - 5 Information exchange
Fig. 10.2. Sequence of Performance of the Task Clusters
After completion of the operations involved in this subsystem, the information

manager will be able to:
(a) Generate a provisional information sources list in the area of housing
and human settlements;
(b) Establish a provisional updatable card file of information sources in the
area of housing and human settlements;
(c) Acquire experience in setting-up a manually. operated information sources
bank;
(d) Revise or adapt the subsystem's structure to accommodate unique local
information needs and resources.
Subsystem Description:
Subsystem 1 is made of four major activities; viz.,
1. Generation of an InitiaL List of PotentiaL Sources of Information in the Area

of Housing and Human SettLements. To operationalize this subsystem, the
information manager should initially identify contacts and sources of information

frequently used by practitioners and researchers in his/her own institution and,
local setting. The output of this activity is a list enumerating sources of
information and their business addresses.
2. Transfer of the Entries in the List of Initial, Information Sources into a Carding
Deck. The output of this activity is a deck of entry-cards consisting of a single
card for each information source identified. Initially, the information source
entry-cards are used to track the progress of linkage formation activities,
thus control points are included on the cards, permitting the user to monitor
the status of linkage negotiations with the sources. A sample entry card format
is shown in Fig. 10.3.
Sample initial information sources bank Entry card
(Name of institution) (Country)

(Complete business address)
(Name of contact) (Title)
Control points:
100; IbO 2°0 2bO
Fig. 10.3. Sample Initial Information Sources Bank Entry Card
NOTES ON THE CONTROL POINTS:

The numbers (la, lb, 2a, 2b, 3 & 4) correspond to the subsystem used in establishing
linkages with various sources of information. At the completion of each of the
subsystem task cycle, the person responsible for the completion should date and
initial the appropriate box provided.
3. SeLection of a ReasonabLe and 'Practical, Card FiLing System.~he following

strategies can be used to organize the initial information sources deck of
entry cards:
(a) Alphabetic System - Use the name of the institution as a basis for arranging
the entries into alphabetic order for easy retrieval;
(b) Country-Alphabetic System - Arrange the different countries involved
alphabetically, then alphabetically arrange all the institutions falling
under each country;
(c) Other applicable card filing system (subject areas if known, etc.).
Although choice of filing system is left to the discretion of the information manager,
the following criteria should be used in deciding what type of filing system to use;
(a) Time of retrieval must be relatively short;

(b) Costs of maintaining the initial information sources file should be low;
(c) The file should complement existing information facilities and systems.
4. Utilization of the Information Sources File. Even in its initial form, the
information sources file can be used to access specific information sources, in
any or a combination of the following situations:
(a) When a user knows the name of an institution supplying the information,
but not the full address;
(b) When the user requests a list of information sources in housing and
human settlements for a specific country or group of countries;
(c) When a user requests specific sources of information, based on broad
areas of concern (subjects), which are hinted in institution names on the
entry cards.
Examples:
SUBJECT INSTITUTIONAL NAMES OF POTENTIAL INFORMATION SOURCES

Ecology Agence de Presse Rehabilitation Ecologique
Adirondack Ecological Station
Ecology Center
Ecology Action
Earthquake Earthquake Engineering Research Center
Etc.
Transportation Texas Transportation Institute

Transportation Center
Transportation Research Center
Transportation Research Group
Etc.
Flowchart
A depiction of the various steps involved in implementing this subsystem is included
in Flowchart 1 (Fig. 10.4). This flowchart and the succeeding ones are outlines of
a possible approach. The information manager implementing this system is encouraged
to modify, amplify or simplify the processes/steps involved to meet actual needs
and conditions. The flowcharts are comprehensive and should give those charged with
organizing the system ample information and guidelines for setting-up an initial
information sources bank. The flowcharts employ standard data processing sYmbols.
Table 10.2 lists the symbols and their interpretations as used in the succeeding
flowcharts. The information manager should become familiar with these sYmbols
before attempting to "read" the flowcharts.
10.5 SUBSYSTEM 2: INITIAL CONTACTS AND PROFILING OF

INFORMATION SOURCES
Low-Cost H~using Information Exchange 317
Other
local
contacts
No
Fig. 10.4. Flowchart No.1: Subsystem No.1

Process of Setting-up an Initial Information .
Sources Bank
Flowcharting symbols and 'their interpretations *

TABLE 10.2
Symbols Interpretations
( I Entry card /filing card
r ~I Dock of filing or entry card
Document
File of documents
Manual operation
File
Decision point
Input / output symbol (Manual)
Delay
• Sequence of flow
Outside the systems boundary
Based on the" Summary of flowchart symbols" from U.S.A. X 3.5-

1960 Flowchart Symbols· forInformation Processing.
After the completion of the operations involved in this subsystem, the information
(a) Design or redesign a questionnaire for profiling potential institutional

sources of information;
(b) Establish initial information exchange contacts with the potential sources
of information;
(c) Gather experiences necessary in profiling sources of information;
(d) Revise or adapt the subsystem's structure to accommodate unique local
information needs and resources.
Subsystem No.2 is made up of six major activities, viz.,
1. DESIGN/REDESIGN A QUESTIONNAIRE FOR SURVEYING THE SPECIFIC INFORMATION EXCHANGE

CAPABILITIES OF THE FILE OF POTENTIAL INFORMATION SOURCES GENERATED IN SUBSYSTEM
1. A sample questionnaire is included as an Appendix. This form can be rede-
signed or adapted depending on the needs of the information unit seeking linkage
relationships with other institutions.
Yes No
List of potential
sources of information
1
Update the
control point (20)
in the initial info.
source bonk
Fig. lO.Sa Flowchart No.2a : Subsystem No.2

Process of Profiling Institutional Sources of
Information
Update the
control point (2b)
in the initial info.
source bank
Respondent Non- respondent
2-C
Inactive fi Ie
Fig. 10.5b. Flowchart No~ 2b; Subsystem No.2 (Cont.)

Fig. lO.Sc. Flowchart No".2c Subsystem No.2 (Cant.)
2. PREPARATION OF A QUESTlONNAIRE PACKAGE. A questionnaire package sent to each

potential information source on file will contain the following:
(a) Letter of Introduction - This will introduce the linkage seeking institution
to the potential information supplying institution. Structurally, the
letter should contain a brief description of the initiating institution,
rationale for the linkage activity and deadline for the submission of
responses to the profiling questionnaire.
(b) Questionnaire form for the potential source of information to complete.

