1 s2.0 S030881462300105X Main
1 s2.0 S030881462300105X Main
1 s2.0 S030881462300105X Main
Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
Review
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Emerging processing methods have been applied in coffee bean processing for improved sensory quality. The
Anaerobic fermentation processes focus on optimizing the fermentation process of the coffee cherries and beans. This involves various
Carbonic maceration pathways, including the formation of volatiles, flavor precursors and organic acids and the reduction in the
Dry process
concentrations of bioactive compounds. Comprehensive information regarding the effect of these emerging
Wet process
processes on the chemical, biological and sensory properties of the coffee beans is summarized. Emerging pro
Digested coffee
Coffea arabica cesses affected the coffee bean to various degrees depending on the raw material and the method used. The
Polyphenol emerging methods promoted the reduction of bioactives such as caffeine and phenolics in coffee beans. Sub
Antioxidant activity stantial improvement of these processes is needed to obtain coffee beans with improved biological activities.
Anti-inflammatory activity Effort to simplify the methods and optimize the post-fermentation process is crucial for the methods to be easily
Caffeine accessible by the producers and to produce defect-free coffee beans.
Melanoidin
Robusta coffee
Chlorogenic acid
Arabica coffee
1. Introduction Coffee bean genetics relate to their chemical and biological proper
ties (Hall et al., 2022). Among numerous species of the genus Coffea,
The coffee market has drastically developed in recent years. The Coffea arabica is the most commercialized species. The typical “coffee”
price of coffee beans has reached its highest in 10 years at around 204.29 term in the market refers to Arabica coffee. Other species of significant
US cents/lb (ICO, 2022). The production of coffee beans was estimated importance are C. canephora var. robusta (Robusta coffee), C. liberica
to be around 175,347 thousand bags (60 kg capacity), with a nearly (Liberica coffee), and C. liberica var. dewevrei (Excelsa coffee) (Campa
balanced consumption of 167,670 thousand bags (ICO, 2022). Nowa et al., 2004, 2005; Ortiz et al., 2019). The sustainability of Arabica coffee
days, coffee beans are no more just considered a basic commodity. They has been challenged by climate change. The rise in global temperature
are an expression of art and craft and are an object of science. As con leads to increased susceptibility of Arabica toward highly destructing
sumers seek a rewarding experience in their coffee consumption, coffee coffee leaf rust fungus (Hemileia vastatrix) (Castillo et al., 2020). The
with new sensory perception is highly sought after. The quality of coffee utilization of other coffee genotypes and species needs to be explored
beans is affected by various factors such as genetics, post-harvest pro further. Exploring a new genotype of coffee is important to enrich the
cessing, and the brewing and serving methods (Pereira et al., 2019). The breeding gene pool. This enrichment in the gene pool helps improve the
body of knowledge regarding these aspects has been extensively devel agricultural traits of coffee (e.g., yield, pest and disease resistance,
oped (Bastian et al., 2021; Hall, Trevisan, & de Vos, 2022; Pereira et al., drought tolerance, and quality).
2019; Poltronieri & Rossi, 2016). There is rapid development in coffee Coffee beans are rich in bioactive compounds. Caffeine is the most
bean processing as there is an increasing demand for “emerging” coffee noticed and studied compound in coffee (Caporaso, Whitworth, Cui, &
products. The nutritional quality of coffee has also been an emerging Fisk, 2018; Clark & Landolt, 2017). Caffeine is psychostimulant. It is
issue concerning the consumers. responsible for the “waking” effect of the coffee (Clark & Landolt, 2017).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fzhu5@yahoo.com (F. Zhu).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.135489
Received 14 September 2022; Received in revised form 29 December 2022; Accepted 12 January 2023
Available online 16 January 2023
0308-8146/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
Chlorogenic acid (CGA), cafestol, and kahweol are other bioactive due to several factors including their ability to produce coffee beans
compounds in coffee beans. They have important biological and phar with unique characteristics and increasing implementation due to rising
macological effects on human health (Açıkalın & Sanlier, 2021). Poly demand in the market. This paper also aims to identify the research gaps
phenols, including feruloylquinic acid, dicaffeoylquinic acid, and the in the current coffee-related studies. The results from the different
lactones of CGA, were reported to present in significant amounts in studies are critically compared and analysed. The reports presenting
coffee brew (Fujimoto et al., 2021). The occurrence of those bioactives comparative data are prioritized with an aim to provide fair and unbi
and polyphenols in coffee beans was highly related to the taste of coffee ased information. The current and commonly used coffee bean pro
brew (Fujimoto et al., 2021). The bioactive compounds in Arabica and cessing methods (dry process (DP); wet process (WP); giling basah
Robusta coffee beans have been well identified and quantitated (Bad process; honey process (HP)) are not a focus of this review and they are
mos, Lee, & Kuhnert, 2019; Ortiz et al., 2019). However, less is known explained separately in the Supplementary Material. The literature
for Liberica and Excelsa coffee beans. Further understanding is needed search was done employing various online databases. The detail of the
to explore the potential use of coffee beans as a beverage and for func search is given in the Supplementary Material.
tional food formulations.
The processing of coffee beans at the smallholder level is a 3. Quality aspects of coffee bean
straightforward process. It can be categorized into three main processing
methods (Pereira et al., 2019). The coffee cherries are first selected and The quality of coffee beans relates to their physical, chemical, and
sorted by hand-picking or water submersion after harvesting. For the dry sensory properties. Physical defects of coffee beans are due to agro
process (DP) method (also known as the natural process), the cherries nomical, processing, and storage treatments (BSN, 2008). The beans are
are directly dried utilizing natural or artificial drying. Dried cherries are categorized based on their size, appearance, the severity of the defects,
then peeled to expose the green coffee beans (GCB) (Pereira et al., 2019). and the occurrence of foreign materials. Coffee beans with little defects
Another method is the wet process (WP) method. In this process, the and free of foreign matter are of high quality. Beans with uniformed size
cherries are first peeled to remove the skin, and then the wet parchment are preferred (BSN, 2008). The physical characteristics of coffee beans
coffee beans are fermented for a certain period. Fermented beans are affect the choice of processing methods and the sensory properties of
washed, dried, and peeled to obtain the GCB. Modification or addition to end-products. In this regard, physical analyses based on International
the current process has been commonly applied. These modifications/ Standard Organization (ISO) are done by trained panellists. This method
additions lead to the applications of more tailored methods such as semi- is labor-intensive and time-consuming. An effort to automate the anal
dry process (honey process, semi-washed process, descascado), Bur ysis using hyperspectral means has been reported (Chen, Chiu, & Zou,
undian process, and giling basah (wet hulling) process (Bastian et al., 2022). The use of such an innovative method could ease the quality
2021; Coulet, 2012; Poltronieri & Rossi, 2016). In general, the GCB determination of coffee beans.
obtained from these processing methods are regarded as “coffee bean” There is no clear classification of coffee bean quality based on their
(Pereira et al., 2019). In this review paper, the term of “coffee bean”, chemical compositions and biological activities on the market. For
unless specified, refers to the raw and unroasted GCB. To meet the example, high caffeine content does not necessarily make high-quality
increasing demand for unique and new sensory properties of coffee coffee beans. It is mostly presented for the categorization of Arabica
products, various emerging processing methods (EPM) of coffee beans (low caffeine content) and Robusta (high caffeine content) and as pre
have been developed in the industries (Junior et al., 2021; Martins et al., caution for potential psycho-stimulation effects in the final products
2020; Pereira et al., 2022; Raveendran & Murthy, 2021). EPM such as (Campa, Doulbeau, Dussert, Hamon, & Noirot, 2005; Carneiro et al.,
carbonic maceration, anaerobic fermentation, and digestion method 2021). Ochratoxin-A analysis is related to food safety (Ismayadi, Marsh,
have been developed to optimize the flavor and taste potential of coffee & Clarke, 2005). The chemical composition of coffee beans significantly
beans. affects their sensory properties (Barbosa, Scholz, Kitzberger, & Benassi,
Various reviews on coffee beans have been recently reported. They 2019; Sualeh, Tolessa, & Mohammed, 2020). The composition of sugars
were mainly focused on composition of coffee cherries and beans, the and proteins is related to the flavor development of coffee beans through
effect of processing methods on the composition (Hall et al., 2022; the Maillard reactions. Phenolic compounds may contribute to the
Munyendo, Njoroge, Owaga, & Mugendi, 2021), bioactive properties bitterness and astringency of coffee products (Fujimoto et al., 2021;
(Carneiro, Oliveira, & Alves, 2021; Kusumah & Gonzalez de Mejia, Sualeh et al., 2020). Barbosa et al. (2019) found that high-quality coffee
2022), authenticity (Ferreira, Galluzzi, de Paulis, & Farah, 2021), and beans had high sucrose/acid and cafestol/kahweol ratios, high cafestol
bioaccessiblity and bioavailability of bioactive compounds (Bastian content, and low contents of caffeine, protein, and CGA. Coffee beans
et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022), analytical methods for volatiles (Pua et al., with high contents of bioactive compounds represent high-quality ma
2022), and the management of coffee by-products (Campos, Pinto, Melo, terial to be used in functional food products. Bioactive compounds in
Rocha, & Coimbra, 2021). A comprehensive review of the chemical, coffee beans contribute to their antioxidative, anti-fibrotic, anti-dia
biological and nutritional properties of coffee beans related to the pro betic, neuro-protective, and anti-inflammatory activities (Carneiro
cessing factor is important to optimize the coffee quality and to better et al., 2021; Duangjai, Trisat, & Saokaew, 2021; Niezen, Mehta, Jiang, &
understand coffee beans as a functional ingredient. However, the review Tapper, 2021). On the other hand, some dominant bioactive compounds
on the effect of EPM on the chemical composition, sensory quality, and in coffee beans, such as alkaloids and phenolics, can negatively affect its
biological activity of coffee bean is not available yet. Comprehensive sensory quality (Barbosa et al., 2019; Fujimoto et al., 2021). Suitable
information about these topics could help optimize the emerging pro methods to produce coffee bean with balanced sensory and biological
cessing methods to obtain coffee beans with improved functional, sen properties should be developed. Chemical composition and biological
sory and nutritional properties. activity data should be used to represent the quality potential of the
coffee bean. However, chemical and biological analyses are time-
2. Scope and approach of the review consuming and expensive. The development of new rapid non-
destructive analysis such as NIR and hyperspectral-based analysis
This review is focused on the applications of EPM in coffee bean (Caporaso, Whitworth, Grebby, & Fisk, 2018; Caporaso, Whitworth, Cui
processing and their effects on the chemical, biological and sensory et al., 2018; Caporaso, Whitworth, & Fisk, 2022; Chen et al., 2022) is
properties of the beans. The EPM have been recently applied by the beneficial. Due to the importance of chemical composition to the sensory
farmers and at the industry level in the coffee supply chains, though quality, safety, and nutritional aspect of coffee beans, further consid
their application scales are still to be enlarged. The term (EPM) also eration to include the chemical composition as a quality parameter is
covers a modification of an existing method that is currently highlighted suggested to provide a more objective classification of quality.
