2016 MT 711CE3104 Performance Study of Flexible
2016 MT 711CE3104 Performance Study of Flexible
2016 MT 711CE3104 Performance Study of Flexible
Ritesh.P
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PERFORMANCE STUDY OF FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENTS: A SAMPLE STUDY
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of
Masters of Technology
in
by
Ritesh.P
(Roll Number: 711CE3104)
the supervision of
May, 2016
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DepartmentofCivilEngineering
NationalInstituteofTechnologyRourkela
May 31, 2016
Certificate of Examination
Roll Number: 711CE3104
Name: Ritesh.P
Title of Dissertation: PERFORMANCE STUDY OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS:A SAMPLE
STUDY
We the below signed, after checking the dissertation mentioned above and the official record
book (s) of the student, hereby state our approval of the dissertation submitted in partial
fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Department of Civil
Engineeringat National Institute of Technology Rourkela. We are satisfied with the volume,
quality, correctness, and originality of the work.
_____________________________
Prof. Mahabir Panda
Principal Supervisor
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DepartmentofCivilEngineering
NationalInstituteofTechnologyRourkela
Supervisor’s Certificate
This is to certify that the work presented in the dissertation entitled PERFORMANCE
STUDY OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS: A SAMPLE STUDYsubmitted by Ritesh.P, Roll
Number 711CE3104, is a record of original research carried out by him under my
supervision and guidance in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Masters
of Technology in Department of Civil Engineering. Neither this thesis nor any part of it has
been submitted earlier for any degree or diploma to any institute or university in India or
abroad.
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Dedication
This Thesis is dedicated to my beloved parents
Ritesh.P
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Declaration of Originality
I, Ritesh.P, Roll Number 711CE3104hereby declare that this dissertation
entitledPERFORMANCE STUDY OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS: A SAMPLE STUDY
presents my original work carried out as a postgraduate student of NIT Rourkela and, to the
best of my knowledge, contains no material previously published or written by another
person, nor any material presented by me for the award of any degree or diploma of NIT
Rourkela or any other institution. Any contribution made to this research by others, with
whom I have worked at NIT Rourkela or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the
dissertation. Works of other authors cited in this dissertation have been duly acknowledged
under the sections “Reference” or “Bibliography”. I have also submitted my original research
records to the scrutiny committee for evaluation of my dissertation.
I am fully aware that in case of any non-compliance detected in future, the Senate of NIT
Rourkela may withdraw the degree awarded to me on the basis of the present dissertation.
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Acknowledgments
First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and respect to my project supervisor
Prof. Mahabir Panda, Professor, department of civil engineering for his encouragement,
valuable suggestions and support for successful completion of my project work. This thesis
would not have been possible without his thorough guidance thorough out my study.
I am also thankful to all of my friends, my well-wishers who helped me to explore myself and
extendedtheirsupport during my course work. I am also grateful to my mentors (Ph. D
scholars) for their suggestions and immense support all along my thesis work.
I am also thankful to my mother and father who have encouraged mefrom time to time in all
aspects of my life.
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Abstract
Pavements are major assets of highway infrastructure. In India, mostly the flexible pavements
deteriorate faster than expected design life. Hence, there is a great need for pavement
performance study. In this thesis, an attempt is made to study performance on pavements on
sample basis. Performance indicators considered are International Roughness Index,
Structural Number, traffic in terms of Equivalent single axle loads, Pavement Condition
Index, and Characteristic deflection from Benkelman Beam test. In total, four sections are
chosen to study the pavement performances. At first, merlin equations are calibrated and
validated with respect to auto-level for calculating IRI, and then structural number is obtained
with respect to layer coefficients and corresponding thicknesses of pavement layers.
Rebound deflection is calculated from Benkelman. Traffic is calculated for three days and
based on this; ESAL is obtained at all sections. Visual observations with simple
measurements have been done to study pavement surface conditions to assess Pavement
Condition Indices of corresponding sections at a particular point of time. Finally simple
modelling has been done to relate functional performance with structural performance of
sample pavement sections considered.