The questionnaire should be short. Two double printed pages are ideal.
The sample questionnaire included as an Appendix is adequate for cons-
tructing profiles of interest areas and information exchange capabilities
as well as identifying additional information sources.
(c) A completed questionnaire describing the information exchange capabilities

of the linkage initiating institution (user). This will not only serve
as a guide for others in completing the blank questionnaire, but more
importantly, the completed profile invites potential information suppliers
to highlight information supplies .and services which are compatible with
the questioner's stated information interests and exchange capabilities.
3. SENDING THE QUESTIONNAIRE PACKAGES TO ALL/SELECTED POTENTIAL INFORMATION

INSTITUTIONS ON FILE. Here decisions have to be made regarding the efficiency,
reliability, and costs of the mailing channels to be used (see Flowchart 2a) .
4. UPDATING THE CONTROL POINTS. Enter date questionnaire package is sent in

control point I-a on preliminary information source file cards (Fig.3). Enter
receipt date of each completed questionnaire in ~ontrol point No.2-a.
5. SENDING FOLLOW-UP LETTER. If feasible, send a follow-up letter to institutions

that did not respond initially, again enclosing the questionnaire package.
Enter date follow-up questionnaire was sent in control point No. l-b and date
of response in control point No. 2-b on the entry card (see Flowchart 2b) .
6. SENDING ACKNOWLEDGEMENT LETTER. Send a letter of acknowledgement and thanks

to all responding institutions (see Flowchart 2c) •
FZowchart
The flowcharts depicting the various steps and sequences of steps involved in the
implementation of this subsystem are included as Flowcharts 2a, 2b and 2c.
10.6 SUBSYSTEM 3: EXPANDING THE INITIAL INFORMATION

SOURCES BANK
Subsystem's Objectives
Upon the completion of the operations involved in this subsystem, the information
(a) Acquire the necessary experiences in proc~ssing the information gathered

from the information sources' profiling activities, detailed in Subsystem 2.
(b) Install a classification/indexing strategy in .order to facilitate informa-
tion retrieval from the information source bank.
(c) Revise or adapt the subsystem's structure to accommodate unique local
information needs.
Subsystem Description
The initial information sources bank developed in Subsystem 1 offers only limited
access to specific sources of information contained in the bank. The primary
purpose of this subsystem is to introduce a more substantial range of entry paths
into the information bank through the use of classification and cross indexing
teclm,iques which will facilitate retrieval of information stored. This subsystem
is composed of four major acti~ities, viz.,
1. Tabulation of Resources. Responses to the information sources profiling

activity generated in Subsystem 2 are tabulated. This activity involves the
aggregation of data for specified information parameters from responding
sources of teclmological information. The information-exchange parameters
specified in the questionnaire (Appendix) are tabulated in a summarized format
using an expanded version of the initial entry card shown in Fig. 10.3. The
expanded entry card is shown in Fig. 10.6 and contains the following index
types:
INSTITUTION NAME, LOCATION and CONTACT: Name and complete address of institution
(A); Country (B); and name/title of contact at institution (C). This file is
arranged according to a country-alphabetic system.
INSTITUTION IDENTITY: Types of institutions involved in housing/human settlements
work (D). This file is indexed in categories corresponding to the following
institutional types:
(a) Governmental/Public Agency
(b) Educational Institution
(c) Research and Development Institute
(d) Professional Association
(e) Founda tion
(f) Extension/Service-Organization
(g) Commercial Organization
(h) Industrial Organization
(i) Bank/Financial Organization
(j) International Agency
(k) (Other)
DISSEMINATION SERVICES: Information diffusion activities and services currently

offered by institutions (E). This file is indexed according to the following types
of diffusion instrumentalities:
(a) Publications: Publish books, monographs, journals, bulletins, newsletters,
research/teclmical directories/reports, reprints.
(b) Current Awareness: Distribute periodic lists of your new information
acquisitions. How often?
(c) Bibliographies and Abstracts: Compile indexes, abstracts, union lists,
statistical abstracts of current holdings.
(d) Inter-Library Loan: Have reciprocal arrangements to lend library materials.
(e) Literature Search: Provide literature search services on special topics.

(f) Technical Inquiry: Answer technical inquiries in area of expertise.
(g) Data Sharing: Exchange processed data, surveys, preliminary analyses,
computer data files.
(h) Extension/Training: Provide extension services and training for appropriate

clientele.
(i) Consultancy: Expert/specialist contracting, seconding, sharing, personnel
exchange.
INFORMATION EXCHANGE POLICIES: Describes the information exchange policies of ins-

titutions viz., each of the information dissemination activities/services described
above (E) and is arranged according to the same categories (F).
INFORMATION EXCHANGE SETUP: Describes the scope of information exchange capabilities
of institution as a function of both size of information base and extent of infor-
mation personnel assigned to manage the information base. This file is divided
into three categories (G):
Small-scale: 0-2 staff and/or less than 1,000 documents processed annually.
Medium-scale: 3-6 staff and/or 1,000-10,000 documents processed annually.
Large-scale: 7 or more staff and/or more than 10,000 documents processed annually.
AREAS OF CONCERN: Describes the areas of professional interest in housing/settlement
technology and the availability of information in interest areas. A total of 29
areas are listed and defined. This file is created by producing an individual entry
card copy for every interest area noted on each entry card and sorting them under
the 29 areas.
1. Housing Documentation/Statistics: Project reports, statistics and survey,

case studies, feasibility studies and evaluation for low-income housing.
2. Housing Research/Types: Demonstration/experimental houses, model houses,

expansible houses, demountable houses, emergency shelters, disaster housing,
mobile homes.
3. Indigenous/Rural Housing: Rural and indigenous housing solutions, rural

improvements, rural community facilities.
4. Co-operative Housing: Management organization, economics/financing, case

studies.
5. Self-Help Construction: Self-help, aided self-help, mutual help, public

participation, settlement improvement, organization.
6. Construction Materials: Materials research, composition, properties, uses

of construction materials, both indigenous and new, effects of wind,
earthquake, fire, etc. on materials, low-cost applications.
7. Construction Methods and Management: Housing construction industry, indus-

trialized and prefab building, management, factor mix (labor/capital
intensive), structural engineering, on site construction methods,
prefabr~cation, owner built housing, construction manuals, construction
management.
8. Architectural Design: Design factors. and concepts for low-income groups,