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N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
Sensory quality is the most crucial quality parameter of the coffee significantly related to their roasting degree (Yang et al., 2016) and
products and one of the most important determinants for coffee price. brewing mechanisms (Zhang, Linforth, & Fisk, 2012). Sensory analysis
Arabica coffee is considered to have higher quality than Robusta due to based on Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) is one of the most per
its richer sensory profile (Hall et al., 2022). Sensorial quality of coffee formed (Baqueta, Caporaso, Coqueiro, & Valderrama, 2020). Sensory
beans is determined using the brew of the roasted beans. Brews of quality analysis based on the volatiles analysis has also been extensively
Arabica beans are mainly characterized by acidic and fruity taste, while developed (Agnoletti et al., 2022; Pua et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022).
those of Robusta beans are primarily bitter and heavily bodied (Sunar The analysis characterizes coffee brews based on several taste parame
harum, Williams, & Smyth, 2014). Taste-wise, high-quality coffee brew ters including fragrance, flavor, acidity, body, aftertaste, sweetness,
is defined as complex, balanced, and “pleasant”. Low-quality coffee balance, cleanliness, and uniformity on coffee beans with certain de
brew is mainly defined as flat, unbalanced coffee with defects and ex grees of roasting and brewing (SCA, 2022). High-quality Arabica and
hibits an “unpleasant” sensation. However, the quality of coffee bean is Robusta coffee brews (with a cupping score of>80) are labeled as
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of current and emerging coffee bean processing. Summarized from Dong, Hu, Chu, Zhao, and Tan (2017), Kulapichitr, Bor
ompichaichartkul, Suppavorasatit, and Cadwallader (2019), Bastian et al. (2021), Evangelista et al. (2014), Silva, Batista, Abreu, Dias, & Schwan (2008), Yusianto
and Widyotomo (2013), Bressani et al. (2020), Pereira et al. (2019), Poltronieri and Rossi (2016), Ismayadi et al. (2005), Raveendran and Murthy (2021), Murthy
et al. (2019), Lee et al. (2016a), Wang et al. (2020a; 2020b), da Mota et al. (2020), Martinez et al. (2021), Mulyara and Rahmadian (2021), Junior et al. (2021),
Prono-Widayat et al. (2021), Sulaiman et al. (2021), Coulet (2012), Pereira et al. (2022), Elhalis, Cox, and Zhao (2022).
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N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
’specialty coffee’ and ’fine Robusta’, respectively. The occurrence of of wet parchment coffee beans (WPCB) or coffee cherries under oxygen-
defects in coffee beans is a crucial factor dividing high and low quality in deprived conditions. The processing method of AF is similar to that of DP
this method (SCA, 2022). Improvement and innovation in coffee bean and WP, except that the fermentation is done in a closed bioreactor (da
processing remain to be explored to obtain coffee brews with special and Mota et al., 2020; Martinez et al., 2021; Pereira et al., 2022) (Fig. 1,
desired sensory characteristics. blue-colored arrow; Table 1). A bioreactor may be constructed from
stainless steel (Martinez et al., 2021), a high-density plastic container
4. Emerging coffee bean processing methods (da Mota et al., 2020), or a plastic bag submerged in water (Mulyara &
Rahmadian, 2021) with or without the addition of starter cultures such
4.1. Digestion method as S. cerevisiae and T. debrueckii. The duration of fermentation may vary
between 16 and 90 h. Pereira et al. (2022) found that the microbial
Digestion method (DM) involves animals or microorganisms/en diversity of the coffee pulp/beans in the AF method was mainly
zymes from animal gut or the use of commercial microorganisms/en composed of yeast, mesophilic and lactic acid bacteria. Among the mi
zymes/chemicals for coffee bean incubation (Raveendran & Murthy, croorganisms, Hansemiaspora opuntiae, S. cerevisiae, Lactiplantibacillus
2021) (Fig. 1, green-colored arrow). Civet coffee beans, ivory coffee plantarum, Staphylococcus warneri, Levilactobacillus brevis, Weisella ciba
beans (elephant dung coffee beans), jacu coffee beans (jacu bird’s dung ria, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Candida glabrata, and Bacillus subtilis were
coffee beans), and monkey parchment coffee beans belong to this cate dominant in AF-processed coffee cherries and pulped beans.
gory (Raveendran & Murthy, 2021). These coffee beans have special Processing coffee beans in a modified atmosphere environment such
sensory characteristics and are highly priced. Their quantity limitation, as AF and carbonic maceration (CM) induces changes in the chemical
labor-intensive process, and authenticity protection effort have composition by three mechanisms, namely, the changes in the con
contributed to the high price. Animal fermented coffee beans can only be sortium of microorganisms, in the metabolisms of microorganisms, and
collected following proper animal ethical rights. This is done by col in the metabolisms of the coffee cherries/beans. Oxygen-deprived con
lecting the faeces in the wild or by feeding the animals with coffee ditions limit the growth of aerobic microorganisms. On the other hand,
cherries without interfering with their habitual diet. Several factors have yeast and bacteria can survive anaerobic conditions despite their
been proposed as the key factors affecting the quality of naturally changes in metabolisms. Anaerobic conditions optimize ethanol pro
digested coffee beans. The natural instinct of the animals allows them to duction by yeast, especially S. cerevisiae (Huang & Tang, 2007). Mean
get the best and perfectly ripe coffee cherries for consumption. This while, lactate is produced by lactic acid bacteria mainly via the lactate
ensures the optimal conditions of coffee cherries to be harvested. The dehydrogenase pathway under anaerobic conditions (Gänzle, 2015). In
beans are consumed either peeled or whole for digestion for up to 70 h in the plant tissue and fruits, the cells switch to anaerobic glycolysis to
the animal digestive tract (Raveendran & Murthy, 2021). The indigested compensate for the lack of aerobic energy. These fermentative pathways
beans are excreted intact by the animals at the end of the process. The can cause the acidification of the cytoplasm and the production of
beans are then collected for washing and drying. The combination of gut ethanol, alanine, malate, and succinate from pyruvate (Benkeblia,
microbiota and digestive enzymes is one of the most influential factors 2021). Depending on the tolerance of the plants, anaerobic conditions
affecting the quality of digested coffee beans. Wild civet coffee beans may limit the breakdown of starch (Benkeblia, 2021).
had different characteristics to caged civet coffee beans, mainly due to A prolonged fermentation period involving only bacteria and yeast
the differences in the habitual diets of the animals affecting their may be the most important feature in the AF method. The oxygen-
digestive systems (Febrina, Happyana, & Syah, 2021). Due to these deprived condition in AF is unfavorable for the growth of filamentous
factors, high variability in the quality of naturally digested coffee beans fungi such as Aspergillus and Penicillium, hence optimizing the meta
may be expected. bolism of bacteria and yeast. da Mota et al. (2020) found that natural
Studies to mimic the in vivo digestion process of animals in coffee and inoculated AF increased the fermentation temperature from 18 ◦ C in
processing have been done with a focus on replacing the animal the beginning to 22 ◦ C in the middle and 30 ◦ C at the end of fermen
involvement (Table 1). This included the utilization of animal gut mi tation. The higher temperature at the end of fermentation may lead to
croorganisms or enzymes, commercial strains of microorganisms, en optimum microorganism activities. Martins et al. (2020) and Pereira
zymes or chemicals to mimic the digestive system of animals in in vitro et al. (2022) found that anaerobic fermentation increased bacterial ac
condition (Lee, Cheong, Curran, Yu, & Liu, 2016a; Murthy, Sneha, tivity, resulting in more bacterial metabolites. These bacterial metabo
Basavaraj, & Kusumoto, 2019; Wang, Sun, Lassabliere, Yu, & Liu, lites and anaerobic conditions restricted fungal infections that caused
2020a). Simulated DM offered flexibility to scale up and achieve over-fermentation. Over-fermentation in aerobic fermentation of cof
controllable production. GCB rather than freshly de-pulped beans were fee beans is indicated by the presence of mold and filamentous fungi
used for the in vitro digestion. The processes produced coffee beans with (Ismayadi et al., 2005; Maman et al., 2021; Sulaiman, Erfiza, & Mou
improved flavor characteristics from inferior coffee beans (Larassati, lana, 2021). They contribute to the occurrence of off-flavors (musty,
Kustyawati, Subekti, Sartika, & Suharyono, 2021). Wang et al. (2020a; earthy, and moldy) and harmful substances such as aflatoxins (Ismayadi
2020b) found that the use of yeasts (S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri) with or et al., 2005; Maman et al., 2021; Sulaiman et al., 2021).