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Contents
CERTIFICATE OF EXAMINATION 3
SUPERVISOR’S CERTIFICATE 4
DEDICATION 5
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY 6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7
ABSTRACT 8
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 11
1. 1 GENERAL 11
1. 2NEED FOR THE STUDY 14
1. 3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 14
1. 4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY 14
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 16
2. 1 GENERAL 16
2. 2 DETERIORATION MECHANISM OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS 16
2. 3 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF PAVEMENTS 17
2. 4 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE MODELS SCENARIO 18
2.5 CRITICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND MOTIVATION FOR RESEARCH 21
CHAPTER 3: EMPIRICAL OBSERVATIONS: DATA COLLECTION 22
3.1 FIELD DATA COLLECTION AND LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS 22
3. 1. 1 INVENTORY DETAILS OF STUDY SECTIONS 22
3. 2 ROUGHNESS SURVEY 23
3. 2. 1 ROUGHNESS MEASURING INSTRUMENT 23
3. 2. 2 THE MERLIN 24
3. 2. 3 METHOD OF USE 25
3. 2. 4 CALIBRATION EQUATIONS 25
3.3 AUTO-LEVEL (ROD AND LEVEL SURVEY) 26
3.3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION 26
3.3.2 METHOD OF USE 27
3. 4 BENKELMAN BEAM STUDIES 28
3. 4. 1 BENKELMAN BEAM 28
3. 4. 2METHOD OF USE. 29
3. 5 STRUCTURAL NUMBER 32
3. 6 PAVEMENT SURFACE CONDITION 34
3. 6. 1 METHOD OF USE 35
FIGURE 13: DEDUCTION CURVE FOR PATCHING (ASTM, 2008) 37
FIGURE 14: CORRECTED DEDUCT VALUE CURVE.(ASTM, 2008) 37
3. 7 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO 37
3. 8 OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT 38
3. 9 LIQUID AND PLASTIC LIMIT TEST 39
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 40
4. 1 MERLIN 40
4. 2 BENKELMAN BEAM RESULTS 40
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4. 3 TRAFFIC DATA CALCULATION 41
4. 4 STRUCTURAL NUMBER 41
4. 5 PAVEMENT CONDITION INDEX 41
4.6 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE MODELLING 41
4.6.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IRI, STRUCTURAL NUMBER AND ESAL. 42
4. 6. 3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEFLECTION, IRI AND ESAL. 42
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 43
5.2 FUTURE SCOPE 43
REFERENCES: 44
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1. 1 GENERAL
Road infrastructure is one of the transport infrastructures that play a prominent role in
improving any area accessibility and movement of population as it provides door to door
service. The road network in India accounts world’s second largest which is widely spread
across 30 states of the country. The road network has increased to 4.82 million km
(considering all type of roads) from 2 million km that was in 1990s. It is observed that
annually billions of rupees are lost to economy due to constraints of road quality and its
capacity. Developing countries like India is now facing a challenge of preserving and
enhancing transportation system infrastructure, so there is a need of planning and
maintenance strategies.
In India mostly there are two types of pavement (i) Flexible pavement and (ii) Rigid
pavement. This study limits only to flexible pavements. As, the funding available for
pavement periodic maintenance and its management system is limited, there is great need for
optimum and efficient maintenance and management of road network. Normally, flexible
pavements are designed for 15-20 years but because of increase in traffic intensity, repetition
of load, durability of various pavement conditions, unpredictable environmental factors,
improper construction practices, lack of good quality materials, high tyre pressure, drainage,
increase in axle loads, etc., flexible or bituminous pavements are showing early signs of
distresses. This reduces performance of pavements. Hence there is a need to study the
performance of flexible pavements.
The ability of road to serve traffic demands and change in environment parameters
over its design life is called Performance and premature changes in performance indicators
like distresses, roughness, etc. is called deterioration.
As Pavements deteriorates faster than its design life, there is a need for developing
performance models so as to predict future condition of pavement. This predicted
deterioration models play a major role both in project and network level. The overall facilities
can be planned for estimating budget and materials with the help of these models.
Transportation policies and proper scheduling of traffic, proper economic use of materials
can be developed if there is accurate deterioration model. By performance parameters, we can
interlink a dependency on infrastructure facility and traffic users like for example, we can
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impose a limitation on axle loads which is one of the sole causes of damage to pavement.
These models help the pavement when it should get overlay so that the pavement can be free
from further damage.
Pavement performance indicators considered in this study are International
Roughness Index, Benkelman beam deflection, traffic, different distress studies, Structural
number of pavement. Hence, both structural and functional evaluation of pavements is
considered in this study.
` Roughness is the main parameter considered for functional evaluation of pavements.