recreational and community facilities, traditional architecture, aesthetics,
physical/site relationships.
9. Climatological Aspects: Climatic factors in low-income housing, influence

of climate on health, environment, building materials, comfort factors,
current and indigenous solutions.
10. Housing Po~icy and Lega~ Aspects: Sites/services, government subsidies,

rent control, land use, land reform, building codes, zoning, para legal
aspects, standards, national housing policies.
11. Housing Management: Maintenance, modernization and conversion, repair,

internal rules, tenant relations, contractual agreements, training housing
managers, housing management, for low-income people.
12. Demographic Aspects: Population profiles, population research, migration,

density-growth, family size, income and effect on housing.
13. Socia~ and Hea~th Aspects: Social and health aspects of human settlements,
ways, methods and concepts for their improvement, impact and case. studies.
14. Economic Aspects: Economic development, housing finance, feasibility

studies, economics of housing and housing analysis, base studies, economic
conditions, development forecasting, planning, policy, research, employ-
ment/income generation.
15. Financing Methods: Savings and loans, direct loans, property improvements
loans, construction loans, amortization, mortgage and other methods/
arrangements used to finance housing for/by low-income groups.
16. Eco~gica~ Aspects: Pollution (water, air, and land), ecological management
and environment, as related to low-income human settlements.
17. Energy: Conventional and alternative, renewable and nonrenewable sources

of energy (direct solar, wind, tidal, bio-mass, geo-thermal, marine-thermal,
fossil, atomic, etc.) conversion processes, conservation, recycling,
and applications, especially as appropriate to the needs of low-income
people.
18. Sanitary Engineering: Waste and sewage disposal water supply, drainage,
and waste recycling, utilization as related to low-income settlements.
19. Urbanization: Growth of cities, rural-urban migration, urban sprawl,

especially as these trends relate to low-income people.
20. Regiona~ P~anning: Macro/micro level planning, state/provincial planning,

planning legislation, land use controls, industrial and commercial (loca-
tion) policies and planning, planning for new and remote settlements,
preservation of historical. sites.
21. Rura~ P~anning: Planning specifically related to the improvement of human

settlements in rural areas and their integration into the fabric of the
region, prOVince/state, and nation.
22. City P~anning: City planning development growth, and management, metro-
politan area planning, master plan studies and surveys, metropolitan/city
level legislation, zoning, land use control, municipal government,
new towns, garden cities, satellite cities, model cities, planned communities.
23. Community/Neighborhood P~anning: Community/neighborhood level planning,

urban renewal, slum clearance, and surveys. Planning of site residential
area planning, community centers and planning legislation.
24. Education/Community Deve~opment: Community awareness, technical assistance,

education, literacy, community development, home economics, community
nutrition, community improvement projects, case and impact studies, surveys.
326 Fredrich J. Burian and Eduar:do Q. Canela
25. Squatters and Marginal Settlements: Slums, squatters, resettlement schemes,

slum clearance/improvement, or slum development.
26. Land Reclamation: Desert control, swamp, fill or drainage, terracinq, and
other techniques for human settlements.
27. Appropriate Technology: Philosophy, concepts, and theories of development

and use of appropriate technologies.
28. Agricultural Development: Irrigation, agro-industry, agronomy, extensicn

and training, production, farm management, for low-income settlements.
29. Traffic and Transportation: Traffic engineering/lay-out, and materials

that affect housing and settlement of low-income people.
2. Indexing System. Decisions on the types of information classification/indexing

systems to be used in the expanded version of the initial information sources
bank. The criteria for selecting appropriate classification/indexing systems
will be similar to those described in Subsystem 1. Transferring the tabulated
entry cards into discrete files. The number of files will correspond to the
number or types of classification/indexing systems to be used.
3. Control Point Update. Update the control point (enter control point No.3) in
the initial information sources bank when sorting the completed deck of cards.
Flowchart
The flowchart depicting the various steps and sequences of steps involved in the
implementation of this subsystem is included as Flowchart 3 (Fig. 10.7).
10.7 SUBSYSTEM 4: GENERATING ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

SOURCES
Subsystem's Objectives
Upon the completion of the operations involved in this subsystem, the users will
be able to continuously generate a listing of additional sources of information
originating from the institutions currently participating in the information
exchange network.
This subsystem in general, tries to capture other sources of information, which

were overlooked during the installation of the initial information sources bank.
It also expands the final information sources bank (Subsystem 3), making the users'
information systems adaptable to the dynamics of the interaction between the demand
and supply of technical resource information.
This subsystem uses the lists of new information sources identified by the responding
institutions in the profiling strategy (see Subsystem 2). The new sources are
contacted and profiled using the steps detailed in subsystem 2. The procedure is
repeated as additional sources are identified. Theoretically, a "saturation point"
A. (Name of institution) B. (Country)

D. Identity:
(Complete business address) Government [:::=J
Education [:::=J
Res./dev. [:::=J
C. (Name of contact)
I
(Title) Prof. assoc. [:::=J
Control points:
Foundation [:::=J
Extension [:::=J
laD; IbO; 2aOI 2bO; 3D; 40
Commercial CJ
Industrial [:::=J
E. Dissemination services:
Architect/plan. [:::=J
Bank/financial CJ
CJ International CJ
Publications Technical inquiry CJ (Other) [:::=J
Current awareness CJ Data sharing CJ F. Information base:
Bibliographics/abstracts c:=:J Extension/traini ng CJ « 3 staff)
Inter-library loans CJ Consultancy CJ Small « 1000 Doc.)
(3<7>
CJ
Literature search CJ (Other)
CJ Medium (1000<10,000)
(>7>
c::::::::J
Large (>10,000) c::::::::J
Interest/information areas:
I. Housing Doc. /statistics 16. Ecologica I aspects

2. Housing research/types 17. Energy
3. Indigenous/rural housing 18. Sanitary engineering
4. Co-operative housing 19. Urbanization
5. Self-help construction 20. Regional planning
6. Construction materials 21. Rural planning
7. Construction methods and mgt. 22. City planning
8. Architectural design 23. Community planning
9. Climatological aspects 24. Education/community dvlpmt.
10. Housing policy and legal aspects 25. Squatter settlements
II. Housing management 26. Land reclamation
12. Demographic aspects 27. A ppropriate technology
13. Social and health aspects 28. Agricultural development
14. Economic aspects 29. Traffic and transportation
15. Financing methods
Fig. 10.6. Sample Information Sources Bank Entry Card