without lactic acid bacteria (Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris) led to the Longer fermentation duration of AF compared to that of WP may
formation of flavor attributes previously non-existent in untreated coffee contribute to enhanced formation of flavor precursors, increasing the
beans. The utilization of microorganism strains with specific chemical- formation of Maillard-related flavors during the roasting process. A
generating ability should be further studied to obtain coffee beans previous study by Martinez et al. (2021) showed that furans, acids, and
with targeted sensory or functional properties. In another study by Liu, pyrazines dominated the volatiles of AF-roasted coffee beans. These
Yang, Linforth, Fisk, and Yang (2019), weak acetic acid solutions (up to compounds contributed to the dominance of caramel, chocolate, and
5 %) were used to incubate dried Robusta beans for 2 h. This resulted in acidic flavour/taste of the beans. Prolonged yeast fermentation may also
the alteration of the sensory profile of the Robusta beans to be closer to contribute to formation of more esters, intensifying fruity property of
that of the Arabica beans. The acid addition may limit the production of anaerobic processed coffee to a larger extent compared to those of
Maillard reaction products by reducing the reactivity of amino groups normal WP and DP (Martinez et al., 2021). The use of closed bioreactor
during the roasting (Liu et al., 2019). offered some advantages to the process. Important parameters such as
temperature, aeration, and stirring treatment can be controlled. How
4.2. Anaerobic fermentation ever, since the fermentation duration of AF is relatively longer than that
of typical DP and WP, the drying process should be done in a timely
Anaerobic fermentation (AF)/anaerobiosis refers to the fermentation manner to avoid over-fermentation. Further study is needed to optimize
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N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu
Table 1
Examples of emerging processing operations in coffee beans.
Process Samples Enzymes/chemicals/microorganisms inoculant Incubation/fermentation treatment Drying References
description
Digestion Robusta coffee bean Commercial Flavourzyme (1000 LUPA) (6.6 × Coffee beans (200 g) were added with enzymes in 90 mL of distilled water. Oven-drying (45 ◦ C) until a Murthy et al.
method 103 nkat/mL as positive control) and The incubation was done at 35 ◦ C for 60 to 120 h with stirring every 1 h final moisture content of ~ (2019)
Flavourzyme from Aspergillus oryzae (1.9 × 103 10 %
nkat/mL)
Digestion Arabica coffee bean Rhizopus oligosporus Arabica coffee beans were soaked in deionized water (20 % w/v) at 4 ◦ C for Oven-drying (70 ◦ C) until a Lee et al. (2016a)
method 24 h. The beans were then steamed at 80 ◦ C for 40 min. Cooled beans were final moisture content of ~ 7
then inoculated with R. oligosporus (104 CFU/g CGB) and incubated at 30 ◦ C %
for 5 days. After fermentation, the beans were steamed and dried
Digestion Arabica coffee bean Saccharomyces cerevisiae MERIT (7.6 log CFU/mL) Fermentation was done using a single microorganism as starter culture. Oven-drying (45 ◦ C) until a Wang et al.
method and Pichia kluyveri FROOTZEN (7.6 log CFU/mL) Whole coffee beans were submerged in deionised water and then autoclaved final moisture content of ~ (2020a)
at 100 ◦ C for 30 min. The sterilised mixture was then added with glucose 10 %
solution (0.5 % of final mixture) and added with 100 mL of sterile water.
Inoculation was done as follows:
Sulaiman et al.
Prono-Widayat
Martins et al.
et al. (2021)
Junior et al.
References
4.3. Carbonic maceration
(2020)
(2021)
(2021)
Carbonic maceration (CM) in coffee bean processing refers to the
fermentation under a rich CO2 environment (Tesniere & Flanzy, 2011).
Sun-drying until the moisture
followed by dry-hulling
content reached 14 %
are first stored in a bioreactor or plastic bag, where the air inside is
removed via suction or vacuum. CO2 is then injected into the reactor to
obtain a complete CO2 environment (Junior et al., 2021; Tesniere &
Not-specified
for 21 days
Flanzy, 2011). The reactor or plastic bag is incubated from 24 to 120 h at
Drying
cherries were placed in plastic bags and fermented for 15. 25, 35, and 45 days
The cherries were fermented in glass bottles, cans, and plastic sacks for 7 days
(40 cm × 50 cm, 18 mm thick). The temperature of fermentation was set at
None
None
None
than the latter. It is most unlikely for CM to provide coffee cherries with
environmental conditions similar to that of grapes in winemaking. The
Samples
should be done. These changes in coffee cherries may affect the per
Table 1 (continued )
maceration
Wine process
Wine process
description
Anaerobic
Carbonic
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N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
by coffee farmers. Most of the methods are modified from the current asparagine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, malic acid, quinic acid, choline,
common processes with the fruit/bean fermentation becoming a focus of trigonelline, and less 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA), sucrose, and
attention (Fig. 1). Wine coffee beans are produced from aerobically/ caffeine than WP processed beans (Febrina et al., 2021). Elephant dung
anaerobically fermented coffee cherries (Fig. 1, purple-colored arrow; coffee beans (Arabica) had more phenolics, flavonoids, and tannins than
Table 1). This process is similar to AF, except that it can be done in WP and DP processed beans (Haile, Bae, & Kang, 2020). Elephant dung
partial aerobic conditions. Coffee cherries are pre-dried for 4 h before coffee beans contained unique volatiles such as 2-hydroxymethylpyr
being placed in the fermentation chamber. The fermentation is done for role, 3-methylfuran, 2-methylfuran, 2-ethyl-3-methylpyrazine, 2-hexa
1–6 weeks before drying (Prono-Widayat, Arpi, Andini, Muzaifa, & nol, propionic acid, 4-ethylguaiacol, 1-furfurylpyrrole, and 2-
Gunawan, 2021). This resulted in brownish to blackish-colored cherries. methylphenol, which were not found in DP and WP processed beans
Fermentation of the pulp and skin of the cherries resulted in coffee beans (Haile et al., 2020). This indicated their different sensory properties.
with a winey and fermented taste (Sulaiman et al., 2021). However, long Enzymes and microorganisms were used to digest coffee beans to
fermentation duration may lead to over-fermentation, resulting in flavor obtain altered chemical composition. The use of carboxypeptidase (from
defects and stinky and musty taste of the cherries. Furthermore, an Aspergillus oryzae) and flavourzyme on Robusta coffee beans signifi
infestation of filamentous fungi and maggots may occur from prolonged cantly decreased the concentrations of polyphenols, proteins, sugars and
aerobic fermentation, possibly compromising the safety of the coffee for increased the content of total soluble solids (Murthy et al., 2019). The
consumption (Maman et al., 2021). In this method, extra care in degradation of proteins and sugars contributed to the formation of more
fermentation and drying should be done to prevent over-fermentation volatiles such as pyrazine from the Maillard reactions. Lee et al. (2016a)
and the infestation of unwanted organisms. reported that using Rhizopus oligosporus to ferment Arabica coffee beans
Burundian coffee processing is another variation of WP, commonly (giling basah process) decreased the concentrations of organic acids,
known as the double fermentation or double soak method (Fig. 1, sugars, and phenolic acids but increased that of total volatiles in the
yellow-colored arrow; Table 1). The WPCB are fermented in water beans. Similarly, the use of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia kluyveri
submersion for 24 h before the water is drained for the washing process. as individual starter culture resulted in decreased concentrations of
The water is then refilled into the fermentation tank, and the grading soluble carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose, and fructose), organic acids
process is commenced by removing the floating seeds. The second (except for lactic acid), phenolic compounds, and amino acids in giling
fermentation process is done by soaking the remaining beans for a basah Arabica coffee beans (Wang et al., 2020a). More volatiles such as
certain period (Coulet, 2012). The drying process is done as in DH-WP. 2,3-butanedione, ethyl octanoate, 2-phenylethyl acetate were also found
Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of information regarding this process. in S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri-treated roasted coffee beans. Lee et al.