It is termed as unevenness of road surface along longitudinal direction or along direction of
traffic. It covers road quality and vehicle operating cost. Its value gives an indication how
much the road has deteriorated with respect to ride comfort. It is measured in terms of IRI
which has SI unit of m/km. The higher the value the more discomfort, the road causes to
passengers. In our study, roughness is calculated by merlin and has been validated with
respect to readings taken from auto-level. Here, merlin equations for IRI based on auto-level
are developed for both D>42 and D<42. Calibration equations are not provided for D less
than 42. Here, in this study, the sections which are chosen to study the pavement
performance, exhibited values of D <42. Attempt was made to obtain equation for lesser
values of D, like choosing such sections at NIT Rourkela where roads have lesser D and
thereafter at these sections, to find IRI, auto-level is used. Finally, calibrating both these
values an equation is developed for D<42.
The main parameter that takes into account for structural strength of pavements is
deflection of pavement which is determined by Benkelman beam in this study. The pavement
which experiences continuously moving traffic will undergo some deformation at each wheel
load application. When load is removed, it exhibits elastic recovery called rebound
deflection. Repeated deflection may cause excessive flexural stresses induced which may
result in permanent plastic deformation thereafter making pavement prone to fatigue or
alligator cracking. Based on this characteristic deflection value, thickness of overlays can be
determined provided there is traffic data. The primary purpose of calculating the deflection
of an existing pavement is to obtain stress-strain properties of a pavement structure. That
means the deflection should have an upper limit so that pavement can perform well. This
deflection value is so important because many pavement design methods are based on
serviceability-deflection criteria. In this study, modelling is done on prediction of pavement
characteristic deflection considering as a function of IRI, traffic, and structural number.
Benkelman beam deflection is calculated using IRC 81-1977.
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The most important parameter considering pavement performance is pavement
distress. There are different types of distresses like cracking (longitudinal, transverse, fatigue,
edge, reflective, block), deformation (corrugation, rutting, depression, shoving, bumps),
deterioration (delamination, potholes, patching, ravelling, stripping), mat problem
(segregation and bleeding) and problems in seal coats. Based on the amount of severity
present at each distress, ASTM D 6433 considers different graphs for different distresses to
calculate deduct values for obtaining Pavement Condition Index. This ranges from 0 to 100
where 0 represents weakest pavement and 100 as strongest pavement. These amounts of
severities are calculated by field survey. PCI is calculated using ASTM D 6433. In this study,
four sections are chosen to calculate pavement condition index. Effort is made to check how
this value is changing over time. Due to lack of time, in total at a section two readings are
taken by giving a gap of six months.
Structural number indicates strength of the pavement layers and of the total structure
of pavement. This is derived by adding each layer coefficient multiplied by layer thickness.
In order to determine layer coefficients, CBR of different courses of pavement are calculated
so that they can be interpolated by AASHTO method. Drainage coefficients depends on
quality of drainage facility and per cent of time in the year the pavement would normally be
exposed to moisture levels that causes saturation (depends on average rainfall and prevailing
drainage conditions at site) Tables are given to calculate the coefficients. Modified structural
number is calculated using CBR value of subgrade. Structural number helps to determine no
of equivalent single axle loads the pavement can take. Here, in this study modelling is done to
correlate modified structural number as a function of pavement characteristic deflection
obtained by non-destructive method i. e Benkelman-beam method.
Traffic varies from season to season, year to year which in turn finds difficulty in
predicting. Because of in reliability of traffic prediction, the pavement performance goes
down. In this study, traffic is calculated for 3 days at the time of field observations that took
place. It is assumed a growth percentage of 7.5% for all mixed traffic. This traffic is used to
calculate Equivalent single Axle loads. Finally, this value is used in modelling of some
pavement sections.
In-situ tests like sand replacement method, Benkelman beam test are conducted.
Pavement temperature is calculated using glycerol and thermometer. Samples of different
layers are taken from trial pits so as to calculate pavement layer thicknesses and make tests in
the laboratory. Different tests include modified proctor test, California Bearing Ratio test,
liquid limit, plastic limit, grading, etc.
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1. 2NEED FOR THE STUDY
The roads of the country are showing early signs of distress after each monsoon. This
is leading to heavy loss on maintenance and also resulting in poor riding quality, prone to
accident, and speed reduction. The factors causing deterioration of roads are so complex to
understand and they vary from one place to another. Hence, there is a need to study the
different pavement performance indicators like roughness, traffic, deflection, etc. mechanism
on a regular basis, say for six months. In this study, readings are taken only two times at a
section.
i. To collect data on the performance of roads including the road inventory data.
ii. To conduct traffic volume study and study axle load pattern.
iii. To conduct functional and structural evaluation of the pavement sections in
respect of sustainability of the concerned pavements.
iv. Evaluation of structural number of pavements.
v. To establish relationships of pavement deterioration with traffic growth with due
consideration of independent variables/parameters.