Questionnaire
response file
r------
I
I
I
I
I I
L -.J
No
Fig. 10.7. Flowchart No.3: Subsystem No. 3

Process of Expanding the Initial Information-
Sources Bank
of contacts with information sources will be attained. This is the point wherein
the participating institutions can no longer recommend sources of information not
already contacted.
Throughout the series of information exchange transactions, every effort should

be made to generate more sources of information from the participating institutions.
This might require periodic requerying of all participating institutions.
F lowe haY' t
The flowchart depicting the various steps and the sequences of steps involved in
the implementation of this subsystem is included in Flowchart 4 (Fig. 10.8).
Questionaire
response file
Fig. 10.8. Flowchart No.4: Subsystem No.4

Process of Generating More Sources of Information
10.8 SUBSYSTEM 5 INITIATING INFORMATION EXCHANGE

After completion of the operations involved in this' subsystem, the information

(a) Identify institutional sources of information which are compatible in areas

of interest and information exchange capabilities.
(b) Establish information exchange arrangements with these institutions.
(c) Monitor the maturation of these exchange arrangements.
Subsystem 5 is made of three activities, viz.,
1. Evaluation of Interest Capability. Based on profiling response to list of

topics or areas of interest (Questionnaire Part G) the initiating institutes
identified information sources compatible with its own interests. A high
level of mutuality in subject interest warrants development of formalized
information exchange arrangements.
2. Evaluation of Exchange Compatibility. The hierarchy of institutionalized

information exchange arrangements described earlier (Table I and Questionnaire
Part E and F) is applied to evaluate the compatibility between the initiating
institution and selected information sources. The key here is quid pro quo
matching - where the initiating institution seeks exchange arrangements only
at the level which it can reciprocate. Three levels of exchange are identified,
requiring increased mutual commitment to pass from one level to the next.
The levels are:
LEVELl
(a) Correspondence exchange. One or more two way exchanges of letters,
inquiries, etc.
(bY Profile/questionnaire exchange. The completion and return of a formal
questionnaire profiling information sources.
LEVEL II
(c) Publications exchange. One or more exchanges of print and/or multi-media
documents.
(d) Current awareness list exchange. Periodic (at least two) exchange of
lists of new information acquisition titles.
(e) Bibliography/abstract exchange. Periodic exchange of bibliographies,
indexes and/or abstracts of currently held document titles.
(f) Inter-library loan/exchanges. At least one exchange of library loan
materials.
LEVEL III
(g) Literature search service. At least one exchange of literature search
services on a specified topic.
(h) Technical inquiry service. The response to at least one technical inquiry
by each exchange partner.
(i) Data shro'ing service. At least one instance where primary data (raw or
compiled), surveys and/or computer data files are exchanged or shared.
(j) Extension/training. The exchange of curriculum and/or personnel needed
to inaugurate or strengthen existing extension or training programs.
(k) Consultancy. The exchange or secondment of at least one staff personnel
as the contractury for professional service.
3. Link Information and Users. Use the information source bank to link supplier
information system with initiating institution users and their clients.
Low--Cost Housing Information Exchange 331
10.9 SUMMARY
Linkage establishment is an important stage in the development of information net-
works. It is at this stage that a small information system will be able to:
(a) Initiate a "contact" with other sources of information in a given field
of human interest.
(b) Investigate their system's compatibility with other information systems.
(c) Identify "common" information transfer capabilities which could be utilized
as initial channels of information exchange.
(d) Decide on the need for the development linkages with other information
networks.
The strategy proposed in this paper is but one approach to linkage development.
The linkage development strategies presented here have been substantially simplified
in order to present the processes involved in a much more manageable fashion.
The user is advised to adapt the implementation steps outlined here, to his own
environment, his resources and its capabilities.
If by some good fortune several institutions in developing countries take up the

operationalization of these linkage formation strategies there will emerge the
possibility of cross-linking/aggregating these mini-networks into a more globalized
information exchange structure. It would seem appropriate that if such a condition
came to pass, one or more international agency mandated to supported information
exchange might sponsor this stage of development. At the very least, such an
agency would be assured that these user-initiated mini-networks were developed out
of the self interest of localized information users. Such a partnership might
stand as the first user-initiated global information system among a plethora of
faltering supplier induced systems.
Appendix
SOURCES OF HOUSING AND HUMAN SETTLEMENTS INFORMATION

INSTITUTIONAL PROFILE QUESTIONNAIRE
A. Name of Institution:
Complete Business Address: B. Country:
C. Contact: Position:
D. INSTITUTIONAL IDENTITY (Check-off your type of institution)

Governmental/Public D Commercial D
Educational
D Industrial
D
Research and Development
D Architect/Planning
D
Professional Association
D Bank/Financial
D
Foundation
D International
D
Extension/Service
D D
DESCRIBE BRIEFLY THE OBJECTIVES OF YOUR INSTITUTION/ORGANIZATION.
E. DISSEMINATION SERVICES (Check the activities/services your institution currently

offers)
Publications
D Publish books, monographs, journals, bulletins,
newsletters. research/technical directories,
reprints. (UNDERLINE TYPES)
Current Awareness
0 Distribute periodic lists of your new information
acquisitions. How often? __
Bibliographies Compile indexes, abstracts, union lists, sta-

and Abstracts D tistical abstracts of current holdings.
Inter-Library Loan
D Have reciprocal arrangements to lend library
materials.
Literature Search 0 Provide literature search services on special
topics.
Technical Inquiry
D Answer technical inquiries in area of expertise.
Data Sharing
D Exchange processed data, surveys, preliminary
analyses, computer data files.
Extension/Training D Provide extension services and training for
appropriate clientele.
Consultancy D Export/specialist contracting, seconding, sharing
personnel exchange.
(Please send us examples of your publications and/or your publications list/
directory) .
INFORMATION EXCHANGE POLICIES (Please describe briefly your information dissemination
policies vis. dissemination activities/services in (E) or send written policies/
procedures) .
333
334 Appendix
F. INFORMATION STAFF (Personnel Assigned INFORMATION BASE/ACQUISITIONS (Number of

to information management duties) : Housing/Human Settlements titles only) :
NUMBER THIS YEAR THIS YEAR
l.
~J
l. Professional Librarians/ Books/Monographs
Documentalists D I
2. Library Technicians/
Abstractors/Cataloguers D
2. Serials/Periodicals I II I
3. Area/Subject Specialists
D 3. Technical/Research
Reports I I
4. Editors/Publications 4. Country/Regional
Specialists 0 Reports I I
5. Graphic/Media Specialists 0 5. Microfiche/Forms