The effect of the second fermentation step on the physicochemical (2017) used Yarrowia lipolytica as starter culture to increase the forma
properties of the coffee beans needs further studies. tion of 4-vinylguaiacol, 4-vinylphenol, γ-butyrolactone, and sulfur-
containing compounds during light roasting of the treated beans. Add
5. Chemical composition of coffee bean ing enzymes and starter cultures resulted in the formation of more
volatiles, indicating improved sensory quality. More studies are needed
Great variations in chemical composition of coffee beans have been to better understand their fermentative pathways and to better modulate
reported (Supplementary Table 1). The chemical composition of Arabica the flavor composition of the coffee beans, hence obtaining desired
and Robusta coffee beans were the most reported due to their significant sensory quality.
market share. Chemical information on Liberica and Excelsa beans is
scarce. Limited information on Excelsa coffee beans may be contributed 6.2. Effect of anaerobic fermentation on chemical composition of coffee
by its misclassification as Liberica beans. Furthermore, Excelsa beans are bean
only cultivated in specific areas (Campa et al., 2004, 2005). Variations in
the chemical composition of coffee beans are affected by genetics, ori Pereira et al. (2022) showed that the coffee beans treated with AF
gins, growing environment, and processing method. Previous reviews followed by DP and WP process had more CGA, sucrose, lactic acid, and
have been published on the chemical properties and composition of trigonelline and less glucose than control (natural and pulped naturally
coffee beans (Carneiro et al., 2021; Hall et al., 2022; Kusumah & Gon without AF treatment). AF treatment differs from the normal process by
zalez de Mejia, 2022; Munyendo et al., 2021; Pua et al., 2022), and thus prolonging yeast and bacteria fermentation under a deprived oxygen
this is not focused here. A summary of the chemical composition of environment (Table 2). This condition increases LAB activity, resulting
coffee beans is presented in the Supplementary Materials. in high lactic acid concentration in AF-treated coffee beans. Inoculation
of various microorganisms affected the AF processed beans in certain
6. Effect of emerging coffee processing methods on chemical degrees. Coffee beans treated with AF and inoculated with S. cerevisiae
properties of coffee bean CCMA 0543 or Candida parapsilosis CCMA 0655 or Torulaspora del
brueckii CCMA 0684 or their combination generally resulted in dried
6.1. Effect of digestion method on chemical composition of coffee bean beans with a lower concentration of citric, malic, succinic, lactic, and
acetic acids compared to those made from spontaneous fermentation
Jumhawan, Putri, Yusianto, Bamba, and Fukusaki (2015) reported (Bressani, Martinez, Sarmento, Borém, & Schwan, 2020). Inoculation of
significant differences in the chemical composition between civet coffee S. cerevisiae for AF treatment significantly increased the concentrations
beans and regular Robusta and Arabica beans, especially in the con of acids, furanone, ketones, lactones, phenols, and pyrazine in roasted
centrations of organic acids (Table 2). Civet coffee beans had more malic beans (Bressani et al., 2020). Neto et al. (2019) employed a combined
and citric acids than the regular beans (Jumhawan et al., 2015). Mar aerobic and anaerobic fermentation on de-pulped Arabica coffee beans
cone and Alrifai (2019) found that civet coffee beans generally had less inoculated with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. This resulted in 2–3-fold
protein than the regularly processed beans. Breakdown of acidic and increase in the concentration of D-limonene, twofold increase in those of
basic subunits of storage protein (30,000 and 20,000 Da, respectively) to benzaldehyde and nonanal, 1.5-fold increase in that of phenyl
amino acids was found in coffee beans produced from Indonesian palm acetaldehyde and the formation of 2-phenethylacetate in the coffee
civet and African civet. This may be due to the leaching of protein and beans. Direct comparison on the changes of the chemical composition as
the presence of proteases in the digestive tract of the civet. Febrina et al. affected by current processing and AF method remains to be studied to
(2021) did not find any qualitative differences in the chemical compo exploit the potential of this process for coffee bean improvement.
sition between Arabica coffee beans obtained from caged civets, wild
civets, and WP. Quantitatively, civet coffee beans had more alanine,
7
Table 2
Digestion Caged civet coffee, wild civet coffee, and WP Arabica coffee beans Arabica coffee beans Caged and wild civet coffee beans showed increased concentrations of Febrina et al.
method alanine, asparagine, GABA, malic acid, quinic acid, choline and trigonelline (2021)
and decreased the concentrations of caffeine, sucrose and 5-CQA compared to
regular Arabica coffee beans
Digestion Commercial regular civet coffee beans. Regular and authentic civet coffee Arabica and Robusta coffee beans Civet coffee beans (authentic and commercial) had more malic acid and citric Jumhawan
method beans were used as standard acid compared to regular coffee beans et al. (2015)
Digestion Wet Arabica parchment coffee beans (10 kg) were fermented twice using a Arabica coffee beans. Unfermented Fermentation using the mixture of microorganisms induced the formation of Towaha and
method mixture of microorganisms isolated from civet’s intestinum tenue for 4, 5, 6 coffee beans and caged civet coffee acetic acid and butyric acids in the coffee beans. Significant reduction in the Rubiyo. (2016)
and 7 days. It was then followed by a second fermentation using a beans were used as a control levels of oxalic, formic, citric and lactic acids was observed in fermented
microorganisms mixture isolated from civet’s caecum for 4, 5, 6, and 7 days. coffee beans compared to unfermented control
The fermented parchment coffee beans were then washed and dried until 12
% of moisture before dehulling
Digestion Arabica coffee bean were sterilized and inoculated with yeasts Coffee beans Treated coffee beans had less soluble carbohydrates (sucrose, glucose and Wang et al.
method (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia kluyveri). Untreated coffee bean and fructose), citric, malic, quinic, succinic acid, and amino acids. Increased (2020a)
sterilized unfermented coffee bean were used as a blank and control, concentration of lactic and formic acid was observed from coffee bean treated
respectively by yeasts. Treated samples also had alpha-ketoglutaric acid which was absent
in control
Roasted coffee beans Roasted coffee beans obtained from P. kluyveri and S. cerevisiae treatments
had more esters, pyrazines, pyrroles, and sulfurous volatiles but had less
organic acids than blank
Coffee brew Coffee brew from treated coffee beans exhibited more nutty, roasted, and
smoky attributes but had less acidic and sweet attributes than blank
Digestion Arabica coffee bean were sterilized and inoculated with yeasts Coffee beans Treated beans had less sucrose, glucose, fructose, CGA, caffeic acid, ferulic Wang et al.
method (Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia kluyveri) and Lactococcus lactis subs. acid and coumaric acid compared to control. Fructose was absent in the coffee (2020b)
cremoris in different combination. Untreated coffee bean and sterilized beans fermented with L. Lactis subs. cremoris. Significant increase in citric
8
unfermented coffee bean were used as a blank and control, respectively acid, lactic acid and alpha-ketoglutaric acid were observed in treated samples.
Less amino acids were observed in treated coffee beans compared to blank.
Fermentation resulted in the formation of more volatiles such as isoamyl
acetate, ethyl octanoate, 2-phenethyl acetate, acetic acid, octanoic acid, 2-
phenlethanol and 4-vinylguaicol
Roasted coffee beans Roasted coffee beans had less sucrose, glucose, fructose, succinic acid, formic
acid, quinic acid, citric acid and malic acid than blank. Significant increase in
the concentration of esters (isoamyl acetate, 2-phenethyl acetate, and ethyl
octanoate), maltol and furfuryl were observed in treated samples. Samples
fermented with L. lactis subs. cremoris exhibited less pyrazine formation
during roasting
Coffee brew Coffee brew obtained from L. lactis subs. cremoris and yeast treated coffee
bean exhibited more intense winey and fruity flavor than blank, control, and
other treated samples
Digestion Elephant dung coffee. WP and DP coffee bean were used as control Coffee beans Elephant dung coffee beans showed higher TPC, total flavonoid content (TFC) Haile et al.
method and total tannin content (TTC) value compared to WP and DP coffee beans (2020)
Roasted coffee beans Roasted elephant dung coffee beans exhibited higher TPC and TFC values at
all different degrees of roasting (light, medium, and dark roast)
Coffee brew Significant increase in the concentrations of amines, ketones, phenolics,
Digestion Arabica coffee beans were sterilized and fermented using Rhizopus oligosporus. Roasted coffee beans Roasted treated coffee beans generally had fewer total volatiles (measured as Lee et al.
method Coffee beans were roasted in different roasting degrees such as light, medium total peak area) compared to control in all different roasting degrees. Major (2016b)
and dark roast. Roasted untreated coffee beans and sterilized unfermented reduction was observed in carbonyls, furanones and furans volatiles.
coffee beans were used as a blank and control, respectively Significant increase in the concentrations of pyrazines and phenols volatiles
in fermented samples was obtained. No significant changes in the
concentrations of phenolic acids and amino acids concentration were
observed between treated samples and blank
Coffee brew Fermented samples showed an increasing intensity on caramel, nutty and
sweet attributes depended on the roasting degree. In general, fermented
samples had less intensity of berry-like, buttery, roasty, smoky, spicy, and
sulfury attributes compared to that of blank and control
Digestion Robusta coffee beans were treated with flavourzyme isolated from Aspergillus Coffee beans Flavourzyme-treated coffee beans showed reduced pH value, total Murthy et al.
method oryzae. Untreated coffee beans were used as blank. Control was treated with polyphenol, total protein and total sugars contents (2019)
commercial flavourzyme
Roasted coffee beans Roasted treated coffee beans had more pyrazines than untreated samples.
Significant increases in concentrations (measured as peak area) were also
observed for acetic acid, 2-furanmethanol 2-furanmethanol acetate,
butyrolactone and 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol volatiles
Coffee brew Coffee brew from treated samples was preferred by the panelists in term of
softness, flavor, mouthfeel, aftertaste and overall characteristics
Digestion Arabica coffee bean was fermented using Yarrowia lipotyca as the starter Roasted coffee beans The total concentration of volatiles (measured as peak area) of the roasted Lee et al. (2017)
method culture fermented samples were lower than that of the unfermented samples. In light
roasting degree, roasted fermented coffee beans had concentrations of
organic acids, phenolic acids and amino acids similar to those of unfermented
samples
Anaerobic Arabica coffee cherries and wet parchment beans were fermented in Coffee beans Raman spectrometry analysis showed that the biochemical composition of Martins et al.