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First chapter gives introduction to the current topic i.e. Performance study of flexible
pavements.
Second Chapter gives the previous work done on the empirical studies and literature
review on pavement performance parameters.
Fourth chapter gives the results obtained from laboratory studies. These results include
modelling done on different pavement performance parameters.
Fifth Chapter gives the summary and conclusions of the work done.
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Chapter 2: Literature review
2. 1 GENERAL
Pavement performance is change in its state with respect to as it was at the time of
construction. It gives an idea whether the pavement is able to carry traffic and satisfy
according to environmental conditions during its design life. The road network is getting
overstressed as a result of gradual increase in traffic. This results in performance failure. If it
fails to carry the design loads, then it is structural type and it is a functional type if it doesn’t
provide a smooth riding surface. This uneven surface not only cause discomfort to traffic but
also increases operating cost of vehicles. (Thube et al. 2008)
The repeated effects of vehicular loads, different characteristics of traffic and its
composition with its loading, traffic volume, change in environmental and surrounding
conditions, some maintenance related activities with time changes both structural and
functional capacity of pavement. So, the main cause of pavement failure is combination of
environment with unpredicted value of traffic with unreliability of loading. Accumulation of
cracking or distresses is called deterioration and it is termed as failure when it can’t serve any
further traffic. Deterioration patterns show the same trend irrespective of place. The factors
that cause failure to the pavements include cracking like alligator, longitudinal, transverse,
block; rutting along wheel paths and roughness along longitudinal profile. These are also
termed as distresses of flexible pavements. The amount of distress gives a value or an
indication to the overall pavement condition. Different distress modes occur independently
and so the models which we have to plan should be based on whether it is of load type or
non-load type. (Gedafa D S, 2007)
Many factors that cause pavement deterioration are interlinked to each other. So, the factors
responsible for this deterioration can be shown as follows:
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Figure 1: Factors influencing Pavement Performance (Gedafa D S, 2007)
It is necessary to find out how pavements and its materials response under repeated axle
loads of traffic in order to have more durable pavements in future. It has been observed that
deterioration of pavements is minimal during initial stage after construction like 2-3 years
and this progress at a larger rate during its late years. For performance evaluation the first
task is to identify different factors that cause damage. The main factors that many researchers
adopted are pavement strength (structural number), traffic loading, environmental conditions,
and subgrade support. Mainly evaluation is carried out using three criteria (i) Roughness of
pavements (ii) Pavement distress or surface condition of pavements (iii) Pavement deflection,
here in our study deflection is carried out by Benkelman beam test. Many researchers termed
different terms to describe pavement condition. (Thube et al.2005)
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ii. Present Serviceability: This is a term that is used to describe whether pavement is
able to cope with present traffic and environment.
iii. Performance Index: It gives the summary of PSI that changes over a period of
time and so it is represented as area under PSI versus time curve.
iv. Pavement Condition Index: It ranges from 0 to 100. 100 being rhe best and 0
worst. It is calculated using ASTM D 6433. This value is found from deduction
curves which in turn depend on amount of severity of distresses present.(AASHO,
1993)
Yoder (1966) stated that pavement deflection which occurs due to many factors; is
one of the main cause which effects pavement performance. He stated permissible deflection
varies with stiffness of pavement and with difference in pavement materials. He has also
calculated pavement stresses and strains under controlled loading conditions by assuming
viscoelastic behaviour of pavements.
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implemented Pavement Condition Index for Virginia department of transportation. ItIncluded
indices to describe load and non-load related distresses and pavement longitudinal and cross-
slope information including rutting and ride quality. Pavement types to be included in index
development were flexible (asphalt), rigid (concrete), and composite (a combination of
asphalt and concrete).