II
6. System/Computer Specialists
D 6. Photos/Slides/
Films II
7. Translators D· 7. Maps/Prin ts/
Graphics I I
8. Administrators D 8. Vertical Files/
Fujitive II I
9. 0 9. Pamphlets/Reprints I~"]
10.
0 10. Machine Readable
Data I I I
G. Please check-off topics of institutional intercGt with special reference to
housing/settlements for low-income people ~and if you collect information/
data on topic ~
TOPIC DEFINITION and SCOPE of TOPIC
l. Housing Documentation/ project reports, statistics and survey, case
Statistics L::;J studies, feasibility studies and evaluation
for low-income housing.
2. Housing Research/Types
LSJ Demonstration/experimental houses, model houses,
expansible houses, demountable houses, emergency
shelters, disaster housing, mobile homes.
3. Indigenous/Rural Rural and indigenous housing solutions, rural
Housing
[SJ improvements, rural community facilities.
4. Co-operative Housing
LSJ Management organization, economics/financing,
case studies.
5. Self-Help Construction CS] Self-help, aided self-help, mutual help, public
participation, settlement improvement,
organization.
6. Construction Materials LSJ Materials researcn, composition, properties, uses
of construction materials, both indigenous and
new, effects of wind, earthquake, fire, etc.
on materials, low-cost applications.
7. Construction Methods Housing construction industry, industrialized
and Management and prefab building, management, factor mix
(labor/capital intensive), structural engineerlng~
on site construction methods, prefabrication,
owner built housing, construction manuals,
construction management.
Appendix 335
8. Architectural Design Design factors and concepts for low-income groups,

recreational and community facilities, tradi-
tional architecture, ae~thetics, physical/site
relationships.
9. Climatological Aspects Climatic factors in low-income housing, influence
of climate on health, environment, building
materials, comfort factors, current and
indigenous solutions.
10. Housing Policy and Sites/services, government subsidies, rent
Legal Aspects ~ control, land use, land reform, building
codes, zoning, para legal aspects, standards,
national housing policies.
11. Housing Management
~ Maintenance, modernization and conversion, repair,
internal rules, tenant relations, contractual
-agreements, training housing managers, housing
management, for low-income people.
12. Demographic Aspects
~ Population profiles, population research, migration,
density-growth, family size, income and effect
on housing.
13. Social and Health Social and health aspects of human settlements, ways,
Aspects ~ methods and concepts for their improvement,
impact and case studies.
14. Economic Aspects
~ Economic development, housing finance, feasibility
studies, economics of housing and housing
analysis, base studies, economic conditions,
development forecasting, planning, policy,
research, employment/income generation.
15. Financing Methods Savings and loans, direct loans, property

improvements loans, construction loans, amorti-
zation, mortgage and other methods/arrangements
used to finance housing for/by low-income groups.
16. Eco~ogical Aspects Pollution (water, air, and land), ecological
management and environment, as related to
low-income human settlements.
17. Energy Conventional and alternative, renewable and
non-renewable sources of energy (direct solar,
wind, tidal, bio-mass, geo-thermal, marine-thermal,
fossil, atomic, etc.) conversion processes,
conservation, recycling, and applications,
especially as appropriate to the needs of
low-income people.
18. Sanitary Engineering ~ Waste and sewage disposal water supply, drainage,
and waste recycling, utilization as related to
low-income settlements.
19. Urbanization ~ Growth of cities, rural-urban migration, urban
sprawl, especially as these trends relate to
low-income people.
20. Regional Planning ~ Macro/micro level planning, state/provincial
planning, planning legislation, land use
controls, industrial and commercial (location)
policies and planning, planning for new and
remote settlements, preservation of historical
sites.
336 Appendix
21. Rural Planning Planning specifically related to the improve-

ment of human settlements in rural areas and
their integration into the fabric of the
region, province/state, and nation.
22. City Planning City planning development growth, and manage-
ment, metropolitan area planning, master plan
studies and surveys, metropolitan/city level
legislation, zoning, land use control, municipal
government, new towns, garden cities, satellite
cities, model cities, planned communities.
23. Community/ Community/neighborhood level planning, urban
Neighborhood Planning renewal, slum clearance, and surveys. Planning
of site residential area planning, community
centers and planning legislation.
24. Education/Community Community awareness, technical assistance,
Development education, literacy, community development,
home economics, community nutrition,
community improvement projects, case and
impact studies, surveys.
25. Squatters and Marginal Slums, squatters, resettlement schemes, slum
Settlements clearance/improvement, or slum development.
26. Land Reclamation Desert control, swamp, fill or drainage, terracing,
and other techniques for human settlements.
27. Appropriate Technology Philosophy, concepts, and theories of the
development and use of appropriate technologies.
28. Agricultural Development Irrigation, agro-industry, agronomy, extension
and training, production, farm management,
for tow-income settlements.
29. Traffic and Transportation[S;J Traffic engineering/lay-out, and materials
that affect housing and settlement of low-
income people.
J. SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Please provide us with a list of your most valuable sources of information in
the areas of housing/human settlements
1. Name of Institution: Country:

Business Address:
Contact: Title:

Business Address:
Contact: Title:

Business Address:
Contact: Title:
Appendix 337

Business Address:
Contact: Title:

Business Address:
Contact: Title:

Business Address:
Contact: Title:

Business Address:
Contact: Ti tie:

Business Address:
Contact: Title:

Business Address:
Contact: Ti tie:
la. Name of Institution: Country:

Business Address:
Contact: Title:
(Please use additional sheets, if necessary)