9
fermentation bioreactor for 72 h followed by drying coffee beans varied depending on the growing altitude. Coffee beans grown at (2020)
high altitude had more CGA and fatty acid content.
Coffee brew The flavor profile of coffee brew varied based on the growing altitude. Brew
obtained from AF-WP coffee beans was dominated by chocolate, almonds,
citric, sugar cane and floral notes. Brew from AF-DP coffee beans had
almonds, chocolate, liqueur, caramel and sugar cane as the dominant
attributes
Anaerobic Cherries and wet parchment Arabica coffee beans were fermented in closed Coffee beans Treated samples had higher intensity (measured by 1H NMR) of signals for Pereira et al.
fermentation bioreactor. Normal DP and WP coffee bean were used as control CGA, sucrose, lactic acid and trigonelline signals than control beans (2022)
Coffee brew Treated samples (AF-DP) had significant difference in temporal dominance of
sensations compared to the control with fruity, wine, and caramelized sugar
notes being more dominant. WP processed AF coffee bean’ brew was
dominated by fruity, woody and caramelized sugar attributes
Anaerobic Arabica coffee cherries and wet parchment beans from different producing Coffee beans The chemical composition of the treated coffee beans varied based on the da Mota et al.
fermentation regions were fermented in bioreactor. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and production region. In general, the chemical composition of the treated coffee (2020)
Torulaspora delbrueckii were used as starter cultures. Coffee beans fermented beans was rich in ethanol, glucose, fructose, acetic acid, lactic acid and
without the addition of starter culture was used as the control succinic acid
Anaerobic Arabica coffee beans (DP and WP) were fermented in stainless steel bioreactor Roasted coffee beans Treated coffee beans had more organic acids compared to control. AF-DP Martinez et al.
fermentation with the addition of S. cerevisiae CCMA 0543 and CCMA 0535. Fermentation treated with CCMA 0535 had more pyrazine. AF-WP coffee beans treated with (2021)
* WP, wet process; GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid; 5-CQA, 5-caffeoylquinic acid; CGA, chlorogenic acid; DP, dry process; TPC, total phenolic content; AF-WP, anaerobic fermentation-wet process; AF-DP, anaerobic
Sulaiman et al.
Junior et al. (2021) found that CM treatment prior to natural process
Junior et al.
References
affected the chemical composition of Arabica coffee beans in a time- and
(2021)
(2021)
temperature-dependent manner (Table 2). The beans treated with CM
fermentation at higher temperature (>28 ◦ C) had more alkaloids, phe
nolics, acids, and sugars and less hydroxymethylfurfural than the CM-
Coffee brew from coffee beans fermented in glass bottle and can had higher
Long duration of incubation in high temperature condition produced coffee
Burundian coffee beans had more sucrose, citric acid, malic acid,
acetic acid, quinic acid, trigonelline and fatty acids, and less caffeine,
asparagine, GABA, and CGA compared to commercial Colombia and
specialty coffee bean
Guatemala coffee beans (Kwon et al., 2015). The processing method was
Major findings
Coffee brew
Cheong, Curran, Yu, & Liu, 2016b; Lee et al., 2016a; Murthy et al., 2019)
Samples
the incubation increased winey and fruity notes (Wang et al., 2020b). On
the other hand, the use of carboxypeptidase for the incubation of
Robusta coffee beans increased the overall sensory properties and at
tributes of aftertaste, mouthfeel, flavor and softness (Murthy et al.,
2019). Carboxypeptidase induced the release of amino acids from pep
fermentation-dry process; NMR, nuclear magnetic resonance.
Wine process
Carbonic
contributed to coffee brew with richer and more complex sensory notes
methods
10
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
coffee beans increased the sensory score of the brew to 83.25 and 84.33, 8. Biological activities of coffee affected by emerging processing
respectively (SCA score standard) from 82.60 (non-AF-HP) and to 83.41 methods
and 84.00 from 82.60 in AF-treated DP coffee, respectively. The use of
S. cerevisiae CCMA 0535 gave additional caramel and floral sensory 8.1. In vitro studies
notes to the HP coffee brew. Furthermore, it removed the occurrence of
off-flavors such as greenish and woody notes while adding floral, citric, In vitro studies on coffee beans and the coffee-derived products
prune and peach sensory notes to the DP coffee brew (Martinez et al., showed various beneficial health effects of coffee consumption. The
2021). The implementation of AF in coffee bean processing could implementation of EPM affected the biological effects of the coffee beans
enhance the Arabica-specific sensory attributes such as fruity, floral, and and coffee-derived products to some extents (Table 3). Many previous
acidic attributes. studies showed that extracts of green and roasted coffee beans (CBE)
were antioxidant, anti-cancer, immune-modulator, immune-stimulator,
7.3. Carbonic maceration anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-diabetic and anti-
hyperlipidaemic (Narayanperumal et al., 2022; Montenegro et al.,
Coffee brew from the beans treated with CM prior to DP had a high 2021; Toydemir et al., 2021; Funakoshi-Tago et al., 2020; Passos et al.,
sensory score of>80 (specialty coffee), with the one incubated at 38 ◦ C 2021; Tasew et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Duangjai et al., 2021).
for 120 h had the highest score (85.15, excellent grade specialty coffee)
(Junior et al., 2021) (Table 2). This was related to the suitable bacterial 8.1.1. In vitro biological activities of coffee beans from digestion method
diversity during fermentation at optimum temperature. Junior et al. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of coffee beans are
(2021) found that the temperature of 38 ◦ C provided suitable environ mainly contributed by the polyphenols (especially of CGA group). Most
ment for bacteria growth since the early stage of fermentation. Hence, of DMs reduced the contents of polyphenols in coffee beans (Febrina
the production of flavor metabolites from the fermentation was maxi et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2016a; Murthy et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2020b).
mized, resulting in improved fragrance and aftertaste attributes. How This decrease may lead to reduction in the anti-obese and anti-cancer
ever, since there was no comparison with non-CM-treated DP coffee activities. Li et al. (2021) found that the polyphenols, mainly CGA,
beans of the same origin, the extent of improvement contributed by CM acted as enzyme inhibitors by occupying the active and inactive sites of
treatment toward current processing remains to be studied. the enzymes, inhibiting starch digestion. CGA also induced apoptosis in
prostate cancer cells (Montenegro et al., 2021). Ivory coffee beans
7.4. Other processes extract had elevated concentrations of polyphenols (measured by TPC),
especially flavonoids and tannins (Haile et al., 2020). This contributed
The brew of Arabica coffee beans obtained from wine process to the higher antioxidant activity of ivory coffee beans than DP coffee
exhibited higher sourness, more fermented flavor, and less sweetness beans. Another study found that the reduction of CGA in DM coffee
compared to HP Arabica coffee beans (Sunarharum & Farhan, 2020). beans did not necessarily reduce their antioxidant activity (Febrina
Longer fermentation in the wine process induced the formation of more et al., 2021). This indicated the antioxidant role of compounds other
organic acids, resulting in excessive sourness and fermented flavor at than CGA which remains to be studied. Febrina et al. (2021) found that
tributes. Faulty sensory attributes such as mouldy note was found in the civet coffee beans had more antioxidants than regular coffee beans. The
wine coffee fermented in partial anaerobic condition (Sulaiman et al., increasing concentration of malic acid was proportional to the increase
2021). of the antioxidant activity. Other DMs were reported to produce coffee
beans with more organic acids and higher antioxidant activities than
7.5. General discussion on different emerging processing methods regular coffee beans (Jumhawan et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2020b).
Montenegro et al. (2021) found similar ORAC values in CBE regardless
It has become apparent that the EPM can improve the sensory quality of the degrees of roasting, which may be contributed by Maillard reac
of coffee. The enzyme/microorganism-based DM is suitable to be used tion products in the form of melanoidins (Montenegro et al., 2021).
for Robusta coffee bean processing, especially to process the inferior Furthermore, Daglia et al. (2018) found that melanoidin-rich extract of
samples. They enhanced the formation of Maillard reaction-related fla coffee beans had high protective activities towards lipid peroxidation.
vors related to nutty, roasted, and caramel attributes (Lee et al., 2016a; Melanoidins may contribute to the anti-inflammatory activity of the
2016b). These sensory notes are preferred for Robusta coffee. This roasted CBE (Funakoshi-Tago et al., 2020). Several DMs promoted the
method also improved the quality of inferior coffee beans obtained from formation of Maillard reaction products by the enrichment of the pre
poor post-harvest handling (Larassati et al., 2021). Its utilization on cursors (mainly amino acids) (Lee et al., 2016a; 2016b). Similarly, the
Arabica coffee beans should be carefully considered since it reduces the increase in the content of melanoidins in coffee beans from DM may lead
diversity of organic acids in the beans (Wang et al., 2020a; 2020b), to improved immune-modulatory and blood-lipid regulation activities of
hence reducing the sensory quality of the brew. coffee. Passos et al. (2021) found that polysaccharide-melanoidin com
The AF and CM methods can complement the method of current plexes in the HMW fraction of coffee extract were immune-stimulant in
Arabica coffee bean processing. AF process helped maximize the yeast LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Melanoidins, especially from dark roasted
and LAB fermentation, while limiting the growth of filamentous fungi by coffee beans, inhibited pancreatic lipase activity and reduced lipid
quorum sensing (Pereira et al., 2022). CM optimized the bean fermen digestion. As asparagine content was increased in wild civet and
tation, enhancing the formation of flavor volatiles and flavor precursors Rhizopus oligosporus treated coffee beans (Febrina et al., 2021; Lee et al.,
(Junior et al., 2021). The AF and CM methods improved the sensory 2016a), the increase of acrylamide formation in coffee beans during
notes preferred in Arabica coffee brew, such as fruity, floral, and citric extensive roasting would be expected with increased toxicity.