Bose et al. (2005) conducted studies on distresses that occur prematurely and also
failure of bituminous pavements. After five case studies which he has taken, it is reported that
cause is due to improper sub surface drainage and aggregate getting stripped. Later Mariaa et
al. (2005) in the same year studied the effect of bond that effect performance of flexible
pavements. It was concludes that life of the pavement gets reduced by 80% if there is a poor
bond between base and binder course. Aggarwal et al. (2005) has given an overall picture of
the problems of road networks in developing countries, which are rapid traffic growth,
inadequate funding for maintenance and upkeep, lack of skilled man power, attitude towards
maintenance etc. Thube et al.(2005) critically reviewed the maintenance management
strategy for low volume roads in India and stressed the need for development of pavement
distress data base, deteriorationmodels, optimal investment and maintenance strategy and
highlighted the need for a suitable national level policy regarding paving of unpaved low
volume roads in India. Reddy et al. (2005) developed flexible pavement preservation
framework for an integrated asset management. In this study methodology integrates
pavement condition data management, pavement performance and its standards to generate
pavement preservation program. Riding Comfort Index (RCI) has been established to
determine the preservation needs. Various maintenance management tools were derived as
part of this study
Masad et al. (2006) reported a study to compare effect of wheel loads to deflection of
pavements that occur at surface. He has done by finite element method considering isotropic
and later it was found that tensile stresses which got induced at lower regions of bituminous
layer are higher than those predicted. So the pavement can’t be treated as isotropic while
doing analysis. Salama et al. (2006) studied relative damaging effect of different type or
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configuration of truck traffic. Studies on different distresses are done like both crack
initiations and propagations. It was shown that multiple axles create more damage compared
to single and tandem axles. Bayomy et al. (2006) analysed long-term pavement performance
for the Idaho general pavement sections and specific pavement sections. The research
investigated into the use of the data to develop models that enable the prediction of the
seasonal variation effects on the pavement materials (soils and asphalt mixes). Models were
developed based on analysis of national data for the subgrade and asphalt concrete moduli.
Mathew et al. (2008) developed deterioration models for ravelling initiation and
progression, pothole progression, roughness progression and edge failure using neural
network and regression techniques. The ANN models were compared and found to be more
suitable to the rural roads as compared with the conventional empirical statistical models.
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Subagio et al. (2013) has conducted a case study on structural and functional
performance in Indonesia. The research evaluates the Structural and Functional performance
of National Road (PANTURA) located in the North Java’s Corridor. Two methods were
used in this evaluation, BinaMarga’s (CASE STUDY section of Jalan Kaliurang,
MALANG)method and the AASHTO-93 method. The BinaMarga’s (Pavement condition
value ranges from 0 to 7)method focused on the evaluation of the Functional Performance,
while the AASHTO-93 method was used to analyse the Structural Condition. Some
parameters considered are: IRI, PSI while in the Structural analysis the SN (Structural
Number) was used.
Harold (2014) considered structural factors of flexible pavements for initial evaluation
of the sps-1 experiment. This project relates structural property of pavement with materials
used in pavement construction. Different tests were conducted on subgrade, unbound
granular base, asphalt treated base, asphaltsurface, etc. so as to account for the correct reason
for deterioration of pavement. It also discusses different methodologies to analyse field data.
The factors that are mostly responsible for deterioration of pavements are vehicular
loading, traffic, drainage, environmental factors, adhesive property of bitumen, etc. Different
studies have used different indices to calculate pavement conditions like RCI, PSI, PCI, PSR,
etc. For pavements to perform satisfactorily, it is necessarily important to satisfy functional
and structural conditions. Functional analysis includes IRI whereas structural analysis
includes rebound deflection.
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Chapter 3: Empirical Observations: Data Collection
In this chapter, a detailed explanation of several experiments that are conducted both
on field and laboratory are given. In this study, a total of 4 sections are chosen in such a way
that they differ each from intensity of traffic, pavement material composition, different
terrain, etc. Models are developed based on these sections details and are shown in chapter 4.
Data collection has ranged from visual observations to the use of 8.16KN axle load
truck to measure surface deflection, unevenness by merlin, field density by sand replacement
method, distress studies, traffic flow with axle load surveys, and laboratory tests like
compaction, CBR, Gradation, etc.
i. Four sections were chosen from sites close to Rourkela. Length of each section is
chosen as 500m.
Details of sections are not presented here for publication purposes.
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Figure 2: Trial pit and Sand replacement method in progress.
ii. Rainfall data: Average rainfall data in these sections from previous year studies
have rainfall less than 1300mm. This information will be helpful both for surface
drainage characteristics and also for finding characteristic deflection.
iii. Temperature: Field temperature is calculated using glycerol and thermometer.
iv. Shoulder condition is checked whether it is good or not.
Details of traffic data are not presented here for publication purposes.
3. 2 Roughness Survey
There are different experimental setups to use roughness. They include Rod and level
Survey, Dipstick Profiler, Profilo-graphs, Response type road roughness meters, MERLIN,
fifth wheel Bump indicator (Indian practice), Profiling devices, etc. (Internet Source)
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Here, in this study roughness is measured by both merlin and auto-level (rod and level
survey).