Index
Acrylics 241 growth 220

Adobe bricks and blocks 202, 203, 207, half culm 227
259 joints 229
Affordability concept 31, 32 matting 50, 227
Agriculture recycling 54 occurrence 220
Alternative energy systems 192-93 parti tions 230
Alternative technologies 54-56 pipes 230
Antipolo 52 preservation 223-26
Aqua-culture 56 pulp and fiber boards 127-28
Asbestos-cement houses 125 roofs 230
Asbestos-cement panel roof 126 splitting 227
Asbestos-cement sheets 19 strength 221
Asbestos-cement tiles 19 structure 220-21
Asbestos fibers 127 troughs 230
Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) walls 230
9, 19, 120-30 Bamboo-wood tile 64
Asphalt, sulfur combined with 236 Bandung 22, 68
Asphaltic emulsions 209 Bangkok 111, 121, 122, 124, 131
Atterberg limits 204-5 Bataan 54
Auxiliary ductile counter-collapse "Bayanihan" system 30
lateral load resisting (ADCLR) Beetles 215
system 277 Bio-fuels 54
Bio-gas system 54-55
Blast-furnace slag 163, 165, 166
Bahay kubo 27, 28, 43-45 Bok-duk-bang 150
Bamboo 63-64, 219-32 Boucherie process 223
applications 226
boards 227
ceilings 230 Cajon and nagging 204
concrete reinforcement 129, 230-32 Carpenter ants 215
deterioration 223 Cei lings 230
distribution 219-20 Cellulosics 242
fastening 229 Cement-asbestos 61, 253
fire retardant treatment 226 Cement products 56
flooring 45, 230 CINVA-Ram machine 20, 130
foundations 228 Clay and clay products 254-55
frames 228 classifications 254
full culm 226 manufacture 254-55
339
340 Index
see also Soils East-West Technology and Development

Climate 17 Institute (TDI) 1-5
Coaltail .63 Ecology settlements 52
Cob method 202, 207 Education 81-82, 291-307
Coconut trunk 64-66 committee needs 305
Coir fiber boards 128 Cornell program in low-cost housing
Common use areas 161 295-303
Component manufacturing plants 72 dreams of future programs 304-5
Components 79 how to set up programs 305-306
Composite materials 16, 243, 257 innovations needed 295
Composites possible futures in 303-5
laminar 244 present position 293-94
particulate 243 problems and troubles with present
plastic-based 243 systems 294
sandwich 244 trends in practice 304
Concrete 72, 245-57 trends now apparent or indicated 303
bamboo reinforcement 230-32 Emergency housing 53-54
steel reinforcement 252 Energy conservation 257
sulfur 233 Energy problems 54
Concrete block wall 126 Energy sources 55
Concrete brick 255 Environmental aspects 195
Concrete foundations 97 Evaluation criteria and methodology
Concrete panel 105 126
Concrete reinforcement, bamboo as 129,
230-32
Condominium project 51 Feasibility, Design and Implementation
Cooperating institutions 1-2, 4, 6 of Low-Cost Housing for LOW-Income
current and planned research 9-13 Families (seminar) 3
programs 8-9 Ferro-cement 56
Cornell program in low cost housing
295-303 Fertilizers 54, 55
Cornell University 11-12 Finance 30, 31, 40-42, 83, 112, 115-19,
Corrugated asbestos-cement panel 126 142-44, 147, 148, 157, 185
Cost aspects 21, 78, 86-87, 123, 149, Fire brick 255
161, 163, 181, 183, 185 Floors and flooring 45, 47, 230, 275
Cross-subsidy approach 40 Fly-ash 163, 165, 166
Cultural beliefs 44 FORPRIDECOM 57, 64
Customs 17 Fungi 214
Depok project 90 Galvanized iron sheeting roof 24

Design and evaluation criteria 124, Geographical aspects 17-18
126 Geothermal energy 54
Design development 19 Glass-ceramics 172
Dietz, Albert 4 Grubs 215
Din Daeng 124 Gypsum 163
Directorate of Building Research/UN
Regional Housing Centre 10-11
Disasters 51, 53-54 Hansung Prefab. Company 146
Documentation strategy, training 6-8 Harapan 45
Door panel 106 Hardboard 219
Duplex houses 19 Hawaii 177-97
crowding in housing 181
demographics 180-83
Earthen floors 47 environmental movement 195
Earthqudke. See also Seismic finance 185
Earthquake fatalities 259 housing costs 181
Earthquake-worthy vertical load- housing evolution 178
carrying (EWVLC) system 276 housing needs 193-95
Index 341
housing policy 178 initiation of 313, 329-30

housing situation 177-78 levels of institutionalization of
housing supply 182 312
housing trends 195-97 present position 309-10
land prices 183 . user-initiated linkage establishment
overview 179-80 311-13
private non-profit housing develop- Information sources
ment 185-93 generating additional 326-29
substandard housing 181 initial contacts and profiling of
Hawaii Community Design Center 12, 19, 316-22
23, 184, 186 Informa tion sources bank
Hawaii Housing Authority 180, 182, 183 expansion of 322-26
Hawaii University 11-13 institutional profile questionnaire
Hawaiin Energy House 192-93 333-37
"Higaan" 44 sample entry card 327
High-rise building projects 122 setting up 313-16
Hollow clay brick 103 In-plane bracing system 275
Honolulu 181, 183 Institute of Technology, Bandung 10
Honolulu Ci ty and County General Plan Insulating materials 257
181 International assistance 15
Horizontal tie-beam system 275 International cooperation 8
Housing authorities 18 International Development Strategy
Huay-Kuang, Bangkok 122 for the Second United Nations
HYFAROOF 56, 58 Development Decade 15
International Longshoreman's and
. Warehouseman I s Union 190
Indonesia 10-11, 22, 67-109 Iran 265
alternative concepts 71-76 seismic protection. See Seismic
basic data 67
building industry 71, 73
client-sponsored building system Jakarta 72
73-76
construction industry organization Jamsil 155-57, 160
70 Java 67, 79
finance 82
hypothetical performance chart 87
industrialization of housing Kahuku Housing Corporation 12, 191
construction 83-85, 88 Kaliman tan 67
mass-housing 68 KIST, Ceramic Materials Laboratory 162
National Housing Authority 68 Klong Toey 130
National Urban Development Kokokahi YWCA cottages renovation 12
Corporation 68, 72, 77 Korea 19, 21, 135-75
non-profit<housing organizations building materials industry 149
69-70 central housing administration
private sector 69-70 organization 145
Registration and Licensing Committee construction costs 161, 163
85 construction period 163
Second Five-year Plan 68 finance 144-45, 157
Small Investment Loan and Fixed five-year economic development plans
Working Capital Schemes 82 135-36, 139, 174
Study Committee on Non-profit floor planning 160
Housing Organisations 80-81 future housing situation 173
total systems development model future prospects 172-75
85-86 GNP 136
Information acquisition and dissemina- hous<e-building industry 149
tion 18 housing construction plan 138
Information establishment process Housing Construction Promotion Law
model 312 139
Information exchange 6, 172-74, 309-31 housing construction trend 138-39
342 Index
housing design 160 Low-cost housing