attributes. Furthermore, it reduced the occurrence of off-flavors (Junior
et al., 2021; Martinez et al., 2021). AF process, in particular, also allows 8.1.2. In vitro biological activities of coffee beans from anaerobic
better control in fermentation. It is suitable for obtaining consistent fermentation
quality for highly priced commodities such as Arabica coffee beans. Coffee beans from AF may have biological activities similar to those
of regular coffee beans. The increased concentration of organic acids in
the coffee beans from AF (Martinez et al., 2021) may contribute to the
antioxidant activity. AF coffee beans showed high concentrations of
CGA (Martins et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2022). While direct comparison
of AF coffee beans with regular coffee beans is scarce, AF coffee beans
11
Table 3
Immune- Green coffee bean extract (GCE) Cytotoxicity of GCE was noticed at the CGA Narayanaperumal, EPM reduced the polyphenol content, Melanoidins rich extract of coffee beans
modulatory, containing 61.68 % of total CGA. The concentration of ≥ 100 μg/mL. GCE D’souza, Miriyala, while increasing the formation of had high protective activity towards lipid
anti- extract had a residue of the solvents showed anti-inflammatory function in Sharma, and Gopal melanoidins peroxidation. Its antioxidant activity was
inflammatory (methanol and ethyl acetate, 50 and RAW264.7 cells. GCE enhanced the (2022) related to the anti-inflammatory activity.
12 ppm, respectively) immunity by upregulating phagocytic Hence, coffee beans from EPM would still
activity and pathogenic clearance of exhibit anti-inflammatory activity since
monocytes, modulating balanced the role of CGA may be compensated by the
release of TH1 and TH2 cytokines, and melanoidins
increasing the production of IgG
antibody
Antioxidant, anti- Coffee bean extract (CBE) was High AA of CBE was observed. CBE CGA, caffeic acid, Montenegro et al. Coffee beans treated with EPM Natural civet coffee beans had higher
cancer obtained via microwave-assisted from green and lightly roasted beans trigonelline and phenolic (2021) resulted in various changes in antioxidant activity compared to that of
extraction of green beans and roasted had the highest AA. EE had higher AA acids-melanoidin complex. phenolic acids, organic acid and regular beans due to the increased
beans (light, medium and dark than AE, in general. CBE from green, Acrylamide was suspected to melanoidin precursors. Some EPM concentration of malic acid (Febrina et al.,
roasted). The extractions were done light, medium, and dark roast had cause non-apoptotic cell promoted the formation of asparagine 2021). Increasing organic acid content due
using 50 % ethanol (ethanolic similar ORAC value. Viability study death to AF and CM processes may contribute
extract, EE) and water (aqueous showed that CBE from green beans and positively to the AA of the coffee bean.
extract, AE) lightly roasted beans caused the Increasing amino acids content in coffee
highest reduction in PC-3 cell viability bean treated with digestion method (DM)
with 53.5 and 45.2 %, respectively, may promote the formation of
and 56.6 and 52.4 %, respectively for melanoidins, hence increasing the
DU-145 after 48 h incubation. CBE was probability to form melanoidin-phenolic
observed to cause cell cycle arrest and acid complexes formation. Formation of
induced apoptosis in DU-145 cells with asparagine can promote the formation of
CBE from lightly roasted beans (5000 acrylamide during roasting
μg/mL) had the largest reduction of
12
The filtrates were collected, vacuum constant of PPA and AMG indicating
and freeze dried to obtain dried reduced binding affinity of the
coffee extract enzymes to the substrates
Anti-diabetic and Roasted coffee bean extract was Coffee extract exhibited inhibition unspecified Duangjai et al. (2021) EPM promoted the formation of Melanoidins were suspected to contribute
anti- prepared from coffee with different towards α-amylase and α-glucosidase melanoidins via Maillard reactions significantly to the blood-lipid regulation
hyperlipidaemic roasting degrees (light, medium, and activity with dark coffee (DC) extract during roasting process activity of the coffee beans. The increase of
dark). Ground powder was extracted (10 min at 80 ◦ C) having the highest melanoidins content in EPM coffee beans
with water (1:5 w/v) by ultrasound inhibition of α-amylase (33.8 %) and may increase the activity
assisted extraction in various DC extract obtained from 20 ◦ C for 20
temperatures and durations (20, 40, min showing the highest α-glucosidase
and 80 ◦ C and 5, 10 and 20 min). inhibition (19.7 %). Coffee extract
Dried extracts were obtained by increased the size of cholesterol
freeze-drying the filtered solution micelle with the light-roasted coffee
extract showing the highest activity,
and reduced the solubility of
*EPM, emerging processing methods; AA, antioxidant activity; IL, interleukin; AHR, aryl hydrocarbon receptor; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; LPS, lipopolysaccharides; NO, nitric oxide; SiRNA, small interfering RNA;
CCL2, chemokine (C–C motif) ligand; CXCL, chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa B; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; LMW, low molecular weight;
HMW, high molecular weight; MIC, minimum inhibitory concentration; MBC, minimum bacterial concentration; IC50, half-maximal inhibitory concentration; PPA, pancreatic α-amylase; AMG, aminoglucosidase.
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
should have anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and anti-cancer activities activity similar to that of regular coffee. The decrease of caffeine con
similar to that regular coffee beans. AF produced more amino acids in tent in coffee beans obtained from AF may increase the anti-
coffee beans. This would lead to extensive formation of melanoidins hypertension and artery dilation activity of coffee. Naylor et al. (2020)
during roasting, contributing to improved immune-modulatory and found that consumption of coffee bean extract obtained from decaf
blood-lipid regulation activities of coffee. feinated beans increased artery dilation activity after acute ingestion.
The effect was highly associated with the CGA content and the absence
8.1.3. In vitro biological activities of coffee beans from carbonic maceration of caffeine in the beans (Naylor et al., 2021). Excluding caffeine from the
Reports on the comparison of the chemical composition between CM coffee beans is beneficial in this particular matter.
coffee beans and regular coffee beans are scarce. The in vitro biological Interestingly, while the caffeine in coffee bean was highly associated
activity of CM coffee beans is still to be better understood. with anxiety, the caffeine-free volatiles of roasted coffee beans exhibited
an anti-anxiety effect in dental patients who had undergone dental
8.2. In vivo studies probing and scaling treatment (Pachimsawat et al., 2021). Coffee beans
obtained from AF with improved flavor characteristics (Martinez et al.,
The consumption of coffee beverages and related supplements was 2021) may have higher anti-anxiety effect.
associated with immune-modulation, anti-inflammation, body weight Recent cross-sectional studies have provided better understanding of
regulation, seizure modulation in patients with drug-resistance seizure, the effect of coffee incorporation in human diet. Moderate coffee con
blood lipid modulation, anti-hypertension, anti-anxiety, radio- sumption (1–3 cups/day) is beneficial for human health. The health
protective activity, and reduced risk of liver and cardiovascular dis benefits were mostly contributed by caffeine, polyphenols and diter
eases. The implementation of EPM affected the in vivo biological prop penes in coffee (Barré et al., 2022; Miranda, Goulart, Benseñor, Lotufo,
erties of the coffee beans and coffee-derived products (Table 4). & Marchioni, 2021; Niezen et al., 2021). Even though AF promoted the
degradation of those compounds, the resulting beans still contained a
8.2.1. In vivo biological activities of coffee beans from digestion method considerable amount of bioactive components (Haile et al., 2020; Lee
Similar to in vitro biological activity as described in the previous et al., 2017; Pereira et al., 2022). Since the health benefits could be
section, the decrease of polyphenol contents in coffee beans from DM obtained from moderate coffee consumption (1–3 cups/day), coffee
may result in lower in vivo antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities beans obtained from AF should provide these health benefits on similar
compared to that of regular coffee beans. However, these functions may consumption doses. Since the cross-sectional-based studies relied mainly
also be improved by the increased formation of melanoidins as found in on self-reported data from the participants, an effort to convert the
beans subjected to DM (Lee et al., 2016a; 2016b; Mesias & Delagado- coffee consumption scale used in these studies to a more definite dose
Andrade, 2017). Vitaglione et al. (2010) reported that the coffee mela remains a challenge. Furthermore, the effect of coffee consumption in
noidins inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1a, relation to dietary habits remains to be studied. These factors should be
IL-1b, TNF-α, IL-4 and IL-10) in high fat diet treated rats. Hence, the considered in developing coffee-derived products for nutritional
increase of melanoidins content in DM coffee beans may exhibit sig purposes.