3. 2. 2 THE MERLIN
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Figure 4: MERLIN Readings at site
3. 2. 3 Method of use
Initially, before starting the experiment all the front feet, rear feet and probe is
levelled to same level. The level of probe is adjusted using turnscrew. Place Merlin chart at
plank available at top and mark the mid position of chart. Now the pointer of moving arm
should point the midpoint of chart. As, the circumference of front wheel is 2.25m so readings
are taken at every multiple intervals of 2. 25m. In total, 200 readings are to be taken so as to
cover 450m. At each point, the position of pointer with a cross in a suitable section is carried
out by administrator. For further system of estimations, the merlin’s handle is rolled forward
and heading towards and rehashed. To have a note on number of cross done till yet, there is a
tally box provided at extreme left corner. The chart is removed after 200 observations. The
distribution of marks or cross on chart gives roughness on road. Depending on movement of
pints, the graph is scattered. We now consider 90% of the points in the chart that means
eliminating 5% points on both top and bottom side
3. 2. 4 CALIBRATION EQUATIONS
The IRI scale and the Merlin scale are related by the following equation for all type of
pavement surface:
IRI (in m/km) =0. 593+0. 0471D, 42 > D > 312 (2. 4> IRI > 15. 9)
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D=roughness in Merlin scale measured in mm(TRL Report 229, 1996)
The steps followed before starting the experiment are as given below:
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3.3.2 Method of use
(ix) If auto-level readings are taken along any gradient roads, then slope is calculated
as ( (present reading –previous reading) - (difference in level as per gradient) )
/interval length(Sayers 1996)
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Here in this study, Roughness is found from MERLIN for those four sections. Later it
was found that some merlin roughness index value has a value less than 42. So, some
sections where D<42, in NIT Rourkela are chosen. At those sections both merlin and
auto-level tests are conducted. Now having D value and IRI value from auto-level, value
of IRI for D<42 are calibrated.
3. 4. 1 Benkelman Beam
Benkelman Beam consists of a beam that is slender in nature which is 3.66m long. It
is pivoted at a distance of 2.44m from the tip or probe. So, the beam is divided into two parts
in the ratio 2: 1. Dial gauge is attached at rear end to measure deflection under wheel load.
The whole beam should be able to enclose in a casing (or locking device) so as to secure
beam while it is shifted to new site. It consists of an adjusted supported leg at the pivot so as
to rest in the ground. The beam is levelled by using turn screws and mercury level placed at
rear part of the beam. To conduct this test a truck with suitable tyre pressure and tyre load,
glycerol and thermometer, information regarding annual rainfall, etc. is required. (IRC, 1997)
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Figure 7: Benkelman Beam apparatus. (NPTEL, 2013)
3. 4. 2Method of use.
i. Before starting the experiment, standard truck must have a rear axle load of
8170kg and is equally distributed on two dual tyre wheels. The tyre is inflated to a
pressure of 5. 60kg/cm2. A tolerance of +/-1% and +/-5% can be allowed for load
and pressure.
ii. The Benkelman Beam is calibrated to check whether both beam and dial gauge
are properly working or not.
iii. Initially, points are marked where readings are to be taken. In this study which
covers 500m stretch, 20 points (both left and right wheel path) are chosen having
Chainage 0, 50, 100, ………450, 475, 425, ………75, 25m respectively.
iv. The distance of measurement points in the transverse direction should be as
follow:
Table1: Distance from pavement edge where Benkelman readings should be taken.
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v. The truck is slowly made to move and made to stop at left wheel path initially and
it is centrally placed at first point (Chainage: 0m) so as to measure deflection.
vi. The beams is levelled using mercury level and turn screws.
vii. The tip or probe is inserted between the gaps provided by dual wheels. The tip
must touch the surface where deflection is to be measured.
viii. Reading is noted from dial gauge and this is termed as initial dial gauge reading
denoted by Do.
ix. The truck is moved slowly to a further distance of 2. 7m from that point and made
to stop. The reading which is termed as intermediate dial gauge reading (Di) is
noted through dial gauge.
x. The truck is further moved at a distance of 9m from the study point and final dial
gauge reading (Df) is noted.
xi. These three set of readings correspond to one deflection point or study point.
Further, the truck is moved to another study point (Chainage: 50m) and readings
are taken with the procedure discussed above.
xii. The temperature of the pavement is noted with the use of glycerol and
thermometer.
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Rebound deflection (D) at any point is given by:
If Di-Df<= 0. 025mm, D is given as 2 (Do-Df)
Di-Df>=2. 5 divisions of dial gauge or 0. 025mm, then D is given as:
D=2 (Do-Df) + (2*k* (Di-Df)) where value of K=2. 91
xiii. Correction for pavement temperature: Correction must be made if the
pavement temperature differs from 350c. Correction is given by 0. 01 (35-T).