housing development 151-61 guidelines and issues 15-24
housing distribution 150 need for 15-16
housing funds 142, 143 problems and issues 16-18
housing industry outlook 147-48
housing policy 139-45
housing program 157 Management aspects 18, 75-76
housing shortage 137 Management couse 81-82
housing sites 150 Management system 80-85
housing situation 136-38 Manangasila 130
housing sizes 159, 160 Maramba, Felix D., Sr. 54
housing standards 136 Market aggregation 16-17
housing supply rate 137 Masonry
industrialized housing units 167 sulfur 233-35
information exchange 172 surface-bonded 235
investment 175 Materials 16, 44, 55-66, 72, 79, 84,
land prices 150 124, 127-30, 149, 163, 184, 201-58,
land supply 150-51 292
long-term housing construction plan Mechanization 84, 85
139 Melamine formaldehyde 242
long-term prospects 154 Metro Manila 52
Ministry of Construction 145 Mindanao 54
National Housing Corporation and Mindanao State University 20, 24
subsidiary companies 146 'Minimum House' 19, 23, 187-90
New Community Movement 151 Mokauea Fisherman's Association
overview of country 135-75 191-92
population 135, 137 MOlds 215
private sector 147 Mortar 255-57
provinces 135 bonding 257
public housing agencies 145 composi tion 256
rural housing 151 materials 255-56
rural villages 153 Multi-family housing system 124
standard-housing construction Multi-story flats 72
project 153
substandard houses 137
ten-year housing construction plan Nipa hut 27, 28
141 Nuclear power 54
Korea Housing Bank 146-47 Nylon 242
Korea Institute of Science and
Technology 9-10
Korea Silicate Brick Co. 146, 165 Oahu 183
Labor aspects 13, 17, 164, 184 Pai ruak 129

Labor cost 19, 20 Panel lock 105
Labor productivity 78-79 Partial prefabrication 85
Laminated beams 218 Particle board 66, 100, 106, 107, 218
Land"ownership concepts 39-40 Parti tions 230
Land policies 38-40 Pavements 236
Land prices 150, 183 Performance evaluation 124, 125
Land supply 150-5 L Phenolics 242
Land tenure 292 Philippine Business for Social Progress
Lateritic soil 130 50, 51
Leaching 223 Philippine Homes & Housing Corporation
Legislation 35-38, 117 31
Lime and lime-admixtures 209 Philippines 17, 27-66
Limnoria 215 alternative technologies 54-56
Low-cost construction materials areas of financial concern 41-47
(research seminar) 3 finance 30, 31, 40-42
Index 343
formal approaches 50-54 Prejudices 17

housing agencies abolished 37 Private non-profit housing development
housing and house-forms 27-28 185
housing program 35-37 Private sector 40, 69-70, 115-16, 139,
housing shortage 30 147
housing supply 30 Production aspects 5, 16
land ownership concepts 39-40 Project development cycle 76, 87
land policy 38-40 Project evaluation 161
legislation 35-38 Project managemen~ 18, 75-76, 80-85
materials 56-66 models 75
National Disaster Coordinating Center Protein foods 56
55 Prototype house 21, 22
National Housing Authority 36-38, Public housing lB, 122, 139, 145
40, 51, 53 Pyramid 53
policy formulation 29-31
Presidential Decree 757, 35-37
rural sector 42-50 Rammed earth 203, 207
urban land 'policy 38-40 Rationalization 84
Philippines University 11 Rattan 62-63
Pipes 230 Regalian Doctrine 38
Pise 203 Relevance in Engineering Education for
Planning 53 Asian Needs with Workshop on
Plastic-based composites 243 Nature and Concept of Intermediate
Plastics 237-44 Technology (conference report) 3
applications 241 Research and development 4, 5, 9,
corrosion resistance 241 .18-20, 162-67
durability 239 innovations needed 295
fire properties 241 present position 293-94
heat transmission 239 problems and troubles with present
light transmission 239 systems 294
properties 238
stiffness 238 Rice husk ash as pozzolanic material
strength 238 129-30
thermal expansion 239 Roadbeds 236
thermoplastics 238, 241 Roofs and roofing 19, 24, 45, 104,
thermosetting 238, 242 230, 275
toughness 239 Roving workshop 4-6, 9, 12, 291
Pleasant Hills Housing and Service Roxas III 52
Cooperative, Inc. 50 Rural housing 42-50, 151
Plywood 217 Rural villages 153, 172
Poerbo, Hasan 4
Pohang Iron and Steel Company (POSCO)
166 Saemaul Movement 172
Policy aspects 18, 119-20, 193 Saemaul Project 156
Political agencies 18 Saemaul Undong 151-54
Pollution 54, 55 Samahang Bagong Buhay Foundation Inc
Polycarbonate 242 52
Polyesters 242 Sambahayan concept 51-52
Polyethylene 241 Sand-lime bricks 161, 165, 255
Polypropylene 242 Sawali. 49
Polystyrene 242 School building design 126-27
Polyurethane 242 Seismic collapse
Portland cement 209 design against 275
Pozzolanic material, rice husk as prevention of 272
129-30 Seismic damage, reduction of 283-88
Precast concrete 101 Seismic design 259-89
Prefabricated panels 164 assumed ground motion spectrum 278
Prefabrication 123, 124, 167-71 auxiliary ductile counter-collapse
Preferences 17 lateral load resisting (ADCIR)
344 Index
system 277 shrinkage limit 205
behavior of structure during succes- . soluble salts in 206
sive stages of cracking and stabilization 208-10
destruction 281-82 strength 206
conditions for prevention of roof surface coatings 210
collapse 275 types 204
earthquake-worthy vertical load- weathering 206
carrying (EWVLC) column system see also Clay and clay products
276 Soil-cement building blocks 20, 24,
magnitude of the problem 261 130
main causes of death and destruction Soil-cement floor tiles 20
263 Soil-cement housing 12
maximum acceleration, velocity, and Solar energy 12, 54, 56, 257
displacement response values Squatter settlements 120-23, 292
285 Ssangyong Cement Industrial Co. Ltd.
need for monolithic and non- 170
disintegrab1e roof and floor Ssangyong housing system 171
system 275 Steeping 223
of brittle structures 287-88 Suka1uyu project 77-80, 88, 91-94
proposed spectrum for 277-83 Sulfur 59-61, 232-37
research and development needs 267 combined with asphalt 236
roofs 275 drawbacks 232
structural response spectrum 280, masonry 233-35
282 melting point 232
Seismic failure modes 263 occurrence 232
Seismic performance 263 potential uses 61
Seismic protection properties 232
criteria for 268, 271, 274 Sulfur concrete 59-61, 233
factors affecting choice of 269 Sulphite liquor 209
policy for 266, 271 Systems building 124
Seismic resistance, improvement of 267
Seismic strengthening
policy for 266 Technology 184
recommendations for 265 Technology Adaptation Research Program
Self-help housing 19, 52 (TARP) 2
Seoul 135, 154, 157, 158 Tenure Security criteria 123
Sewer brick 255 Teredo 215
Shanty structures 121 Termites 215
Shipworms 215 Thailand 9, 111-34
Sidings 45, 49-51 Asian Institute of Technology 120-30
Silicones 242 construction industry 124
Si10ng 44 development program 114-15
SLAG-SITALL 172 experimental asbestos cement houses
Social problems 293 125-26
Soi Charurat, Makkasan 131 finance 112, 115, 116
Soil 201-11, 257 Five-Year Plan 119
absorption 206 Government Housing Bank 118-19
admixtures 210· housing conditions 130
application 206 housing industry 123-24
Atterberg limits 204-5 housing situation overview 111-20
chemical stabilizers 210 income classification 111
classification 205 income groups 114
constituents 204 internal migration 131
construction methods 202 legis 1ation 117
liquid limit 205 National Housing Authority 113-14,
moisture content 204 132
optimum moisture content 205 past Government action 112
plastic limit 205 peri-urban areas 131
·p1asticity index 205 policy consideration 119
Index 345
population growth rate 111 Urim Concrete Co. Ltd. 168