nificant anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities. Furthermore,
coffee volatiles have anti-anxiety effects (Pachimsawat, Tangprasert, & 8.2.3. In vivo biological activities of coffee beans from carbonic maceration
Jantaratnotai, 2021). Murthy et al. (2019) found that flavourzyme- Junior et al. (2021) found that brews from CM-treated coffee beans
treated roasted coffee beans had more pleasant volatiles. This may had improved flavor quality. Implementing this EPM may positively
contribute to increased anti-anxiety effect of the treated coffee. influence the anti-anxiety effect of coffee. The extent of changes in the
chemical composition of CM coffee beans is unknown, and their in vivo
8.2.2. In vivo biological activities of coffee beans from anaerobic health benefits should be further studied.
fermentation
Increased melanoidin content in AF coffee beans is beneficial for 8.2.4. Strategies to improve the biological activities of coffee beans from
obesity and high blood-lipid treatments. Vitaglione et al. (2010) re EPM
ported that body weight and blood-lipid regulation mechanisms were For the development of coffee beans as a functional food product,
related with the polyphenols and melanoidins in coffee beans. The modifications of AF, CM and DM are needed. The use of enzymes and
treatment of high-fat diet (HFD) fed rats with melanoidins decreased the microorganisms in coffee bean processing is promising due to their
triglycerides levels more than polyphenol treatments (Vitaglione et al., flexibility to obtain products with desired characteristics. Studies are
2010). Furthermore, melanoidins may act as dietary fiber in the form of needed to obtain coffee products with desired composition for a specific
“Maillardized dietary fiber” (Mesías & Delgado-Andrade, 2017). Coffee purpose. Furthermore, microbial metabolites affected by the use of
beans obtained from AF may be useful for obesity and high blood lipid inoculum should be studied since they may exhibit antagonistic or
alleviation. The AF can provide optimum conditions for the formations synergistic activity with natural compounds in the coffee beans. For
of Maillard reaction precursors (mainly amino acids) and melanoidins daily consumption purposes, adjustment on the EPM may be directed to
during roasting. The increase of melanoidin content in AF coffee beans obtain coffee products with low levels of alkaloids, high amounts of
should compensate for the decrease of polyphenols content for anti- polyphenols, and enhanced sensory profile.
obesity and blood lipid regulation applications.
Anti-fibrotic activity of coffee beans could be related with caffeine 9. Disadvantages of emerging processing methods and strategies
(Niezen et al., 2021). AF produced coffee beans with lower caffeine to overcome them
content than regular one (Bressani et al., 2020; Pereira et al., 2022).
Tang, Sun, Cornuz, Yu, and Lassabliere (2021) found a reduced con The DM processes especially those involving a particular animal may
centration of caffeine in coffee beans treated with Aspergillus luchuensis, produce coffee beans with varied quality. Jumhawan et al. (2015) found
A. oryzae, and Mucor plumbeus (535, 608 and 667 mg/100 g sample) significant variations in the flavor profile of commercial and authentic
compared to control (760 mg/100 g). Considering these findings, coffee civet coffee from Indonesia. Similarly, Thammarat, Kulsing, Wongravee,
beans obtained from AF are expected to exhibit less anti-fibrotic activity Leepipatpiboon, and Nhujak (2018) found that the elephant dung coffee
on the same weight basis. However, since the anti-fibrotic activity of beans obtained from two different production years had significant
coffee beans is dose-dependent and can be achieved in moderate con differences in the volatile composition. The differences in the quality of
sumption of coffee (4 cups/week to 3 cups/day) (Niezen et al., 2021), the coffee bean could be contributed by numerous factors such as vari
normal consumption of coffee from AF beans may provide anti-fibrotic ations of digestive activity among the animals (Marcone & Alrifai,
14
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
Table 4
In vivo studies of biological activities of coffee beans and coffee-derived products and the effects of emerging processing methods.
Bioactivity Sample type Major findings Proposes key References Emerging process Proposed biological
bioactive effect activity
compounds
Immune- Green coffee bean Supplementation by GCE CGA Narayanaperumal EPM coffee beans had Melanoidins produced
modulatory, extract (GCE) containing improved the circulation of et al. (2022) more Maillard rection during extensive roasting
anti- 61.68 % total CGA and CD16/CD NK cells and precursors especially provided anti-
inflammatory residue solvents of enhanced NK cell activity, amino acids and less inflammatory activity by
methanol and ethyl indicating the activation of CGA than regular coffee inhibiting the expression of
acetate (50 and 12 ppm, innate immune responses beans pro-inflammatory
respectively) after vaccination. CGE cytokines. CGA induced-
supplementation did not anti-inflammatory activity
alter the CD4/CD8 ratio. It of EPM coffee beans were
strengthened CMI less than that of regular
responses. Improvement of coffee beans
IgA production was
observed on subjects with
250 mg GCE
supplementation,
indicating increase in
mucosal immune
responses. No changes in
IgG production compared
to placebo. Reduction of IL-
6 cytokine and TNF-α
secretion indicated anti-
inflammatory activity
Antifibrotic Coffee beverages Coffee consumption of>3 Caffeine Niezen et al. (2021) EPM produces coffee Less anti-fibrotic activity of
(unspecified, cups/day was associated bean with slightly EPM coffee bean compared
presumably commercial with reduced liver stiffness. reduced amount of to the regular coffee bean
coffee brew), No association was found caffeine on the same weight basis is
decaffeinated coffee and between coffee expected. However, similar
tea. Coffee consumption consumption with effect is expected on
patterns were divided controlled attenuation moderate consumption of
into 4 categories: parameter (dB/m), coffee brew
nondrinker, < 1 cup/ indicating no effect of liver
day, 1–2 cups/day, > 3 fat composition
cups/day. Caffeine
consumption was
converted based on the
food and nutrition
database for dietary
study by USDA
Antioxidant and Freeze-dried powder of Coffee supplementation unspecified Ramos, da Costa, EPM promoted the The increase of Maillard
body-weight 10 % coffee solution improved blood serum total and Arruda (2022) production of reaction precursors may
regulation (Arabica coffee from antioxidant activity (11.76- melanoidins via the contribute to the formation
Brazil). fold) compared to other formation of Maillard of “Maillardized dietary
treatments. Coffee reaction precursors fiber”, increasing the
inhibited α-glucosidase during coffee bean amount of fiber in the
activity in small intestine, processing, especially coffee bean which
hexokinase activity in fermentation positively contributed to
muscle of obese rats, and body-weight regulation
the expression of serum IL- activity
6 in obese rats. Increased
insulin secretion was
observed promoting muscle
glycogen synthesis and
improving glucose
oxidation in non-high fat-
diet treated rats
Seizure Coffee beverages Moderate coffee unspecified Bourgeois-Vionnet EPM produced coffee EPM coffee consumption
modulation (unspecified, consumption related to the et al. (2022) beans with reduced gave similar effect to that
presumably commercial decrease of focal to amount of caffeine and of regular coffee in normal
coffee brew). bilateral tonic-clonic polyphenols. Despite the consumption dose
Concentration of coffee seizures (FBTCS) reduction, EPM treated
beverages was based on frequency. High coffee coffee beans still had
the intensity of consumption was considerable amounts of
consumption and associated with increasing caffeine and
divided into 4 FBTCS intensity polyphenols
categories: none, rare
(<1 to 3 cup/week),
moderate (4 cups/week
to 3 cups/day), high (>4
cups/day)
Blood-lipid Coffee beverages Coffee consumption unspecified EPM promoted the Melanoidins in EPM coffee
modulation (unspecified, decreased serum TAG level, formation of bean contributed to the
(continued on next page)
15
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
Table 4 (continued )
Bioactivity Sample type Major findings Proposes key References Emerging process Proposed biological
bioactive effect activity
compounds
presumably commercial increased plasma FFA level, Gebeyehu, Feleke, melanoidins in coffee melanoidins induced-
coffee brew). Coffee and increased HDL- Molla, and Admasu beans during roasting blood-lipid regulation
consumption was cholesterol level. Coffee (2020) process
divided into 4 consumption was not
categories: none, low- associated with total
drinker (1–2 cups/day), cholesterol, LDL, fasting
moderate-drinker (3–4 blood glucose and insulin
cups/day), and high- level
drinker (>5 cups/day).
Cup was in the capacity
of 100 mL
Antifibrotic Coffee beverages Lower AST, APRI and FIB-4 Caffeine, Barré et al. (2022) EPM produced coffee Less anti-fibrotic activity of
(unspecified, values were observed in polyphenols beans with reduced EPM coffee bean was
presumably commercial high-consumption coffee and amount of caffeine and expected compared to that
coffee brew) drinkers (4–7 days/week). diterpenes polyphenols. Despite the of the regular coffee bean
Consumption of coffee ≥ 3 reduction, EPM treated on the same weight basis.
cups/day was associated coffee beans still had However, similar effect
with lower risk of considerable amounts of was expected on moderate
significant fibrosis in HBV- caffeine and consumption of coffee
treated participants polyphenols brew
Antihypertension Coffee beverages Moderate consumption of CGA Miranda et al. Coffee processed using The coffee bean from
(unspecified, coffee (1–3 cups/day) with (2021) EPM had reduced emerging process still had
presumably commercial no smoking status amount of CGA CGA in significant amount
coffee brew). decreased the risk of compared to coffee to exhibit antihypertension
Concentration of coffee hypertension made from regular activity
beverages were based on process
the intensity of
consumption and
divided into 4
categories: never, ≤ 1
cup/day), 1–3 cups/day,
> 3 cups/day
Anti-anxiety Roasted coffee essential Coffee-treated patients had Volatiles Pachimsawat et al. The use of EPM Improved flavor properties
oil, obtained from CO2 decreased levels of sAA and (2021) significantly improves of coffee may result in
extraction of Arabica sCort compared to the the sensorial properties more intense relaxing
coffee bean. The sample control. They also had the roasted coffee bean effect of the coffee bean
was distributed by lower pulse and blood and the coffee brew essential oil
means of diffuser in the pressure during scaling
treatment room treatment
Cardiovascular Decaffeinated green Consumption of DGCE CGA Naylor et al. (2021) EPM in general The reduction of CGA
health coffee (DGCE) extract extract increased the FMD promoted the reduction content in coffee bean
containing total CGA of (%) value with the onset at of CGA treated with EPM may not
156.4, 312.8, and 439.9 8–12 h after consumption. changes the cardiovascular
mg A concentration of CGAs at protective ability of the
156.4 mg resulted in coffee brew. This was due
highest FMD % value to the cardiovascular
protective activity of coffee
bean already being at
optimum in low dose of
CGA (156.4 mg)
Radio-protective Green coffee bean Long term consumption of Caffeine and Ansari et al. (2021) EPM promoted decrease Antioxidant activity
activity ethanolic extract. Dried coffee bean extract resulted CGA in caffeine and CGA related to CGA of EPM
extract was obtained in lower % DNA in tail, concentrations coffee bean may be lower
through evaporation lower % of fragmented than that of regular coffee
using rotary evaporator nuclei compared to control bean resulting in the
of the untreated irradiated decrease of radio-
group. protective activity.