So, correction is positive if temperature is less than 350c and negative if
temperature is greater than 350c.
xiv. Correction for Seasonal variations: Correction for seasonal variation depends
on subgrade soil type, moisture content at field of subgrade, average rainfall in the
area. The moisture correction factors were obtained from charts provided from
IRC: 81-1997.
Figure 9: Moisture correction factors for annual rainfall<1300mm and PI<15 for
Clayey soils (IRC, 1997)
xv. Limits of deflection values are shown in table below and are as per IRC code.
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xvi. Characteristic deflection is calculated as follows:
Mean of rebound deflections at every study point is calculated
Standard deviation of rebound deflection is calculated.
Finally, characteristic deflection is given as,
D’= (mean + D + temp correction+2*deviation) *seasonal correction factor.
3. 5 Structural Number
Structural number which was once called “Thickness Index” was developed by
American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) road tests. It indicates strength
of the pavement. It is calculated as per AASHTO guide for design of pavement structures.
When strength of subgrade is also taken into account then it is termed as Modified Structural
Number (MSN). MSN depends on CBR value of subgrade as AASHO has conducted tests on
uniform subgrade soils. (AASHTO, 1993)
Pavement structural number gives an indication of layer thickness and layer materials and is
given by, SN=a1D1+a2D2m2+a3D3m3+…. (AASHTO, 1993)
Where,
a1, a2, a3. . are layer coefficients of surface, base and sub-base course
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Figure 10: Variation of Granular Sub-base layer coefficient(AASHTO, 1993)
This depends on quality of drainage facility and per-cent of time in a year the pavement will
experience moisture saturation level. AASHTO guide has developed table to find this value
and is presented below:
Table 3: Recommended drainage coefficients for base and sub-base courses (AASHTO,
1993)
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In sections that we have taken under study, we assume drainage coefficients as 1 as it can be
assumed 5-25% time the pavement has approached saturation and good drainage quality.
Structural number doesn’t include strength of subgrade. In order to include subgrade strength
of various subgrade soils, a contribution in terms of CBR value of subgrade is used and so
modified structural number is given as: (AASHTO, 1993)
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3. 6. 1 Method of Use
i. The pavement section under study is divided into sample units of 25m length.
ii. Surface inventory is done on each sample unit. Inventory includes noting down
severity levels (low, medium, high) of different distresses present.
iii. The density is computed after finding severity levels.
iv. As per ASTM D 6433, for each distress type and for each severity level deduction
curves are present from where deduct value is obtained. Distress density is the
amount of distress present divided by sample unit area taken for bituminous
pavement. Deduct values have a range from 0 to 100.
v. The individual deduct values are added to get Total deduct value.
vi. Correction curves are used to determine the Corrected deduct value from total
deduct value. The correction curves used vary by q (no. Of deduct value>5)
values.
vii. After finding corrected deduct value, PCI is evaluated as PCI=100-CDV.
viii. Similarly PCI for all other sample units is calculated and final PCI is computed by
taking average of all PCI values.
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Table 5: Severity values of each distress (ASTM, 2008)
Unit of Severity
Sl. No Distress type
measurement
Low (exp) Med (exp) High (exp)
Alligator
1 Sq. metre <6mm 6-19mm >19mm
Cracking
Longitudinal
2 Metres <10mm 10-75mm >75mm
Cracking
Transverse
3 Metres <10mm 10-75mm >75mm
cracking
4 Patch millimetres <6mm 6-12mm >12mm
4 Rutting Millimetre 6-13mm 13-25mm >25mm
Figure 11: Deduction curve for rutting Figure 12 :Deduction curve for Alligator
(ASTM, 2008) Cracking (ASTM, 2008)
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Figure 14: Corrected Deduct value
Figure 13: Deduction curve for patching curve.(ASTM, 2008)
(ASTM, 2008)
This test is performed as per IS 2720 (part 16) -1987. It is the ratio of force per cross
sectional area of specimen that is required so as to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular
plunger of diameter 50mm at the rate of 1.25mm/min to that required for the corresponding
penetration of a standard material. Tests are conducted on both disturbed and remoulded
soils. In this study, CBR (both soaked and unsoaked) is found for disturbed subgrade, sub-
base and base. The steps involved for this test are given below: (IS 2720, 1987)
37
v. The specimen is placed under the loading machine which has capacity of at least
5000kg and is equipped with movable head or base. A surcharge weight is placed
on top of it. Before loading the specimen, it is ensured that the dial gauge tip
should be in contact with the specimen. Readings are noted from proving ring.