private sector 115 Urim housing system 169
prognosis for the future 132
Public Housing Bureau 112
Public Housing Division 112
Vinylidene chloride and copolymers 241
slum areas 130-32
Vinyls 241
slums and squatter settlements 113,
120-23, 130-32
social welfare research survey 130
Tisco study 116 Waianae self-help housing proposal 12
urban community development program Waimanalo church roof 12
132 Walls 230
urbanization 131 Waste materials 163
Thermoplastics. See Plastics Water hyacinth 62
Thermosets. See -pfastics Wattle and daub 202, 207
Tide power 5-4-- Wave power 54
Timber. See Wood Weather 17
Tondo Whitewash coatings 223
sulfur concrete in 60 Wind pressure monitoring 20
UNEP project at 55 Wind resistance 19
Training 53, 81-82 Window panel 107
documentation strategy 6-8 Wood 29, 72, 79, 96, 211-19
Transportation aspects 16 adhesively-bound products 216-17
Troughs 230 classifications 211 .
destroyers 213-16
fire protection 216
UNEP project at Tondo 55-56 founda tions 96
UNICEF 131 growth 211
United Nations Center for Housing, laminated 218
Building and Planning 15 moisture effects 212
United Nations Industrial Development preservatives 216
Organization (UNIDO) 82 shrinkage 212
United States 11-13, 19 strength 212-13
Urban areas 38-40 structural uses 213
Urban settlement process 122 structure 211
Urea formaldehyde 242 Wood-wool boards 128-29

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LOW-COST HOUSING

Related Journals Published by Pergamon

OXFORD . NEW YORK . TORONTO . SYDNEY . PARIS . FRANKFURT

Copyright © 1979 The East-West Center

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

In order to make this volume available as economically

Printed in the United States of America

List of Contributors xiii

Introduction History of the East-West Center TDI Low-Cost Housing Project 1

Chapter 1 Low-Cost Housing: Guidelines and Issues

1.1 The Need for Low-Cost Housing 15

PART I LOW-COST HOUSING: BYCOUNTRY

Low-Cost Housing in the Philippines

2.1 Housing and House-Forms 27

Chapter 3 Mass Housing in Indonesia: In Search of New Solutions

3.1 Mass Housing in Indonesia 67

Chapter 4 Low-Cost Housing in Thailand

4.1 Overview of Housing Situation in Thailand 111

Chapter 5 Low-Cost Housing in Korea

5.1 Country Overview 135

Chapter 6 LOW-Cost Housing in Hawaii

6.1 Introduction 177

PART II LOW-COST HOUSING: BY TOPIC

7.1 Materials 201

7.9 Clay Products 254

Chapter 8 Criteria for Seismic Design of Unreinforced Masonry and

8.1 Introduction 259

Chapter 9 Higher Education in Low-Cost Housing

9.1 In troduction 291

Chapter lO Low-Cost Housing Information Exchange

10.1 In troduction 309

Appendix: Sources of Housing and Human Settlements Information

The collection of chapters represents a concerted effort by project directors and

1. Reduction of the cost of an acceptable housing unit, considering building

2. Creation of a significant number of new jobs through the net effect of

3. Consideration of the attitudes of the people concerned, so that the final

As a result of discussions by the majority of the contributing authors in Honolulu

3. Particular attention should be given to those aspects of country-specific

4. Attention should be devoted to problems and activities, particularly in the

This volume represents one outcome of the project.

1. Indonesia Prof. Hasan Poerbo Senior Lecturer

Ir. Albert Kartahardja Director, Directorate of

2. Korea Dr. Sung Do Jang Principal Investigator and Head

Mr. Hang Koo Cho Manager, Teclmical Division

3. Philippines Dr. Ernesto G. Tabujara Professor of Civil Engineering

Prof. Geronimo V. Manahan Associate Professor of

4. Thailand Dr. Tongchat Hongladaromp General Manager

Dr. Ricardo Pama Associate Professor of

Dr. Seng-Lip Lee Professor and Head, Depart-

B. Special Topic Chapters

1. Iran Dr. Reza Razani Professor of Civil Engi-

2. Philippines Mr. Eduardo Canela Research Associate

3. u.S. Prof. Louis Goodman Assistant Director

Dr. Albert Dietz Professor of Building

Dr. Floyd o. Slate Professor of Engineering

Mr. Fredrich J. Burian Research Associate

HISTORY OF THE EAST-WEST CENTER TDI

1. 2. NETWORK OF COOPERATING INSTITUTIONS

1. To exchange experiences and to generate innovative concepts in low-cost

2. To explore cooperative endeavours in these research and development areas.