However, melanoidins in
EPM coffee bean may
substitute CGA in
providing antioxidant
activity
* EPM, emerging processing methods; CD, cluster of differentiation; NK, natural killer; CMI, cell mediated immunity; Ig, immunoglobulin; IL, interleukin; TNF, tumor
necrosis factor; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; FFA, free fatty acids; TC, total cholesterol; TAG, triacylglycerol; HDL, high density lipoprotein; LDL, low density
lipoprotein; VLDL, very low density lipoprotein; AST, aspartate aminotransferase; FIB, fibrosis; GPR, gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase; FMD, flow mediated dilation;
CGA, chlorogenic acid.
2019), habitat (wild and cage-raised) (Febrina et al., 2021) and bean regarded for its uniqueness and rarity, exploring the coffee beans made
varieties (Jumhawan et al., 2015). There are limitations on the pro using wild animal-based DM for a specified niche market could be a
duction of caged-animal based coffee beans due to ethical rights. Stan sustainable option.
dardization of the bean quality for large-scale production through the The use of starter culture in in vitro DM may produce coffee beans of
farming is not feasible. However, since natural DM coffee is highly inferior quality. For example, using S. cerevisiae and P. kluyveri in
16
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
processing of Arabica coffee beans resulted in the brews that had sig Robusta coffee beans due to the constraints from the price and the bean
nificant loss in their distinct fruity, sweet, and acidy attributes. The properties. Furthermore, the flexibility to control the process operations
distinct flavor was replaced by dominant attributes of nutty, roasted, could be a bonus point for the industries. It can assure the consistency of
caramel, and smoky flavor (Wang et al., 2020a). Similarly, the use of the products and fabricate specific products with the desired charac
Y. lipotyca as starter culture in DM of Arabica coffee beans produced teristics. However, the implementation of this method may be a chal
brews with high levels of pyrazines. It was related to high intensity of lenge in some coffee-producing areas. Smallholder-based farmers may
roasted and chocolate notes (Lee et al., 2017). The addition of lactic acid not be able to afford such an investment. A simplified method remains to
bacteria in the starter culture could retain and improve the fruity and be developed, which can be implemented in a more accessible way with
sweet notes of Arabica coffee beans (Wang et al., 2020b). More intensive less maintenance. Mulyara and Rahmadian (2021) reported that it was
fermentation resulted in a dominant winey attribute (Wang et al., possible to use cheap materials such as a plastic bag to perform sta
2020b). The starter culture and raw materials of DM for coffee bean tionary AF. This approach may also be suitable for CM. Further
fermentation should be chosen carefully to avoid those effects. In vitro comparative studies between the industry-level method and that of
DM is not suitable for Arabica coffee beans but suitable for quality simplified processes are needed to better understand their effects on
improvement of inferior Robusta coffee beans (Larassati et al., 2021). coffee beans.
Inferior coffee beans have low sensory quality. The implementation of The implementation of DM on coffee beans at the industrial level
DM could help develop flavor precursors during digestion process, may not be as easy as AF and CM methods. The ability of DM to improve
increasing the formation of flavor volatiles during roasting. inferior Robusta coffee beans may be overshadowed by the current
The AF and CM methods are more suitable for the quality improve utilization of Robusta beans as ingredient for instant or formulated
ment of Arabica coffee beans. An anaerobic condition during fermen coffee. A modified DM combined with bioactive extraction suggested in
tation of coffee cherries and WPCB can lead to extensive fermentation cocoa bean processing may be extended to include coffee beans
and bean metabolisms. This can optimize the formation of volatile me (Febrianto, Wang, & Zhu, 2021). In this proposed process, inferior
tabolites and flavor precursors. Several studies reported the production Robusta beans can be first extracted for their bioactive compounds, and
of coffee beans with specialty grade-cupping scores using AF and CM the residue can be digested (by enzymes or microorganisms) and roasted
methods (Bressani et al., 2020; da Mota et al., 2020; Junior et al., 2021; to generate the flavor precursors. The roasted residue can be sold as
Neto et al., 2019). However, these processes need to be closely moni decaffeinated coffee powder, and the coffee extracts can be used for
tored. Longer fermentation may lead to the formation of undesirable food, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic ingredients.
volatiles and flavors. AF and CM methods produce more organic acids
such as acetic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid. Excessive concentra 11. Conclusions and future research directions
tions of these acids in coffee beans could result in a sourish attribute in
the brew. Furthermore, the addition of starter culture in AF and CM EPM can complement the current coffee bean processing methods to
fermentation could produce coffee beans with increased amino acid improve coffee quality. The DM, AF, and CM can improve the sensory
concentrations. This could result in the formation of more volatiles from quality of coffee beans through several mechanisms, including the for
Maillard reactions, enhancing the roasted, chocolate, and caramel at mation of flavor and flavor precursors, optimizing the fermentative
tributes (Martinez et al., 2021). These sensory attributes may mask the pathway of the coffee beans and microorganisms, and limiting the for
fruity and acidy attributes of Arabica coffee beans. To obtain coffee mation of off-flavors. The drawback of these fermentation-based
beans with balanced flavor characteristics, process control should be methods is the reduction in the levels of bioactive compounds (espe
better understood. cially polyphenols) in coffee beans. It may lead to decreased biological
The wine process may be the most vulnerable emerging process with activities of EPM processed coffee beans compared to regular coffee
a high probability of producing faulty coffee bean. Sulaiman et al. bean. The increased formation of melanoidins due to increased levels of
(2021) found that the coffee beans obtained from the wine process with Maillard reaction precursors in EPM processed beans may compensate
plastic sack resulted in significant faulty sensation, mainly due to mold for the loss of polyphenols in providing health benefits. Implementation
infestation. This may be contributed by the plastic sack used in the of EPM should consider the interplay between the raw materials and the
study, which did not provide complete anaerobic condition. Further operation parameters of the selected process. In vitro DM is suitable for
more, this process involves the most prolonged fermentation period the quality improvement of Robusta coffee beans (especially the inferior
compared to other emerging methods. Fermentation media and the ones). On the other hand, Arabica coffee beans are more suitable to be
period of the fermentation should be chosen carefully to avoid mold processed using AF, CM, wine process, and Burundian methods. The
infestation on the coffee cherries during the process. The use of assisted EPM have been mainly focused on the fermentation optimization. Post-
drying is recommended to accelerate the drying process and reduce the fermentation treatments such as drying should be done effectively avoid
time of the aerobic phase, minimalizing the mold infestation (Maman the disadvantages of extensive fermentation on coffee beans.
et al., 2021; Pereira et al., 2019). In order to optimize the EPM of the coffee beans, the following as
pects should be considered: 1). Improvement of post-fermentation pro
10. Applications of emerging processing methods on coffee bean cess to minimize bean spoilage and off-flavor formation; 2) Comparative
from industrial point of view studies of chemical composition and sensory properties on coffee beans
processed by various methods; 3) Process modification to optimize the
The EPM of the coffee beans require the use of a dedicated inert use of bioactive compounds; 4) Simplification of the operations of EPM
container as the fermentation bioreactor. Detailed techno-economic to be easily applicable among smallholder-level farmers; 5) Utilization
analysis of modern fermentation systems for coffee beans was done by of other flavor-generating enzymes and microorganisms for
Júnior et al. (2021). A cutting-edge fermentation system suitable for fermentation.
spontaneous and inoculated fermentation with a capacity of 63 tonnes
on a daily basis would cost around US$ 1.4 million. However, these Funding source
processes could produce coffee beans with a high SCA score of 85.5 to
91.0 (excellent grade specialty coffee). These coffee beans can be sold at N.A.F. is financially supported by a New Zealand Aid under the term
US$ 41/kg (optimist scenario), contrasting to its production cost of only of NZ ASEAN Scholarship.
US$ 2.45/kg (Júnior et al., 2021). Applying the EPM is prospective for
large-scale coffee bean industries with highly-priced commodities such
as Arabica beans. They may not be suitable to be implemented on
17
N.A. Febrianto and F. Zhu Food Chemistry 412 (2023) 135489
Declaration of Competing Interest Carneiro, S. M., Oliveira, M. B. P. P., & Alves, R. C. (2021). Neuroprotective properties of
coffee: An update. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 113, 167–179. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.052
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Castillo, N. E. T., Melchor-Martínez, E. M., Ochoa Sierra, J. S., Ramirez-Mendoza, R. A.,
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Parra-Saldívar, R., & Iqbal, H. M. N. (2020). Impact of climate change and early
the work reported in this paper. development of coffee rust – An overview of control strategies to preserve organic
cultivars in Mexico. Science of the Total Environment, 738, Article 140225. https://
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