Different proving rings have different calibration equations.
vi. The load is applied and penetration values are noted.
vii. Finally, CBR is found for both 2. 5mm and 5mm penetrations. If CBR 2. 5<CBR5
then test is repeated.
viii. Normally CBR value is determined at 2. 5mm penetration. CBR is given by
(Load required for sample to penetrate 2. 5mm) / (standard load required for
same penetration) *100.
Load (in KN) = (0. 1089*proving ring reading) +0. 3575 (for 100KN-12267)
Load (in KN) = (0. 0678*proving ring reading) +0. 0015 (for 50KN-02396)
Standard load for 2.5mm penetration is 1370kg and for 5mm penetration is 2055kg.
This test is done as per IS 2720 (part 8) -1983. Steps involved to carry this test are:
i. 5kg sample of air dried soil passing 19mm IS Sieve is taken and then it is mixed
with some amount of water. The mould with a baseplate attached is weighed.
ii. In our study for GSB and WMM Modified Proctor, it is compacted in 5 layers
with each of 55 blows. Compaction is done by 4. 5kg rammer with 31cm fall.
iii. After compaction total sample is weighed.
iv. This test is repeated till total sample weight decreases from previous value.
v. Some amount of soil mass is takenand is placed in oven for 24 hours to
determine water content.
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vi. A graph is plotted between dry density vs water content. Peak value of density gives
maximum dry density and corresponding value for water is optimum moisture content.
The liquid and plastic limit test is determined as per IS 2720 (Part 5) -1985. Soil
conducted for these tests must pass 425 micron sieve. Liquid limit test is conducted by
Cassagandre apparatus and plastic limit test by rolling a thread of diameter 3mm. These
values (plasticity index) are required to calculate seasonal correction factor which is used to
calculate characteristic deflection by Benkelman-beam method.
39
Chapter 4: Analysis of Data, Results and Discussions
In this chapter, analysis of data is done. The results that are observed are international
roughness index (by both merlin and auto-level) , traffic studies, Benkelman-beam deflection,
structural number, California bearing ratio, optimum moisture content, liquid and plastic limit
of subgrade. Later, modelling is done on these performance indicators.
4. 1 MERLIN
By the use of MERLIN, an attempt was made to determine IRI at four sections (1A,
2A, 3A, 4A) which were stated above. It is calculated for both left and wheel paths.
Details of test results are not presented here for publication purposes.
Clearly, most of the values are having MERLIN Roughness Index (D) < 42. Merlin
calibration equations are valid only for D >42.
In order to find correlation between D and IRI by auto-level, some sections are chosen at NIT
Rourkela. Some sections are found to have D>42 and some D<42.
Details of auto level and merlin data for IRI are not presented here for publication
purposes.
For calculating characteristic deflection, plastic and liquid limit of soil is required.
Details of test results are not presented here for publication purposes.
40
4. 3 Traffic Data Calculation
Details of test results are not presented here for publication purposes.
4. 4 Structural Number
Layer coefficients of pavement courses are obtained by Soaked CBR values as per
AASHTO that is discussed above. Surface and binder course are assumed to have layer
coefficient of 0. 39.
Details of test results are not presented here for publication purposes.
For calculating pavement condition Index, we should first calculate the amount and
type of severity present in each type of distress. PCI values are shown below. The severities
like low, medium and high should be calculated on percentage of pavement section.
Details of test results are not presented here for publication purposes.
41
4.6.1 Relationship between IRI, Structural Number and ESAL.
Details of test results are not presented here for publication purposes.
Details of test results are not presented here for publication purposes.
42
Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusions
In this study, experiments are conducted in four sections close to Rourkela.to study
the pavement performance of flexible pavements. It includes study of variation of
International roughness Index, Benkelman beam deflection, Pavement distress study, etc.
with time. The experimental setup for the selected sections is discussed in above chapter.
It is seen that MERLIN equations are calibrated and validated for D>42 and D<42.
The results of the experiments on road roughness in terms of IRI using these two (auto level
and merlin) have been compared and it is observed that auto level has small error when
compared with values obtained by merlin. International Roughness Index values at all these
sections are low even after 3-5 years of construction. This means pavement is functionally
performing well.
Modelling is done on pavement performance indicators. IRI is modelled as a function
of ESAL and structural number. Characteristic deflection is modelled as a function of SN and
ESAL. Coefficient of correlation (R2 value) is within permissible limits.
43
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